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us. When a child is compelled to do a piece of school work without
realizing the significance of that which he does, there is substituted
for this realization of need or problem an artificial need; namely, to
avoid an unpleasant consequence.
There is another important argument which must not be
overlooked. When a child works under compulsion, he usually gives
just as little attention to his work as may be necessary to escape
painful results. It is not uncommon for children to divide their
attention most skillfully between distasteful school tasks and the out-
of-school activities in which they are vitally interested. This lack of
undivided attention to the work in hand results in a habit of work
which cannot fail to be disastrous to the highest intellectual
attainment. It is true also that children who have been subjected to
such treatment come to look upon books and lessons as something
of a nightmare, and are only too glad when the opportunity presents
itself to leave school and go to work. The child’s attitude, growing out
of his school experience, is quite as important as any result which
we may achieve in knowledge.
Professor Dewey’s summary of the relation of interest and effort
defines most adequately interest in its true significance, and
indicates the place of effort in educative process. He says:—
“Genuine interest in education is the accompaniment of the
identification, through action, of the self with some object or idea,
because of the necessity of that object or idea for the maintenance
of self-expression. Effort, in the sense in which it may be opposed to
interest, implies a separation between the self and the fact to be
mastered or the task to be performed, and sets up an habitual
division of activities. Externally, we have mechanical habits with no
psychical end or value. Internally, we have random energy or mind-
wandering, a sequence of ideas with no end at all because not
brought to a focus in action. Interest, in the sense in which it is
opposed to effort, means simply an excitation of the sense organ to
give pleasure, resulting in strain on one side and listlessness on the
other.
“But when we recognize there are certain powers within the child
urgent for development, needing to be acted upon, in order to secure
their own due efficiency and discipline, we have a firm basis upon
which to build. Effort arises normally in the attempt to give full
operation, and thus growth and completion, to these powers.
Adequately to act upon these impulses involves seriousness,
absorption, definiteness of purpose, and results in formation of
steadiness and persistent habit in the service of worthy ends. But
this effort never degenerates into drudgery, nor mere strain of dead
lift, because interest abides—the self is concerned throughout.”[3]
Interest, as Professor Dewey defines it, is intrinsic. The pupil does
his work not because he hopes to escape some punishment or get a
high mark, but because the work of itself commands his attention.
The teacher must constantly choose whether she will work for
interest of this type, which depends upon the recognition of the worth
of the task to be performed, or resort to an interest which has no
relation to the work to be done. Shall she appeal to the child through
his instinctive delight in finding out, in constructive work, or other
form of expression, or shall she appeal to his instinct of fear of a
whipping or dislike of ridicule or nagging?
It is true that, after the teacher has done her best to appeal on the
basis of the child’s needs for growth and development, not all
children will respond equally, and so, as in the larger society outside
of school, the child will need to be kept from interfering with others,
and required to do that which those who are wiser have decided that
it is advantageous for him to do. But this resort to authority, an
acknowledgment of lack of ability on our part or the result of
unfavorable conditions, must come last; it should never be the point
of departure.
There is one other distinction which it is well to keep in mind when
we think of interest. Our discussion thus far has considered interest
as a means for securing certain desirable ends. We may not forget
that to secure interest which will persist in many of the types of
activity found in the school should be considered as an end worthy in
itself.[4] We may hope to have a boy interested in his history lesson
in order that he may gain the knowledge contained in this subject.
Interest is the means we employ to secure the desired result. On the
other hand, we may hope that the boy we teach will continue to be
interested in history throughout his life. In this latter case the interest
which we hope to secure in history becomes an end for which we
work. As a result of any system of education, we are justified in
expecting, not only an increase in the command of facts and in a
knowledge of the best method of procedure in working in subjects
taught, but also in hoping for the development of lasting interests
which will make for a continuance of the period of education and for
greater joy in life.
