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Orogenic gold: is a genetic association with magmatism realistic?

Article in Mineralium Deposita · November 2022

DOI: 10.1007/s00126-022-01146-8

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Richard J Goldfarb Iain Pitcairn

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Mineralium Deposita
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-022-01146-8

INVITED PAPER

Orogenic gold: is a genetic association with magmatism realistic?

Richard J. Goldfarb1,2 · Iain Pitcairn3

Received: 4 May 2022 / Accepted: 5 October 2022

© The Author(s) 2022

Abstract
Many workers accept a metamorphic model for orogenic gold ore formation, where a gold-bearing aqueous-carbonic fluid
is an inherent product of devolatilization across the greenschist-amphibolite boundary with the majority of deposits formed
within the seismogenic zone at depths of 6–12 km. Fertile oceanic rocks that source fluid and metal may be heated through
varied tectonic scenarios affecting the deforming upper crust (≤ 20–25 km depth). Less commonly, oceanic cover and crust
on a downgoing slab may release an aqueous-carbonic metamorphic fluid at depths of 25–50 km that travels up-dip along a
sealed plate boundary until intersecting near-vertical structures that facilitate fluid migration and gold deposition in an upper
crustal environment. Nevertheless, numerous world-class orogenic gold deposits are alternatively argued to be products of
magmatic-hydrothermal processes based upon equivocal geochemical and mineralogical data or simply a spatial association
with an exposed or hypothesized intrusion. Oxidized intrusions may form gold-bearing porphyry and epithermal ores in
the upper 3–4 km of the crust, but their ability to form economic gold resources at mesozonal (≈ 6–12 km) and hypozonal
(≈ > 12 km) depths is limited. Although volatile saturation may be reached in magmatic systems at depths as deep as
10–15 km, such saturation doesn’t indicate magmatic-hydrothermal fluid release. Volatiles typically will be channeled upward
in magma and mush to brittle apical roof zones at epizonal levels (≈ < 6 km) before large pressure gradients are reached
to rapidly release a focused fluid. Furthermore, gold and sulfur solubility relationships favor relatively shallow formation
of magmatic-hydrothermal gold systems; although aqueous-carbonic fluid release from a magmatic system below 6 km
would generally be diffuse, even if in cases where it was somehow better focused, it is unlikely to contain substantial gold.
Where reduced intrusions form through assimilation of carbonaceous crustal material, subsequent high fluid pressures and
hydrofracturing have been shown to lead to development of sheeted veins and greisens at depths of 3–6 km. These products
of reduced magmatic-hydrothermal systems, however, typically form Sn and or W ores, with economic low grade gold
occurrences (< 1 g/t Au) being formed in rare cases. Thus, whereas most moderate- to high-T orogens host orogenic gold
and intrusions, there is no genetic association.

Keywords Orogenic gold · Intrusion-related gold · Metamorphism · Magmatism · Crustal fluids

Introduction

The dominant characteristics of gold deposits in metamorphic

Editorial handling: B. Lehmann rocks, or the so-called orogenic gold deposits, have been
well described and summarized for more than 30 years (e.g.,
* Iain Pitcairn
iain.pitcairn@geo.su.se Robert et al. 1991; Groves et al.1998; Goldfarb et al. 2005).
However, the source of fluids and metals (Fig. 1), and thus
1
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes the genetic model(s), have been long controversial (e.g.,
and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Sillitoe and Thompson 1998). Many studies accept the fact
Beijing 100083, People’s Republic of China
2
that deposits classified as orogenic gold are the consequences
Center for Mineral Resources Science, Department of crustal metamorphic processes. Other work favors a
of Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School
of Mines, 1516 Illinois Street, Golden, CO 80401, USA magmatic genesis for many deposits with the characteristics
3 of orogenic gold. In fact, during the past 20 years there
Department of Geological Sciences, Stockholm University,
10691 Stockholm, Sweden has been a notable swing from metamorphic back to

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Vol.:(0123456789)
 Mineralium Deposita

Fig. 1  Orogenic gold deposits

are located adjacent to first-
order structures as breccia and
stockworks formed at depths
as shallow as 3–6 km, fault-fill
and extensional vein networks
formed in the brittle-ductile
regime generally at 6–12 km,
and replacement-style ores in
the deeper ductile crust. Many
genetic models for generation of
aqueous-carbonic ore-forming
fluids favor prograde metamor-
phism of marine crustal rocks.
Nevertheless, some models
argue for magmatic system fluid
release at a variety of depths
or even from a subcontinental
lithospheric mantle reservoir.
Figure modified after Groves
et al. (1998) and Fossen and
Cavalcante (2017)

magmatic-hydrothermal processes for gold genesis in both or 20 km (Gebre-Mariam et al. 1995; Groves et al. 1998). As
Phanerozoic accretionary belts and Precambrian greenstone eloquently stated decades ago by Giggenbach (1992), geolo-
belts, although supporting evidence for such a magmatic gists commonly support a magmatic contribution to ore for-
genetic link may be quite weak (e.g., Groves et al. 2009). mation with “more or less artistically executed magic arrows
In some cases, these gold deposits are nevertheless still marked magmatic fluid or even less specific magmatic input
referred to as orogenic gold deposits but with a hypothesized pointing up from some nether regions where anything could
magmatic origin, whereas, in other cases, authors classify happen.” Thirty years later, much in our literature on gold
these same deposits as intrusion-related deposits. Almost all deposits still supports Giggenbach’s observations. We have
the world’s largest gold deposits in metamorphic terranes many new techniques and measure many new parameters,
seem to now be characterized by this magmatic versus with resulting data that are typically equivocal (Goldfarb and
metamorphic genetic controversy. As pointed out by Sillitoe Groves 2015), and yet the arrows indicating a hidden granite
(2020), these controversial deposits have been suggested at depth as a fluid and metal source are prevalent in much of
as genetically related to either reduced intrusions (Pogo, the orogenic gold literature.
Muruntau, Zarmitan) or to oxidized intrusions (Canadian There are a variety of fluid types that are widely recog-
Malartic, Kirkland Lake, Jiaodong, Golden Mile) by various nized to be present in the upper 15–20 km of the crust. These
studies in the recent economic geology literature. include seawater, basinal brines, meteoric water, magmatic
Temporal or simply spatial associations with granitoids fluid, and metamorphic fluid (Yardley and Bodnar 2014).
are often taken as an indication of genetic association. But Little evidence exists for involvement of the former three
as we will show in this overview, much in the petrological shallow fluid types in orogenic gold formation (Goldfarb
literature is inconsistent with a magmatic-hydrothermal ori- and Groves 2015). Thus, it is both metamorphic water and
gin for orogenic gold. Fluids exsolved from melts will form magmatic water that have been most consistently implicated
porphyry, skarn, replacement, and epithermal gold deposits in various studies as potential contributors to orogenic gold
in the shallow crust (Fig. 2A, B); this is not the issue, as formation.
most ore deposit types form in the upper 5–6 km of the Both metamorphic and magmatic fluids are generated
crust (Skinner 1997; Seedorff et al. 2005). But we argue it is in situ and thus tend to generate high fluid pressures (Steele-
highly unlikely that gold-bearing deposits formed at depths McInnis and Manning 2020) resulting in channelized fluid
below about 5–6 km, which are the levels of formation of migration, mass transport, and precipitation of hydrother-
most orogenic gold deposits (Fig. 2A, C), would contain mally derived minerals. Both metamorphic fluids from
fluid or metal sourced from a magma. Epizonal orogenic crustal heating (Goldfarb et al. 1991) and magmatic fluids
gold deposits (Fig. 1) do form in the upper 6 km of the crust, released from rapidly ascending magma (Tosdal and Rich-
but the more abundant large mesozonal deposits form near ards 2001) are likely to be moving through orogenic belts
the brittle-ductile transition at 6–12 km depth and hypozonal during changes from a compressional regime to a more neu-
deposits form in the ductile regime at depths of perhaps 15 tral far-field stress regime. They may therefore show a broad

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Mineralium Deposita

Fig. 2  A Depending on geothermal gradient and orogenic architec- form in a similar manner at depths that may be 1–2 km deeper than
ture, orogenic gold deposits can form between 3 and 15–20 km depth Cu and Cu-Au porphyries (figure after Audétat and Simon 2012).
at temperatures between about 200 and 500 °C, with variation in min- Any ­CO2 in a melt is generally degassed at deeper crustal levels
eralization style and mineralogy reflecting difference in temperature and prior to saturation of ­H2O in the melt that leads to formation of
and host rock (e.g., Groves 1993). Oxidized intrusion-related gold intrusion-related Au. C Orogenic gold tends to form from aqueous-
deposits typically form within 3–4 km of the surface, and include carbonic fluid in fore-arc and back-arc metamorphic settings of active
auriferous epithermal, skarn, and porphyry deposits (figure after continental margins most commonly at depths of 6–12 km, but can be
Simmons et al. 2020). Porphyry deposits that are economic for gold also formed at somewhat shallower and deeper locations depending
develop at depths that are shallower than those that are gold-poor on the local thermal structure. In some gold belts they may show a
(Sillitoe 1997; Chiaradia 2020). B Oxidized intrusion-related Cu-Au temporal and/or spatial association with magmatism. They may show
and Au deposits form from magmatic-hydrothermal fluids exsolved a temporal overlap with oxidized intrusion-related gold deposits (e.g.,
from melt (± meteoric water) within 5 km of the surface and that are epithermal veins, Au-rich porphyries) that form in the upper 3 km of
characteristically aqueous in character. Porphyry Mo deposits tend to many subduction-related arcs

temporal overlap during orogeny (Figs. 1 and 2C). Magmatic events at moderate temperatures, most commonly between
fluids tend to be released from roof zones of crystallizing 350 and 500 °C, and can be contributed by the breakdown
igneous bodies, whereas ore-forming metamorphic fluids of hydrous silicates, organic matter, and diagenetic pyrite
tend to migrate horizontally down pressure gradients into (Tomkins 2010; Evans and Tomkins 2020). As higher meta-
large-scale fault systems and then upward during seismic- morphic P–T conditions are reached, hydrous minerals are
related pressure cycling events. The H
­ 2O, ­CO2, and ­H2S in less stable and fluids produced between middle amphibolite
the magmatic fluid will be sourced from devolatilization of and granulite conditions are likely to be highly carbonic
the subducting slab leading to the melting in the overlying with limited H­ 2O and ­H2S. Fluid inclusion observations
mantle wedge and (or) from local melting of crustal rocks from lower crust granulite facies environments consistently
during the ascent of primary basaltic magma. These same show co-existing nearly pure C ­ O2 fluids and highly saline
volatiles may be products of crustal prograde metamorphic brines (Touret et al. 2016); the source of any H ­ 2O in the

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 Mineralium Deposita

latter is not well understood. Nevertheless, such H­ 2O-poor (Fig. 3A). Desulfidation is associated with syngenetic/dia-
fluids are not typical of orogenic gold deposits, which char- genetic pyrite being converted to pyrrhotite during prograde
acteristically vary between about 80 and 95 mol percent H­ 2O metamorphism (Tomkins 2010). The presence of organic
(Goldfarb and Groves 2015). This helps explain why oro- matter in the rocks as a source of carbon facilitates a greater
genic gold deposits are generally not hosted in high-grade gold-transporting S component within the metamorphic
metamorphic rocks unless orogenesis includes thrusting of fluid (Finch and Tomkins 2017). As a consequence, meta-
high-grade rocks over lower grade rocks with ore deposition sedimentary rock sequences may be particularly effective
taking place subsequently in the upper allochthon. in producing a gold-rich fluid during their devolatilization
history (e.g., Pitcairn et al. 2015). The water comprising the
dominant fluid component is mainly released during garnet
Fluid production from crustal metamorphic growth at the expense of hydrous minerals, most often being
devolatilization chlorite (Dragovic et al. 2018). In many orogenic belts, uplift
occurs under near-isothermal conditions for tens of mil-
The association between metamorphism of crustal rocks lions of years, such that the auriferous ­H2O-CO2-H2S fluid
and orogenic gold has been widely accepted for more migrates along a retrograde PTt curve as lithostatic load is
than 40 years (Henley et al. 1976; Kerrich and Fyfe 1981; reduced relative to fluid pressure (Fig. 3B; Goldfarb et al.
Phillips and Groves 1983). There is little argument that 1986; Stuwe et al. 1993).
metamorphism of crustal rocks leads to a fluid capable of Studies in the metasedimentary rocks of New Zealand
forming an orogenic gold deposit (Fig. 3). Devolatilization and Scotland, as well as in greenstone belts of Canada, con-
across the greenschist-amphibolite boundary in both meta- firmed that the various elements commonly enriched in oro-
sedimentary and mafic metavolcanic rocks will produce genic gold deposits are initially mobilized during the rising
an ­H2O-CO2-H2S fluid capable of gold transport (Phillips metamorphic temperatures (Fig. 4). Gold and arsenic are
and Powell 2010). This would place most fluid release at released from enrichments in sedimentary pyrite (Pitcairn
temperatures somewhere between 350 and 500 °C, depend- et al. 2006) and tungsten from detrital rutile (Cave et al.
ing on the rock assemblage undergoing the prograde event 2017). Although definitive studies are still lacking, tellurium

