The Child & Adolescent Learner and

Learning Principles DR. J. ESCALONA 1

 TSU VMGO

VISION Tarlac State University is envisioned to be a premier university in Asia and

the Pacific.

MISSION Tarlac State University commits to promote and sustain the offering of
quality and programs in higher and advanced education ensuring
equitable access to education for people empowerment, professional
development, and global competitiveness.
Towards this end, TSU shall:
1. Provide high quality instruction trough qualified, competent
and adequately trained faculty members and support staff.
2. Be a premier research institution by enhancing research
undertakings in the fields of technology and sciences and
strengthening collaboration with local and international
institutions.
Be a champion in community development by strengthening partnership with
public and private organizations and individuals.

CORE VALUES The six(6) core values institutionalize as a way of life of the
university community are:

E – xcellence and Enhanced Competence

Q – uality
U – nity
I – ntegrity and Involvement
T – rust in God, Transparency and True Commitment
Y – earning for Global Competitiveness

DR. J. ESCALONA 2
Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Professional Education Department

Self-Learning Module in

The Child & Adolescent Learner and

Learning Principles

Joanne Marie Igoy-Escalona, Ph.D., LPT

Chairperson, Bachelor of Early Childhood Education & Professional Education
Area Head, Master of Arts in Early Childhood Education
Author of books in Early Childhood Education
Developer of Instructional Materials in Early Childhood Education
Graduate of Ph.D. Major in Educational Management, MA in Early Childhood Education,
MA in Special Education (Units), MAED in Guidance and Counseling (Units),
BSED Major in Guidance and Counseling and AB Psychology
jmiescalona@tsu.edu.ph

DR. J. ESCALONA 3
THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNER AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

COURSE DESCRIPTION

This is a basic course on child and adolescent development focusing on current

research and theory on the biological, linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional
dimensions of development, and the factors that affect the progress of development.
The coverage of the course is structured to cover the key dimensions of the
development of children and adolescents: physical, linguistic, cognitive, and socio-
emotional development. For each dimension, the core contemporary research findings
and theories are covered. Particular emphasis is given to the factors that have been
identified as having positive or negative effects on the natural course of the
developmental processes. In addition, some focus is given to the exceptional cases when
children or adolescents vary from the natural course.
The coverage of these ideas is intended to provide the future teacher with a broad
yet fairly detailed understanding of the developmental processes that students undergo
and do that such an understanding may be used to guide all dealings i.e., formal
instructional, informal social, and others with the students.

COURSE OUTLINE

Chapter 1 – The Child and Adolescent Learners

I. Definition of Childhood and Adolescence
Childhood
Adolescence
II. The Rights of Children and Young Persons
III. The Situation of Filipino Children and Young Persons

Chapter 2 – Physical and Motor Development of Children and Adolescents

I. Physical and Motor Development
Early Childhood
Middle Childhood
Adolescence
II. Brain Development
Early Childhood
Middle Childhood
Adolescence
Environment Influences on Development of the Brain
III. Factors Affecting Development: Maternal Nutrition, Child Nutrition, Early
Sensory Stimulation
Maternal Nutrition
Child Nutrition
Early Sensory Stimulation
DR. J. ESCALONA 4
 Factors that Affect Growth
IV. Exceptional Development: Physical Disabilities, Sensory Impairments,
Learning Disabilities, and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders
Physical Disabilities
Sensory Impairments
Learning Disabilities
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Chapter 3 – Linguistic and Literacy Development of Children and Adolescents

I. Natural History of Language Development
II. Bilingual Language Development
III. Emergent and Early Literacy: Reading Development and Performance
IV. Factors Affecting Development: Early Language Stimulation, Literate
Communities and Environment, Story Reading
Early Language Stimulation
Literate Communities and Environment
Story Reading
V. Exceptional Development: Aphasia and Dysteria

Chapter 4 – Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents

I. Theories of Cognitive Development: Piaget, Vygotsky, Information-processing
Theories, Bio-cultural Theories
Piaget’s Main Tenet: The Child Actively Seeks Knowledge
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Information-Processing Theories
Bio-Cultural Theories
II. Individual Differences: Theories of Intelligence that Influence Individual
Differences

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence by Stenberg

The Gender Schema Theory
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Achievement Motivation and Intellectual Performance
III. Factors Affecting Development: Three Factors which Affect Modern
Development, Psychologists Point to Age-Related Changes – Universal, Group
Specific, and Individual
Universal Changes
Group-Specific Changes
Individual Changes
Atypical Development
Theoretical Perspectives on Development
IV. Exceptional Development
The Intellectually Gifted
Children with Intellectual Deficits
Turner Syndrome

DR. J. ESCALONA 5
 Klinefelter’s Syndrome
Pervasive Developmental Disorders
Autistic Disorder
Asperger’s Syndrome

Chapter 5 – Social and Emotional Development of Children and Adolescents

I. Theories of Socioemotional Development: Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of
Human Development, Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theories, Goleman’s
Emotional Intelligence
Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development
Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory
Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence
II. Socialization and the Development of Identity and Social Relations
Development of Identity
The Process of Identity Consolidation
Gender Differences in Identity Formation

III. Theories of the Development of Moral Reasoning, Attitudes, and Beliefs:

Kohlberg, Turiel, Gilligan
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theory of Moral Development
Elliot Turiel’s Moral Rules
Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development
IV. Factors Affecting Development: Parenting, Role Models, Peer Groups and
Interactions
Parenting
Role Models
Peer Group and Interactions
V. Exceptional Development
Juvenile Delinquency
Psychological Disorders that Affect Children

DR. J. ESCALONA 6
INSTRUCTION TO USERS

✓ Read and understand the learning objectives. These will be your guide for the
learning outcomes at the end of this Module.
✓ Perform all the required activities such as evaluation, activity thinking, closure
activities and the like. Answer page are provided for activities needed to be
answered.
✓ Please manage your time to read and understand every part of the module.
✓ Study how you can manage to do the activities in this module considering your
other modules in your other subjects.
✓ Be conscious with the study schedule. You may ask questions/clarifications if
they are not found in this module.
✓ If you did not understand the readings and other tasks, you may contact me, your
professor, through an available means of assistance (Thru messenger or MS
Teams).
✓ Assignments and activities should be submitted on time. Failure to do so is
equivalent to a failing mark.
✓ Always Remember this –

“The capacity to learn is a gift; the ability to learn is a skill; the willingness to
learn is a choice.” – Brian Herbert

DR. J. ESCALONA 7
 Chapter 1
The Child and Adolescent Learners
Objectives
At the end of the chapter, the students must:
1. define the terms childhood and adolescent
2. identify pertinent provisions on the rights of children and young persons
3. describe and analyze the present situation of Filipino children and adolescents

I. Definition of Childhood and Adolescence

a. Childhood
Childhood refers to the time or state of being a child the early stage in the
existence or development of something. From a historical perspective, childhood
can be defined as an evolving series of steps, usually constant towards adulthood
shaped by an extensive array of people and ideas, that range from ethnicity to
class, from region to religion and from gender to politics.
Childhood connotes a time of innocence, where on is free from
responsibility but vulnerable to forces in his environment. It suggests a period
where one enjoys closeness with parents and shared expectations.
Changing Patterns of Childhood
In general terms, the historical are shows several long, gradual and not
necessarily linear shifts. The “typical” free child belonged to a homogenous society
where he had to contend with similar values, common religious precepts and
expectations, and opportunities from a characteristically rural setting. With the
onset of the 20th century, the “typical child” is confronted with more complex forces
in the environment and in particular in a society that offers varied rules and choices
and institutions.
Another shift which began in the mid-nineteenth century and ultimately
reaching all ethnic and economic groups was the “extensions of childhood”. In
America, for example, the transition from child to adult could take place as soon
as the available formal schooling was completed, and skill was learned. The
extension of childhood was actually a stretching of adolescence, a term
popularized at the turn of the 20th century by child psychologist G. Stanley Hall.
This was made possible by schooling that touched more children for longer periods
of time, like in mandating minimum lengths for school years and creation of high
schools.

DR. J. ESCALONA 8
 By the 1960s lawmakers recognized the lengthening of childhood of girls by
raising the age of consent during the 19th century when the average of 27 fell to
22. This was followed by attempts to strengthen weak child labor laws. More
dramatic reforms were seen in the changes in health and welfare of children.
These constituted the most striking transformations in childhood in the 20th century.
Scientists developed vaccinations for childhood scourges as diphtheria, smallpox,
measles, which dramatically extended the average life expectancy.
In the past, there were differences ion child-rearing customs, material and
ethnic cultures, economic standing, and family size. However, there were
similarities in the way’s children grow up. One thing, all children were educated to
meet the needs of their communities. For example, there were boys who were
raised to become farmers and girls to perform the chores required of housewives.
Members of every cultural group raised children to understand their
particular traditions including religious faiths, proper use of resources, the
importance of family, and appreciation for the larger culture. Each group developed
and passed along to the next generation beliefs to sustain them and rituals to
remind them of their heritages.
Many of the issues that have characterized children’s experiences in the
past continue to shape their lives up to the present. Where there are changes in
the demographics, economics, politics and ethics of childhood, the basic markers
for becoming an adult completing one’s schooling, finding an occupation, marriage,
remained the same (Calvert, 1992).
b. Adolescence
Adolescence (Latin adolescentia, from adolescere, “to grow up”) is the
period of psychological and social transition between childhood and adulthood. In
common usage in English countries “adolescent” and “teenager” are synonymous.
Adolescence is also defined as the transitional stage of human development in
which a juvenile matures into an adult. The transition involves biological, social,
and psychological changes.
As a modern cultural and social phenomenon “adolescence” and its
endpoints are not tied to physical milestones. The word is derived from the Latin
noun dolor meaning “pain”. It is the stage where the person experiences dramatic
changes in the body along with the developments in his psychology and career.
The onset of adolescence sees children as having completed elementary school
and are about to enter secondary education. Between the early childhood and
teenage years in preteen.
The ages of adolescence vary by culture. The World Health Organization
(WHO) defines adolescence as the period of life between 10-19 year of age. In the