Heredity in Education: An inquiry into opposing theories of heredity
is not relevant to our main purpose; but we are concerned with
certain facts, commonly accepted, which condition our work. No one
will dispute the fact that the children assembled in any schoolroom
differ in native capacity, as well as in experience. Whether genius or
its lack are apt to be reproduced in the children of gifted or dull
parents is not the question the teacher has to solve. For her the
demand is too often that she turn out a uniform product from a group
of individuals who range from the genius to the dullard or mental
defective. It is well for teachers to realize that in any non-selected
group the majority of individuals may be expected to be of ordinary
ability, and that a few will range above this standard, and a few will
fall below. The important thing to remember is that a group of normal
children cannot be ranged in ability in two or three distinct groups
with clearly defined boundaries, but that if any adequate test be
given, we will find that they distribute themselves over a wide range,
with small rather than large differences between individuals. For
example: if a searching test in fundamental operations of arithmetic
is given, we know that some child will probably get nearly all of the
work done correctly, and, even with our care in grading, some child
in the group will probably fail in more than half of the work; and that
between these two extremes we will have almost every grade of
ability represented, with a tendency for a considerable number to
group themselves at about that point which we consider ordinary or
average ability.[5] Not only is it true that individuals differ in ability of
any particular sort, but it is also true that the child who has little
ability in one direction may be up to the average or have more than
usual ability in some other direction. In our teaching we should have
a minimum standard of efficiency for all who are not mentally
defective, and we should strive earnestly to have all reach this goal.
If wisely selected, this minimum will include that which is absolutely
necessary for further advancement along the line of work pursued.
The majority of the class should achieve results beyond this
minimum, and for the exceptionally bright child the maximum should
be fixed only by the child’s ability and the requirements of good
health. It is useless to attempt to make all alike; it is wrong to limit
the accomplishment of the gifted by the capacity of the majority;
these are the lessons which the consideration of the capacities of
any group of children should teach. We cannot furnish ability, but we
may create an attitude of listlessness and mental laziness, if we do
not give the bright child enough to do. Education demands a
recognition of peculiar abilities and their nurture. We can never
create genius from mediocre ability, and we may not assume that
genius is irrepressible.
Exercises.
1. What institutions contribute to the education of children?
2. Why has the responsibility of the school increased during the past century?
3. How would you justify compulsory education? Medical examination?
Compulsory dental treatment?
4. Why do changed social conditions demand changed methods of instruction as
well as a different curriculum?
5. Why does the teacher need to know the home life of the children in her class?
6. What is the significance of parents’ and mothers’ clubs, or any other
organization of the teachers and the patrons of the school?
7. Why should teachers participate in the campaign against tuberculosis?
8. Give instances from your own experience of the educative value of play.
9. Why can a boy write a better composition about making a kite than on
“Honesty is the best policy”?
10. What is the objection to providing children with model compositions and
asking them to write on closely related themes?
11. Give examples of a proper appeal to the instinct of emulation.
12. How do you account for the fact that in some classes children seldom ask
questions?
13. What value is there in a collection of birds’ nests, flowers, minerals, woods,
and the like, which one finds in some schoolrooms?
14. How would you hope to develop the social instinct in the pupils you teach?
15. Give the children in your class ten problems in addition, score one for each
column added correctly, and compare the results. Can a teacher create ability?
16. In a city school system forty per cent of the children have been retarded one
or more years during their school life. Do you think that differences in ability justify
the repeating of work one or more years by so large a percentage of the children?
17. Should we try to have children develop equal ability in all of their studies, or
rather encourage them to do especially well in one or two subjects?
18. Should a pupil who receives only forty per cent in his arithmetic examination
be compelled to repeat the grade?
19. State the argument of those who believe that disagreeable, uninteresting
work is most valuable in educating children.
20. What reasons can you give for the demand that teachers secure the interest
of their pupils in school work?
21. Why is it bad intellectually for a child to divide his interest between his school
work and some other activity while doing school work?
22. There is always some motive present when work is accomplished in the
school. If the pupil is not interested in his work, what motives will you be apt to find
in operation?
23. Does the demand that children take an interest in their work mean that we
will require them to do only the sort of work which is easy for them?