Fig. 3  A The metamorphic model for orogenic gold reflects prograde of years after their thermal metamorphic peak during decompres-
breakdown of pyrite, chlorite, carbonate, rutile, epidote, and other sion. Changing stresses and associated rapid exhumation allow for
minerals in sedimentary and volcanic rocks as they become unstable increased fluid pore pressure relative to decreasing lithostatic load,
in the area of the greenschist/amphibolite boundary along a moderate and thus hydrofracturing and horizontal flow into large near-vertical
P–T path to release hydrothermal components that include ­H2O, ­CO2, sutures or fault systems (Goldfarb et al. 1991). During early near-
S, Au, As, and W. Thus, orogenic gold is inherent to most Barrovian isothermal decompression in active orogens (e.g., Vry et al. 2009),
metamorphic belts. Low thermal gradients in blueschist belts explain temperatures will still rise many tens of degrees during initial decom-
why such belts generally lack orogenic gold. B Depending on the pression, which could lead to the contribution of additional large fluid
mineral assemblages, orogenic gold can form anywhere from maxi- volumes to the trapped metamorphic fluid already being released
mum burial depth of fluid/metal source rocks to a few tens of millions from pore spaces

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Fig. 4  A A is a photograph of a vein. A summary of the vertical Sb concentrations of metamorphosed rocks plotted against metamor-
zonation of metal mobility, metamorphic fluid production and enrich- phic temperature for the three different orogens, i.e., Otago Schists
ment of orogenic gold deposits from Otago, the Canadian Cordillera, (New Zealand), Dalradian (Scotland), Pontiac terrane of the Abitibi
and Western Australia (Barnes et al.1978; McKeag and Craw 1989; Belt (Canada). Mean values are based on multiple sample analyses at
Nesbitt et al. 1989; Goldfarb et al. 1991; Hagemann et al. 1994; each metamorphic grade (Pitcairn et al. 2006, 2015, 2021). The blue
McCuaig and Kerrich 1998; Groves et al. 1998). B Mean Au, As, and bar represents the window of metamorphic fluid production

and bismuth, associated with gold in many orogenic gold regionally extensive contact metamorphism can form broad
deposits, are likely released from organic material in black zones of greenschist and amphibolite facies rocks (e.g., Bar-
shales during the decarbonization reactions or alternatively ton et al. 1991) and elements such as As, Au, Bi, Sb, and
from pyrite nodule conversion to pyrrhotite in the shales W are concentrated in the associated fluid phase (Finch and
(Large et al. 2011; Thomas et al. 2011; Gregory et al. 2015). Tomkins 2017). Whereas most studies on metal mobilization
No one genetic model is applicable to all orogenic gold prov- have been focused on Phanerozoic settings, both in fore-arc
inces; rather every orogenic belt is characterized by a unique and back-arc regions, Pitcairn et al. (2021) provide evidence
scenario that leads to the heating of young rocks for the first for fluid and gold sources in underthrusted Archean meta-
time, be that in a fore-arc or back-arc tectonic setting. For sedimentary rocks within the gold-rich Abitibi subprovince
example, Goldfarb et al. (2001) describe crustal thicken- (Fig. 4). In contrast, Patten et al. (2020) show evidence that
ing, slab rollback and crustal thinning, subduction of a slab orogenic gold ores elsewhere in Canada’s Superior Province,
window, and plume impingement as tectonic events that may as well as in the Paleoproterozoic of the Central Lapland
control the thermal structure of an orogen. Such metamor- Greenstone Belt, were sourced from metamorphosed meta-
phism may also be considered “intrusion-related” where volcanic rocks. Trace element signatures and gold contents

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 Mineralium Deposita

of deposits will vary depending on relative proportions of C-O–H-S fluid generation may still take place above the
graywacke, black shales, and volcanic rocks in a source greenschist-amphibolite boundary given the right mineral
terrane. assemblages (e.g., Evans and Tomkins 2020). In such deeper
In summary, any new material added to a continental ductile crustal environments, widespread hydrofracturing
block and heated through medium-grade metamorphic con- and silica precipitation will be hindered due to lack of large
ditions for the first time is capable of forming an orogenic pressure drops such that most gold ores will appear as broad
gold deposit if the resulting fluid is well focused. In other zones of replacement style mineralization mainly in Fe-rich
words, orogenic gold deposit formation is an inherent con- lithologies (Figs. 1 and 2A).
sequence of crustal metamorphism as long as rocks being
metamorphosed contain adequate amounts of widely dis-
seminated pre-metamorphic pyrite grains with many tens Fluid production from slab devolatilization
to hundreds of ppb background concentrations of gold; if
more locally disseminated or massive pyrite is present, An increasing temperature–pressure regime along a sub-
this may provide even a more favorable scenario for epige- ducting slab can lead to devolatilization and production
netic gold formation (e.g., Neoproterozoic East Africa and of a metamorphic fluid phase below an upper lithospheric
Archean Abitibi Subprovince). Metasedimentary rocks with plate or an asthenospheric wedge (Fig. 5). Such volatiles
an abundance of sedimentary pyrite and organic matter are a will not only be H
­ 2O-dominant, but can contain significant
particularly favorable source rock, but magmatic sulfides in amounts of ­CO2, as well as some ­N2, with overall fluid vol-
volcanic rocks are also a permissive source. This ore-form- ume likely controlled by amount of sedimentary material
ing metamorphism typically takes place at 10 ± 5 km, being and altered basalt at the top of the underthrusted plate (e.g.,
particularly well localized at the base of the crustal seis- Epstein et al. 2021). There is no reason that such a fluid
mogenic zone (Sibson 2004). Some orogenic gold deposits would not be similar in composition to that produced dur-
form as deep as 15–20 km and at temperatures higher than ing devolatilization of the above described accreted meta-
500 °C (Groves 1993; Kolb et al. 2015), where significant sedimentary and metavolcanic rocks, and they are just as

Fig. 5  Model where ore-forming fluid for orogenic gold may be pro- deep crustal faults, commonly terrane sutures, intersect the base of
duced from metamorphism of top of lower underthrusted plate, rather the upper plate and move upward during seismic events to form oro-
than from heating of rocks in the accretionary prism and accreted genic gold deposits. Further seaward, compaction-related release of
terranes that were accreted onto an upper plate. Below about 50 km, ­H2O-CH4 pore waters in the accretionary prism and from sediments
any devolatilization can lead to melting of the mantle wedge and arc on the downgoing plate, as well as initial petroleum migration from
plutons. Between about 20 and 50 km depth, lower temperature aque- burial metamorphism, can form shallow Hg-rich deposits (with Sb
ous-carbonic fluids can be channeled along the plate interface until and perhaps Au)

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Mineralium Deposita

likely to carry gold and related metals. Fluid devolatiliza- subducting lower plate but would be parts of the upper plate
tion will take place at relatively deep levels along the slab that most commonly would be undergoing initial stages of
interface after compaction first releases most pore waters isothermal uplift within the orogen (e.g., Fyfe and Kerrich
within the subducting sediments at depths of the upper few 1985; Goldfarb et al. 1986).
tens of kilometers. These initial methane-rich pore fluids and A simple model for orogenic gold deposit formation via
any petroleum migrating from initial breakdown of organics fluid and metal sourced from a downgoing lower plate may
can lead to formation of near-surface Hg deposits (Fig. 5), be most applicable in active margins that are non-accretion-
such as observed in the California Coast Ranges, which may ary. For example, the giant Jiaodong orogenic gold prov-
also be enriched in elements such as Sb and Au. Thermal ince in eastern China may be a product of such a tectonic
conditions where deep devolatilization will induce melting event (Goldfarb and Santosh 2014), where Mesozoic Paleo-
or mantle wedge fertilization are generally taken as about Pacific slab subduction is recorded below the North China
50 km; Grove et al. (2006), for example in their slab sub- cratonic block with structurally reactivated Precambrian
duction modeling, assume mantle temperatures only are hot rocks still comprising the East Asian continental margin.
enough for vapor-saturated melting at slab interface depths Sibson (2013) points out that shear stress relief along the
of at least 55 km. Intermediate depth fluid escape, perhaps at slab interface can lead to the uncommon example of large
depths of 25–50 km, is likely to be highly channelized (e.g., orogenic gold deposits forming extensional vein swarms,
Plumper et al. 2017), with fluids migrating upward along which is the case in the Jiaodong province. Groves et al.
the interface between the lower and upper plates until they (2020) stress such a subcrustal model characterizes orogenic
intersect more vertical structural heterogeneities including gold in general, but work on metamorphism of metasedi-
major transcrustal fault zones (Fig. 5). Seismic studies of mentary and likely metavolcanic oceanic rocks theoretically
modern-day subduction zones indicate that such steeply- (Tomkins 2010) and from actual field studies (Pitcairn et al.
dipping faults defining terrane boundaries in accretionary 2006) makes it clear that the ore-forming process, no mat-
terranes provide important fluid escape routes (Tauzin et al. ter the model, reflects moderate temperature metamorphism
2017). Significant fluid transport up-dip along a sealed plate of any fertile oceanic rock sequence. This process need not
boundary until reaching such faults transecting the fore-arc take place in the subcrustal environment and, in fact, the
hangingwall is commonly suggested from seismic studies of required large fluid volumes produced by devolatilization
continental margin megathrusts (Audet et al. 2009; Sibson events will typically be released in areas of the upper crust
2013; Halpaap et al. 2018; Egbert et al. 2022). of most active margins because it is at depths between about
It is critical to note that whereas such a fluid and metal 5 and 15 km where moderate to high thermal gradients will
source for orogenic gold is permissive, most accretionary favor the required greenschist-amphibolite facies develop-
orogens undergo a complex thermal history commonly asso- ment. Furthermore, many orogenic gold provinces form in
ciated with syn- to post-subduction terrane amalgamation, metamorphosed back-arc sequences during compression
back-thrusting of accretionary rock sequences, and inverted inversion (e.g., Sibson and Ghisetti 2018), whereas any
Barrovian metamorphic events. Much of the volume of oce- fluid released from a downgoing slab below such a tectonic
anic material added to the active continental margin will setting would become soluble in an arc or back-arc mantle
therefore be heated and devolatilized in the growing upper melt (e.g., Hyndman et al. 2015) and not be able to directly
plate (accreted terranes) as described above. Formation of generate a gold deposit. Therefore, in summary, the rocks
orogenic gold from metamorphism of the upper parts of a being metamorphosed to produce much of the known oro-
subducting slab is a simple geometry that only explains ore genic gold endowment are indeed originally part of a sub-
formation in rare cases (e.g., eastern China). For example, ducting slab but, when devolatilized, those rocks, as well as
Goldfarb et al. (1998, their Fig. 3) show a simplistic model any incorporated closing fore-arc or back-arc basins, have
of fluids being produced from the subducting Pacific plate as already become a part of the overriding plate (Fig. 5).
it was thrusted below oceanic terranes previously accreted to
the North American margin. But, in actuality, sediments on
the upper parts of the downgoing plate are largely accreted Fluid exsolution from oxidized magma
to the fore-arc margin as a series of terranes and only a small
percentage of the fertile marine sedimentary rock volume The ability to focus significant volumes of fluid into a con-
is subducted below the backstop. Thus, the fluids produced fined cupola region near the top of a magma chamber and to
at the greenschist-amphibolite boundary were released and discharge fluids to form a brittle metal-bearing fracture sys-
migrated into and upward along major terrane-bounding tem is well accepted as critical to the formation of many eco-
fault systems during orogenic events within material recently nomic magmatic-hydrothermal ore systems (Shinohara and
added to the upper plate along the growing margin. In other Hedenquist 1997; Cloos 2001). However, a critical question
words, the source material would no longer be part of the is whether a significant volume of exsolved fluid capable

13
 Mineralium Deposita

of forming a large gold-only deposit and with a remark- 6–8 wt% ­H2O could, given reasonable constraints, be theo-
ably consistent volatile composition (­ XH2O = 0.80–0.95, retically capable of degassing and releasing a gold-bearing
­XCO2[± ­CH4, ­N2, ­H2S] = 0.05–0.20) is likely to be released fluid at mesozonal and hypozonal depths that resembles
from magmas or mushes into sub-solidus rocks at depths what is consistently seen in orogenic gold deposits with
below about 6 km. This would be a required process if mag- 5–20 mol percent C ­ O2 (Fig. 7). However, although some
matic models implicated for many large gold deposits in calculations do invoke such a high initial H ­ 2O content
metamorphic terranes are accepted as valid. (Blundy et al. 2010; Urann et al. 2022), it is unlikely that
Although magmatic systems in active continental margin superhydrous melts (> 4–6 wt% ­H2O) are common enough
settings typically extend continuously downward in networks to account for the wide distribution of orogenic gold deposits
of crystal-rich mushes to at least the mid-crust (Cashman or could produce the remarkably consistent volatile compo-
et al. 2017), most magmas rise in the crust to depths of at sition observed in orogenic gold deposits. Furthermore, as
least 4–6 km before they undergo significant amounts of described below, many other arguments also are inconsistent
volatile degassing (e.g., Lowenstern et al. 1991; Rasmus- with deep release of a gold-bearing magmatic-hydrothermal
sen et al. 2022). Granite melts with somewhere between 4 fluid.
and 6% H ­ 2O will not begin significant volatile exsolution Many natural magmatic systems have been accepted to
until melt pressures decline to about 1–2 kbar (Fig. 6); it is be volatile saturated from the base of the seismogenic zone,
only under conditions where calculations suggest an initial typically at 9–12 km depth, up to the near surface (Baker and
water composition exceeding 6% H ­ 2O that saturation will Alletti 2012; Edmonds and Woods 2018), yet it is critical to
unmix large volatile volumes at levels deeper than about note that saturation does not imply fluid release for a number
6 km. Because ­CO2 is highly insoluble relative to ­H2O in of reasons. Hydrous magmas that form shallow ore systems
melt, much of any contained ­CO2 will be lost from a magma may actually undergo large amounts of ­H2O exsolution in
during early crystallization before large amounts of more the mid-crust (Urann et al. 2022). In many porphyry deposits
soluble ­H2O begin to degas as has been shown using models where PTX properties of magmatic-hydrothermal systems
assuming initially about 3.5–5 wt% H ­ 2O (Hedenquist and have been argued to show fluid saturation at 5–10 km depth,
Lowenstern 1994; Newman and Lowenstern 2002; Lesne the exsolved volatiles, often present as supercritical fluid, are
et al. 2011). In these cases, release of an aqueous-carbonic channeled upward within the magmatic system to shallower
magmatic-hydrothermal fluid resembling that of orogenic crustal areas before release (Richards 2011). This relatively
gold deposits would seem to be improbable at depths deeper buoyant fluid would rapidly ascend up sinuous channels or
than about 5 km. More hydrous felsic magmas with at least “fingers” within the melt’s dense crystal mush to be focused