DR. J. ESCALONA 9
 US for example, adolescence is the period that begins between ages 12 and 14
and ends at 19 or 20.
During this period, most children go through the stages off puberty which in
recent times would refer to ages nine and thirteen. Most cultures regard people as
becoming adults at various ages of teenage years.
A teenager or teen is a person whose age is a number ending in “teen,”
someone from the age 13 to 19. This word is of recent origin only having
appeared in the mid-20th century. Equivalent words in other languages may apply
to a larger age bracket including preteens
(http//:news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/Americas/4429192.stm).
II. The Rights of Children and Young Persons
Presidential Decree NO. 603 dated December 10, 1974 (Bustos, et al.,
1999) listed down the Rights of Children and Young Persons. This was aimed at
understating children better and for the Filipino teacher to be more aware of the
children’s rights. The code contained the following provisions:
To understand and help children better, it is important for every Filipino
teacher to be cognizant of such rights. The provisions of the Code regarding such
rights are as follow:
All children shall be entitled to the rights herein set forth without distinction
as to legitimacy or illegitimacy, sex, social status, religion, political antecedents,
and other factors.
1. Every child is endowed with dignity and worth of a human being from the
moments of his conception, as generally accepted in medical parlance, and
has therefore, the right to be born well.
2. Every child has the right to a wholesome family life that will provide him with
love, care and understanding, guidance and counselling, moral and material
security.
3. Every child has the right to a well-rounded development of his personality
to the end that he may become a happy, useful, and active member of
society.
The gifted child shall be given opportunity and encouragement to
develop his special talents.
The emotionally disturbed or socially maladjusted child shall be
treated with sympathy and understanding and shall be entitled to treatment
and competent care.
The physically or mentally handicapped child shall be given the
treatment, education, and care required of his particular condition.
DR. J. ESCALONA 10
4. Every child has the right to a balanced diet, adequate clothing, sufficient
shelter, proper medical attention, and all the basic physical requirements of
a healthy and vigorous life.
5. Every child has the right to be brought up in an atmosphere of morality and
rectitude for the enrichment and strengthening of his character.
6. Every child has the right to an education commensurate with his abilities
and to the development of his skills for the improvement of his capacity for
service to himself and his fellowmen.
7. Every child has the right to full opportunities for safe wholesome recreation
and activities, individual as well as social, for the wholesome use of his
leisure hours.
8. Every child has the right protection against exploitation, improper
influences, hazards, and other conditions or circumstances prejudicial to his
physical, mental, emotional, social, and moral development.
9. Every child has the right to live in a community and a society that can offer
him an environment free from pernicious influences and conducive to the
promotion of his health and the cultivation of his desirable traits and
attributes.
10. Every child has the right to the care, assistance, and protection of the state,
particularly when his parents or guardians fail or are unable to provide him
with his fundamental needs for growth, development, and improvement.
11. Every child has the right to an efficient and honest government that will
deepen his faith in democracy and inspire him with the morality of the
constituted authorities both in their public and private lives.
12. Every child has the right to grow up as a free individual in an atmosphere of
peace, understanding brotherhood and with the determination to contribute
his share in the building of a better world.
Under both domestic and international law, children’s right to be
protected from harm and have their basic physical and social needs
provided is a basic consideration. Traditionally, the rights of children have
been limited by considerations about their inherent vulnerability, in
particular in concerns about their capacity to manage political and civil
participatory rights. Lately, there has been a shift in attitude toward children.
Where before the concern was only welfare-oriented, that is providing
children’s basic welfare needs, now, the children are regarded as holders
of a wider range of rights which include the right to express their views and
participate in decision-making on matters directly affecting them. This shift

DR. J. ESCALONA 11
in emphasis was reflected in the Children Act of 1989, a legislative measure
and now the central pillar of law and policy relating to children.
International law has provided some guidance to law and
policymakers along these lines. The United Nations Convention on the
Rights of the Child 1989 (UNCRC), the most widely ratified international
human rights treaty in existence, was ratified by the United Kingdom (UK)
in 1991. It provides a comprehensive listing of rights for children-social,
economic, cultural, civil, and political. It explicitly defines the need for policy
and decision-makers to put the interests of children over and above other
concerns. Article 12 of the UNCRC requires weight in all matters affecting
children. Further, the government is required to report to its supervisory
body – the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child every five
years to be able to gauge the level of government compliance with the
UNCRC and make recommendations for change and improvement.
The Philippines is a state party to the Convention of the Rights of the
Child (CRC) and as such is obligated to give primary of its decision-making
(Article 3, Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS), September
2004.
The Philippines is also bound to promote and protect the child’s right
to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health under Article
14 (CRC) and the child’s inherent right to life survival and development
under Article 6 (CRC). Intrinsic to the right to health and the tight to life is
the child’s right to “sustained” and “equal access” to comprehensive
treatment and affordable medicines without discrimination as interpreted by
CRC General Comment NO. 3 (2003).
Other rights of the children as embodied on the Convention on the
Rights of the Child and adapted by the General Assembly on November 20,
1989 are as follows:
The State Parties to the Convention shall:
a. Respect and ensure the rights to each child within their jurisdiction
without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the child’s parents or his
or her legal guardian’s race, color, sex, language, religion, political opinion,
national ethnic or social origin, property, birth or other status (Article 2:1).
b. Register the child immediately after birth and have the right from birth
to a name, nationality, and right to know and be cared for by his parents
(Article 7:1).
c. Ensure that a child shall not be separated from his/her parents
against his will, except when separation is necessary for the best interests
of the child after having been determined by judicial review (Article 9:1).
DR. J. ESCALONA 12
d. Respect the rights of the child to freedom of thought, conscience,
and religion (Article 14:1).
e. Recognize the rights of the child to freedom of association and
peaceful assembly (Article 15:1).
f. Not subject the child to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or
her privacy, family, home, or correspondence nor to unlawful attacks on his
honor and reputation (Article 16:1).
g. Recognize the important function of mass media and ensure that the
child has access to information/material from a diversity of national and
international sources (Article 17: a, b).
h. Ensure recognition that both parents have common responsibilities
for the upbringing and development of the child (Article 18:1).
i. Take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social, and
educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or
mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect, maltreatment, and exploitation
(Article 19:1).
j. Provide assistance to a child temporarily deprived of a family
environment (Article 20:1).
k. Permit a system of adoption that shall ensure that the best interests
of the child shall be the paramount consideration (Article 21:1).
l. Recognize for every child the right to benefit from social security
(Article 26:1).
m. Recognize the right of the child to education with a view to achieving
this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity (Article 28:1).
n. Recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic
exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or
to interfere with the child’s education (Article 32:1).
III. The Situation of Filipino Children and Young Persons
Much has been said about young children who are beaten black and
blue by parents/relatives rendering them incapable to walk or even talk
straight. Much has been written about children who have become victims of
sexual of physical abuse, child labor, malnutrition, parental neglect, ending
up roaming the streets of Metro Manila. Usually, they come from homeless
poor families of Manila’s suburbs who sleep on pavement, wooden carts, or
dilapidated shacks near the railroad tracks, even on rickety shelters made
of rusty galvanized sheets and cardboard boxes. The sight of street children
knocking on car windows, selling sticks of cigarettes and sampaguita
DR. J. ESCALONA 13
garlands, are smacks of the many faces of poverty and the stark reality of
the plight of the abandoned children. The situation of the marginalized
Filipino child is disheartening.
Efforts, however, are made to address the problem. There are youth-
oriented programs/projects sponsored by NGO’s and other private and
public entities primarily put up to help the Filipino child. The child advocacy
has been an on-going project of the media, as they feature stories on youth
education and child welfare. TV networks are also instrumental in educating
the youth through a series of documentaries on child abuse and child
exploitation. Nevertheless, the problem has not been solved completely.
Merlina R. Hernando described the alarming situation of the Filipino
child which is visible in numerous studies conducted and which showed that
in the Philippines, over four million children are victims of child labor and
half of them are exposed to hazardous conditions. About 100,000 of them
are abused every year and about 300,000 roam the streets. Latest statistics
also points to about 7 million malnourished children.
In view of these concerns, private organizations have joined the
government in seeing that the interests of the child is protected and in giving
the Filipino child a life equivalent to his worth.
One such project that had its beginning as early as 1999 is the
Children’s Hour. Along with its partner organizations, it has called on
individuals and companies to donate an hour if their earnings in support to
programs for the welfare and development of the child and the youth.
To date, it has raised close to P100 million and successfully funded
some 117 projects. Children’s Hour links up with proponent organizations
which submit project proposals for the welfare of the children. Since then, it
has lifted the plight of the Filipino child and brought hope for a better life.
Another project sponsored by BPI Foundation is “Ang Panaghoy ng
mga Bata.” It was spearheaded to provide healing of those children
traumatized by calamities like earthquakes, typhoons, landslides, and even
food poisoning. The food poisoning in Bohol was one tragedy that brought
immense damage not only to the physical but emotional well-being of the
victimized children as well.
Other related projects were sponsored by Tahanan Outreach
Projects and Services, Inc. (TOPS) and Create Responsive Infants by
Sharing (CRIBS). Another is Filiae Aesculapii (Daughters of Aesculapius)
an all-girls organization from the University of East Ramon Magsaysay
Memorial Medical Center-College of Medicine that decided to donate a part
of its fundraising campaign to Children’s Hour. The organization is

DR. J. ESCALONA 14
 composed of young people who commit themselves to offering their selfless
service to others through medical and surgical missions particularly in the
remote areas.
It behooves upon all members of the society, educators, politicians,
private practitioners, and professionals to heed the calling, which is to act
now. The Filipino child should not be made to believe that there is nothing
much in store for the marginalized and the underprivilege. They should be
provided an environment where they can grow and develop their potentials
to the fullest. Their needs must be addressed. They need food, water,
shelter, support, guidance, encouragement, and above all, a quality
education that will provide a venue for a complete transformation as a
person that will afford his physical, intellectual, emotional, and economic
growth.

Study Guide
1. Distinguish childhood from adolescence.
2. What are the rights of the child that are most often violated? Why?
3. To what extent has the school participated in child advocacy?

