(Download PDF) Psychological Consultation and Collaboration in School and Community Settings 6Th Edition Version Full Chapter PDF
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vi CONTENTS
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CONTENTS vii
4 Entry Stage 64
An Example of Entry at the Organization Client-System Level 65
An Example of Entry at the Individual Client-System Level 65
Phase One: Exploring Organizational Needs 66
Determining Whether Consultation Should Take Place 67
Why Am I Here? 68
Who Are You? 68
What Is Likely to Happen? 68
What Will Be the Result? 68
What Can Go Wrong? 68
Phase Two: Contracting 69
The Nature of Contracts 70
The Formal Aspects of a Contract 71
Elements of a Contract 72
The Psychological Aspects of a Contract 72
Phase Three: Physically Entering the System 73
Two Brief Examples of Physically Entering the System 74
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viii CONTENTS
5 Diagnosis Stage 84
An Example of Diagnosis at the Organization
Client-System Level 86
An Example of Diagnosis at the Individual
Client-System Level 87
Phase One: Gathering Information 87
The Nature of Information Acquisition 87
Scanning and the Ecological Process 90
Methods for Gathering Information 91
Two Brief Examples of Gathering Information 96
Phase Two: Defining the Problem 96
Two Brief Examples of Defining the Problem 98
Phase Three: Setting Goals 98
The Process of Setting Goals 98
Characteristics of Effective Goals 99
Two Brief Examples of Setting Goals 100
Phase Four: Generating Possible Interventions 100
Two Brief Examples of Generating Possible Interventions 102
Multicultural Aspects Related to Diagnosis 102
Case 5.1: Diagnosis for School Consultants 103
Summary 103
Case 5.2: Diagnosis for Community Consultants 104
Suggestions for Effective Practice 105
Questions for Reflection 105
Suggested Supplementary Reading 106
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CONTENTS ix
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x CONTENTS
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CONTENTS xi
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xii CONTENTS
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CONTENTS xiii
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xiv CONTENTS
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CONTENTS xv
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xvi CONTENTS
EPILOGUE 370
G L O S S A R Y O F K E Y T E R M S U S E D I N T H E BO O K 372
REFERE NCES 375
N AM E IN D E X 4 1 7
S U B J E C T IN D E X 427
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✵
Preface
xvii
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xviii PREFACE
An instructor’s manual and PowerPoint slides are also available at this text’s web-
site; instructors can create a free login at login.cengage.com. The website will be a
valuable resource for your instruction and contains a variety of materials, including
test question banks, suggested class activities, and recommendations for teaching/
learning. I believe this instructor’s manual and the related slides will be very helpful
to you in teaching the concepts and skills of consultation and collaboration.
In this text, I use human service professional and mental health professional as gen-
eral terms that encompass counselors, psychologists, social workers, human
resource development specialists, and members of other helping professions.
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
PREFACE xix
At the same time, I have tried to respect the terminology used by the professions
covered in this text.
PURPOSE
This book provides a thorough overview of what students and practicing mental
health/human service professionals need to know and be able to do to effectively
practice consultation and collaboration in a culturally competent manner. It pro-
vides a balance of theory and practice and illustrates their interrelationship. The
book presents a generic model for application, surveys the various models to
consultation and collaboration, discusses their organizational context, and reviews
the many ethical and professional issues faced in delivering these services.
I have found that students learning about consultation and collaboration
appreciate a practical, general model for delivering these services before they
study specific approaches. As a result, I have provided a culturally sensitive
generic model of consultation and collaboration at the beginning of the text
before discussing specific models. Students will also find a large number of case
studies that illustrate how to deliver consultation and collaboration services in
real life. Furthermore, many professors note that the greatest challenge in teach-
ing consultation and collaboration is to make them practical; therefore, I have
included the numerous case studies to bring their concepts to life.
Finally, students say they benefit more from learning about consultation and
collaboration when they are involved personally. As a result, I have structured
the book so students can develop a personal model of consultation and collabo-
ration. Each chapter begins and ends with questions that stimulate and encourage
the reader to reflect on the material in that chapter. In the case studies, students
are asked to make decisions about a particular consultant’s or collaborator’s
behavior. Each chapter ends with some recommendations for effective practice.
I have attempted to write a text that is interesting, current, informative, multi-
culturally sensitive, and oriented toward practice with a solid grounding in
theory and research.