Fig. 6  A Magma degassing for a representative rhyolitic melt ascend- ­H2O in the aqueous-carbonic fluid phase. B Magma degassing for a
ing from about 17 km with initial 5 wt% ­H2O and 0.2 wt% ­CO2 as representative basaltic melt ascending from about 15 km with ini-
modeled by Lowenstern (2001). Almost all ­CO2 is lost from the melt tial 3.4 wt% ­H2O and 0.3 wt% ­CO2 from Audétat and Simon (2012)
prior to loss of significant H
­ 2O beginning at about 3 to 5 km (1 to after Spilliaet et al. (2006). Significant aqueous-carbonic fluid release
1.5 kb) for an open versus closed system, respectively. The vola- resembling that of orogenic gold ­(XH2O = 80–95%) would not be
tile composition released from the melt would not approximate that possible until very shallow depths. Stippled lines equal XH2O with
of most orogenic gold deposits until the magma had reached depths mole ratios from 0.2 to 0.8
of about 5 km from the surface. Numbers in circles relate to mol%

13
Mineralium Deposita

little deformation of crystal-bearing magma or mush and

this is argued to restrict magmatic volatile permeability at
depth (Parmigiani et al. 2016) suggesting a more passive
and diffuse release of volatiles, if any release at all into
surrounding country rocks. Whereas deformation of the
mush may be limited, country rocks surrounding magmatic
systems in these relatively higher pressure areas may
undergo strong ductile deformation, with consequential
limited development of surrounding permeable conduits
and thus further suggesting a restricted environment for
focused volatile escape from a magmatic mush system at
depth (Christopher et al. 2015).
Despite the fact that some magmas crystallize,
differentiate, and have been argued to release large volumes
of fluid at depth, Rasmussen et al. (2022) summarize data
from 225 studies of more than 100 arc magmas and estimate
a water saturation depth mode of 4–6 km for subduction-
related magmas. This has been interpreted to indicate the
most common region of large fluid release from magma
leading to increased melt viscosity and widespread stalling
of magma ascent at those depths (Plank et al. 2013;
Fig. 7  Hydrous magmas with initial 6–8 wt% ­H2O can be modeled Rasmussen et al. 2022). Stalling is essential for metal
using VolatileCalc to show how aqueous-carbonic fluids resembling concentration, because if the magmatic plumbing system
those characterizing most orogenic gold deposits can be generated reaches the near surface in an open system, then much of the
at mesozonal and hypozonal depths (courtesy by Jon Blundy). For
example, felsic melts are modeled with initial compositions as shown
degassing will result in a loss of metals into the surrounding
and first reaching saturation at pressures of about 8 kb (8 wt% ­H2O) atmosphere. Thus, oxidized intrusion-related gold deposits
and 4 kb (6 wt% ­H2O). Fluids typical of orogenic gold (80–95 mol% (e.g., Sillitoe 1991; Hart 2007), including porphyry, skarn,
­H2O) may characterize these modeled magmatic-hydrothermal sys- and epithermal ores (Fig. 2A, B), form at shallow crustal
tems at depths of 7–19 km and thus significantly below those of gold-
bearing porphyry and epithermal deposits. Yet to form an orogenic
levels where large fluid releases are most expected a few
gold deposit at these depths, it remains uncertain as to whether (1) a kilometers below the surface. Deeper level formation of
fluid unmixed from melt at pressures > 2 kb would contain significant widespread orogenic gold is inconsistent with depths that
S and Au and (2) a large fluid volume could be focused and released, most magmatic systems are shown to undergo large-scale
as opposed to being channeled upward within the magma and mush
volatile release.
Numerical models show the most efficient fluid flow and
at shallow ore-forming levels (Parmigiani et al. 2016, 2017; the majority of magmatic-hydrothermal ore formation to be
Degruyter et al. 2019; Blundy et al. 2021). The high-water concentrated at and above the apical parts of plutonic bodies.
contents in closed systems will commonly lead to accelerated Release of large amounts of fluid from a magma is commonly
ascent of the magma itself (Annen et al. 2006; La Spina supported by a porphyritic texture, as a fluid-rich magma
et al. 2022). In some cases, the volatiles may remain for a will enhance crystal growth and sudden fluid release causes
period of time as liquid-rich layers within the crystallizing rapid nucleation and a fine-grained groundmass. In contrast,
mush before rising to such a roof zone (Christopher et al. widespread miarolitic cavities in an intrusion indicate limited
2015; Parmigiani et al. 2016). The forceful expulsion of fluid focusing (Lerchbaumer and Audétat 2013) and thus
volatiles at the top of the magmatic system is typically difficulties in the intrusion itself forming a large ore deposit.
driven by pressure gradients between supralithostatic Typically, magma chambers at depths below about 10 km
conditions reached within the highest point of a crystallizing or relatively flat intrusive bodies are unlikely to form ore
intrusion and the near-hydrostatic conditions in rocks above deposits because of the need to develop a brittle fluid conduit
the igneous body roof (Lamy-Chappuis et al. 2020). Such to facilitate fluid release (Audétat 2019). In the relatively
gradients required for voluminous and focused fluid flux into deepest (6–7 km) porphyry systems that are Mo dominant,
surrounding rocks and conduits would mainly be expected source stocks for hydrothermal fluids below the ores in the
in the uppermost crust and not within the seismogenic zone roof zones lack significant alteration and thus indicate fluids
at 6–12 km where mesozonal orogenic gold deposits are exsolved at depth move upward through the molten deep
widespread. At mesozonal levels with confining pressures parts of intrusive complexes and get released in the solidified
greater than about 1.5–2 kb (deeper than 4–6 km), there is cupola regions (Audétat and Li 2017).

13
 Mineralium Deposita

It is widely acknowledged from the porphyry deposit

literature that gold-rich magmatic-hydrothermal ores form
at shallower levels than gold-poor ores. Epithermal gold
deposits are located above associated Cu-rich porphyry ores
(Fig. 2A, B). Large gold-rich porphyry ores, whether related
to calc-alkaline bodies emplaced in subduction settings or
alkaline bodies emplaced in more neutral geodynamic set-
tings, are formed at notably shallower levels than gold-poor
porphyries (Sillitoe 1997; Murakami et al. 2010; Chiaradia
2020). This could reflect, in part, shallower magma bodies
undergoing relatively late sulfide saturation and maintain-
ing higher concentrations of gold than those that differen-
tiate at deeper levels (Hao et al. 2022). At depths below
about 3 km in systems where metal transport is related to
sulfur complexing, rapid cooling of exsolved fluid leads to
Cu precipitation during fracturing of a cupola generally at
depths of 3–5 km, whereas gold solubility is shown to be lit-
tle impacted by the cooling and the gold remains in a dense
vapor phase (Heinrich et al. 2004; Murakami et al. 2010).
Shallower fluid release is dominated by rapid coeval pre-
cipitation of Cu and Au during expansion of the escaped
vapor phase and the resulting formation of large intrusion-
related gold deposits predominantly occurs within 3 km of
the surface.
It is worth noting that the epithermal and porphyry gold
ore-forming magmatic-hydrothermal aqueous fluids released
in the upper few kilometers of the crust consistently lack
high ­CO2 contents. In contrast, epizonal orogenic gold
deposits, which may form at 3–6 km depth (Groves et al.
1998), as well as commonly shallower associated Hg-Sb Fig. 8  Melt inclusion data from a couple of different eruptive events
ores without clear association to causative intrusions (e.g., (different symbols) for a) S and b) Cl during pressure-related degas-
Studmeister 1984; Goldfarb et al. 1990; Hart and Goldfarb sing from Mt. Etna, Italy from Spilliaet et al. (2006). Note that unlike
2017), are argued to have formed from an aqueous-car- Cl, the S tends to follow ­H2O and is exsolved after essentially all ­CO2
is lost to the system and thus above depths of about 5.5 km (1.5 kb).
bonic fluid with local enrichments of liquid hydrocarbons. Thus, it would be difficult for gold-sulfur complexing responsible for
This difference may be due to early escape of C ­ O2 from orogenic gold formation in (mesozonal) and below (hypozonal) the
a magmatic system, perhaps by a passive diffusive degas- brittle-ductile transition zone to be related to magmatic processes
sing period, and particularly by the overwhelming ­H2O vol-
ume within the magmatic volatile phase as ­H2O saturation
is reached on almost any degassing path (Figs. 6 and 7). ores, form no deeper than about 2–5 km (Sillitoe 2010;
The destabilization of magmatic systems by ­CO2 flushing Richards 2018). Fluid exsolution may be slightly deeper
into upper crustal magma reservoirs has been proposed by for highly fractionated felsic and viscous oxidized magmas
Caricchi et al. (2018), but nevertheless it is extremely rare to associated with Au-poor porphyry Mo deposits (Fig. 2B).
have a causative magmatic-hydrothermal ore-forming fluid However, these deeper and rarer magmatic-hydrothermal
with > 1–2 mol% ­CO2 in such porphyry or epithermal envi- systems still form at shallower levels than most orogenic
ronments (e.g., Ridley and Diamond 2000). Furthermore, gold deposits; contain ore-related fluid inclusions with abun-
the sulfur that is typically called upon to transport gold in dant highly saline brine assemblages (Audétat and Li 2017)
orogenic gold systems tends to follow the H ­ 2O, in contrast that are extremely rare to see associated with any orogenic
to Cl, and would commonly not be released from an oxi- gold deposit; and, as shown by melt inclusion data from
dized melt during deep degassing, but rather during shallow Climax-type deposits, little ­CO2 remains in the mineraliz-
degassing of a ­CO2-poor gold-forming fluid (Fig. 8; Spilliaet ing silicate melts at depths of pluton emplacement (Audétat
et al. 2006). and Li 2017). Thus, even such relatively deeply emplaced
As a consequence of the above depth-related features, evolved melts release Mo-bearing magmatic-hydrothermal
most Cu- and Au-rich porphyry deposits, and related skarn ore-forming fluids that are distinct from fluids associated