DR. J. ESCALONA 15
 Chapter 2
Physical and Motor Development of Children and Adolescents
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students, are expected to:
1. Identify the physical and motor development in childhood and adolescence
2. Describe brain development during childhood and adolescence
3. Give the factors affecting development
4. Differentiate exceptional development in terms of:
• Physical and sensory disabilities
• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders
Introduction
Physical changes in height and weight happen at a comparatively slower rate in
the preschool years than in infancy. Normally, a child adds about 2 to 3 inches in height
and about 6 pounds in weight yearly. Alongside with the physical changes are the
changes in motor development. More than the ability to walk the child is also able to
acquire skills and begin to explore as part of his acquired independence.
I. Physical and Motor Development
A. Early Childhood. Overall growth is clearly in height and weight measures.
While there is no indication that height is correlated with professional accomplishments,
life insurance statistics have established a positive correlation although there is no direct
evidence pointing to tall people become brighter, creative, and superior to shorter people.
Growth is manifested at the earliest stage, usually following a cephalocaudal trend
in the lengthening of the neck and torso, followed by the legs. Brain and neck
development earlier than legs and trunks, following the proximodistal pattern,
development occurs from the center outward: Example, the internal organs develop
earlier than the arms and hands.
According to Tanner (1990) as cited by Hetherington, et.al., 2006) genetic factors
strongly influence physical characteristics. However, growth is not seen as influenced
only by genetic factors but also by nutrition, physical and psychological disorders and
even climate. When placed under the same environmental condition, individual growth
curves tend to assume similarities. It is when placed with unfavorable conditions, like
inadequate nutrition, that growth rates become depressed seriously (Pollitt, 1994 as cited
by Hetherington et.al., 2006).
It is between ages 6 and 12 that children grow 2 to 3 inches high and add 6 pounds
each year. At this stage, large muscles are coordinated and the acquire more skills hand-
DR. J. ESCALONA 16
rendering them able to engage in activities requiring motor coordination added strength
and speed like bike riding. It is also during this stage that children acquire hand-eye
coordination. With the hand-eye coordination they are able to engage in activities
involving vision with body movements such as shooting a basketball or playing the piano
or violin.
Among school-aged children, this development is seen in the fine motor
coordination as exemplified in writing, drawing, cutting, and other related school tasks.
The uses of the hands are made possible by the so-called maturation of the wrists which
is an earlier occurrence among girls than boys (Tanner, 1990 as cited by Bee and Boyd,
2002).
Motor development improves with age. Such motor skills involve large muscle
movements along with fine motor skills, controlled by small muscles. Examples of fine
motor skills are in-hand manipulation and bi-manual coordination. There are however few
sex differences that are noted in the pre-school years.
B. Middle Childhood. Between the ages of 6 ½, 8 ½, and 10 years in girls and
approximately half a year later at 7, 9, and 10 ½ in boys, growth occurs in spurts. There
have been secular trends in growth in that children of the present generations are heavier
than before. As a matter of facts, the number of overweight children has doubled in the
last 25 years.
Motor development. As children age, coordination both in fine motor skills and
those involving large muscle improves. The fact that first grade children can print all letters
of the alphabet on to cursive writing is a strong indication. Even gross motor skills and
hand-eye coordination are improved with agility and balance added.
C. Adolescence. The early signs of maturation is the adolescent growth spurt. There is
a sharp increase in height and weight seen among girls aged 9 ½, and 14 ½, and in boys
between 10 ½ and 16. Usually adult height is attained at age 14 or 15 for girls and 18 for
boys.
Manifestation of growth differ among boys and girls. The male develops wider
shoulder, longer legs relative to trunk and longer forearms relative to the upper arms and
his height. On the part of the females there is a widening of the pelvis to make childbearing
easier. There is also an accumulation of layers of fat under the skin that results to a more
rounded appearance.
Other obvious signs of growth are eyes growing faster, so that myopia, or
nearsightedness results when the eyeball is so lengthened that is focuses images in front
of the retina rather than on it. The lower jaw usually becomes stronger and thicker along
with the incisors of both jaws becoming more upright.
Puberty brings about the physical differences that differentiate females and males.
For instance, in the reproductive system itself. We see in females the growth of the
ovaries and in males, that of the testes. These constitute primary sex characteristics.
DR. J. ESCALONA 17
 The secondary changes include the growth of pubic hair, the development of the
breasts in females and growth of facial hair in males.
The principal sign however of sexual maturation in boys is the sperm in the urine.
Boys become fertile as soon as sperm is present in the urine.
Spermarche is the first ejaculation of semen containing ejaculate for the males.
Menarche is the beginning of menstrual cycle for the female. Actually,
menstruation which is the shedding of tissue from the lining of the womb is the most
dramatic sign of sexual maturation for girls.
II. Brain Development
A. Early Childhood. The brain continues to develop after birth. It doubles in weight
after 6 months at which time it weighs about half that of the adult brain. Brain development
proceeds at an uneven pace occurring between 3 and 10 months and between 15 and
24 months. There are 100 billion neurons or brain cells present at birth which conduct
nerve impulses. The neurons are nourished by glial cells which are responsible for the
increase in brain size. These glial cells outnumber neurons 10 to 1 but are smaller than
neurons, thus, making up only about half of the brain tissue (Cech and Martin, 1995 as
cited by Cobb, 2001).
Another important function of the glial cells is the production of myelin, a fatty
substance that forms the covering of the axon of the neuron, the long filament extending
out from the cell body by which the neuron makes contact with other nerve cells, thereby
transmitting neural messages. It is myelin substance that conducts impulses at higher
speeds.
Myelination of nerve fibers grows at different paces for different parts of the brain.
The first to be myelinated is the peripheral nervous system connecting the sensory
perception, brain muscles, spinal cord, and the internal organs and glands. The
myelination of these organs enables the newborn to process information, like receiving
and acting on it from the various sensory systems. However, the fibers in the optic tract,
responsible for vision are exempted. At birth, these are the least mature (Cech and Martin,
1995 as cited by Cobb, 2001).
The number of neurons is constant following birth. Usually, there is no increase,
but neurons continue to develop with age. The length of axons increases and tiny
branchlike fibers or dendrites at the end of axon increase in density over the first two
years of life.
The sensory and motor areas are the primary sites of brain growth during the first
spurt, associated with the noted improvements in fine motor skills and eye-hand
coordination. Such improvement occurs at ages between 6 and 8. It is in the second spurt
of brain growth that the focus of development shifts to the frontal lobes of the cerebral
cortex (Van der Molen and Molenaar, 1994 as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002).

DR. J. ESCALONA 18
 Myelination continues through middle childhood in particular the reticular formation
and the nerves linking the reticular formation to the frontal lobes. Of significance is the
reticular formation because it controls attention. It is well documented that the ability to
control attention increases significantly during middle childhood (Lin, Hsiao and Chen,
1999 as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002).
The particular kind of concentration, referred to as selective attention is a result of
the continuous myelination that allows the frontal lobes and reticular formation to work
together. It is for this reason that children aged 6 to 12 can have selective retention.
Selective attention allows children to focus cognitive ability on the elements of a
problem or situation. For example, in cases where teacher changes the form and color of
a material regularly used as part of the work activities, once presented, the child will not
spend time thinking about the change. The focus will still be on the kind of work activities
to be done, which very likely will come in the form of instructions. Full myelination of the
reticular formation and the frontal lobes enables the children between ages 6 and 12 to
function more like adults in the presence of possible distractions.
B. Middle Childhood. Ninety-five percent of brain growth is reached by the time a child
reaches the age of 9. Such growth is characterized by interrelated processes namely: cell
proliferation and cell pruning. Cell proliferation takes place during the first several years
of life. It consists of the over production of neurons and interconnections. On the other
hand, cell pruning is a continuous process in the childhood phase. It involves the selective
elimination of excess cells and the cutting back of connections. The two processes afford
fine-tuning of neural development through experience such that frequent interconnections
are retained while the infrequent are pruned.
Actually, the demands of the growth processes give way to changes in the brain
metabolism.
In the middle childhood, the neurons of the association areas – parts of the brain
where sensory, motor, and intellectual functions are linked are myelinized to some
degree.
Another significant change in middle childhood is the ability to identify and act a
relationship between objects in space. This results from the lateralization of spatial
perception, occurring at the right cerebral hemisphere. For example, imagining or
picturing a person, head down or describing a classroom, clockwise or counterclockwise
is a spatial perception. Lateral perception in particular of faces and objects starts at age
6. However, complex lateral perception is not very strongly lateralized not until age 8.
A behavioral test of the lateralization of spatial perception relative right-left
orientation or the ability to identify what is right and what is left. This kind of test can be
administered to children aged 8 who can really identify or can differentiate right from left,
though only older children meaning those aged 10 to 11 will most likely understand the
difference between statements like “Jose is on my right” or “It’s on my left.” The increased

DR. J. ESCALONA 19
of deficiency by which older children learn math concepts and problems strategies is
explained by lateral spatial perception (Van der Molen & Molenaar, 1994 as cited by Bee
& Boyd, 2002).
C. Adolescence. In the teenaged years there are two major brain growth spurts one
occurring between ages 13 to 15 (Spreen, Risser, & Edgel 1995 as cited by Bee & Boyd
2002) and the second brain growth spurt beginning around age 17 and which continues
into early adulthood (Van der Molen and Molenaar, 1994; Bee and Boyd, 2002). In the
first spurt the cerebral cortex becomes thicker and neuronal pathways become more
efficient. There is more energy produced and consumed by the brain during this spurt
than in the years following (Fischer and Rose, 1994 as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002).
The spurts take place in parts of the brain that control spatial perception and motor
functions. That is why in mid-teens adolescents’ abilities in these areas far exceed those
of school-aged children.
It was believed that a qualitative different neural network emerges during the brain
growth spurt that occurs between ages 13 and 15, which enables teens to think abstractly
and to reflect on their cognitive processes (Fischer and Rose, 1994 as cited by Bee and
Boyd, 2002). Numerous neurological and psychological studies point to major changes in
brain organization occurring between ages 13 and 15. Qualitative shifts however in
cognitive functioning appear after age 15.
The second brain growth spurt has the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex as focus
of development (Davies and Rose, 1999 as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002). Among older
teens dealing with problems requiring cognitive function is easier than with younger teens.
Environmental Influences on Development of the Brain
Life’s experiences whether better or worse have lasting effects on the capacity of
the central nervous system to learn and store information. This is why an enriched
environment can enhance the growth and structure of the brain. For instance, chronic
malnutrition specially during the prenatal period can have adverse effects on the brain.
Actually, brain damage is attributed to bad effects of having to live in bad environments.
As early as the 1950’s experiments had been conducted on rats and other animals.
Those living in enriched cages and given the chance to deal with stimulating apparatuses
were found to have heavier brains, more connective cells, and good brain cell
connections. Those raised in standards cages or were isolated have lesser connections.
The midbrain and the medulla are the most fully developed at birth. These parts
regulate vital functions like heartbeat and respiration, as well as attention, sleeping,
walking, elimination, and movement of the head and neck. These are actions a newborn
performs moderately well. The least developed part of the brain at birth is the cortex, the
convoluted gray matter wrapped around the midbrain and is involved in perception, body
movement, thinking, and language. (Bee and Boyd, 2002).

DR. J. ESCALONA 20
 Lateralization. The corpus callosum, grows, and matures during the early
childhood years at a faster rate than in any other period of life. It is the brain structure
through which the left and right side of the cerebral cortex communicate. As this structure
grows the functional specialization of the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
is achieved. This process is called lateralization.
Among humans 95% of brain function are lateralized through a pattern called left-
brain dominance. The remaining small portion of the functions that account for 5% are
reversed. The pattern is called right-brain dominance. In some people the pattern can be
mixed dominance where some functions follow the typical pattern while some are
reversed.
There is a weak association between handedness and brain lateralization. It is
believed that the prevalence of right handedness is a result of genetic inheritance through
a dominant gene common in the human population, copy of it may be received from both
parents (Talan, 1998 as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002).
III. Factors Affecting Development: Maternal Nutrition, Child Nutrition, Early
Sensory Stimulation
Human development is affected by both genetic and environmental influences.
1. Maternal Nutrition. One important factor affecting development is maternal
nutrition. Mother supplies all the nutrients to the inborn fetus through the food
intake so that she should take care of her diet for her sake and that of the fetus. It
is important that she gets a continuous supply of fresh vegetables, fruits, minerals,
and vitamins, needed.
2. Child Nutrition. Adequate nutrition contributes to a continuous brain growth, rapid
skeletal, and muscular development. It is not the amount of food that children eat
but what they eat that contributes to healthy living. A healthy diet includes an
adequate supply of fruits and vegetables, whole grains, food rich in protein and
calcium like meat and dairy products. Colorful foods, such as oranges, apples,
tomatoes, and green vegetables are not only appealing but also highly nutritious.
3. Early Sensory Stimulation. Children under 6 years of age tend to be farsighted,
because their eyes have not matured and are shaped differently from those of
adults. After that age, the eyes not only are more mature but can focus better.
Minority of children’s vision does not develop properly. About ten percent of 6-
year-olds have defective near vision, and 7 percent have defective distant vision,
the latter number jumps to 17 percent by 11 years of age.
Sensory deprivation exists in terms of the reception of sounds from the
environment. Same with visual handicaps, children may also suffer from auditory
problem.
Factors That Affect Growth

DR. J. ESCALONA 21
 1. Genetic History. According to Lynne Levitsky, M.D., chief of the pediatric endocrine
of Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. The child’s genetic history
influences to a large extent his growth. As a matter of fact, it is number one in the
list. By just looking at the parents’ height, the rate of growth of the child can more
or less be predicted.
2. Nutrition. It is another factor that affects growth. “Without a good diet, kids won’t
grow normally” says Jo Anne Hattner R.D., a pediatric specialist at the American
Dietetic Association. Sometimes parents miss an assuring and wholesome calorie
for the child, thus, derailing his chances for a healthy diet. A child, no matter how
fat should never be put on diet. He must have in his diet, nutritious food but less
on juice or soda which can interfere with the child’s appetite for food rich in needed
nutrients.
3. Medical Conditions. Children born with or develop serious medical conditions can
have stunted growth if not treated. Some of these are: gastrointestinal disorders
such as celiac disease; food allergies; thyroid problems, hormone deficiency;
heart, kidney, or liver ailments; and certain chromosomal abnormalities. It is
important that medications are monitored closely. There are stimulants like Ritalin
prescribed for ADHD which have been found to have adverse effects on growth.
The problem that accrues from stimulants is more often dose-related and is usually
easily fixed, says Barry B. Bercu, M.D., head of endocrine, diabetes, and
metabolism department at All Children’s Hospital in St. Petersburg, Florida.
4. Exercise. Regular physical activity promotes growth by strengthening bones and
muscles. However, caution should be observed in doing high-impact sports like
running and gymnastics because they too, can impede growth if done excessively.
Moreover, they can cause trauma to developing bones.
5. Sleep. About 70 to 80 percent of growth hormone is secreted during sleep, says
Paul Saenger M.D., a pediatric endocrinologist at Children’s Hospital at Montefiore
Medical Center, in New York City.
6. Emotional Well-Being. Children must be nurtured with love, patience, and
understanding. They need a supportive family environment. When children
experience anxieties brought by emotional neglect and too much tension growth
is also stunted. The condition called “psychosocial growth failure” by doctors – is
extremely rare, but its consequences are as real as malnutrition.
IV. Exceptional Development: Physical Disabilities, Sensory Impairments, Learning
Disabilities, and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders
A. Physical Disabilities. The physical handicapped have impairments that are
temporary or permanent such as: paralysis, stiffness or lack of motor
coordination of bones, muscles or joints so that they need special equipment
or help in moving about.
Crippling disabilities include the following:

DR. J. ESCALONA 22
a. Impairment of the bone and muscle systems which affects mobility and manual
dexterity difficult and impossible as in the case of the amputees and those with
severe fractures.
b. Impairment of the nerve and muscle systems making mobility awkward and
uncoordinated as in cerebral palsy; and
c. Deformities or absence of body organs and systems necessary for mobility like
in the case of the clubfoot and paraplegics.
It is evident that growth is affected by physical disabilities like orthopedic
handicaps, dysfunction of the neuro-muscular system, and congenital
deformities. These are contributory factors in the making of the group of
exceptional children called the crippled.
Causes of Handicaps
A number of factors have been identified as causes of crippling handicaps,
impairments and disabilities. These are:
1. Prenatal factors. These are factors that affect normal development before and
after conception virtually lasting up to the first trimester or the third trimester of
life. Specifically, these include the following:

a. Genetic or chromosomal aberrations. This results from blood incompatibility

of the husband and wife. There is a transfer of defective genes from parent
to offspring.
b. Prematurity. Birth of the fetus is usually earlier than the ninth month of
pregnancy.
c. Infection. This is caused by bacteria or virus on the fetus in the womb of the
mother, the germs usually come from highly communicable disease like
rubella and venereal diseases. The neonatal sepsis is caused by infection
either directly from the mother or the outside environment like poorly
sanitized delivery room, infected hospital gadgets, and many others.
d. Malnutrition. Insufficient intake of food nutrients necessary to sustain growth
and development of the fetus and the mother.
e. Irradiation. Pertains to the exposure of the pregnant mother to radioactive
elements like x-ray. Exposure of the mother also affects the fetus.
f. Metabolic disturbances. Inability of the mother or the fetus to make use of
food intake.
g. Drug abuse. Entry of large quantities of medicines into the body thus
affecting the fetus. Thalidomide used by mothers has affected thousands of
babies who were born without limbs and other extremities.
2. Perinatal Factors. These are factors that cause crippling conditions during the
period of birth.

DR. J. ESCALONA 23
 a. Birth injuries. These are injuries suffered by the newborn baby. Injury to the
spine will cause paralysis. (kernicterus).
b. Difficult labor. Hard and prolonged labor before the actual birth which
interrupts the oxygen intake of mother of fetus.
c. Hemorrhage. Profuse bleeding of the mother during birth which might be
caused by damaged of the uterus.
3. Postnatal factors. These are factors causing crippling conditions after birth.
a. Infections. These are caused by illnesses like diphtheria, typhoid,
meningitis, encephalomyelitis, and rickets in infants.
b. Tumor and abscess in the brain. They destroy the brain cells connected
with improvement thus impairing mobility.
c. Fractures and dislocations. These are destructions of mobility organs either
through falls and other accidents causing bone fractures or dislocation.
d. Tuberculosis of the bones. TB germs are likely to attack the bones of the
very young causing crippling conditions.
e. Cerebrovascular conditions. These are injuries in the head region enough
to cause brain damage.
f. Post-seizure or post-surgical complications. These are convulsion after the
delivery of the baby which cause crippling conditions.
g. Arthritis, rheumatism. These are diseases affecting the spinal column and
the muscles of locomotion at the back.

B. Sensory Impairments. In terms of severity of impairment, there are two

classes of visual impairment and blindness.

1. Visual impairment. It is a visual problem that calls for specific modification

and adjustments in the student’s educational programs. Major and minor
alterations can be done in the instructional environment depending upon
the kind of environment.
2. Blindness is the inability of the person to see anything. When vision is
20/200 or less in the better eye with correlation or when the visual field is
significantly less than what is normal, then there is blindness. The measure
20/200 means that a person can see at 20 feet what a normally sighted
individual can see at 200 feet.
Visually impaired refers to those who were previously labeled blind
and partially sighted. Those with visual impairment lack sufficient vision to
affect a normal functioning in school.
Visually handicapped is a form of visual impairment which, even with
correction, still cannot achieve a normal educational performance. The term
includes the partially and seeing the blind.

DR. J. ESCALONA 24
 Partially sighted children are those with “low-vision.” They are able
to use print, with or without aids, as their main medium for performing in
school.
Low vision students are able to see but the visual impairment
interfere with using vision for learning.
Blinds students are those with so little vision and can learn through
the use of Braille.
The most common visual problems with confront students are visual
acuity problems. They are as follows:
1. Reduced visual acuity - poor sight
2. Amblyopia - lazy eye
3. Hyperopia - farsightedness
4. Myopia - nearsightedness
5. Astigmatism - imperfect vision
Other visual impairments which may affect students are the following:
1. Albinism. Rapid, involuntary side movement of the eyeball or
nystagmus.
2. Cataracts. The lens of the eye changes from a clear, transparent
structure to a cloudy or opaque one.
3. Macular degeneration. The central part of the retina which is called
macula is affected. The remaining peripheral vision can see large
objects and colors but not to read.
4. Diabetic retinopathy. It is the leading cause of new cases of blindness
and characterized by hemorrhaging of the tiny vessels of the retina. As
a consequence, vision is blurred or distorted.
5. Glaucoma. It is characterized by increased pressure within the eye,
gradual loss of vision, beginning with the peripheral vision.
6. Retinitis Pigmentosa. It is an inherited condition which begins with the
loss of night vision and leads to gradually decreasing peripheral vision.
The dark pigment of the retina, essential for vision, is slowly lost causing
a gradual reduction in the visual field.
Visual impairments impact on the individual’s development. Students
with visual impairments are visually uncoordinated in their movement
caused by the inability to develop the needed physical skills. Their
appearance is awkward since they are not able to pay attention to their
personal appearance, thus, have to be reminded of their posture.
Sensory deprivation also exists in terms of the reception of sounds from
the environment. When the auditory problem is severe and beyond
correction, it is considered and auditory handicap. This will affect the range
DR. J. ESCALONA 25
and volume of sounds that can be received by the individual. When hearing
is impaired, there is limited functioning of the auditory system.
Students with auditory handicaps are hearing impaired which most
always manifests in their poor language development. They are short of
language skills need to be able to communicate. The quality of voice is also
difficult to comprehend. The speech difficulties are caused by the inability
of the person to hear himself or others. Among infants born deaf or with
serious hearing impairment can at the start produce the range of expected
sounds but show a rapid decline in sound production. In the case of deaf
children, most of their vocalizations will cease completely within the first
year. What is needed is reinforcement that comes from hearing their own
voices and those of the people around them. In its absence abnormal
speech deteriorates and vanished completely.
Reading problems go hand in hand with severe hearing loss and
differences in reading performance caused primarily in decoding problems,
diminished interest and lack of related experiences. Hearing impaired with
all probability with have reading failure despite appropriate instruction and
other forms of remediation. He will not be able to discern the sound unit in
a language.
Hearing impairment is a genetic term for hearing disability which may
either be mild or profound. Hearing impairment subsumes the terms deaf
and hard of hearing.
Deaf individuals are those whose hearing disabilities precludes
successful processing of linguistic information through hearing with or
without a hearing aid. The deaf student’s development of speech and
language as well as his primary basis of communication are not through
hearing (Ross, 1982 as cited by Bauer and Shea, 1989 as cited by Acero,
et.al, 2004).
Hard of hearing individuals are those who use hearing aid and therefore
can have hearing adequate for the processing of linguistic information.
Deafness can either be prelingual and postlingual and sensory.
Prelingual is deafness present at birth or occurring before language or
speech development.
These children require specialized services which include special
equipment and curriculum.
Postlingual deafness occurs after speech or language development.
Sensory neural deafness is caused by the physical impairment of the inner
ear, the peripheral hearing nerve, and other parts of the auditory system
that extends to the cortex of the brain.
DR. J. ESCALONA 26
 Hearing impairment is not only the handicap of not being able to hear. It
encompasses emotional problems, problems in socialization, in learning
disabilities, and in the general day-to-day experience only a hearing
impaired can comprehend.
Causes of Deafness
Deafness is a condition caused by a number of factors, namely:
1. Prenatal causes
a. Toxic conditions
b. Viral diseases – mumps, influenza, rubella
c. Congenital defects such as lack/closure of the external canal or
even the ear, ossification of the three little bones in the ear and
the oval window.
2. Perinatal causes
a. Injury sustained during delivery such as pelvic pressure injury
resulting from use of forceps and intracranial hemorrhage
b. Anoxia or lack of oxygen due to prolonged labor
c. Heavy sedation due to overdose of anesthesia in twilight
deliveries
d. Blockage of the infant’s respiratory passage
3. Postnatal Causes
a. Diseases, ailments, conditions such as meningitis, external otitis
(inflammation of the outer ear), otitis media, (often characterized
by running discharging ear(s) or the infection of the middle ear)
impacted or hardened earwax (cerumen) which may lead to
infection
b. Accidents/trauma feels, head bumps, overexposure to high
frequency sounds and extremely loud explosions, puncturing of
eardrum, difference in pressure between air outside and that one
inside the middle ear due to changes in altitude, undrained water
in the ear due to frequent swimming
4. Other Causes
a. Heredity
b. Prematurity
c. Malnutrition
d. Rh factor – blood incompatibility of parents
e. Overdosage of medicine
Classification of Hearing-Impaired Children
Hearing impairment can be classified according to age at onset of
deadness, language development, place of impairment, and degree of
hearing loss.