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xx PREFACE
that will continue to affect the practice of consultation and collaboration. I have
closely reviewed the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational
Programs 2009 Standards (CACREP, 2009) to ensure that the specific competen-
cies related to consultation and collaboration and related material are effectively
covered. This text covers, in varying degrees, demonstrated knowledge in some
of the CACREP core curricular areas including:
1. Professional Orientation and Ethical Practice (i) advocacy processes
needed to address institutional and social barriers that impede access, equity,
and success for clients; and (j) ethical standards of professional organizations and
credentialing bodies, and applications of ethical and legal considerations in pro-
fessional counseling.
2. Cultural and Social Diversity: (b) attitudes, beliefs, understandings, and
acculturative experiences, including specific experiential learning activities designed
to foster students’ understanding of self and culturally diverse clients; (c) theories of
multicultural counseling, identity development, and social justice; (e) counselors’
roles in developing cultural self-awareness, promoting cultural social justice, advo-
cacy and conflict resolution, and other culturally supported behaviors that promote
optimal wellness and growth of the human spirit, mind, or body.
5. Helping Relationships: (a) an orientation to wellness and prevention as desired
counseling goals; (b) counselor characteristics and behaviors that influence helping
processes; (f ) a general framework for understanding and practicing consultation.
8. Research and Program Evaluation: (b) research methods such as qualita-
tive, quantitative, single-case designs, action research, and outcome-based
research; (d) principles, models, and applications of needs assessment, program
evaluation, and the use of findings to effect program modifications.
Due to the increasing popularity of school-based consultation and collabora-
tion, along with master’s degree programs in counseling adding coursework in
consultation and collaboration due to professional organization competencies,
I have carefully considered material such as the CACREP Standards for School
Counselors, the National Model: A Framework for Comprehensive School Counseling
Programs (ASCA, 2005), the Standards for Graduate Preparation of School Psychologists
(NASP, 2010b), the Model for Comprehensive and Integrated School Psychological Ser-
vices (NASP, 2010c), and School Psychology: A Blueprint for Training and Practice III
(Ysseldyke et al. 2006) to assist in the revision. In one example, consultation can
be viewed as part of the responsive service and systems support elements of the
National Model: A Framework for Comprehensive School Counseling Programs (ASCA,
2005). In another example, this text provides detailed coverage in addition to the
aforementioned CACREP common core curricular experiences, the following
elements of the CACREP (2009) Standard for School Counselors under the
heading COLLABORATION AND CONSULTATION:
M. Knowledge
1. Understands the ways in which student development, well-being, and
learning are enhanced by family–school–community collaboration.
2. Knows strategies to promote, develop, and enhance effective teamwork
within the school and the larger community.
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PREFACE xxi
3. Knows how to build effective working teams of school staff, parents, and
community members to promote the academic, career, and personal/social
development of students.
4. Understands systems theories, models, and processes of consultation in
school system settings.
5. Knows strategies and methods for working with parents, guardians, families,
and communities to empower them to act on behalf of their children.
6. Understands the various peer programming interventions (e.g., peer medi-
tation, peer mentoring, peer tutoring) and how to coordinate them.
7. Knows school and community collaboration models for crisis/disaster
preparedness and response.
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xxii PREFACE
revised to make even clearer the purpose of each chapter in that part of the text.
The chapters of text now include a great number of examples that illustrate how
internal and external consultants would approach a consultation situation.
Throughout the text, I have again provided significant additional coverage of cul-
tural diversity, advocacy, social justice, systems theory, and ecological variables as
they affect consultation and collaboration in both counseling and psychology. Col-
laboration has asserted itself as a major force in the consultation/collaboration
arena. As a result, this edition provides more extensive coverage and examples
related to collaboration. More examples and coverage of systems-level intervention
are included to reflect the increasing view that ecological factors may impact the
individual and, as a result, more systems-level interventions are needed. In many
chapters I have provided an example on individual consultation followed immedi-
ately with an example or organizational consultation. This allows the reader to not
only better understand the nature of how these processes are different, but also
provides better coverage of organizational consultation, which is on the increase
in the helping professions. I have included a significant amount of additional mate-
rial throughout the text on prevention as there is a trend to increasingly view con-
sultation and collaboration in this way. I have provided more information and
guidance on how professionals internal or external to an organization function
when providing consultation and collaboration. Expanded coverage has been
added on response to intervention (RTI), multicultural consultation/collaboration,
and treatment integrity of interventions. The most broad-based change is an
increased focus on school-based consultation. I have again revised Chapter 12,
which focuses on school-based consultation and collaboration with administrators,
teachers, and parents. Chapters 4–10 each contain a detailed case study on school
consultation and community consultation.