13
Mineralium Deposita

with orogenic gold deposits. Furthermore, as pointed out by Farallon plate subduction below the North American con-
Graney and Kesler (1995), the presence of significant ­CH4 tinent, for example, can be most directly related to alkalic
and ­N2 in magmatic vapors, commonly detected at the per- magmatic-hydrothermal deposits such as Cripple Creek
cent level in ore fluids forming orogenic gold at any crustal (Kelley et al. 2020) and other gold deposits in the Laramide
level, is restricted to S-type melts and would thus be unlikely Rocky Mountains province. However, there is no evidence
characteristic of oxidized magmatic systems. for such K-rich melts consistently being the dominant form
The above features indicate that it would require extraor- of magmatism spatially and temporally associated with oro-
dinary conditions such that this fluid degassed at pres- genic gold.
sures greater than 1.5–2.0 kbar would contain enough sul- Gold may be locally enriched in areas of refertilized
fur and gold to form a large orogenic gold deposit. Some SCLM (e.g., González-Jiménez et al. 2020), but that does
recent models have suggested magmatic fluids released at not indicate such enriched mantle is a genetic prerequisite
deep crustal levels may pick up Au and S through leach- for an orogenic gold deposit. Xenoliths and mafic dikes
ing of fertile lithologies along their flow path (e.g., Smith- with a mantle origin may be enriched in gold, but simi-
ies et al. 2018). However, in the atypical scenario where a larly that does not suggest capability of directly forming
large volume of magmatic fluid was released at great depth, an economic gold deposit. Lamprophyres are common in
it is doubtful that such a fluid could become sufficiently or near many large orogenic gold deposits and at one time
enriched in Au and S to form a large orogenic gold deposit. were suggested to be important in the ore-forming process
The required fluid focusing into a large deep crustal fault (Rock et al. 1989), particularly in models where they would
zone would favor a high water:rock flow system that is typi- migrate from the mantle to interact with upper crustal rocks
cal of orogenic gold. Under such a flow regime, the chan- producing gold-rich felsic melts. Again, there is a lack of
nelized supercritical fluid would interact with small volumes supporting evidence that such felsic melts would exsolve
of rock therefore requiring super Au-rich country rock along and release substantial Au- and S-bearing fluids at depths
the shear zone in order to obtain appreciable amounts of of formation estimated for many giant orogenic gold depos-
gold and sulfur from the conduit wallrocks, a scenario that its. Furthermore, direct degassing of such isolated dikes
is extremely unlikely. It would, therefore, be difficult to form is unlikely to produce the fluid volumes required for large
the well-recognized large mesozonal or hypozonal orogenic gold accumulations, and many such dikes either pre-date or
gold deposits via any model of magma degassing. post-date the gold events and solely were emplaced along
the same structures that facilitated fluid migration (Kerrich
1991; Goldfarb and Groves 2015). Smithies et al. (2018)
What about mantle involvement show that water-rich diorites and granodiorites along gold-
in gold‑forming oxidized magmas? hosting translithospheric structures in the Yilgarn craton
may be classified as evolved sanukitoids that were larger vol-
Many models now invoke the need for an enriched SCLM ume cumulate products from lamprophyric mantle magmas.
(sub-continental lithospheric mantle) as a source for fluids But their stated “moderately deep” emplacement releasing
and metals that form orogenic gold ores, commonly with large fluid volumes that would scavenge significant gold
fluid release from an oxidized mantle magma again being along ascent and then form so-called proximal intrusion-
the ultimate source of the ore-forming components. Hronsky related gold deposits at shallower levels (e.g., Witt et al.
et al. (2012), for example, speculate gold-enriched zones 2020) is problematic. As mentioned above, even if a large
in the upper mantle may be important for gold metallog- fluid volume is released at depth, the required subsequent
eny in all deposit types, with gold mobilized both in silicate leaching of enough gold under conditions of high W:R ratio
melts and mantle fluids. The refertilization and oxidation along a major flow conduit to form a large gold orebody is
of depleted mantle, preserved below continents for billions difficult to explain.
of years because of its negative thermal buoyancy coexist- The Jiaodong gold province in the North China block of
ing with a positive chemical buoyancy, is a consequence of eastern China contains abundant syn-gold lamprophyre dikes
metasomatism due to slab subduction. Tassara et al. (2020) derived from metasomatized SCLM. Saunders et al. (2018)
describe how the oxidation of silicate melts rising through suggest that the volatiles and metals associated with these
such an enriched SCLM can lead to S and Au enrichment world-class gold deposits were also derived from an enriched
in magma prior to ascent and magmatic-hydrothermal pro- lithospheric mantle, with the gold contributed from astheno-
cesses at shallow crustal levels. Subsequent melting of the spheric melts and not a devolatilizing paleo-Pacific slab. The
newly enriched mantle, commonly due to slab delamination gold deposits are suggested to have been formed at relatively
or rollback allowing asthenospheric upwelling, is expressed shallow levels where melts could theoretically exsolve large
as shoshonitic or at least high-K calc-alkaline magmatism S- and Au-rich fluid volumes. Wang et al. (2021) suggest
(Feeley 2003). This relatively alkalic magmatism related to SCLM-derived hydrous basalts erupted coevally with the

13
 Mineralium Deposita

gold event could represent causative magmas that formed the ­H2O and ­H2S concentrations that are universally associated
gold deposits. They also however show, significantly, that the with orogenic gold-forming fluids would be lacking in
xenoliths of the SCLM are depleted, not enriched in Au rela- such a fluid source. Studies of preserved fluid inclusions
tive to primary mantle and argue it is only the volatile-rich from xenoliths of lithospheric mantle consistently indicate
nature of the basalts that enriched their hypothesized causa- ­C O 2 degassing with subordinate to undetectable H ­ 2O
tive magmas with gold. But furthermore, again such shallow (e.g., Roedder 1965; Frezzotti and Touret 2014; Sandoval-
basaltic magmatism would likely be expected to show wide- Velasquez et al. 2021). Similarly, many studies of orogenic
spread hypabyssal intrusion emplacement and formation of gold deposits implicate mantle fluids based on helium
epithermal-style precious metal veins, which is not what is isotope ratios from fluid inclusion waters extracted from
observed in the Jiaodong province. Some workers argue that ore-related minerals (e.g., Jiaodong Peninsula deposits:
a SCLM source can be defined by consistent S and O isotope Mao et al. 2008). However, even if helium is moving up
ratios of ore-related minerals across an orogenic belt (e.g., along trans-crustal fault zones, there is no accompanying
Zhao et al. 2021), but the reported values are consistent with evidence of ­H2O, ­CO2, S, or metals being transported from
orogenic gold deposits worldwide and are not indicative of sub-crustal reservoirs.
any type of “mantle signature.” Perhaps more significant is the fact that many
Convincing evidence is also lacking for gold ore- Phanerozoic orogenic gold provinces cannot be related
forming fluid release directly from the mantle. There are in any way to enriched SCLM because such continental
some arguments for such deep fluids, perhaps from depths basement does not exist below the ore-hosting accreted
of even 40–50 km, migrating to the near surface but oceanic terranes that comprise the seaward side of the
most of these are based upon interpretation of noble gas orogens. In the Cordilleran orogen of North America,
isotopes (e.g., Chen et al. 2019). Because many orogenic gold districts in southern Alaska (Fig. 9) and in the
gold deposits are spatially associated with trans-crustal California Foothills belt all are located above solely oceanic
faults, there is no reason why both mantle-derived magmas lithosphere that was accreted to the craton margin as it was
and some volatiles may not be transported into the upper built seaward (Goldfarb and Groves 2015). The tectonic
crust from deeper parts of the lithosphere. However, most evolution of older orogens is much less understood, but
­H2O in the lower crust or upper mantle will be stored in Oliver et al. (2020) indicate there is no evidence in data
hydrous mineral phases or dissolved in melts (e.g., Touret from the giant Paleoproterozoic Obuasi deposit in West
et al. 2016). Although ­CO2 mantle degassing may occur Africa that supports any type of contribution to ore
in certain tectonic settings (Newton et al. 1980, 2019), the formation from sub-crustal magmatic sources.

Fig. 9  Crustal architecture of south-central Alaska after Brocher et al. characterize the Juneau Gold Belt and Mother Lode further south
(1994). Orogenic gold districts in the fore-arc (Chugach Mountains) along the North American Cordillera. These observations along a
and subduction-related batholith margin (Willow Creek) overlie a young active continental margin indicate that enriched subcontinen-
basement of oceanic crust and lithospheric mantle outboard of the tal lithospheric mantle is not a necessary critical factor for generating
North American continental lithosphere. Similar lithospheric profiles orogenic gold systems

13
Mineralium Deposita

In summary, (1) limited voluminous potassic magmatism magmas also could be partly sourced from enriched
associated with most orogenic gold deposits over space lithospheric mantle. Petrogenetic studies by Mair et al.
and time; (2) the lack of any continental lithosphere below (2011) indicate the causative reduced magmatic systems
young orogenic gold-bearing provinces; (3) the lack of in the eastern Tintina Gold Belt cannot have been formed
evidence, as described earlier, for voluminous S- and via widespread crustal melting and are instead the product
Au-bearing fluid release from a magmatic system at depths of fractional crystallization of and crustal assimilation by
of 6–15 km; and (4) little support for mantle streaming of mantle-derived magmas.
a fluid with ­H2O > ­CO2 all provide strong argument against The most representative examples of these deposits
a genetic association between orogenic gold and enriched are those in the eastern part of the Tintina Gold Belt,
subcontinental lithospheric mantle. which are presently being mined at Fort Knox in Alaska
and Dublin Gulch in adjacent Yukon. Estimated for-
mation depths are between about 3 and 5 km and the
The reduced intrusion‑related gold deposits deposits occur as sheeted quartz-K-feldspar veins (some-
times referred to as pegmatite veins) in the roof zones of
Although most gold deposits of suggested magmatic- reduced and variably porphyritic ca. 92 Ma calc-alkaline
hydrothermal origin are related to oxidized magmas, there granite to subalkaline granodiorite intrusive complexes
is a much smaller group of gold deposits that are indicated to (Fig. 10H, I). Features representative of the magmatic
be genetically associated with reduced magmas (Thompson to hydrothermal transition in these deposits include the
and Newberry 2000). In contrast to the oxidized gold- presence of pegmatites, aplite dikes, miarolitic cavities,
rich magmatic-hydrothermal deposits that form within and unidirectional solidification textures. The gold-
3 km of the paleosurface, reduced intrusion-related gold bearing veins at Fort Knox contain < 1% sulfide and the
deposits (RIRGD) are reported to form significantly deeper gold is mostly associated with Bi-bearing minerals and
(Baker 2002; Sillitoe 2020). These are typically described molybdenite, whereas at Dublin Gulch veins may contain
as auriferous sheeted veins or greisens estimated to have up to five percent pyrite-arsenopyrite-pyrrhotite. Stud-
been deposited at depths of 3–6 km in plutonic roof zones ies of plutons of the Sierra Nevada batholith in Cali-
(Thompson et al. 1999), and thus at the same depths of fornia indicate that vertical cooling joints in the roofs
deeper, although gold-poor, porphyry systems. Fluids are of plutons may be the sites of self-sealing, single-pass
aqueous-carbonic (e.g., Fort Knox: McCoy et al. 1997; fluids that form hydrothermal veins resembling those in
Dublin Gulch: Maloof et al. 2001) and thus resemble fluids the RIRGD (Bartley et al. 2020). Larger pipe-like con-
of metamorphic origin that are common to orogenic gold duits may host aplite and pegmatite dikes along with the
deposits formed at all crustal levels. The C­ O2-rich nature hydrothermal veins, both from materials ascending into
of the magmatic-hydrothermal ore fluids is reflective of the roof zones within the inwardly crystallizing mush
a strong crustal sedimentary rock component assimilated (Bartley et al. 2018) as is observed in the Tintina Gold
into the melt that enhances fluid-melt unmixing at higher Belt deposits. Their complex association may thus be
pressures (Thompson et al. 1999; Baker 2002) and resultant spatial and not necessarily genetic. Interaction of fluid
fracturing of the intrusion roof zone. with the crystallized part of the intrusion and (or) lack
The reason the group of commonly accepted RIRGD of overpressurization leading to hydrofracturing could
is much smaller than that associated with oxidized explain the formation of such sheeted vein styles of
intrusions likely reflects both the overall lower gold mineralization along the permeable conduits rather than
content in reduced melts and greater solubility of the development of a porphyry ore style.
gold in more deeply exsolved magmatic fluids. As first An important feature of these sheeted vein systems is
described by Thompson et al. (1999), the RIRGD ores their lower grades compared to many vein-type ores in oro-
are commonly located in Sn or W provinces landward genic gold deposits. At Fort Knox, grades of bulk tonnage
of continental arcs; may be enriched in Bi, W, As, Sn, sheeted veins (Fig. 10H) have averaged about 0.6 g/t Au.
Mo, Te, and Sb; could have a very low sulfide content; Cross-cutting shears, perhaps related to the broadly coeval
frequently have quartz, K-feldspar, albite, sericite, and surrounding orogenic gold event, historically upgraded the
carbonate as alteration minerals; exhibit many different 8 Moz of produced ores to about 0.9 g/t Au (Fig. 10J) and
mineralization styles, but most consistently sheeted veins; the present remaining resource of about 1 Moz was most
and are characterized by aqueous-carbonic ore fluids with recently estimated averaging 0.3 g/t Au. The main minerali-
variable salinity. Many of these characteristics also are zation at Dublin Gulch also averages 0.6 g/t Au (Fig. 10I).
associated with orogenic gold deposits, which therefore These types of sheeted vein systems may be present in many
makes discrimination of some deposits difficult. Similar to reduced intrusive bodies in Sn-W provinces (e.g., Tim-
many arc-related oxidized magmatic systems, the RIRGD bara, NSW, Australia: Mustard 2001) where melts include

13
 Mineralium Deposita

significant volumes of volatile-rich sedimentary material, Controversial world‑class deposits

but due to their low grade they are prospective bulk ton- in metamorphic rocks
nage targets only where good infrastructure exists and when
gold prices are high. As discussed below, many other gold The majority of giant gold deposits in metamorphic terranes
deposits have been placed into this RIRGD but their genetic are argued to have either metamorphic or magmatic origins
association with such reduced magmatic systems is com- by different workers within the recent literature. These
monly lacking in supporting evidence and, in some cases, include many of the best studied Neoarchean, Paleoprotero-
the intrusions are not even reduced. zoic, and late Neoproterozoic-Phanerozoic examples, which