DR. J. ESCALONA 27
 1. According to age at onset of deafness
a. Congenitally deaf – those born deaf
b. Adventitiously deaf – those born with normal hearing but became
deaf due to accident or illness.
2. According to language development
a. Prelingually deaf – those born deaf but lost hearing before speech
and language were developed
b. Postlingually deaf – those who became deaf after the development
of speech and language
3. According to place of impairment
a. Conductive hearing loss – impaired hearing due to interference in
sound transmission to and through scene organ, in particular in the
outer or middle ear
b. Sensory neural hearing loss – impairment due to the abnormal inner
ear or auditory nerve or both
c. Mixed hearing loss – a combination of the conductive and sensory
neural hearing loss. This is sometimes called a flat loss as depicted
in the audiogram.
4. According to degree of hearing loss
a. Slight
b. Mild
c. Moderate
d. Severe
e. Profound

C. Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities include problems among children related to
disorders in understanding or using spoken and/or written language. Such
disorders manifest in the inability to listen well, process information readily, and
inability to talk, read, write, spell, and even add numbers. Learning disabilities
are also referred to as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, brain dysfunction,
developmental aphasia and specific sensory motor dysfunction. A disabled
child is usually of normal intelligence but does not meet the age-level
expectations.
At the preschool level, learning disabilities may come in the form of
problems related to pre-academic skills, gross motor, fine motor, visual,
auditory, and tactile/kinesthetic perception, and expressive language.
The learning disabilities could be symptoms of worldwide problems.
Today, such is called sensory integration or sensory dysfunction.
Sensory integration refers to the ability of the individual to process
information coming from the environment and makes use of the information in
DR. J. ESCALONA 28
 the process. The sense are auditory tactile, vestibulary (balance center in the
inner ear), proprioceptive (muscles, joints, and tendons), and visual.
This definition provides identification of students qualified for educational
services depending on three conditions:
1. Normal intelligence. This refers to child’s performance at above normal
range using non-verbal measures which include language concepts.
2. Academic achievement deficit. Condition where child shows academic
achievement deficit in at least one subject, such as oral expression,
listening, comprehension, mathematical calculation, and spelling. Further,
a major discrepancy between expected achievement and ability is
considered. This should not be a result identified and generally accepted
handicapping conditions.
3. Absence of other handicapping conditions (exclusion criteria). There must
be no manifestation of visual or hearing impairment, mental retardation,
severe cases of emotional disturbance, and cultural neglect.
Learning disability is characterized by poor academic performance,
social and psychological problems, and delayed physical development.
The different types of learning disabilities are:
1. Dyslexia – reading
2. Dysgraphia – writing
3. Visual agnosia – sight
4. Motor aphasia – speaking
5. Dysarthria – stuttering
6. Auditory agnosia – hearing
7. Olfactory agnosia – smelling
8. Dyscalculia – math
There are three general causes of learning disability:
1. Problematic pregnancies, occurring before during, and after delivery
causing injury whether minimal or severe to brain and brain dysfunction.
2. Biochemical imbalanced caused by intake of food with artificial food
colorings and flavorings.
3. Environmental factors caused by emotional disturbance, poor quality of
instruction and lack of motivation.
D. Attention Disorder Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Attention disorder hyperactivity disorder interferes with an individual’s ability
to focus (inattention) regulate activity level (hyperactivity), and inhibit behavior
(impulsivity). Among children and adolescents, it is one of the most common
learning disorders. The young from ages 9 to 17 are affected for at least six
months and are more common in boys than girls. This syndrome is manifested
DR. J. ESCALONA 29
 early in the preschool of early elementary years but can persist into
adolescence occasionally into adulthood.
Children with ADHD need assessment from health care professionals with
the help of parents and teachers. There is no specific test for ADHD but it can
be diagnosed through a series of psychological tests, physical examination,
and observing child’s behaviors in day to day setting. Recently, ADHD has
been classified into three subtypes:
a. Predominantly inattentive
b. Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive
c. Combined type
Children with inhibited behavior, inattentive without focus tend to be
withdrawn, polite, and shy. In the absence of hyperactivity, they are likely
referred to as having Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD).
ADD and ADHD are therefore categorized as different in the presence of
symptomatic differences.

Table 1
Behavioral Differences between ADHD and ADD
ADHD ADD
Decision-Making Impulsive Sluggish
Attention-Seeking Short off Modest
Egotistical Shy
Relishes in being the worst Often socially withdrawn
Assertiveness Bossy Under-assertive
Often irritating Over polite and docile
Recognizing boundaries Intrusive Honors boundaries
Occasionally rebellious Usually polite and obedient
Popularity Attract new friends but has Bonds but does not easily
difficulty bonding attract friends
Associated diagnoses Oppositional defiance Depression
Conduct Disorder

DR. J. ESCALONA 30
What Causes ADHD?
ADHD is a neurologically based medical problem caused by a number of
factors. The exact causes are however unknown. According to some research
studies, the disorder results from an imbalance in certain neurotransmitters, (most
likely dopamine and serotonin). These substances help the brain to achieve focus
and regulate behavior. Certainly, parents and teachers do not cause this disorder,
but may lessen or worsen the effects of the disorder.
ADHD is associated with symptoms in children like difficult pregnancies and
problem deliveries. The risk is compounded by maternal smoking and exposure as
well to environmental toxins. Other studies indicate that the ADHD brain consumes
less glucose its main fuel source – especially in the frontal lobe regions (Zametkin,
Morthal, Gross, King, Semple, Rumsey, Hamburger and Cohen, 1990; Sousa,
2006). Brain studies of this disorder have also suggested the genetic component
as a source.
Is ADHD Inherited?
Probably. When the disorder runs in the family there is very likely to have
genetic predispositions. Usually, children with ADHD have at least one close
relative who has ADHD. The genetic component is attributed to the gene
responsible for coding the neuron receptors for the key neurotransmitter
dopamine. Dopamine helps the brain focus with intent to learn.
Although there may be a genetic predisposition for ADHD, still parenting
and schooling matter. It is the child’s environment that plays a major role in
determining whether the genetic traits appear. Parent’s ability to cope with a
problem child will shape his development and interaction with the world
(DeGrandpre and Hinshaw, 2000; Sousa, 2006).
Is It Possible to Have ADHD-like Behavior and Not ADHD?
Yes. There are children who manifest the symptoms of the disorder but
actually do not have the disorder. However, there are other causes like the inability
to adjust and adapt to what is acceptable behavior in school or even in some
environments. Further, behavior may seem peculiar to ADHD but children can be
taught the appropriate behavior. Reactions or responses resulting from situations
that create hyperactivity can be controlled not necessarily through medication but
modification of the causes of stress.
Can Schools Inadvertently Enhance ADHD-like Behavior?
Most children are to cope with changes in the environment that come at a
pace faster than what they expect. For that matter, schools are expected to come
up with instructional approaches that will provide better opportunities to learn

DR. J. ESCALONA 31
effectively. Schools and classroom operations can inadvertently create or enhance
ADHD-like behavior in students when:

• Teachers tend to cover curriculum too fast, not realizing students need more
time
• Teachers resort to teacher talk as the prevailing mode of instruction without
regard for the students learning preferences (some are visual learners,
some kinesthetic and the like)
• Room arrangements provide isolation, like row-by-row formation rather than
collaboration (students in this kind of classroom situation have the tendency
to make mischief)
• Discipline is arbitrary and unfair coming from different kinds of teachers with
different personalities and rules and expectations
• There are few opportunities to move around too much stuff to cover, so
students just sit and listen
• Classroom atmosphere is not conducive to learning (it’s either too hot or too
dark)
• There is no interaction taking place, the reason why boredom sets in
• Classroom emotional climate causes stress
What Do Educators Need to Consider?
First, educators must start identifying areas where difficulties occur. Once
pinpointed, interventions can be done in the areas concerned. For an example,
an ADHD student may find difficulties in absorbing instructions, while another
can absorb but cannot go through the task itself. These situations call for two
different interventions. The interventions should be applied on a case-to-case
basis, for a more effective learning result. With the right intervention,
performance can be expected to improve.
Teachers need to be active, positive, and well-versed in problem solving.
Other important traits are understanding and patience, and most especially a
passion for teaching that uses compassion and not discrimination.

DR. J. ESCALONA 32
 Study Guide
1. Why is it important for a teacher to be aware of the various development
processes the children undergo in terms of:
a. Physical and motor development
b. Brain development; and
c. Exceptional development such as physical and sensory disabilities, attention
deficits and hyperactivity disorders?
2. What is the appropriate methodology to be used by the teacher in teaching
exceptional children?

DR. J. ESCALONA 33
 Chapter 3
Linguistic and Literacy Development of Children and Adolescents
Objectives
1. Explain the natural history of language development
2. Describe bilingual development
3. Classify the emergent and early literacy particularly reading development and
performance
4. Name the factors affecting language development
5. Differentiate exceptional language development

I. Natural History of Language Development

The traditional learning view holds that language development depends
upon the principle of reinforcement. From the point of view of other learning
theorists however, language primarily is learned through imitation. While learning
principles admit to the need of modifying language usage, there is no explanation
as to the number of reinforcement linkages required to be able to communicate
effectively. Not even the regular sequence of language development and children’s
utterances are accounted for. Even the fact that children learn to speak using
correct grammar in the absence of grammar reinforcement.
Noam Chomsky espouses the nativist approach to language development
which asserts that children have an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
that enables them to learn a language early and quickly. This is bolstered by the
concept of universality of language that uses the same set of sounds and word
combinations. Critics have opposed this idea pointing out the variations in
grammatical and syntactic rules. They also claimed that the nativist ignores the
social context in which language is acquired and developed.
Modern theorists hold an interactionist view that recognizes children as
biologically prepared for language but requires extensive experience with spoken
language for adequate development. This view maintains the need for an active
role in acquiring language through formulating, testing, and evaluating languages’
rules.
Jerome Bruner emphasizes the critical roles parents and other early
caregivers play in language development. Bruner proposes the Language
Acquisition Support System (LASS). Among American middle-class mothers,
support may come in the use of infant-directed or child-directed speech or
simplified language. This can be done by paying nonverbal games with them, using
the technique of expanding children’s statements and recasting children’s
incomplete sentences in grammatical form.

DR. J. ESCALONA 34
 The Antecedents of Language Development
The give and take of conversation is one of the early training infant’s acquire
in the language development. This is called “pseudodialogues." Adult maintains
the flow of conversation. Example, Oooglie ooogilie googlie googlie. By the time
an infant reach one year, he becomes skilled in nonverbal communication. Another
early training device is using protodeclaratives. An infant uses gestures to make
some sort of statement about an object. Another training device is
protoimperatives. Gestures that an infant or a young child may use to get someone
to do something he or she wants. Children can make statements about things and
get other people to do things for them.
II. Bilingual Language Development
It has been established that bilingualism where children learn two
languages simultaneously, puts children to an advantage in terms of language
proficiency. It affords advanced cognitive skills, flexibility of thought and greater
acceptance of peers from other cultural backgrounds (Bec, Helen and Denise
Boyd, 2002. Lifespan Development, 3rd edition).
Cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism
1. Bilingualism does not impact on early language milestone like babbling.
2. In bilingual homes, infants readily discriminate between the two languages
phonologically and grammatically.
3. Learning a grammatical device as using s to denote plurals in one language
facilitate learning corresponding devices in the other language.
4. Bilingualism is associated with an advantage in metalinguistic ability, or
capacity to think about language among preschool and school age children.
5. Most bilingual children manifest greater ability than monolingual children when
it comes to focusing attention on languages tasks.
Cognitive Disadvantages of Bilingualism
1. Limited vocabulary. Infants in bilingual homes have expressive vocabularies
that are as large as those of the monolingual, but the words they know are
divided between two languages resulting into a more limited vocabulary which
continues into the school years.
2. Think more slowly in the language in which they have the lesser fluency.
Bilingual children are fluent in both languages and thus, encounter fewer
problems, but they do not attain equal fluency. In such case, the tendency is
for them to think more slowly in the language where they have lesser fluency,
so that if this is the language used in school, then, they are at risk for learning
problems.
3. Parents who choose bilingualism should consider whether they can help their
children achieve fluency in both languages.

DR. J. ESCALONA 35
4. Children who speak their immigrant parents’ language tend to be attached to
their parents’ culture of origin and therefore are able to speak the language.
Bilingual parents should weight the advantages and disadvantages of
bilingualism and decide on the kind of linguistic environment they will provide
their children.
Learning a second language is a constructive process similar to learning a
native language. This is made possible through interactions with the children
and adults.
When parents talk with preschool children learning to speak their native
language, they scaffold and extend the children’s language. Parents find a way
to understand the children’s special words for things. This is called
“motherese.” The kind of adaptation done by parents in the process of learning
the language.
Students learning English as a second language tend to mix English with
their native language. They shift back and forth within sentences. This
misunderstood phenomenon is called code switching (Troika, 1981 as cited by
Tompkins, 2002) Code switching is a special linguistic and social skill.
Sometimes students read the text in English and mentally translate it into their
native language for easier understanding.
Based from having learned to speak their native language on account of
interactions between the members of the family, children acquire an
understanding of the language system.
Listening to parents tell and read aloud stories also contributes to this
knowledge. From the elementary grades, they learn about phonics, spelling,
semantics, vocabulary, and grammar.
Children from various cultural groups bring with them backgrounds of
learning experiences unique to their group. This is the reason why they find
learning English as a second language difficult.
Language and culture have important implications for how children learn
language in school and how teachers teach language. Some implications are:
1. Children use the four language systems at the same time in the process of
communicating.
2. Children bring their unique background of experiences to the process of
learning.
3. Children’s cultural and linguistic diversity impact on the students’ learning
process.