Each chapter has been carefully examined and reviewed. I have updated the
introductory chapter and have added coverage of promoting consultation and
collaboration in the work setting, the multicultural limitations of consultation
and collaboration, and the levels of prevention. Some major specific changes
for each chapter include:
Chapter 1: The Foundations of Consultation and Collaboration
■ A new section on the promise of consultation and collaboration
■ Revision of some of the case studies to better illustrate consultation, collab-
oration, and their differences
■ Expanded coverage of the concept of prevention
■ New material to guide choosing between consultation and collaboration
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PREFACE xxiii
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xxiv PREFACE
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PREFACE xxv
OVERVIEW
What will you discover as you read this book? Psychological Consultation and Col-
laboration in School and Community Settings is divided into four parts. All four parts
thoroughly emphasize cultural competence. Part I sets the stage for understand-
ing consultation and collaboration as services and how they are practiced with
competence, including multicultural competence. Chapter 1 is an orientation
to the practice of consultation and collaboration: It contains an introduction, a
definition of consultation and collaboration, a brief historical overview, and
information on how you can promote consultation and collaboration within
your work setting. Chapter 2 includes a discussion of the characteristics of
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xxvi PREFACE
effective consultants and collaborators and of the roles in which they engage; it
also reviews the current status of research in consultation and collaboration.
Part II describes in detail the ins and outs of the consultation and collabora-
tion processes using a model that involves four stages: entry, diagnosis, imple-
mentation, and disengagement.
Chapter 3 provides an orientation to the generic model of consultation and
collaboration; Chapter 4 is about the entry stage—that is, how the consultation
or collaboration process starts.
Chapter 5 discusses diagnosis—how the consultant or collaborator can help
determine the problem to be solved. Chapter 6 describes the implementation
stage—how the parties involved attempt to solve the problem. Chapter 7 exam-
ines the ending of the consultation or collaboration process, including the diffi-
culty consultants and collaborators face in conducting evaluation, assessing
success and how they can say goodbye in a personal yet professional manner.
Chapter 8 deals with the pragmatic issues of working within an organization.
This chapter emphasizes that all consultation or collaboration takes place within
some type of organization and that the forces in that organization impact, for
better or worse, your efforts.
Part III surveys mental health, behavioral, organizational, school-based con-
sultation and collaboration, and provides a chapter on case study illustrations.
Chapter 9 reviews mental health consultation; because of the traditional popular-
ity of Caplan’s model, I have made it the central focus of the chapter, while
recognizing the increasing eclecticism in this model. Chapter 10 explores behav-
ioral consultation, which uses behavioral technology, including cognitive
behavioral approaches, both to benefit clients and organizations and also as an
aid in training human service professionals and others such as teachers and par-
ents. Chapter 11 discusses organizational consultation, including four specialized
applications: education/training, program, doctor-patient, and process. Chapter 12
covers school-based consultation and collaboration, including how these services
can be provided to administrators, teachers, and parents. Chapter 13 presents case
study applications to give a better sense of the nuts and bolts of consultation and
collaboration.
Part IV of this text is designed to familiarize you with professional issues.
Chapter 14 focuses on the ethical, legal, and professional issues consultants and
collaborators encounter in their practices, such as those related to confidentiality,
diversity, and crisis situations.
This text can be used in several ways. Some instructors might want students who
are preparing for work in schools to read Chapter 12 first and students who are
training for work in community settings to read Chapter 13 first. This would
give each student a sense of how consultation and collaboration are practiced in
his or her field. Other instructors might want to begin with Chapter 14 to instill
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PREFACE xxvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the many graduate students in counseling and psychology—
as well as college student personnel and human resources at Western Carolina
University who contributed indirectly yet significantly to the development of this
text. Their feedback on the consultation and collaboration course I teach was an
invaluable asset in determining the final form this text would take. I also wish to
thank Mary Rompf, a graduate student at Western Carolina University, who pro-
vided invaluable assistance throughout the revision process. I extend many thanks
to Meagan Karvonen, Western Carolina University, for reviewing the evaluation
sections of Chapters 6 and 7. I continue to thank Gerald Corey, professor emeritus
of California State University at Fullerton, and Mary Deck, professor emeritus of
Western Carolina University, for their suggestions over the years concerning the
organization of the text and the instructor’s manual. In addition, I thank the large
number of professors and students who provided their opinions about the text
over the years.