13
 Mineralium Deposita

◂Fig. 10  Gold-bearing quartz vein styles from metamorphic terranes. cannot be used to discriminate a gold deposit type. Third,
Although with many similarities to classic and high-grade orogenic most giant orogenic gold deposits are presently mined by
gold deposits (E–G), many of these vein deposits (A–D) have been
argued to be world-class intrusion-related ore systems. A High-grade
open pit where some studies focus on very localized geologi-
stockwork-sheeted vein network from Muruntau, Uzbekistan, within cal anomalies that are exposed in the extensive workings and
K-feldspar- and biotite-altered hornfels (from Seltmann et al. 2020). commonly are unrelated to the ore-forming event. Finally,
B Brittle-ductile chloritic-shear, massive auriferous quartz vein, and whether it is a series of dikes in a pit or a suggested unex-
associated breccia in lamprophyre from Pataz gold belt, Peru (from
Haeberlin 2000). C Brecciated (top) and laminated (bottom) gold-
posed pluton nearby defined by geophysical study, without
bearing veins hosted in the Segovia batholith and adjacent meta- an all-encompassing investigation, it is easier to implicate
sedimentary rocks, Colombia (courtesy Juan Carlos Molano and a point source for fluids and metals rather than attempting
Camilo Dorado, Universidad Nacional de Colombia Departamento to understand a much broader regional process. Below, we
de Geociencias). D Main stage, shallow-dipping, brittle gold-bearing
extensional quartz vein, with enclosed bands of sulfides reflecting
summarize some specific recent examples of the controversy.
multiple fluid pulses, which was formed along earlier shallow biotite-
and quartz-rich shears, Pogo deposit, Alaska. E Laminated fault-fill Giant deposits in metamorphic terranes sometimes
vein at Bralorne, Bridge River district, British Columbia (from Hart argued to be related to oxidized magmas
and Goldfarb 2017). F Brittle stockwork-breccia veining from Red
Lake, Canada (photo courtesy of Benoit Dubé). G Brittle-ductile
fault-fill vein-breccia system with most of the gold resource present Yilgarn craton The Fimiston deposit mined by the Golden
as tellurides, Kensington deposit, Alaska. H Typical narrow sheeted Mile open pit in the Yilgarn craton is the world’s largest
gold-bearing quartz-K-feldspar vein with < 1% sulfide and very thin Archean lode gold deposit and is historically accepted to
alteration halo in a pluton roof zone. Together such veins comprise a
bulk-minable resource that averages about 0.6 g/t Au at the Fort Knox
be an orogenic gold deposit (Phillips and Groves 1983;
reduced intrusion-related gold deposit (RIRGD), Alaska. Unlike Hagemann and Cassidy 2000). Nevertheless, Tripp et al.
porphyry-style magmatic-hydrothermal deposits, RIRGD lack wide- (2020) describe synvolcanic low- and high-sulfidation epi-
spread alteration zones reflecting a voluminous fluid release event thermal-like textural features that are overprinted by later
in a roof zone. I Typical RIRGD sheeted vein array in pluton roof
zone that defines a bulk minable 0.6 g/t Au resource at Dublin Gulch,
deformation and metamorphism. Such features have even
Yukon, Canada. (J) Higher-grade, overprinting late NE-striking led to classification of the Fimiston ores as a giant shallow-
shears that average 0.5-m in width could represent an orogenic gold level epithermal-like deposit (Clout 1989) with similarities
overprint at Fort Knox. They increased the historic grade to about to Emperor and Cripple Creek (Bateman and Hagemann
0.9 g/t Au
2004). Such epithermal-like features are however limited in
their extent and some, such as hydrous silica, may have even
show many of the same features (Fig. 10A–G) regardless of developed during open-space vein formation at great depth
whether or not there is a clear association with magmatism. as pressures dropped during hydrofracturing (Weatherly and
Although, as stressed above, most evidence strongly indi- Henley 2013). In support of this process, Dubé et al. (2004)
cates an ore genesis that is inherent to metamorphism of note that at the Red Lake deposit in Canada, some colli-
oceanic rocks, we argue that a number of important factors form-crustiform gold-bearing veins appear to have formed
have led to controversy regarding ore genesis. First, gold ore at mesozonal depths.
formation in association with magmatism, particularly with Evidence from many studies shows the Fimiston ores
oxidized magmatic systems, is well proven within the upper formed at temperatures of at least 350 °C and a depth of
3–5 km of the crust (Fig. 2A). It is consequently assumed approximately 10 km, as summarized by A.G. Mueller et al.
by many workers that the same melt types would simply (2020a, b), although these authors argue for an I-type mag-
release more ­CO2-rich, although Cu-poor, large fluid vol- matic origin. They conclude that δ18O fluid values of 8.2–
umes at greater depths to form a much different style of 9.8‰, high Sr isotope ratios of a variety of hydrothermal
structurally controlled gold mineralization (Fig. 2B). Such minerals, and the presence of tellurides and V-rich micas
assumptions ignore many of the issues described above that in high-grade ores are evidence for exsolution of a fluid
are recognized from studies of magmatic systems. These with ­XH2O = 0.85 from a monzodiorite suite of intrusions
deeper magmatic-hydrothermal models typically stress emplaced somewhere below 10 km. McDivitt et al. (2021)
geochemical and mineralogical aspects of studied gold ores similarly call upon a deep magmatic fluid based upon also
as documentation of a magmatic fluid source, an inference (1) an argument that MIF Δ33S and δ34S values of diagenetic
which is then used to conclude the fluids and metals were pyrite in a local slate differs from values of mineralization-
exsolved from a deeply emplaced intrusion type that may related pyrite and (2) spatial association between the gold
or may not be recognized regionally. Second, the presence and pre-ore porphyry dikes. A similar argument using MIF
of some silicate alteration phases in orogenic gold deposits Δ33S data has been used to discredit the possibility of a met-
and many magmatic-hydrothermal ores that are indicative of amorphic fluid for formation of other large orogenic gold
stability at a certain temperature common to both, including deposits in the Yilgarn craton (e.g., Kanowna Belle: Sugiono
sericite or biotite-K-feldspar, indicates that these minerals et al. 2021). In all such examples, however, there continues

13
 Mineralium Deposita

to be no spatial association with any exposed causative intru- the hydrothermal alteration, Bi-bearing tellurides, and Au/
sion, nor explanation about what atypical petrological pro- Ag ratios of about 1 are stressed as linking gold to wide-
cess causes an aqueous-carbonic fluid to be unmixed and spread magmatism in the greenstone belt. In addition, an
released from melts at depths below 10 km to form a series association with porphyry dikes, widespread emplacement
of gold-only deposits throughout a terrane. Indeed, McDivitt of K-rich granites, and a post-accretionary timing during an
et al. (2022) in arguing for a magmatic-hydrothermal model extensional regime have all been stated to further support
based on dating of minerals in syn-ore dikes state that the such a link (Kwelwa et al. 2018). Nevertheless, these argu-
petrotectonic formation processes “remain cryptic” for the ments remain speculative without any proven connection to
Au-Te ore at Fimiston. a magmatic source.

Abitibi greenstone belt Many of the largest deposits in the Central Asia orogenic belt Similar argument have been
Superior Province of Canada have been defined as mag- used to justify for a significant magmatic-hydrothermal
matic-related deposits by some workers, particularly where component as being associated with genesis of many of the
a part of the mineralization is hosted by alkaline to sub- giant gold deposits hosted in Neoproterozoic and Phanero-
alkaline intrusive rocks that are widespread in the green- zoic accretionary belts. The world’s largest orogenic gold
stone terranes. The world-class Canadian Malartic has been deposit, Muruntau (Figs. 10A and 11), has been tied to man-
alternatively referred to as a porphyry, syenite-associated tle magmatism based upon elevated He isotope ratios for
disseminated, oxidized intrusion-related, mesozonal stock- fluid inclusions extractions and an unradiogenic initial Os
work-disseminated replacement, or orogenic gold deposit measurement of arsenopyrite (Morelli et al. 2007). A poly-
type in the recent literature. A magmatic model similar to genetic origin including a major magmatic component for
that summarized for the Fimiston deposit was proposed for Muruntau has been further noted based upon other noble gas
the Canadian Malartic ores, with a mid-crustal monzodi- isotopes from fluid inclusions; high Br/Cl ratios of inclusion
oritic intrusion exsolving an oxidized fluid that migrated waters; K-feldspar and biotite alteration phases; lamprophyre
through much of the crust and deposited gold at a depth of dikes along gold-hosting structures; and anomalous amounts
about 10 km (Helt et al. 2014). The evidence for such a fluid of As, Sb, Bi, Mo, W, and Pt in some of the mineraliza-
was argued to be stable isotope data (δ18O fluid values of tion (Graupner et al. 2001, 2006; Wall 2004). Wall (2004)
about 5–10‰, δD values of − 52 to − 45‰, and δ34S values presented the so-called TAG (thermal aureole gold) model
of -4.5 to + 3.3 ‰); K-feldspar and biotite in the alteration where gold mineralization at Muruntau formed in hornfelsed
assemblage; locally anomalous amounts of Te, Bi, W, and rocks at sites 3–4 km above causative intrusions emplaced
Mo; and ratios of major elements in bulk extraction fluid at depths somewhere from > 6 to 10 km (Figs. 11 and 12).
inclusion waters from mineralized quartz. But these charac- Although a large amount of metamorphism and devolatiliza-
teristics do not discriminate in any way between a magmatic tion occurred below Muruntau via heating during astheno-
and metamorphic source reservoir (e.g., Beaudoin and Rask- spheric upwelling and related magmatism (Seltmann et al.
evicius 2014; De Souza et al. 2019) and a magmatic model 2020), workers have argued that the majority of the gold
is entirely speculative (De Souza et al. 2020). The Kirkland was sourced from a hypothesized sill-like batholith (Hall
Lake deposit was suggested to be an epithermal-like mag- and Wall 2007), which theoretically could be oxidized or
matic deposit based upon spatial association with alkaline reduced in nature.
intrusions, presence of gold-bearing tellurides and molyb-
denite, high Au:Ag ratios, and potassic alteration defined Other Paleozoic giant central Asian orogenic gold deposits
by abundant sericite (Ispolatov et al. 2008). The bulk of the also within carbonaceous sedimentary rock-dominant ter-
gold ore at the Hollinger-McIntyre deposit surrounds a small ranes are equally controversial in origin based upon many
Cu-Mo-Au porphyry such that the spatial association led of the same presented arguments. This includes Kumtor
many workers to favor a genetic association, although geo- where ages of gold and spatially/temporally related alkalic
logical and geochronological evidence precludes any such magmatism is used to hint at contributions from the lith-
relationship (Dubé et al. 2020). The complexities at some ospheric mantle (Mao et al. 2004). Sheeted veins in the ore-
of these large deposits are likely the product of overprinting hosting intrusion; a W-Bi-Sb association with gold; minor
of different mineralization types and is discussed in a brief ilmenite in some host intrusions; 2–30 ppb Au measured in
later section. amphibole, biotite, and ilmenite grains in the host rocks;
and as much as 300 ppb Au determined in some aplite and
Other Archean greenstone belts A link between the Archean pegmatite dikes cutting these rocks were all considered as
gold and magmatism has also been stressed for the Geita suggestive of a magmatic contribution to ore formation at
goldfields in Tanzanian greenstone belts (Dirks et al. 2020). Zarmitan (Abzalov 2007), although as noted below in this
The Mg- and F-rich biotite and the associated K-feldspar in case the causative intrusion was suggested to be relatively

13
Mineralium Deposita

Fig. 11  Proposed genetic models for formation of Muruntau (after or mantle thermal event superimposed a contact metamorphic over-
Kempe et al. 2016; Seltmann et al. 2020), world’s largest orogenic print on previously regionally metamorphosed sediments. The contact
gold deposit, include an ore fluid released from the mantle and a fluid metamorphism caused further metamorphic upgrading of the sedi-
released from an intrusion about 4 km below the deposit; neither is a mentary rocks that probably led to further devolatilization and con-
likely scenario based upon many arguments presented in this paper. centration of ore-forming fluids in a locally carbonaceous and brittle
Alternatively, as discussed in Seltmann et al. (2020), a magmatic and/ broad hornfels zone

Fig. 12  The Thermal Aureole Gold or TAG model of Wall et al. cent to the causative intrusions (e.g., Pogo, Muruntau, Telfer, Obuasi,
(2004) and Hall and Wall (2007). The model argues that many giant Morila, Sukhoi Log). Whereas some of these deposits may reflect
lode gold deposits, that are defined as orogenic and intrusion-related low-gold grade sheeted vein systems formed in roof zones of plutons
by various workers, formed from magmatic-hydrothermal fluids emplaced at 5 km (Fort Knox) or high-gold grade deposits formed
released from large, fractionated, commonly reduced, hydrous (2.5–4 from metamorphic fluids generated from magmatic heat (Muruntau),
wt% ­H2O) plutons emplaced at depths of 5–10 km or deeper. Depos- release of a large volume of gold-bearing magmatic-hydrothermal
its are suggested to form in favorable structures in granitoid roof aqueous-carbonic fluid from plutons emplaced below 5 km is improb-
zones (e.g., Fort Knox, Vasilkovskoye) or in thermal aureoles adja- able

reduced. Helium isotopes were also considered to be indica- Damdinov et al. (2021) argued that the presence of As-,
tive of mantle input (Graupner et al. 2010). A magmatic Bi-, Sb-, and Te-bearing mineral phases; the presence of Ag-
contribution at Bakyrchik is assumed based upon near-zero and Sb-rich sulfosalts; calculated δ18O values for auriferous
δ34S isotope values and broadly coeval mafic dikes (Soloviev quartz of about 6–7‰ and measured δ34S sulfide values of
et al. 2020). about − 4 to + 5‰; and restriction of ores to granitoid hosts