DR. J. ESCALONA 36
III. Emergent and Early Literacy: Reading Development and Performance

From birth, infants listen to sounds of speech and that of their native
language. Babbling starts at the end of the second month. This usually reflects
the sounds they hear in the native language. At the age of 12 months, infants
utter the first word. It is only in the second year where there is vocabulary
expansion. However, the difficulties related to articulation and pronunciation
are observed.
Children may communicate single words not only to name things but also
to communicate more complex thoughts. This is usually called holophrase –
the first stage of language acquisition.
In this process adults use names that will show the distinctions children
need to make in using the objects named. Usually, children learn the meaning
of new words upon hearing them, even just once. This refers to the ability to
map the meaning of a new word used in context. That is, if a thing has a name.
it is not likely to be called by another. Another strategy used in learning new
words is bootstrapping – which is using their knowledge of word class ad
syntactic clues to learn the meanings of new words.
Fast mapping is the child’s ability to map the meaning of a new word onto
a referent after hearing the word used on context just once.
Holophrase is a single word used to represent a phrase or sentence: typical
of the first stage of language acquisition.
Vocabulary explosion is the rapid addition of new words to a toddler’s
vocabulary which occurs late in the second year.
Children begin putting two words together at about 18 months, and three or
more words together anywhere from 2 to 3 years of age. The length of
children’s utterances has been found to correspond to their use of ever-more-
complex rules for communicating. Using this index, stages of language
development have been identified (Gabb, 2001):
1. Children speak in two-word sentences.
2. Children use rules to inflect words, indicating plurality and tense.
3. Children can use rules to transpose meaning from one form of sentence to
another.
4. Children’s sentences become increasingly complex in the fourth and fifth
stages.
It is in the preschool years when children gradually learn to read and write.
This is the time when they go through the process of becoming literate. They
start to notice sign on billboards, logos, and symbols in print.

DR. J. ESCALONA 37
 Literacy is a process that begins well before the elementary grades and
continues to adulthood and even throughout life. Normally children aged five
attend kindergarten school to start with reading and writing lessons. Those
children who are not ready are given opportunities to engage in varied reading
activities to prepare them for reading and writing.
A new approach to language arts instruction in kindergarten is called
emergent literacy as coined by a New Zealand Educator Marie Clay. This is
looking at literacy from the child’s point of view. The age range has been
extended to include even 12 or 14 months of age who can listen to stories read
aloud, notice signs and labels in their environment, and experiment with pencils
and crayons. The concept of literacy has been broadened to include the social
and cultural aspects of language learning and the understanding of written
language.
Teale and Sulzby (1989 as cited by Tompkins, 2002) paint a portrait of
young children as literacy learners with these characteristics:
1. Learning the functions of literacy through observation and participation in
real-life situations in where reading and writing are used;
2. Developing reading and writing abilities concurrently and interrelatedly
through experiences in reading and writing; and
3. Constructing understanding of reading and writing through engagement
with literacy materials.
Teale and Sulzby describes young children as active learners. They
construct their own knowledge about reading and writing with the help of literate
elders like parents, brothers, and sisters. These literate elders demonstrate
literacy as they read and write. They supply materials and provide opportunities
for children to involve themselves in reading and writing.
Children’s introduction to written language begin early in life with learning
experiences provided by parents and even caregivers. They experience this
before they could come to school. It is when they start attending Kindergarten
and get exposed to formal instructions that the knowledge of the written
language expands. Activities call for actual participation in genuine, functional,
and meaningful experiences. Students also grow in their ability to stand back
and reflect on language. The ability to talk about concepts of language is called
metalinguistics and children’s ability to think metalinguistically is developed
by their experiences with reading and writing. (Templeton and Spivey, 1980 as
cited by Tompkins, 2002).
According to Juel (1991 as cited by Tompkins, 2002) children moved
through three stages as they learn to read, namely: emergent reading,
beginning reading and fluent reading.

DR. J. ESCALONA 38
 In emergent reading, the purpose of communicative print is understood by
children. They start to notice environmental print, can dictate stories for the
teacher to record, and even read predictable books after they have memorized
the pattern.
It is in the beginning reading stage that children learn phoneme-grapheme
correspondences and start to decode words.
In the fluent reading stage, children have learned to read, decode
unfamiliar words and recognize words automatically. The fluent stage is
reached in the third grade. Once this stage is reached, children are able to
make use of their cognitive energy on comprehension. This accomplishment is
significant because beginning in fourth grade, children read more information
books and content area textbooks as reading becomes a learning tool
(Tompkins, 2002).

IV. Factors Affecting Development: Early Language Stimulation, Literate

Communities and Environment, Story Reading
According to Dr. Gail E. Tompkins (2002), Piaget recognized that children
are naturally curious about the world and are active and motivated learners. As
they acquire new experiences, they start to experiment with the objects they
come in contact with. These interactions become meaningful as they construct
their own knowledge about them. This holds true in both oral and language
work so that children interact with language just as they experiment with
bicycles they ride.
A. Early Language Stimulation
Learning occurs through the process of equilibrium. Disequilibrium often
times referred to as cognitive conflict arises from encounters that a child
cannot understand nor assimilate. A child in this case, gets confused, feels
agitated so that he is compelled to seek for a comfortable balance with the
environment. The balance is called equilibrium. When confronted with an
environment that is new but comprehensible, the child is able to make sense
of it. When the child’s schemata can accommodate the new information,
then the disequilibrium caused by the new experience will motivate the child
to learn, thus regaining a higher developmental level.
The three steps of the process are:
1. Disruption of equilibrium by the introduction of new information;
2. Occurrence of disequilibrium followed by the dual processes of
assimilation and accommodation function; and
3. Attainment of equilibrium at a higher developmental level.

DR. J. ESCALONA 39
 The process of equilibrium is repetitive. It happens again and again
throughout the day. Learning occurs only when the new information is not
too difficult. New but difficult information cannot be easily related to what is
already known, hence, there is no learning. This is true to both children and
adults. Assimilation is made possible and with too familiar information which
can be easily accommodated.
Children’s cognitive development is enhanced through social
interaction. Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) asserted that
children learn through socially meaningful interactions and that language is
both social and an important facilitator of learning. Whatever experiences
children have these are products of their interactions with society. Aside
from absorbing these experiences, children negotiate and transform them
as a dynamic part of culture. Actually, children learn to talk and to read and
write through interactions with literate children and adults (Dyson, 1993,
Harste, 1990 as cited by Tompkins, 2002)
Interactions with adults and collaboration with classmates enable
children to learn things which otherwise they could not learn on their own.
They need the support and guidance of adults as they move from the
current to a more advanced level of knowledge. Vygotsky described these
two levels as, just, the actual development, the level at which children can
perform a task independently, and second, the level of potential
development, the level at which children can perform a task with assistance.
This is the reason why children need the help of the teachers including that
of others to do more difficult things.
A child’s zone of proximal development is the range of tasks that the
child can perform with guidance form others but cannot yet perform
independently. Vygotsky believed that children learn best when what they
are attempting to learn is within this zone. He felt that children learn little by
performing task they can already do independently – tasks at their actual
developmental level or by attempting tasks that are too difficult or beyond
their zone of proximal development.
Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner both used the term scaffold as a metaphor
to describe adult’s contributions to children’s learning. Scaffolds are support
mechanisms that teachers, parents, and others provide to help children
perform successfully a task within their zone of proximal development. This
is done when teachers act out as models, demonstrate procedure, guide
children through a process, ask questions, supply added information, and
make complex task simple. The transition from social interaction to
independent functioning is done as soon as children show signs of
knowledge and experience that make them ready to perform a task, at this
point the teachers gradually withdraw their support.
DR. J. ESCALONA 40
 The teacher’s role in guiding student’s learning within the zone of
proximal development includes three components, according to Dixon-
Kraus (1996) as cited by Tompkins (2002):
1. Teachers mediate and augment children’s learning through social
interaction.
2. Teachers are flexible and provide support based on feedback from
children as they engaged in the learning task.
3. Teachers vary the amount of support from very explicit to vague, to
suit children’s needs.
According to Vygotsky, language can be used for purposes other
than social. Piaget described how young children engage in egocentric
speech – talking aloud to themselves as they build blocks. Talking aloud
is also done by older children and even adults usually while doing a
difficult task and it seemed to guide them in their thinking if not direct
their thinking. Vygotsky call the children’s egocentric speech as “self-
talk.” It is talking to themselves mentally other than orally. Self-talk which
gradually becomes inner speech guides children in their learning as
observed by Vygotsky. Self-talk is the link between talk used for social
purposes and talk used for intellectual purposes. Children used both
self-talk and inner speech to guide their learning.
The following are ideas contributed by the constructivist and
sociolinguistic learning theorists:
1. Students actively participate in learning.
2. Students learn by associating new information to acquired
knowledge.
3. Students organize their knowledge in schemata.
4. Students consciously and automatically use skills and strategies as
learning progresses.
5. Students learn through social interactions.
6. Teachers provide scaffolds for students.
Language is a complex system for creating meaning through
socially hared conventions. (Halliday, 1978 as cited by Tompkins 2002).
Even before the children can enter the elementary school they interact
with the members of the community through language. They learn even
the most complex forms of the native language which allows them to
understand sentences they hear for the first time. Further, they can
construct sentences they have never said before. Knowledge about
language is something that develops tacitly or unconsciously.

DR. J. ESCALONA 41
B. Literate Communities and Environment
Elementary classrooms serve as venue for language acquisitions. They
offer language environments that encourage students to listen, talk, read
and write, reflect, view and visually represent. The physical arrangement
and even classroom materials play an important role in setting the stage for
language instruction.
There is no single best classroom physical arrangement. The
configuration of a classroom, however, can be modified to include many
facets to facilitate learning. Students desks or tables should be grouped to
allow free movement and encourage students to talk, share and work in
groups. Provision for cooperative learnings where students can act in
groups of 5 or 6 should be made. There should be separate area to serve
as listening center, a computer center, and a center for dramatic activities.
Students should also have ready access to instructional materials. In the
case of Kindergarten classrooms, there should be provided literacy play
centers.
The teacher plays a multifaceted role in a language classroom.
Teachers should realize that children’s literacy is dependent upon
opportunities for children to engage in meaningful and purposeful
experiences with the members of the class. Teachers have ceased to serve
as knowledge providers only. They have assumed a more complex role of
creating a classroom environment that will be conducive to learning, like
planning the language arts curriculum with focus on the four instructional
patterns to meet the needs of the students. The ultimate objective is training
students for communicative competence. In the classroom teachers
assume the role of instructors, coaches, facilitators, and managers.
Teachers begin the process of establishing a community of learners
when they make deliberate decisions about the kind of classroom culture
they want to create (Sumara and Walker 1991 as cited by Tompkins 2002).
Teachers make sure the school becomes a real life for students. They think
of the kind of language instruction that will make the students see a purpose
for learning to read and write. Usually, a democratic classroom is an
advantage because it offers students opportunities for developing reading
and writing skills through purposeful and meaningful literacy activities.
The classroom environment needs to be established within the first two
weeks of the school year. They are oriented about the procedures and
routines to be observed in language arts by the teachers. After which they
get demonstration lesson on literacy procedures like how to choose a book
from the classroom library, how to provide feedback in a writing exercise to
the members of the group and how to participate in conversations and