I would also like to acknowledge my reviewers, among them Nicholas
Benson, University of South Dakota; Kimberly Booker, Texas Woman’s
University; Sherrie Foster, Tennessee Tech University; Elaine Kies, National
Louis University; and Stacy Van Horn, University of Central Florida. These indi-
viduals furnished me with a wealth of helpful ideas and many valuable comments.
To my wife and life partner, Leslie, my deepest appreciation for her love,
support, and understanding during the preparation of this text and for helping
me remember that work is always there and love is not always as accessible. To
our children, Ashley and Matt, thanks for helping me remember how to play.
Finally, to the talented people at Cengage–Brooks/Cole, I extend my grati-
tude for being able to work with a first-class group of professionals. It was a true
pleasure to work with them and others who helped make this book a reality.
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✵
To the Student
C onsultation and collaboration are “head, heart, and hands” processes. You
come to understand them, then you become a strong advocate for them,
then you do them with a passion.
The often-used metaphor of the bicycle rider sheds light on what it takes
to be an effective consultant and collaborator. The front wheel provides
direction, the back wheel provides the force, and the rider guides the bike to
its destination. The rear wheel represents your technical skills (what you do
when you consult or collaborate), the front wheel represents your skill with people
(how you consult or collaborate), and the rider represents your personhood (who
you are). When all three elements are in sync, it becomes more probable that you
will succeed in your consulting and collaborating endeavors. This book will help
you become an even better “bicycle rider.” You might want to take special note
of the questions at the beginning of each chapter. They are designed to stimulate
thought about each chapter’s main points as you read. In addition, the questions at
the end of each chapter will assist you in applying what you have learned through
your reading. I hope you will take the time to reflect on these questions after you
have completed each chapter. Each chapter concludes with a few suggestions for
effective practice, which will help you determine how to use the chapter’s material
in your practice of consultation and collaboration.
In addition, supplementary readings are suggested at the end of each chapter.
I have chosen these readings carefully and encourage you to read those that
interest you. You will note that there are a variety of case studies throughout
the text. The focus of some cases will not be in your professional training area.
Nonetheless, the analysis of these cases can be quite beneficial to you, because it
is the process of the analysis and not the cases themselves that is critical.
I also suggest that you look over Chapters 8, 13, and 14 after you read
Chapters 1 and 2.
Even a cursory glance at these chapters will show you the many important
issues you will face in your practice of consultation and collaboration.
xxviii
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TO THE STUDENT xxix
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P A R T I
C onsultation and collaboration are forms of service delivery that are expected
from members of the helping professions in a variety of settings. These
services are continually developing as their research base develops. What kinds
of things might you do as a consultant or collaborator? The purpose of Part I
of this text is to offer you an answer to this question by providing a snapshot
of consultation and collaboration and what the people who effectively engage
in these services actually do. This section is designed to assist you to develop a
basic sense for these services both conceptually and practically while preparing
you for the chapters that follow.
In Chapter 1, consultation and collaboration are defined, contrasted with
other helping relationships, and examined in several contexts, including their
multicultural limitations, historical development, and social influences such as
systems theory. Chapter 2 provides a frame of reference for the effective practice
of consultation and collaboration by focusing on the knowledge, skills, attitudes,
roles, and research base necessary to provide these services effectively and in a
culturally competent manner.