13
 Mineralium Deposita

rather than shear zones could identify Neoproterozoic and (Keenan and Pindell 2009), thus making the significance of
early Paleozoic gold deposits of a magmatic orogen in the the spatial association unclear.
East Sayan region of Russia. Causative intrusions could be
either oxidized or reduced, and these were defined as an Giant deposits in metamorphic terranes sometimes
orogenic gold subgroup that formed from a magmatic fluid. argued to be related to reduced magmas

Other Phanerozoic accretionary orogens Despite some- Commonly cited global examples of RIRGD (see Sillitoe
times conflicting age relationships, workers have suggested 2020, Table 7), many of which are notably high in gold grade
magmatic-hydrothermal origins for many Phanerozoic gold when compared to the well discussed North American depos-
provinces along the margins of subduction-related batho- its at Fort Knox and Dublin Gulch, are equally problematic
liths. In the South American Cordillera, Sillitoe (2008) as far as possessing good supporting evidence of magmatic
termed the Segovia belt in Colombia and Pataz-Parcoy belt association; many are nevertheless in fact included within the
in Peru to be oxidized pluton-related gold deposit types TAG model of Wall et al. (2004; Fig. 12).
(Fig. 10B, C). The classification emphasized both belts
being hosted in I-type, calc-alkaline linear batholiths stated Commonly cited non‑North American RIRGD exam‑
to be genetically related to the gold ores. This is in contrast ples Vasilkovskoe in northern Kazakhstan occurs as a
to the orogenic gold deposit classification of the geologically subvertical stockwork system within a sheared oxidized,
and geochemically very similar ores in the North Ameri- not reduced, granodiorite complex and the gold event is
can Cordillera of Alaska’s Juneau gold belt (Fig. 11G) and about 100 myr younger than the Ordovician magmatism
California’s Mother Lode belt (Goldfarb et al. 2008), which (Khomenko et al. 2016). Salave in the northwestern part
are located along the margins of similar linear subduction- of the Iberian Massif of Spain occurs as a series of stacked
related batholiths. Haeberlin et al. (2004) noted that the parallel lenses of mainly fine, disseminated, auriferous arse-
Carboniferous gold deposits in the Pataz batholith gener- nopyrite within the sheared margin of a slightly reduced
ally formed 15 myr after crystallization of the igneous rocks. granodiorite and in the adjacent metasedimentary rocks
Nevertheless, Witt et al. (2016) favor a magmatic-hydrother- (Rodriguez-Terente et al. 2018). Absolute age relationships
mal model arguing that argon ages on hydrothermal sericite led Mortensen et al. (2014) to suggest that Salave is probably
of ca. 314–312 Ma were likely reset during deformation and an orogenic gold deposit with a spatial–temporal associa-
the batholith-hosted veins, formed at depths of 13 ± 4 km tion to Variscan magmatism. The Morila deposit in Mali
(Haeberlin 2002), had a magmatic origin sometime between is an example of a large deposit of auriferous quartz vein-
ca. 340 and 320 Ma. Evidence for such a magmatic fluid lets hosted in a fold hinge in hornfelsed schist that is spa-
was described as absence of high gold grades with changing tially associated with oxidized intrusions. It has been called
vein dips, locally massive pyrite-arsenopyrite volumes with a Paleoproterozoic RIRGD gold deposit due to reduced
an abundance of Pb–Zn sulfides, and some highly saline sulfide phases in the ores such as pyrrhotite and loellingite
fluid inclusions. Wiemer et al. (2021, 2022) hypothesize the (McFarlane et al. 2011) but such classification given the
deep mineralizing fluid in the Pataz-Parcoy belt was expelled structural setting and nature of the magmatism seems very
from a melt by repetitive seismic ruptures represented by challenging (Goldfarb et al. 2017). Early structural studies
incremental vein texture and termed these “intrusion-related of the Neoproterozoic Telfer deposit in Western Australia
orogenic” gold deposits. An even larger age spread between described features typical of shear zone-related orogenic
Segovia batholith emplacement and gold formation charac- gold ores (Vearncombe and Hill 1993; Hewson 1996) lead-
terizes the ca. 88 Ma gold ores of the Segovia belt hosted ing to a genetic model that involved contact metamorphism
in the 160 Ma dioritic intrusions (Leal-Mejia et al. 2010). producing a highly saline metamorphic fluid capable of
An intrusion-related model is however suggested by Shaw transporting the Au and Cu in the deposit (Rowins et al.
et al. (2019) that relates the linear belt of gold deposits to the 1997). The local geology includes shelf sequences and, as
ca. 96–58 Ma composite Antioquian batholith. Supporting stressed by Yardley and Graham (2002), metamorphism
evidence is defined as similar Pb isotope measurements for of such units may produce a fluid that is quite saline. The
pyrite in the 88 Ma Segovia belt veins and in 60 Ma gold rheological controls on the stacked reefs within anticli-
occurrences in the Antioquian batholith, as well as the age nal domes with ductile shearing and brittle faulting in the
overlap between the veins and a stock in the northeastern locally carbonaceous metasedimentary host rocks would be
edge of the Antioquian batholith that is just about 10 km consistent with such a model. But the unusually high Cu
west of the gold belt. Nevertheless, a large ductile shear zone content of the gold ores (≤ 1000 ppm in the hypogene ore:
separates the Segovia gold belt and host batholith from the Maidment et al. 2017), along with the saline fluids in some
Antioquain batholith with perhaps a few hundreds of kilo- fluid inclusions and K:Ca > 1 and high Fe, Mg, K, and Na in
meters of offset in the Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary the inclusions has led to a now common classification as a

13
Mineralium Deposita

RIRGD (Schindler et al. 2016). Although no intrusions are ribbon-type veins; and the existence of some sheeted veins.
exposed within 10 km of the deposit, Wilson et al. (2020) Yet descriptions of the ores show little difference from most
suggest that geophysical data might indicate a 40-km-long orogenic gold deposits where heterogeneous stress zones
reduced batholith may have episodically released Cu- and control mineralization along granitoid margins (Groves et al.
Au-rich magmatic fluid over a period of 40 myr. Whereas 2018). The TAG model of Wall et al. (2004), as mentioned
many workers provide evidence and arguments for all these above, shows the giant Muruntau deposit to be in the thermal
above world-class gold deposits to be classified as RIRGD, aureole of the roof zone of a sill-like and water-rich intrusion
they clearly are different from the well-studied Tintina Gold (Figs. 11 and 12). A deep drill hole 1 km from the 5300 t
Belt RIRGD and their connection to magmatic-hydrothermal Au deposit intersected an ilmenite-bearing syenogranite at
processes is far from definitive. 4 km depth (Kempe et al. 2016; Seltmann et al. 2020) but
there is no evidence whatsoever that this particular reduced
Cretaceous Alaskan deposits Other world-class gold depos- intrusion has anything to do with formation of this enormous
its are even more controversial, listed alternatively as either gold-bearing ore system.
orogenic or RIRGD origin in the recent economic geology
literature, particularly other deposits in the Alaskan part of Summary
the Tintina belt and giant deposits in central Asia (see Sil-
litoe 2020, Table 11). Both Pogo and Donlin Creek have Where gold-bearing fault-fill quartz veins (Fig. 10C, E)
been described as examples of RIRGD (Szumigala et al. and stockwork systems (Fig. 10A, F) are hosted by or near
1999; Thompson and Newberry 2000), but they look noth- intrusive bodies, particularly oxidized intrusive systems,
ing like the Fort Knox and Dublin Gulch deposits and any the involvement of a magmatic-hydrothermal fluid has been
genetic association with intrusions, reduced or oxidized, is widely debated (Sillitoe 2020). Even when no intrusive rocks
equivocal (Rhys et al. 2003; Goldfarb et al. 2004). A mag- are present, workers may call for a magmatic origin for oro-
matic-hydrothermal origin for the high-grade Pogo deposit genic gold. For example, abundant aqueous fluid inclusions
(Fig. 10D) has been suggested based upon oxygen and sulfur and very low δD measured for bulk extraction fluid inclu-
isotope values, a Au–Ag-As-Bi-Te-Pb geochemical signa- sions were taken as evidence of a large magmatic component
ture, early biotite alteration, an association with regional in the Macraes gold deposit (deRonde et al. 2000) despite
extension, a spatial–temporal association with reduced no intrusive rocks recognized anywhere in the South Island
felsic to intermediate intrusions, and a mineralization tim- of New Zealand host terrane. Ridley and Diamond (2000)
ing that post-dates metamorphism of the host rocks (Smith note that because we don’t know the full subsurface archi-
et al. 2000; Rhys et al. 2003). Low Br/Cl ratios in Pogo fluid tecture, one cannot fully rule out a magmatic-hydrothermal
inclusions are stated as consistent with a magmatic source origin for the New Zealand orogenic gold deposits. Yet, as
(Baker et al. 2006). The thick, shallowly-dipping stacked we explain below, not only do the above-described mag-
auriferous quartz veins (Fig. 10D) formed at an estimated matic systematics argue against such a genetic model for
7 km depth at ca. 104 Ma and overprint 109–107 Ma granitic most mesozonal and hypozonal deposits formed in meta-
dikes in the mine area, but a causative intrusion for the ores morphic belts, but the consistently repeated and supposedly
remains unrecognized (Rhys et al. 2003). The 70 Ma Donlin supporting features calling upon a magmatic model for these
Creek deposit formed within the upper few kilometers of controversial deposits are extremely problematic.
the crust has been suggested to represent a low-sulfidation It is also important to note that one must be careful in
(Ebert et al. 2000) or sub-epithermal stockwork-like system classifying a deposit as magmatic-hydrothermal based
adjacent to a causative porphyry body (Ebert et al. 2003), upon criteria used to define the small group of RIRGD.
the latter classification perhaps resembling some magmatic- As stressed by Hart (2007), these deposits are associated
hydrothermal ores of the Colorado Mineral Belt (Bundtzen with felsic, ilmenite-series plutons that lack magnetite. The
and Miller 1997). Again, however, a spatial–temporal asso- critical characteristics argued as definitive of this group of
ciation with a nearby porphyritic intrusion only allows spec- deposits (Thompson and Newberry 2000) relate to gold ores
ulation regarding genesis (Goldfarb et al. 2004). genetically associated with their causative reduced intru-
sions. Defining gold ores hosted by oxidized intrusions as
Central Asia orogenic belt The RIRGD classification is not intrusion-related based upon comparisons with deposits such
well justified for any of the central Asian deposits. Zarmitan as Fort Knox and Dublin Gulch, located within reduced igne-
occurs within a series of reverse-slip faults as a 7-km-long ous bodies, makes no sense. For example, Zhao et al. (2022)
vein swarm along a granitoid-metasedimentary rock contact state a similarity between these deposits in the Tintina Gold
(Abzalov 2007). Support for the magmatic model includes belt and the Unkurtash gold deposit in central Asia. The
the ilmenite-bearing nature of the felsic intrusions; anoma- Unkurtash deposit is, however, hosted in a magnetite-bear-
lous concentrations of Te, W, Bi, and Sb in the gold-bearing ing granodiorite that is also associated with Cu-Au skarns.