DR. J. ESCALONA 42
 discussions. Teachers also serve as models so that students learn how to
interact with classmates, respond to literature, respect classmates, and
assist them in reading and writing activities.
Teachers are classroom managers. They lay the rules and set the
expectations. The classroom rules are definite and consistent for the
purpose of instilling discipline. Teachers also model classroom rules in their
interaction with students.
According to Sumara and Walker, the process of socialization at the
beginning of the school year is planned, deliberate, and critical to the
success of the language arts program (Tompkins, 2002).
C. Story Reading
Young children are aware of what makes a story. Knowledge about
stories is called a concept of story. It includes knowing the elements,
structure such as plot, character, setting, theme and information about the
authors style and conventions. Children’s concept is usually intuitive. They
are not conscious of what they know.
Researchers have documented that children’s concept of story begins
in the preschool years and that children as young as two years old have a
rudimentary sense of story (Tompkins, 2002). This concept is acquired by
listening to stories, reading, telling, and writing, stories by themselves.
Among older children the story structure is more complex like the plot
structures are more organized and characters are more clearly presented
and fully developed. Even Kindergarten pupils have developed the
concepts of a story usually using three markers: Once upon a time…; to
begin a story; the past tense in telling a story and formal endings such as
“The End” or “and they lived happily ever after.”
Children’s concept of a story contributed to a better understanding of the
stories read and even through reading and writing experiences. As soon as
they learn to explore stories, they learn about elements of story structure.
Key concepts in story reading (Tompkins, 2002)
1. The concept of story is acquired by reading and writing stories and by
learning about the elements of story structure.
2. Stories are distinguished from other forms of writing by their unique
structural elements such as plot, characters, setting, point of view, and
theme.
3. Teachers present lessons about the elements of story structure and
students apply what they have learned from stories read.
4. The concept of story informs and supports the reading of stories which
is done aesthetically.
DR. J. ESCALONA 43
 5. Comprehension involves three factors: the reader, the text, and the
purpose.
6. Teachers involve students in varied activities to develop students’ use
of all five comprehension processes.
7. Students read and write stories as part of literature focus units, literature
circles, reading and writing workshops, and theme cycles.

V. Exceptional Development: Aphasia and Dyslexia

Language disorder refers to any systematic deviation in the way people
speak, listen, read, write or sign that interferes with their ability to communicate
with their peers (Crystal 1987 as cited by Piper, 1989).
Language disability covers a wide spectrum of dysfunction as in fluency and
articulation disorders. This affects the structure, content and even the use of
language. There are many causes but a large proportion of cases are traced
from brain damage resulting in mental or physical disability: This can have
serious effects on language skills. Deafness is also a physical impairment that
causes language disorders.
The disorders themselves vary according to the degree of severity and the
level of language they affect. The language impairments that is caused by
specific brain damage are called aphasias.
Aphasia is the loss of ability to use and understand language. It excludes
other language disorders caused by physical conditions such as deafness.
Aphasia can be categorized according to the particular area of the brain that
is damaged into receptive, expressive and global aphasias.
Receptive aphasia is also referred to as sensory aphasia or “Wernicke’s
aphasia”. It results from a lesion to a region in the upper back part of the
temporal lobe of the brain called Wernicke’s area. People afflicted with this type
of aphasia manifest no difficulty in articulation or disfluency. What is affected is
comprehension resulting in speech marked by repeated patterns of formulaic
phases, by unintelligible sequences of words or odd combinations of words or
even phonemes. Sufferers of receptive aphasia experience problems in
retrieving from memory (Piper, 1998).
Expressive aphasia also called motor aphasia and “Broca’s aphasia” after
the French neurologist who found that damage to the lower back part of the
frontal lobe interferes with speaking ability, is characterized by severe in
impairment and articulation and speaking ability. It is caused by the damage to
the lower back part of the frontal lobe resulting in slow and labored speech,
defective individual sounds usually with hesitation in the prosodic features of
utterance. Grammar is not attended to as seen in sentences that are very short

DR. J. ESCALONA 44
and telegraphic in structure. Expressive aphasics, however, experience no
difficulty with comprehension.
Global aphasia is characterized by the combined symptoms of expressive
and receptive aphasia. Global aphasics have limited comprehension and
speech is minimal. Since recovery of those afflicted with this disorder is poor,
there is very insignificant improvement in performance. This is why this type of
aphasia is sometimes is referred to as irreversible aphasia syndrome
(Piper,1998).
Most schools provide specialist for the diagnosis of aphasic children in
particular those who have not been identified before they reach school age.
Dyslexia is defective reading. It represents loss of competency due to brain
injury, degeneration and developmental failure to keep pace with reading
instruction. It is often classified as a developmental (a general failure in
learning) or as specific (in contrast to general learning failure). An individual
does not have mental defects, but he experiences a severe reading disability.
Defective reading is oftentimes traced form environmental origin. It is
genetically determined.
Tentative anatomical evidence supporting the existence of cerebellar
involvement in dyslexia is suggested by the cerebellar atrophy or aphasia
reported on neuroradiological examinations of learning-disabled children.
Structural cerebellar abnormalities have also been reported from computerized
tomography and autopsy studies of adult schizophrenic persons (Piper, 1998).
Anatomical findings along with sensorimotor manifestations usually
observed in directional coordination and rhythm and other background
difficulties suggest that reading problems are caused by vestibule-cerebellar
mechanisms in conjunction with higher brain levels (Piper, 1998).
The visual-spatial form of dyslexia corresponds to the following types:
Dyseidetic, Agnostic Dyslexia, Visual-perceptual, Visual Dyslexia, Visual-
spatial, Left-hemisphere Strategy-type L, Surface and Type S.
The acquired adults dyslexias result from lesions in the visual association
cortex or the corpus callosum. This provides a useful background for
understanding these phenomena in children. At the same time, extrapolation
from adult dyslexia to childhood reading difficulty is risky. In the former a mature
brain loses an existing function, and in the latter a function is not acquire well
by a changing brain. There is evidence, however, that the developmental
dyslexias may not be neuropsychologically distinct form acquired dyslexias
(Piper, 1998). For this reason, adult acquired dyslexias can be useful models
for those in children, because the relationships between CNS function and
structure can be explicated through known lesions in adults (Piper, 1998).

DR. J. ESCALONA 45
 The two adult conditions of posterior alexia and dysgnosia affect the visual-
spatial dyslexias in children.
Posterior Alexia. Dejerine (as cited by Piper, 1998) initially described the
syndrome of posterior alexia in an adult who could write but not read. The adult
was suffering from a lesion that involves the medial and inferior aspects of the
left occipital lobe and the splenium of the corpus callosum. Dejerine was of the
opinion that the visual pathways of the left occipital area had been destroyed
by the lesion and had cut-off the connection between the right hemisphere
visual area and the left hemisphere language area. The patient had no
problems with spoken language or written language and could see written
material adequately. Dejerine conjectured that for as long as the center for the
interpretation of the visual images of written language which is the dominant
angular gyrus was intact and isolated from visual information, the patient could
retain normal language, including the ability to write, however he will still be
unable to read (Piper, 1998).
An optic alexia is seen in adults with occipital lesions where letters similar
in configuration area mistaken form another, for example, m and n or k and x.
Another form of alexia, referred to as verbal alexia is also associated with
occipital lesions where patients could easily recognize letters but could not
grasp whole words. Words have to be put together letter by letter. Optic alexia
is accompanied by a gaze disturbance in which patients easily lost their place
in lines and picked out fragment from different lines (Piper, 1998).
Dysgnosia means inefficient recognition. The term was introduced by
Sigmund Freud in 1891 to mean loss of the ability to recognize objects.
An agnostic dyslexia remains after a more generalized agnosia in adults
with brain lesions. Patients can read but throw a slow, letter by letter analysis
of a word. When there are errors in reading, this results in distortions of words
rather than meanings. There is awareness of errors and resulting frustration.
Slips of the tongue may be cues to unconscious concern on the part of the
individual in the same way. Children’s misreading may have psychodynamic
significance (Piper, 1998). Subjective meaningful reading considers errors
reflective of a conflict between what is printed on a page and a child’s own
concerns. An inadequate separation of internal fantasy and external stimuli
may be manifested.

DR. J. ESCALONA 46
 Study Guide
1. Why is it important for teachers to know about linguistic and literacy
development of children and adolescents?
2. What are the relevance of knowing theories of language development?

DR. J. ESCALONA 47
 Chapter 4
Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents
Objective
At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:
1. Identify the theories of cognition.
2. Explain the various theories of intelligence and learning styles.
3. Describe the factors affecting development.
4. Categorize exceptional development.

I. Theories of Cognitive Development: Piaget, Vygotsky, Information-

processing Theories, Bio-cultural Theories
Cognition is the process of learning in the broadest sense that includes
perception, memory, judgement and thinking. It is both a mental activity and
behavior that provides an understanding of the world arising from biological,
experiential, motivational and social influences.
There are a variety of theories that attempt to explain the pattern of cognitive
development in children.
Piaget made two important observations on the development of the first
intelligence test started by Alfred Binet.
First, children of the same age tended to make the same mistakes and get
the same answers wrong.
Second, errors of children of a particular age differed in systematic ways
from those of older or younger children.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development that relates to difference in the
ways of thinking and understanding the world was shaped by the errors of
children. Piaget maintains that children’s incorrect responses on tests were
more enlightening than their correct responses.
Piaget used two methods to study children’s thinking: interviews and
observations. In his interviews, children would be presented a problem to solve
or a question to answer. Afterwards they were made to explain their thinking.
In his observational research, he would watch closely the behavior of children,
as they tried solving the problem presented.
A. Piaget’s Main Tenet: The Child Actively Seeks Knowledge
According to Piaget children actively seek out information. Such
information is in turn adapted to the children’s acquired knowledge and

DR. J. ESCALONA 48
 conceptions about the world. It is from their experiences that children
construct their understanding of reality, a view held by the constructivist.
Children have the capacity as well to organize this knowledge into an
increasingly complex cognitive structure called schemata.
A schema (plural schemata) is an organized unit of knowledge. This
child uses this to be able to understand a situation or an experience and
which will serve as basis for organizing actions to respond to the
environment.
Different schemata change as the children develop. For example,
sucking which is an innate reflex and a reaction pattern is a newborn
schema. As the child advances in age and gains added experiences
whatever schemata possessed shift from motor activities to mental
activities, referred to as operations. This operations increase in complexity
as the child ages.
Piaget opined that schemata are modified by organization and
adaptation.
Organization is the predisposition to combine simple physical or
psychological structures into more complex systems. Structures are viewed
from larger dimension and not on limited parameters.
Adaptation involves the processes of assimilation and accommodation
that are complementary.
Adaptation is adjusting one’s thinking according to environmental
demands.
Assimilation is making use of an existing schema to a new experience.
Accommodation is modifying an existing schema to make it work in a
new experience.
The Stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget divided intellectual development reflecting changes in the cognitive
structures of children into four stages; children go through these changes although
changes may not occur at the same age. Development however necessitates the
attainment of the earlier stages to reach the later periods of development.
1. Sensorimotor Stage – from birth to two years
This is the stage where the child is able to use internal representation
of external events without simply relying on reflexes. This period is
divided into six sub-stages characterized by the ability of the child to
explore the physical environment and engaging in symbolic thought and
deferred imitation.
DR. J. ESCALONA 49
 During this stage, a child makes the transition from relying on
reflexes to using external representation of external events. Piaget
divided this period into six sub-stages, during with the child physically
explores the environment, developing such activities as symbolic
thought, and deferred imitation.
The sub-stages include basic reflex activity, primary circular
reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of secondary
circular reactions, tertiary circular reactions, and inventing new means
using mental combination. It is in these sub-stages that children
gradually acquire an understanding of the world and what is referred to
as object permanence.
Piaget’s view of object permanence that children may acquire,
including ideas about properties of objects and the principles of the
physical word as causality had already been acquired earlier than Piaget
thought, claimed his critics.
Recently, researchers interested in early knowledge systems have
begun to study the understanding by very young infants of the physical
world, including physical laws, such as containment numerosity. They
claim this type of understanding basic to functioning as a person and
make-up what they call core knowledge. However, there is an ongoing
debate whether the core knowledge systems are innate or learned early
in life. There are also efforts exerted to interpret the evidence from young
infants exploring such ideas.
2. Pre-operational Stage – two to seven years
One major development in the pre-operational development of
symbolic function as the ability to use symbols such as words, images,
gestures, to represent real objects and events. This is reflected in the
use of language in creative writing, in imaginative play and even in an
increase in deferred imitation. Pre-operational stage is divided into pre-
conceptual stage and the intuitive stage.
The pre-conceptual sub-stage limit’s children thinking to animistic
thinking – such as attributing lifelike characteristics to inanimate objects.
Children during this stage are egocentric. They view things from their
own perspective and usually find it difficult to accept and understand
other person’s view.
The intuitive sub-stage affords the children to use certain mental
operations but may not be aware of the principles used for lack of ability
to explain them. They have limited ability in problems involving part-
whole relations even in classification and conservation.