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1
The Foundations of
Consultation and Collaboration
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CHAPTER 1 THE FOUNDATIONS OF CONSULTATION AND COLLABORATION 3
conditions so that individuals and/or groups in a vari- ■ A counseling psychologist consults with a
ety of settings (e.g., agencies, schools, and businesses) nursing home director about recreation pro-
improve their effectiveness. Simply put, consultation grams for patients suffering from Alzheimer’s
is an interpersonal helping relationship that uses prob- disease.
lem solving to achieve its ends. ■ A family therapist trains school counselors in
This apparently simple process is actually quite family systems theory for use in their work.
complex. You’ll learn that consultants provide assis- ■ A professor of human services assists a job corps
tance to the people with whom they are working
center staff in developing culturally competent
(called consultees) with their immediate problems
practice.
with the parties the consultees are charged with
helping (called the client system). Said another way, ■ A team of school-based consultants assists
in these relationships, the consultee is the individual teachers in finding ways to help students cope
seeking assistance with an immediate problem in with school violence.
their work with another individual or group, ■ A psychologist diagnoses the reasons for high
which is referred to as the client system. Consul- turnover in a social services agency.
tants also try to improve their consultees’ profes- ■ A counselor assists the staff of a counseling
sional functioning with current and future client center in identifying its major work concerns
systems with similar problems, thus having a pre- and in making plans to solve them.
ventive effect. You’ll discover that the client system ■ A mental health worker assists a Head Start
can consist of an individual, a group, a system, an
program in developing evaluation strategies for
entire organization, or the community at large. As
its parent training program.
we will see, this is an important fact to remember
when dealing with multicultural, diversity, and ■ A social worker assists a group of rural human
social justice issues. service agencies to build a network for
Part of this assistance is in helping consultees responding to common issues.
become more aware of additional choices or alter- ■ A community mental health worker facilitates a
natives for working with their client systems. Con- group of other mental health professionals in
sultants engage consultees in joint problem solving, developing an ecological approach and practice
typically of a collaborative nature, and consultees that emphasizes outreach and client advocacy
are free to accept or reject any consultant recom- strategies for assisting ethnic minorities.
mendations. The consultant typically tries to be a ■ A group of mental health consultants assists a
facilitator in the process whenever possible as university in examining and revising the mental
opposed to taking on the expert role. health aspects of its crisis communication plan.
Consultation is practiced by counselors,
psychologists, and social workers in a variety of As you will note as you read this text, collabora-
settings for a variety of reasons. Consider the fol- tion is quite similar to consultation. Those parties
lowing examples: with whom the member of the helping professions
collaborates are termed fellow collaborators. The
■ A psychologist helps a therapist deal with prob-
majority of what holds for consultation in terms
lems she is having with one or more clients in her
of underlying assumptions and characteristics also
caseload.
holds for collaboration. For example, both are
■ A school counselor works with a school teacher problem-solving activities. However, as we will
to improve classroom management techniques. learn in detail, there is one distinctive area in
■ A school psychologist facilitates team efforts to which consultation and collaboration differ. This
implement a response to intervention (RTI) major differentiating point is that, in collaboration,
program. it is assumed that direct service from the member of
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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
1. C (carbon) + 2O (oxygen) burns to CO2 (carbon dioxide). Non-
poisonous.
The two-stage combustion with insufficient air:
2. C + O burns to CO (carbon monoxide). Poisonous.
3. CO + O burns to CO2. Non-poisonous.
Carbon monoxide asphyxiates by forming a chemical compound
with the hæmoglobin of the blood, which therefore is prevented from
supplying the body with the oxygen that is required for the
sustenance of life.
Carbon dioxide is no such poisonous product, as may be inferred
when we remember that it is the gas with which our carbonated
waters are charged and which is so commonly served with ice cream
in ice cream soda.
Now in a gas producer, by maintaining a sufficiently thick bed of
glowing coal and admitting only such amounts of air as will produce
mainly carbon monoxide gas, a product of high burning value is
obtained. A kilogram (2.2 pounds) of carbon in burning from C to CO
generates only 2450 calories or heat units, whereas its complete
burning to CO2 would give 8080 calories. So by conducting the
carbon monoxide gas—the product of the first stage of the
combustion—through brick-lined pipes to the furnace, and in the
latter by addition of air allowing it to burn to CO2, the greater
amount of heat (i. e., 8080 minus 2450 or 5630 calories) is evolved
in the furnace. Of course, some of this theoretical two-thirds which is
in this way made available at the furnace is lost because a little CO2 is
formed, and always the nitrogen of the air used greatly dilutes the
gas. But there are gains, notably the great heat which is carried over
by the hot gas from the glowing bed of coal and that from the water-
gas which is formed from steam used in the producer. So, all in all,
the gas generated in a “battery” of gas producers, all of which
discharge into one large main or header to maintain gas of average
composition, is quite a satisfactory fuel.