13
 Mineralium Deposita

Thus, Unkurtash may or may not be intrusion-related, but if economic concentrations of such base metals. Boron iso-
so, then it is certainly an oxidized intrusion-related deposit tope analyses of tourmaline in a few orogenic terranes (e.g.,
and many features associated with the RIRGD classification Lambert-Smith et al. 2016) also confirm evaporites can con-
are not applicable. tribute to the ore-forming fluid. Many Paleoproterozoic gold
deposits in Finland are characterized by high concentrations
of Cu, Ni, and (or) Co, and have been referred to as “atypical
Discussion orogenic gold deposits” (Eilu et al. 2007; Eilu 2015). These
base metal-rich gold deposits are hosted in mafic and ultra-
Evaluation of characteristics suggested to support mafic rocks and thus the enrichment in these metals reflects
magmatic input to orogenic gold local wall rock alteration reactions with the sulfur in the
hydrothermal fluids. In summary, high base metal contents
A number of mineralogical, geochemical, isotopic, and geo- in orogenic gold deposits are rare but can be produced by
logical characteristics are commonly proposed to be indica- saline metamorphic fluids in belts where evaporitic rocks
tive of magmatic-hydrothermal fluid input into orogenic were present in fluid source areas or by interaction with wall
gold systems. Many of these characteristics, such as altera- rock in deposit trap areas. As such, this characteristic should
tion mineralogy or stable isotope compositions, are used as not be used as evidence of magmatic fluid input.
supporting evidence for this ore genesis model but taken Strong enrichment in Mo, Bi, W, and (or) Te, either in the
independently can clearly be interpreted in multiple ways form of elemental concentrations or in the form of Au-Bi
and thus have been also cited as supporting non-magmatic telluride minerals, is commonly cited as an indication of
genetic models. Other characteristics such as noble gas iso- magmatic fluid input from both oxidized or reduced intru-
topes as discussed earlier may indeed indicate a magmatic sions (e.g., Morelli et al. 2007; Mueller et al. 2020a; Mathieu
source of that specific component but not of the ­H2O, S, Au, 2021). This suite of elements may less commonly include Sn
and associated metals required to form the deposit. These (e.g., Augustin and Gaboury 2019). But all these elements
characteristics passively support a favored genetic model are enriched in orogenic gold deposits of all ages. Deposits
rather than actively discriminate between different genetic showing particularly high enrichments of these elements and
models. Below, we evaluate some of the more commonly where Au occurs as Au-tellurides, such as the Golden Mile
cited independent characteristics stated to indicate the input deposit in Australia (approximately 20% of Au is hosted in
of Au-bearing magmatic-hydrothermal fluid to orogenic tellurides; Shackleton et al. 2003) and Kirkland Lake in the
gold deposits. Abitibi belt of Canada, are commonly suggested to have a
Metamorphic fluids commonly have low salinities (3–7 magmatic fluid input. Spence-Jones et al. (2018) suggest that
wt% NaCl eq.), so that deposits enriched in base metals, par- just a high Te content in some orogenic gold deposits may
ticularly Cu and Pb, have been suggested as sourced from a be a signature of magmatic fluid input. It should be noted,
magmatic fluid as this higher salinity fluid (5–15 wt% NaCl however, that not all deposits where a large proportion of
equiv: Audétat and Edmonds 2021) would be more capable the gold occurs as gold-bearing telluride minerals are inter-
of transporting these elements. Where abundant base metals preted to have formed from magmatic fluid input (e.g., the
are present, they are typically local concentrations within Mustajärvi deposit in Finland: Mueller et al. 2020b).
a much broader gold resource and are rarely economically Although enrichments of these elements in magmatic-
recoverable. Examples include the Gara deposit in the Loulo hydrothermal deposits is well accepted (e.g., Thompson
mining district, Mali, where locally high base metal contents et al. 1999), these elements can be mobilized through other
and high-salinity fluid inclusions have been interpreted as an processes such as metamorphism of specific rock types.
indication of either a magmatic fluid source or a fluid pro- Molybdenum, Bi, and Te are commonly enriched along with
duced from metamorphism of an evaporative unit (Lawrence Au, As, and Sb in organic matter and in diagenetic pyrite in
et al. 2016; Lambert-Smith et al. 2020). The typical low- black shales (e.g., Large et al. 2007, 2011; Gregory et al.
salinity fluids have been modeled to show that only 2–5% of 2015; Parnell et al. 2017). During diagenesis these elements
the total Cu, Pb, and Zn within a typical metapelite will be are released from organic matter and incorporated into grow-
mobilized during metamorphic events that release significant ing diagenetic pyrite. They are mobilized from the rock by
Au and As volumes during chlorite dehydration and pyrite metamorphic fluids which drive the transition from pyrite to
desulfidation of the same rocks (Zhong et al. 2015). Recent pyrrhotite which does not host these elements (e.g., Pitcairn
work has shown that metasedimentary basins that include et al. 2006; Large et al. 2007, 2011; Parnell et al. 2017).
evaporite sequences can generate saline metamorphic fluids Critical for the mobilization of these elements from meta-
during prograde metamorphism, which may then precipi- sedimentary rocks is the composition of the host sedimen-
tate a more polymetallic style orogenic gold deposit (Evans tary rock. Greywacke sequences where initial concentrations
and Tomkins 2020), although these almost never contain of Mo-Bi-Te are low may not mobilize large proportions

13
Mineralium Deposita

of these metals during metamorphism (e.g., Pitcairn et al. (Cameron and Hattori 1987; Mathieu 2021). There are two
2021). Metamorphism of black shales enriched in C and key points to make regarding the interpretation of this style
S (C + S > 1 wt%), such as those in the Kittilä and Savuko- of alteration. First, it is particularly important to ascertain
vski groups of the Central Lapland Greenstone belt, Fin- whether the alteration minerals are genetically related to the
land, drives significant mobility of As, Sb, Mo, Te, and Sn orogenic gold mineralization or occurred during an earlier
during prograde metamorphism (Patten et al. 2022). Cave porphyry-style mineralization phase. For example, based
et al. (2016) show that metamorphic conversion of detrital on cross-cutting relationship between mineralized quartz-
rutile to titanite, broadly coeval with the pyrite to pyrrhotite carbonate veins and hematite-altered anhydrite-bearing
conversion event, will release significant amounts of W into porphyry bodies, Mathieu (2021) classifies the Hollinger-
the fluid. McIntyre system as a porphyry deposit overprinted with an
It is clear, therefore, that enrichments in Mo-Bi-Te- orogenic gold system and therefore that the oxidized altera-
W ± Sn in orogenic gold deposits can be caused by a number tion assemblage is not genetic to the main stage of quartz-
of processes and do not necessarily imply input of magmatic carbonate vein Au mineralization. Second, the occurrence of
fluids. Enrichment of these elements may instead commonly hematite as an alteration mineral may not indicate oxidized
imply the occurrence of C- and S-rich black shales in the fluids. In their investigation of the alteration assemblage sur-
source area stratigraphy that has undergone metamorphism. rounding the Golden Mile mineralization in Western Aus-
The timing of enrichment of these elements in orogenic gold tralia, Evans et al. (2006) show that pyrrhotite-magnetite
deposits is typically paragenetically late relative to pyrite alteration assemblages in equilibrium with H ­ 2S bearing fluid
and arsenopyrite. For example, more than 90% of all gold in can transition to pyrite-hematite-magnetite assemblages in
the Kensington gold deposit (Fig. 10G) in the Juneau gold equilibrium with S ­ O4 due to a combination of cooling and
belt occurs as calaverite that overprints early barren pyrite wall rock alteration without the requirement for an oxidized
in the ore-bearing veins (Heinchon 2019). It is possible, at ore-forming fluid.
least for Te, Bi, and Mo, that interaction of later fluid pulses Skarn mineral assemblages associated with gold ores in
with early formed sulfides leads to changes in fluid redox orogenic gold provinces have sometimes been used as evi-
and changes in mineral paragenesis. dence for large-scale fluid release from hydrous magmas
Many of the above-described world-class gold deposits lower in the crust. It is critical to note that the term skarn
were stated to be related to oxidized magmas based upon may apply to either such a Ca-Fe–Mg-Mn silicate assem-
potassic alteration phases. In her review of intrusion-related blage produced during high-temperature metasomatism of
gold systems in the Abitibi greenstone belt, for example, any rock type or to a magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposit
Mathieu (2021) includes K-alteration as evidence of mag- type within dominantly carbonate units (Meinert et al. 2005;
matic fluids. Potassic alteration is nevertheless extremely Phillips and Powell 2010). Hypozonal orogenic gold depos-
common in orogenic gold deposits of all ages and host rock its that form in ductile settings at depths ≥ 8–12 km (Kolb
compositions and is in no way exclusively the product of et al. 2015) develop as mainly replacement style ores with
magmatic fluid reactions. As noted by Groves (1993), bio- calc-silicate minerals being important alteration phases at
tite and K-feldspar define a common alteration assemblage the higher temperatures (Groves 1993). Therefore, skarn-
in many orogenic gold deposits in which slightly higher bearing gold ores formed at great depth in orogenic gold
temperatures favor these phases over white mica. Potassic provinces, such as those of the Neoarchean Southern Cross
alteration can clearly be developed from magmatic fluids Greenstone Belt in Western Australia estimated to have
but it is not evidence for magmatic fluid input. It is also a originated at 11–14 km depth (Mueller et al. 2004), are best
well-recognized product of metamorphic fluid flow where viewed as deeper level orogenic gold deposits. The Austral-
­K+ cations are commonly mobilized by mineral exchange ian examples lack any association with receptive carbon-
reactions that buffer pH (e.g., Evans and Tomkins 2020). ate country rocks, as is typical of gold-bearing skarn ore
The occurrence of specific alteration minerals such as deposits.
sulfates, including barite and anhydrite, as well as oxide As summarized in Goldfarb and Groves (2015), vari-
minerals such as hematite, has been suggested to imply ous geochemical parameters commonly used to implicate
involvement of an oxidized fluid (Cameron and Hattori a magmatic-hydrothermal formation of orogenic gold can
1987; Mathieu 2021). This is significant as metamorphic be interpreted in multiple ways. Fields for oxygen, hydro-
fluids are generally considered to be reduced and therefore gen, sulfur, and carbon isotopes overlap for many magmatic
alteration driven by oxidized fluids is commonly interpreted and metamorphic fluids. Radiogenic isotopes, such as those
to be of magmatic origin. Examples of oxidized alteration for Pb and Sr, typically will have a large contribution from
assemblages spatially associated with orogenic gold depos- both fluid pathways and transformation of mineral phases
its include the hematite- and anhydrite-bearing alteration during alteration in the deposit trap area indicating that
assemblages at Hollinger-McIntyre in the Abitibi belt measured ratios in hydrothermal minerals likely will not be

13
 Mineralium Deposita

definitive of these components in the source region (Rid- Complex overprinting in some Neoarchean
ley and Diamond 2000). Noble gas signatures commonly intrusion‑related gold deposits
suggest a mantle-link to ore-hosting fault zones, but that
does not indicate the same source for H, O, S, C, and metals Many Neoarchean gold deposits, best recognized in the
that have migrated along the permeable conduit. Ratios of Abitibi greenstone belt of Canada, have a complex history
halogens are difficult to interpret as the measurements are due to widespread seafloor volcanism and early greenstone
usually made on bulk extractions of fluid inclusion waters belt magmatism that pre-dates regional metamorphism,
from minerals that have trapped many fluid generations and much of the deformation, and most orogenic gold for-
many may have no association with the gold-forming event. mation. As pointed out by Groves et al. (2003), many of
There are continual justifications in the literature regard- these gold deposits may be modified porphyry-epithermal
ing the close spatial association between dikes and gold systems, some of which are then overprinted by orogenic
ores (Fig. 10B) to reflect a genetic connection. For exam- gold. Turner et al. (2020) indicate that the giant Boddington
ple, Sillitoe (2008) classified the Pataz belt of Paleozoic deposit in Western Australia shows features of early por-
gold deposits in northern Peru as oxidized pluton-related phyry mineralization that are overprinted by mineralization
magmatic-hydrothermal ores based on the close spatial asso- styles resembling both orogenic gold and gold skarn, with
ciation of mineralized quartz veins with porphyry dikes. A the entire system forming in events spread over a 100 m.y.
similar spatial association has often been used to justify a period. Canadian examples could include the Pearl Lake
magmatic connection for the origin of Archean gold ores Cu-Au–Ag-Mo porphyry at the Hollinger-McIntyre deposit
such as in Western Australia (McDivitt et al. 2020) and Tan- and the quartz monzodiorite-granodiorite at Canadian
zania (Dirks et al. 2020). Furthermore, as noted earlier, the Malartic with early quartz-molybdenite-pyrite veinlets. In
observation of lamprophyre dikes in many mines recovering contrast, a few of the Abitibi belt gold deposits, particularly
orogenic gold ores is typically taken as evidence of gen- syenitic in composition and with widespread albite-hematite
esis, whether or not there is even an overlap in age. But the alteration, are characterized by disseminated and stockwork-
important fact remains that dikes and metamorphic fluids style gold mineralization that pre-dates most orogenic gold
will tend to be located along many of the same structures, mineralization in the belt by 20–50 m.y. (Robert 2001).
particularly where these are giant first-order fault systems, These include the Upper Beaver and Bachelor deposits, the
and the spatial association does not indicate genesis. latter with significant amounts of fluorite that is not expected
Pegmatites, as well as miarolitic cavities, are common prod- in orogenic gold deposits. However, as indicated by Dubé
ucts of crystallization (second boiling) below about 6 km (Burn- and Mercier-Langevin (2020), it is critical to note that many
ham 1997). Spatial association between pegmatites and some such alkaline to subalkaline intrusions in the Abitibi belt,
gold deposits has led to suggestions that late, fluid-rich mag- such as present at the Timmins West, Young-Davidson, and
matic pulses may lead to a transition from such causative dikes Canadian Malartic deposits, are simply competent host rock
into hydrothermal gold-bearing veins. For example, the Pogo bodies to the later orogenic gold formation that has no mag-
deposit in Alaska has been argued to be an intrusion-related matic-hydrothermal association. The presence of sulfates or
gold deposit that shows a gradation from causative granitoids hematite, as well as stable isotope data, in deposits such
to barren pegmatites and then into the auriferous ore-bearing as Young-Davidson and those in the Kirkland Lake district
veins (Dilworth et al. 2007). However, as pointed out by Lon- have been suggested to reflect deep-seated magmatic-hydro-
don (2018), bubble ascent in the melts to release a fluid in a thermal fluid (Mathieu 2021), but these may be related to an
rapidly forming pegmatite is not a viable process. Furthermore, early intrusive event not genetically related to orogenic gold
he stresses miarolitic spaces in pegmatites are extremely rare and formation and, as noted above, these characteristics are not
thus fluid saturation before full crystallization is not expected. definitive of such a source. The fact that many of the quartz-
A spatial association, therefore, may be present in some gold feldspar porphyries, alkaline to subalkaline intrusions, and
deposits between gold and pegmatites (e.g., Cawood et al. 2022) dikes of various compositions were emplaced along the fault
but the relationship is structural and not genetic. zones that also controlled orogenic gold formation, thus
Thus, when taken as isolated characteristics, high base metal serving as major magmatic and hydrothermal conduits over
content, high Mo-Bi-Te enrichments, and oxidized alteration a long period of time, has led to much of the controversy
assemblages do not uniquely support a magmatic fluid input regarding the possibility of magmatic association (Groves
into orogenic gold deposits. These characteristics themselves et al. 2003; Dube and Mercier-Langevin 2020).
do not preclude a magmatic fluid input but they should not be Another group of Neoarchean greenstone belt-hosted
used as direct evidence for involvement of magmatic fluids and intrusion-related gold deposits do, however, represent
following the difficulties of invoking magmatic fluid input as mineralization associated with subaqueous magmatism and
outlined above in this paper, these characteristics may be better volcanism. These deposits are particularly well identified
explained through other processes. in Canada’s Abitibi greenstone belt and include epizonal