24. Name three situations in school work in which you would seek to use interest
as a means. Three cases in which you would consider interests as ends.
25. In which situation will a boy write the better letter: when asked to write a
letter as a class exercise, or when he writes to his uncle about their plans for his
summer vacation?
26. The ends which we desire to attain may be relatively near or remote.
Classify the following aims presented to children according to (1) the remoteness
of the end to be achieved, (2) the interest which you would expect children to take
in the work for which these aims are supposed to furnish some motive. Suppose
the class to be a seventh-grade group of boys.
1. Learn how to build a boat.
2. Become a writer of good English.
3. Gain in skill in the process of dovetailing.
4. Write for a catalog of sets of tools for boys.
5. Find out why England maintains the largest navy in the world.
6. Prepare a description of the building of the Panama Canal.
7. Decide why so many Russians come to the United States.
8. Make the drawings for a sled to be built for his own use.
9. Make a rabbit trap from plans furnished by the teacher.
10. Study algebra to get ready to go to college.
11. Write a story of an interclass basket-ball game for the school paper.
12. Enjoy one of Kipling’s stories.
CHAPTER III
Exercises.
1. When a teacher raps her pencil against a desk and the children look toward
her, what is the type of adjustment made? When will they cease to pay attention to
the rap of the pencil? What suggestion would you offer concerning the danger
which may be found in rapping the pencil against the desk, ringing a bell, clapping
the hands, shouting “be quiet”?
2. Name some exercises in arithmetic in which you may depend somewhat upon
instinctive adjustments to insure progress.
3. Where do you think you will find the most instinctive adjustments,—in
geography, arithmetic, drawing, English composition, or physical training?
4. A boy who had done poor work in algebra improved greatly when changed
from a class taught by a man to one taught by a woman. How would you account
for the change, taking it for granted that the teachers were equally competent?
What type of adjustment did the boy make?
5. Why is it that any new subject will prove attractive for a short time, and
children will later show a lack of interest in the work?
6. Is there any difference between making a class period interesting and finding
a motive which appeals to children which will lead them to desire to cover the
material which you have assigned?
7. Which is the better, to have a girl study her geography lesson to please the
teacher or to have her at work trying to solve a problem in which she is interested?
8. What sort of results do teachers secure who compel children to learn their
lessons through fear of being ridiculed or otherwise punished? If these children
know as much as other children whose teacher has them at work satisfying their
idea of pleasure,—which will result in being able to read well to the class, prepare
their part of the class drama, or investigate in fields in which they are much
interested,—would you, then, consider the first sort of teaching as satisfactory as
the second?
9. To what degree can you depend upon the awakening of intellectual interests
to provide a motive for good work on the part of pupils?
10. Do you think the following list of questions would prove intellectually
stimulating to a group of sixth-grade pupils:—
“Where is Philadelphia? What is the capital of New York? What are the principal
rivers of the Middle Atlantic states? Where is Pittsburgh? For what is Pittsburgh
noted? What river forms the eastern boundary of Pennsylvania? Bound Virginia.
Locate the capitals of the states in this group. Name two valuable products raised
near the coast. Describe the surface of this group of states.”
11. How many children in your class find satisfaction in their school work
sufficient to keep them at it if no marks were given and no one compelled them to
attend school? Are there some subjects or parts of subjects where you secure this
sort of enthusiasm for school work? Why do you succeed better in these phases of
school work than in others?
12. What is wrong with the boy who is quiet during the recitation, apparently
absorbed in the work, but who gets nothing out of it?
13. Why does the teacher who speaks in a loud tone of voice in order to compel
attention have to speak louder and louder as the day advances?
14. What is wrong with a class which does good work in long division at the
beginning of the arithmetic period, and very poor work at the end of thirty minutes?
15. Give examples of passive attention, active attention, and secondary passive
attention, from your own classroom work.
16. Describe the situations in which you believe your children did the best
intellectual work. How do you account for the excellence of this work?
CHAPTER IV