CHAPTER X
CAST IRON
From the preceding chapters we now know pretty well the place
which cast iron occupies in the iron family. In the chapters which
have succeeded the one in which we discussed the blast furnace and
pig iron, every one of the products except crucible steel has been
produced through some “refining” operation which greatly changed
the composition, structure and properties of the product. Cast iron is
not the result of a refining operation in this sense of the word. It is
produced through simple mixing of pig irons of various
compositions, usually with some admixture of iron castings of
similar composition which have outlived their usefulness in the
industrial world and have been returned as scrap to be remelted.
When we say that cast iron is not produced through a refining
operation, it must not be inferred that no change in composition
occurs during the remelting. There is some change, notably a loss
through oxidation from the air blast of a little of the silicon and
manganese. Aside from this there usually will be absorption of
enough, or sometimes more than enough, carbon from the coke used
in melting to make up for the carbon which is oxidized. Usually some
sulphur also is taken up from the fuel. There is, however, no such
actual or intended alteration of composition through burning out of
the metalloids as is necessary for the production of wrought iron and
steel.
But from this we must not assume that the manufacture of cast
iron for chilled rolls, car wheels, machine parts, valves and fittings,
etc., is an easy proposition. As we will soon see, accurate regulation is
required of metal for proper depths of “chill” for rolls, car wheels and
castings which must have high resistance to wear. Too, the metal for
valves and fittings and other more or less complicated castings for
high steam, air, ammonia, water, etc., must be uniform, of close
grain, strong, yet soft enough to machine easily at the extremely high
speeds which modern efficient tools and methods demand. The
production of the best metal for such work requires the use of
properly selected materials, judicious mixing, and clever operation of
the cupola furnace, that the molten metal delivered to the foundry
for the pouring of the molds may be hot and fluid and of the right
composition for the particular work in hand.
It is always interesting and
instructive to follow the materials
through their course from the “raw”
state to finished products, and,
therefore, we are going to take you on a
little trip from the receiving yard of a
firm making cast iron goods where we
see the cars of pig iron just in from the
blast furnace and where the materials
are sampled and held pending
analysis, to the laboratory where the
samples are analyzed, then to the
storage bins where the materials are
unloaded, and, later, with the weighed Sampling Cars of High
charges, to the cupolas which convert Silicon Pig Iron
them into molten cast iron of the
proper composition and quality for
high grade castings.
Twenty years ago it looked as if the
iron foundry would be one of the last
strongholds of “rule-of-thumb” to give
way to scientific methods. It does not
look so to-day, though there are many
foundries which yet buy and use their
pig iron on the basis of fracture; i.e.,
the foundryman guesses by judging of
Sampling the color and closeness of grain and
Other Pig other characteristics of fresh fractures
Irons of the pig irons how suitable they are
for his purpose and in what proportion
Pig irons of lower silicon to mix them. A skillful man can get fair
content cannot be broken results in this way only so long as he
easily with a sledge but uses the small number of brands of pig
usually are thrown from a iron with which he is perfectly familiar,
height across an iron block. and even then there must be but little
fluctuation in composition of the irons
used and he must be allowed
considerable latitude in the quality of the iron which he produces.
Success by this method is even more difficult now than it was ten
years ago, for the advent of many new blast furnaces and their
greater variety of products have made this rule-of-thumb mixing a
much more uncertain matter than it formerly was. Machine-made
pigs, which are so generally on the market now, give fractures which
tell little regarding their compositions.
While some foundries still attempt
to accomplish this difficult and
sometimes impossible feat, the
majority are now applying more
scientific methods to their
manufacture of cast iron.
Though the eye cannot tell surely
from the fracture the composition or
quality of the iron which is used in
making up the charges, chemical
analysis does definitely give this
information. Therefore, every car of
pig iron purchased by this firm is
sampled and analyzed, the
composition of all other materials used
in its mixtures is determined, and,
irrespective of fracture, which may or
may not tell the truth regarding their
composition, the raw materials are Drilling the
charged with respect only to their Samples
actual content of the metalloids. The
resulting molten iron each day is
analyzed to confirm the correctness of No oil or other lubricant is
the mixture and to furnish analysis of allowable and the drillings
the “sprues” which next day are to be are taken up with a magnet
used as a part of the day’s charge. that no sand or other
Physical test bars, too, are cast each impurity may get into the
hour or so, and the tensile, transverse sample for
strengths, hardness, shrinkage, etc. are analysis.
accurately determined in testing
machines and recorded. In this way
absolutely nothing is left to chance or to guess work, and, as you may
surmise, any slight deviation from the composition desired is shown
at once and the mixture immediately changed to the extent necessary
to bring the iron back to normal. It is surprising within what narrow
limits of variation compositions and physical properties can be held,
with furnace operations continually under such surveillance.