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Mineralium Deposita

oxidized intrusion-related gold systems such as those at 1–3 km to form the giant gold deposits (Henry et al. 2020).
Doyon, Westwood, Troilus, and Cote Gold (Yergeau et al. Significant concerns, however, must still be addressed for
2022). The deposits show a spatial association between this model to be fully applied. First, similar to the problem
Au-rich VMS ores and submarine porphyry-epithermal with having orogenic gold ores associated with deeply
styles of mineralization generally related to calc-alkaline emplaced intrusions, it would require an unusual scenario
tonalites. The association is again further complicated by to have such a voluminous Au- and S-bearing aqueous fluid
the overprinting regional metamorphism and deformation release from melt at the 6–10 km depth estimate. Second,
in the greenstones. These overprinting events would having most of such a fluid moving up faults through the
have remobilized most of the ore-related elements into ductile–brittle crust for perhaps 5–6 km until reaching
relatively late formed structures. This group of synvolcanic- reactive dirty carbonate units is difficult to imagine. Most
synmagmatic gold deposits pre-dates the widespread likely, one would expect such a fluid pulse to form large
formation of orogenic gold deposits throughout the Abitibi fault-fill vein systems along their fluid pathways, as even
greenstone belt by 50–100 m.y. (Dubé and Mercier-Langevin in extensional regimes such as that which characterized
2020). Whether or not the giant Neoarchean Hemlo gold Jiaodong in China, such a mineralization style is an
deposit is part of this group is uncertain as it is characterized expected consequence of large fluid volumes migrating
by enigmatic features that partly resemble seafloor VMS, along steep pathways at mesozonal depths. Third, the linear
orogenic, and oxidized intrusion-related gold deposits belts or trends of Carlin-type deposits extending for a few
(Poulsen et al. 2020). hundreds of kilometers along the length of basement faults
appear more like what one would expect from some type
Where do the Carlin gold deposits fit relative of regional flow system rather than centered around roof
to other gold deposit types? zones of intrusions. Thus, if Carlin-gold deposits are the
product of magmatic degassing and aqueous fluid release
The genesis of Carlin-type deposits and how they relate to at mesozonal depths, then an improved modeling of the
the intrusion-related and orogenic gold deposits described relevant Au and S fluid-melt partitioning at pressures of
here remains highly controversial. To a degree, this partly perhaps 2–3 kb and subsequent Au transport to epizonal
reflects the fact that unlike the oxidized intrusion-related levels are critical issues for further study.
gold deposits and orogenic gold deposits, with models devel-
oped from examples worldwide, the Carlin gold models
are essentially based upon features from one local region
and time slice which is the late Eocene of the Great Basin Conclusions
of Nevada. The Carlin deposits do possess some features
resembling distal disseminated deposits associated with There is little doubt that formation of orogenic gold
oxidized intrusions, as well as epithermal gold deposits occurrences is an inherent consequence of prograde
(Muntean 2018), whereas also they do have some features metamorphism. Every orogen will be characterized by its
that resemble the gold-only deposits of Phillips and Powell own thermal structure that controls devolatilization of fertile
(2014) that also include orogenic gold deposits. marine sedimentary and volcanic rocks that are added to
During the past decade, a magmatic-hydrothermal a continent and heated through the desulfidation window
model with an enriched subcontinental lithospheric mantle (e.g., Tomkins 2010) for the first time. No one model can
source has been the most accepted model for generation be applied to every orogenic gold deposit formed by such
of the Nevada Carlin-type gold deposits (Muntean et al. orogenesis as thermal regimes developed in accreted fore-
2011). Johnson et al. (2020) suggest that these mantle- arc terranes and inverted back-arc basins are products of the
derived magmas interacted with reduced and carbonaceous complex interplay of many lithospheric and asthenospheric
crust during their ascent, which would explain their gold- processes. As long as there is sufficient diagenetic pyrite, as
only metallogeny. Yet, these hypothesized causative well as possibly fertile organic material, favorable conditions
plutons remain concealed below the sedimentary rock of deformation and orogenic heat can form world-class
stratigraphy although aeromagnetic data (Ressel and gold ores through the focusing of consequential auriferous
Henry 2006) and petrochemical modeling of dike systems aqueous-carbonic metamorphic fluid. In contrast to most
(Mercer 2021) support their presence at depth. Recent gold deposit types, most orogenic gold ores will thus not
arguments favor that in contrast to shallowly emplaced have a local source but fluid and metal will be derived from
plutons that form gold-bearing porphyry and epithermal a large volume of heated crustal material. Because different
ores, fluids that form the Carlin deposits are exsolved parts of a metamorphic belt follow different PTt paths, ages
from intrusions emplaced at 6–10 km depth and migrate of orogenic gold mineralization can vary along the length
up steep fault systems to react with carbonates at depths of of an orogen.

13
 Mineralium Deposita

It is not clear as to whether a magmatic-hydrothermal oxidized intrusions emplaced in the upper 3–4 km and thus
system can provide a significant fluid or metal contribution at shallower levels than copper porphyry ore systems that
to an orogenic gold deposit. A late- to post-tectonic mag- are gold-poor (e.g., Sillitoe 1997). Both calc-alkaline and
matic system may theoretically overprint an orogenic gold alkaline magmatic-hydrothermal systems that are relatively
deposit and cause some redistribution of existing metal. In deeply emplaced tend to release a single-phase fluid and can
addition, a regional contact-type of metamorphism can be deposit metals such as Mo and Cu upon cooling at the higher
one type of thermal event leading to the required devolatili- pressures at depths of 4–7 km; at the deeper end of this
zation of the country rocks. Some experimental results have range, single phase fluids escaping a magma tend to form
been suggested as providing indirect evidence of a mag- few and widely spaced quartz veins. It is not until at higher
matic-hydrothermal origin for some orogenic gold through crustal levels and lower pressures where a fluid from such a
the recognition that ­CO2-rich fluids exsolve from hydrous melt rapidly separates into a vapor and liquid with volume
magmas at mid-crustal depths and earlier stages of mag- expansion and hydrofracturing (e.g., Weis et al. 2012), that
matic evolution (Hsu et al. 2019). But, as we argue above, Cu-Au or Au will precipitate in stockwork and sheeted vein
other experimental work suggests large fluid volumes are networks (Murakami et al. 2010; Chiaradia 2020). How a
most commonly not released from melts until they reach large volume of fluid containing significant amounts of gold
the upper 6 km; magma degassing at greater depths tends would escape a melt at even higher pressures to cool and
to focus volatiles upward within channels in the magmatic deposit orogenic gold at depths of 5–15 km is unclear and
system; and much of the Au and ­H2S remain in the system seems unlikely.
until melts stall at about 3–6 km. Significant volumes of Finally, assuming a gold-bearing aqueous-carbonic fluid
an aqueous-carbonic fluid being released from a crystalliz- was derived from a deep melt, the resulting geohydrology
ing melt at mesozonal or hypozonal crustal depths to form would not seem to favor an ore-forming event. Significant
an orogenic gold deposit remains unproven and appears fluid volumes are unlikely to escape horizontally from a
unlikely. In a shallower crustal environment, it is well known crystallizing magma and would tend to be buoyant and rise
that magmatic-hydrothermal aqueous fluid exsolution will in the melt. Because the magma will crystallize inward and
form gold-bearing epithermal and porphyry deposits, as well downward, the produced fluid will be trapped in the mush.
as perhaps Carlin-type and distal disseminated gold depos- At depths below 6 km, characteristic of deeper porphyry
its. It is improbable that these same oxidized intrusions in deposits, it is doubtful that fluid volumes and pressures will
other cases would somehow release an aqueous-carbonic be great enough to lead to fracturing of a chamber roof zone.
fluid to form orogenic gold deposits at the same epizonal Even assuming such is the case, then the distribution of
depths. In cases where the intrusions are reduced, the rare orogenic gold in most gold provinces would remain difficult
examples of economic low-grade reduced IRGD may result, to explain. First, most orogenic gold districts host dozens of
although the exact process leading to the anomalous gold occurrences. Could this unique degassing scenario reflect
remains uncertain; the gold may reflect metal enrichments dozens of intrusion roof zones all degassing at depth or one
in the assimilated sediments or alternatively some aspect of main intrusion roof zone releasing a fluid that somehow gets
the role of the reduced material on magma-fluid evolution. scattered along multiple structures? Second, most world-
Most epizonal orogenic gold deposits will differ from these class orogenic gold provinces host mesozonal deposits that
reduced IRGD at least by mineralization style, lack of zon- are spaced for hundreds of kilometers immediately adjacent
ing, and lack of spatial/temporal association with roof zones to a series of deep crustal fault zones. Could causative plutons
of causative intrusion, even if ore-forming fluid chemistries be spaced along the lengths of such zones, each individually
remain poor discriminators. being capable of voluminous aqueous-carbonic fluid release at
Many other points weigh strongly against a magmatic depths of 10 ± 5 km? These scenarios seem very unlikely, as
association for orogenic gold. Mantle and intrusion-related again orogenic gold deposits are very regional in distribution
models hypothesized for orogenic gold formation are based and thus not the type of systems that would be associated with
on interpretation of trace metal and isotope data for hydro- one or a series of more local fluid and metal sources. A first-
thermal minerals, information which is shown above to be order control on metamorphic fluid focusing and orogenic
far from definitive. Late tellurides, stibnite, and (or) gold gold deposit distribution are these giant fault systems, whereas
are commonly interpreted to suggest multiple fluid sources porphyry and epithermal magmatic-hydrothermal deposits,
for orogenic gold but as noted earlier, orogenic gold depos- although often locally controlled by faults, have a first-order
its form via numerous seismic events and later fluid pulses control being their intrusive center. Such intrusion-related
may deposit a variety of new mineral phases as they react deposits don’t show a distribution pattern that resembles
with earlier deposited material along the same conduit. Par- orogenic gold in any manner. Interestingly, and in contrast to
ticularly noteworthy is the long-recognized observation that observations on the porphyry-epithermal systems, many of the
most magmatic-hydrothermal gold ores are associated with Carlin gold deposits in Nevada follow narrow linear trends for

13
Mineralium Deposita

a couple of hundred kilometers that are interpreted as ancient Baker DR, Alletti M (2012) Fluid saturation and volatile partitioning
basement faults controlling fluid flow from depth (Muntean, between melts and hydrous fluids in crustal magmatic systems:
The contribution of experimental measurements and solubility
2018). This therefore emphasizes an ongoing concern with models. Earth-Sci Rev 114:298–324
the understanding of the hydrogeology controlling the Carlin Baker T, Ebert S, Rombach C, Ryan CG (2006) Chemical composi-
deposit type. tions of fluid inclusions in intrusion related gold deposits, Alaska
and Yukon, using PIXE microanalysis. Econ Geol 101:311–327
Acknowledgements We thank editor Bernd Lehmann for the invitation Barnes I, Downes CJ, Hulston JR (1978) Warm springs, South Island,
to submit this manuscript. Comments from Jon Blundy, David Groves, New Zealand and their potential to yield laumonite. Am J Sci
Sasha Yakubchuk, and Bernd Lehmann helped improve the manuscript. 278:1412–1427
Discussions with Craig Hart, Allen Glazner, and Neil Phillips have also Bartley JM, Glazner AF, Coleman DS (2018) Dike intrusion and
been valuable. Kunfeng (QQ) Qiu assisted with the figures. deformation during growth of the Half Dome pluton, Yosemite
National Park, California. Geosphere 14:1–15
Funding Open access funding provided by Stockholm University. Bartley JM, Glazner AF, Stearns MA, Coleman DS (2020) The granite
Goldfarb’s research was financially supported by the National Natural aqueduct and autometamorphism of plutons. Geosciences 10:136
Science Foundation of China (42072087), and the 111 Project of the Barton MD, Ilchik RP, Marikos MA (1991) Metasomatism. In: Ker-
Ministry of Science and Technology (BP0719021). Pitcairn’s research rick DM (ed) Contact metamorphism. Rev Mineral 26:321–350
has been funded by the Swedish Research Council (Personal Research Bateman R, Hagemann S (2004) Gold mineralisation throughout about
Grant 621–2007-4539 and Swedish Research Links Grant 2014–25616- 45 Ma of Archaean orogenesis: protracted flux of gold in the
114501–15), and Stockholm University. Golden Mile, Yilgarn craton, Western Australia. Miner Deposita
39:536–559
Declarations Beaudoin G, Raskevicius T (2014) Constraints on the genesis of
the Archean oxidized, intrusion-related Canadian Malar-
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. tic gold deposit, Quebec, Canada—a discussion. Econ Geol
109:2067–2068
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tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long Blundy J, Afanasyev A, Tattitch B, Sparks S, Melnik O, Utkin I, Rust
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provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes brines. R Soc Open Sci 8:202192
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included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated the megathrust beneath the northern Gulf of Alaska using wide-
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permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will Cretaceous-early Tertiary igneous rocks of southwestern Alaska.
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copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/. Econ Geol Monogr 9:242–286
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