As the basis for its cast iron, many
thousands of tons of pig iron are each
year used direct from the blast
furnaces. The raw materials come in
railroad cars or by boat. The inspector
who represents the metallurgical
department enters each car and
inspects the materials, taking from
each a representative sample for
analysis. In the case of pig iron this
Weighing will be from four to eight half pigs, it
Out having been found by experience that
Portions these represent very well the contents
for Analysis of the car. So each car of material is
held without unloading until it has
been determined by inspection and
The finely divided mixed analysis that it is fully up to the
drillings are shaken from a specifications upon which the iron was
thin-bladed spatula on to purchased.
the balance pan. Drillings Arriving at the laboratory, the half
are added or taken off until pigs from each car are drilled, equal
the long needle attached to amounts of the drillings being taken
the beam of the balance and mixed in an envelope which bears
swings over an equal the name of the brand of iron, the
number of divisions on number of the car, the date, etc. The
each side of the center
mark of the white scale in sample pigs from each car are treated
the middle. Accuracy is in this same way, each car being
1/453,000 of an treated individually.
avoirdupois pound; this is The envelopes containing the
approximately the weight drillings then go to the chemists.
of the lead of a “pencil Frequently samples from fifteen or
mark” one inch long. twenty cars of pig iron, with as many
other samples of various derivation,
are being analyzed at the same time for
the four or six different constituents which it is necessary for the
metallurgists to know and control in order that a highly satisfactory
product may result. Though a hundred different determinations may
be in progress at the same time, spelling “chaos” in the mind of one
not entirely familiar with the details of the work, it will be interesting
to single out and explain briefly how the samples are analyzed.
In such analytical work everything is
based upon weight; i.e., constituents
are determined and reported in
percentages by weight. In chemical
laboratory work everywhere the metric
system is used, the cumbersome
English system of weights and
measures being practically impossible.
Thus, the metric system is the
international scientific standard. The
unit taken is the gram, which is
equivalent to ¹⁄₄₅₃ part of an
avoirdupois pound. One gram of pig Closer View of the
iron drillings is such an amount as Weighing
could be held on an ordinary ten-cent
piece.
Working with such small amounts of the sample, exactness and
skill are extremely necessary. The balances used are necessarily very
delicate—just as delicate as were the scales upon which the jeweler
weighed your diamonds—you remember, of course. On these
balances we can weigh an inch-long mark made by an ordinary lead
pencil.
As the results of the analysis have to
be known inside of three or four hours
that the cars may be quickly unloaded
in order to avoid demurrage, which is
the penalty for holding cars longer
than the allowable time, separate
portions of each sample are weighed
out for determination of the silicon,
manganese, sulphur, phosphorus,
graphitic carbon, and combined
carbon. These are necessary in order to
determine that the iron is up to the
quality specified in the purchase
contract and also to provide for its
most efficient use in the manufacture
Dissolving in Acids of iron castings.
The exactly weighed portions are put
This is done under a hood into clean, numbered beakers, which
that the irritating fumes are small pieces of high grade
given off may be kept from glassware that will stand sudden
the room. changes of heat and cold. Some of
these portions are dissolved in nitric
acid, some in hydrochloric acid, others in combinations of acids. In
each case the drillings go into solution in the acids, and after various
treatments of boiling, evaporating, filtering, etc., well known to those
of the chemical profession, the desired results are obtained. In some
cases it is by actually weighing a constituent which has been filtered
out and burned to ash of a constant known composition, in others it
is by comparison of color with standards of known composition, and
sometimes it is by other means.
In all of this analytical work the chemist must take care to lose not
one drop of the solution or one grain of the ash from the burned
“precipitate,” as the “filtered out” constituent is called.
The pig iron is always bought upon guarantee that it will contain a
certain percentage of silicon—the element which in cast iron is
known as a “softener.” But this is not the only thing necessary in the
iron that is purchased. It must also show proper specified quantities
of manganese, phosphorus and carbon, which also are very desirable
elements in iron castings, and as little
of that undesirable element, sulphur,
as possible. Therefore they pay in
proportion to the content of silicon,
manganese, phosphorus, and carbon—
and penalize the seller for sulphur.
The
laborator
y holds
copies of
the
contracts
upon Filtering
which Silicons
these
material
“Burning s were After evaporating the
off” the bought. excess acid, baking dry,
Silicons If, upon cooling, and redissolving in
comparis weaker acid, the silicon
on, the compound formed may be
The paper and contents, in analysis filtered out. The iron and
a little crucible, are placed obtained other soluble constituents,
in a red-hot muffle furnace. complies now in solution, pass
The paper is such pure with the through the filter, which is
cellulose that it leaves no terms of of pure, porous, unglazed
weighable ash. That which the paper.
remains after burning is contract,
silicon oxide, which is a an O. K.
perfectly white, fine sand. unloading slip is made out and the
This is very carefully receiving department is given
weighed. (Ordinary sand is directions into what raw-material bin
silicon oxide usually in the receiver building it shall be
slightly colored with iron.) unloaded. If not fully up to the
standard called for in the contract, the
purchasing department is notified and the car is either rejected or
accepted upon some proper terms of adjustment if it can be used
without detriment to the product in which it is to be utilized.
Cars of coke, limestone, fluorspar, etc., are inspected, analyzed and
treated in the same way, so that nothing is left to guess work. The
compositions as determined by the laboratory serve not only as the
basis for acceptance or rejection, but the analyses of accepted
materials are forwarded at once to the metallurgists, who from them
figure the mixtures to be used in the cupolas.
Having great stocks of analyzed raw materials in the labeled bins
in the receiver building, the metallurgists who supervise the mixing
and melting of the iron determine by mathematical calculation just
what irons and how much of each must be taken to give molten iron
of the best composition and properties for the castings.
Titrating the Sulphur
Sulphur is evolved from the drillings as a gas (hydrogen sulphide). This is absorbed
in a solution of chloride of zinc. The amount of sulphur is measured by slowly
running in from a burette a solution of iodine of very accurately known strength.
The iodine unites with the sulphur compound as long as any of the latter remains,
but the first drop added thereafter turns blue the whole solution because of the
reaction of the excess of iodine with starch paste that has been added previously as
an indicator. Accuracy is about .005 per cent of sulphur.
Reading the
Carbons
Ever since 7 o’clock A.M., when the twelve to sixteen ounces of blast
pressure was put on, the charges have been descending gradually
from the charging door. Encountering the intense heat in the
“melting zone” at the top of the bed of coke a little above the tuyères,
the iron melts and trickles down through the three to five-foot bed of
glowing coke on to the sand cupola bottom or hearth where it
accumulates. The tapper, with his iron bar and “bod stick” with its
little ball of moist fire clay, alternately opens and plugs the tap hole
at the bottom of the furnace as occasion requires, but throughout the
day of ten or more hours there is almost constantly a full stream of
iron flowing from the spout. The big “bull ladle” which receives it, in
turn gives it up to smaller or “shank” ladles, in which it is conveyed
along trolleys to still smaller ladles from which it is poured into the
sand molds to form the castings.
As in the blast furnace, limestone is
added as flux to make liquid and
dispose of sand, dirt, scale, etc., which
are detrimental. The liquid slag formed
from union of limestone with these
impurities floats upon the molten iron
in the cupola hearth, as it is less than
half as heavy as the iron itself. It flows
almost continuously from a higher hole
called the “slag hole,” in the rear of the
furnace and just beneath the tuyères.
The slag has little value except as
material for filling purposes, etc. So- Another Close-up View
called “slag wool” can be made by
blowing air through it. Sometimes the
blast from the cupola blows it in such a way that this pure white
“wool” is formed and blows out of the slag hole of the cupola. About
Christmas time some of the workmen take quantities of it home for
decoration and for fireproof whiskers for “Santa Claus.”
These operations go on continuously throughout the day, each
cupola making the particular grade of cast iron or “semi-steel” which
is best adapted to the particular castings to be poured, size, shape
and purpose of
Determining Carbon
by Direct Combustion
Sectional View of a
Cupola
A Cupola in Operation