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 It is to be noted that the notion of conservation is the most important
of acquisition of the pre-operational stage. The child at this stage is able
to learn to conserve numbers but not physical properties as mass and
volume.
Piaget proposed that three characteristic of pre-operational thought
limit children’s thinking. The first is the child’s inability to understand
reversibility, that logical operations can be changed back to the original
state and there are logical steps involved in an operation. The second is
the tendency to focus on ends rather than means. The third
characteristic is centration or focus on only one dimension of a problem.
3. Concrete Operational Stage - seven to eleven
Children are able to perform tasks that they were unable to do and
master in the preceding stage, like conservation, classification, and part-
whole relations.
4. Formal Operations Stage – eleven to sixteen years
This is the stage when children can use abstract reasoning and can
be flexible whenever they consider varied solutions to a problem.
However, not all children, even adults attain this stage, formal operations
depend upon the nature of the problem to be solved and the preparation
acquired from formal schooling.
Piaget’s concept of egocentrism and object permanence have
implication on the child’s learning process and even in distinguishing
himself from others. Recent research on children’s theory points to the
mind guides the child’s own behavior and that of others.

B. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Following the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, the Soviet government hired
Russian Psychologist Lev Vygotsky to create a school system that would
serve the ends of the new communist regime. Vygotsky devised a theory of
child development that was unique. His death in 1938 and the historical
events that followed WW II and the Cold War resulted in his work remaining
only unknown outside the Soviet Union for decades. Recently however, the
developmentalists have become interested in his views on the influence of
cultural forces on individual development.
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory asserts that complex forms of thinking
have their origins in social interactions rather than in the child’s private
explorations as Piaget thought. According to Vygotsky, children’s learning
of new cognitive skills is guided by an adult for a more skilled child, such as
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an older sibling who structures the child’s learning experience, a process
Vygotsky called scaffolding. To create an appropriate scaffold, the adult
must gain and keep the child’s attention, model the best strategy, and adapt
the whole process to the child’s developmental level, or zone of proximal
development (Laundry, Garner, Swank & Baldwin, 1996 as cited by Bee
and Boyd, 2002). Vygotsky used this term to signify tasks that are too hard
for the child to do alone but that he can manage with guidance. For example,
parents of a beginning reader provide a scaffold when they help him sound
out new words.
Vygotsky’s interest in the child’s potential for intellectual growth led him
to develop the concept of the zone of proximal development. For years, this
concept laid the foundation for the application of scaffolding. In this process,
teacher makes adjustment in the amount and type of support he gives to
the child as he tries to acquire a skill. When the child has acquired the skill,
teacher withdraw support. This is similar to concepts of reciprocal
instruction and guided participation.
Reciprocal instruction stems from the use of community learners’
models whereby learning abilities and skills development are acquired
through social interaction.
Guided participation emphasizes the cognitive development through
active participation of both the learners and the more experienced people,
usually in cultural activities of the community.
Vygotsky’s ideas have important educational applications. Like Piaget’s
Vygotsky’s theory suggests the importance of opportunities for active
exploration. But assisted discovery will play a greater role in a Vygotskian
than in a Piagetian classroom; the teacher would provide the scaffolding for
children’s discovery, through questions, demonstrations, and explanations
(Tharp and Gallimore, 1988 as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002). To be
effective, the assisted discovery processes would have to be within the zone
of proximal development of each child.
Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes the need for social interaction in
facilitating the child’s development. It assumes that the thought processes
that are internalized accrue from interaction with others in the social
environment.
The shifts in the use of symbols and language give way to the honing of
intellectual capacities that is manifested in the transitions between
elementary mental functions and higher mental functions.

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 Two Principles of Cultural Influence in Vygotsky’s Theory
First, cultures are varied. They use different ways, tools and setting to
facilitate children’s development.
Second, variations in culture as well as culture contexts must be
considered in assessing children’s cognitive development.
Vygotskian theory recognizes the important role language plays in
learning the art of communication and regulating other intellectual function
as children engage in social speech, egocentric speech, and inner speech.
Egocentric speech is the transition from the social activity of children to
a more individualized activity which involves thinking until they are able to
overcome difficulties. From egocentric speech develops the inner speech.
Egocentric speech takes the form of a self-directed dialogue while the
child instructs herself in solving problems and drawing up plans. It is in the
age of maturity that egocentric speech materialized to inner speech.
Inner speech is egocentric speech that has been internalized and which
develops intellectual capacities.
According to Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development, learning is
fundamentally a socially mediated activity.
Thinking and problem solving according to Vygotsky have three
categories:
1. Some can be performed independently by the child.
2. Others cannot be performed even with the help from others.
3. Between the lst two are tasks that can be performed with help from
others.
The task in number three are in the zone of proximal development. If a
child uses these cognitive processes with the help of others, such as
teachers, parents, and other students, they will become skills and abilities
that can be independently practiced. As Vygotsky puts it, “What the child is
able to do in collaboration today, he will be able to do independently
tomorrow.” In reading instruction, the term independent level, instructional
level and frustration level correspond to Vygotsky’s zone, with instructional
level being the same as the zone of proximal development.
C. Information-Process Theories
The information-processing theory approach takes the human mind as
a system that processes as information. This is similar to computer
programming where the process involved are subject to limitations and
observance of logical rules. This views development according to cognitive
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competencies as derived from changes in the processes and strategies
applied in the process.
Several basic assumptions of information-processing approaches are:
1. Thinking is information processing
2. Mechanisms of change is important to describe.
3. The cognitive system is self-modifying
4. Careful task analysis is crucial
Explanation of number 1. Mental activity or thinking is putting into the
mind whatever information there is to process in ways or means that can
render the information understandable, functional and usable. There are
underlying questions about how the processes such as perceiving,
encoding, representing and storing information, change as children get
older and have more experiences with the world.
Explanation of number 2. Mechanisms like encoding, strategy
instruction, automatization, and generalization all together help in instituting
change in the children’s cognitive skills. Constantly used cognitive skills
eventually become a routine. Where these are automatized the cognitive
system are better able to work on new aspects of the problems, which may
require application of new cognitive skills.
Explanation of number 3. Child is able to modify his responses to new
situations or problems by using the acquired knowledge and strategies from
solving earlier problems. With a powerful knowledge base new and better
ways of responding to situations are developed. Thus, children play an
active role in their own cognitive development.
Explanation of number 4. Child’s cognitive performance is dependent on
the problem or situation and the ability to handle such according to his level
of development. A careful task analysis is needed to appraise the child’s
actual performance and how the performance vary according to change.
Most likely, the analysis will reveal of children how different ages
understand, approach and solve a problem, and what strategies they apply
in solving problems. Careful task analysis often involves error analysis or
attending to the errors children make. This involves examining incorrect
answers for evidence of less sophisticated, although systematic, strategies
that children apply to problems. Such analysis often relies on a method
called microgenetic analysis.
Microgentic analysis calls for a close scrutiny, a detailed examination of
how a child solves a problem on a particular learning situation or in the
succeeding learning activities that immediately follow.

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 Metacognition is the individual’s knowledge and control of cognitive
activities. It is knowledge that develops through time, over childhood and
which includes knowledge of the self, his frame of mind, knowledge about
task and the strategies that can be applied.
D. Bio-cultural Theories
One of the most current trends in developmental psychology is the
established link between physiological processes and development
explained through universal changes and individual differences.
Theories of Nativism, Ethology and Sociobiology
1. Nativism views human as endowed with genetic traits seen in all
members of the species, regardless the differences in their
environments. Developmentalists who adhere to the nativist theory hold
that peculiarity in behavior can be identified early in life, developed in all
individuals in every culture but do not exist in other species. Example: a
child learns to speak the language in the absence of formal instructions
of adults at home, he learns by imitating and by hearing. Actually, no
evidence has been found of grammatical language in non-human
species.
To some critics, nativism reduces the impact of environment in
learning a language. While it is true that children learn language in the
same way, still environment factors and characteristics of language
cannot be discounted where the rate at which a language is learned is
taken into account.
2. Ethology points to genetically survival behaviors assumed to have
evolved through natural selection. Ethologists say that nature has
equipped birds with nest-building genes which is imperative for survival.
Likewise, as claimed by exponents of ethology even emotional
relationships are important for infants’ survival. Emotional bonding is
achieved between the infant and the mother every time he attends to the
needs of the infant. As ethologists’ say, even infants’ crying is genetically
programmed, and adults are genetically programmed to a baby’s crying
needs. The interaction between the infant and the adult increases the
prospect of infant’s survival.
Ethologists on one hand are criticized for placing too much emphasis
on heredity. For one, ethological theories are hard to test for the same
reason that behavior like attachment for survival is difficult to quantify or
explain.

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3. Sociobiology focuses on the study of society using the methods and
concepts of biological science. Like the ethologists, sociobiology
emphasizes genes that aid group survival. Living in groups affords
humans better chances of survival. As claimed by the exponents of
sociobiology even the concept of cooperation is genetically
programmed.
To support their views, sociologists look for social rules and
behaviors that exist in all cultures. For example, any society has to put
up a set of rules to regulate conduct of human behavior. Respect for
other people’s rights is deemed an imperative to and orderly society.
Where laws/rule are want only disregarded, conflicts arise and people
cannot leave in peace and in harmony with others. Sociologists claim
that respect for people’s lives is genetically programmed.
Critics of sociobiology do not seem to favor the genes. They claim
sound rules that govern life in a society are passed on over many
generations because they are workable through language not genes.
Behavior Genetics aver that a broad range of traits and behaviors
like intelligence, shyness and aggressiveness are a result of heredity.
Heredity provides for individual differences. Whatever traits or behaviors
children acquire are said to be influenced by genes coming from related
people.
Further, hereditary traits are observable across the lifespan. It has
been found that children who are stubborn and can be difficult to get
along encounter more problems in the adult life. Likewise, good
tempered children in their young age look at life more positively and
therefore were able to adjust to difficult and complicated situations in life.
On the other hand, bad tempered children had fewer years of school,
less achievements in life, and with low paying jobs.
Such studies also show that environments determine how apparently
hereditary traits affect an individual development, and to what extent.
For instance, only ill-tempered boys with low status occupations change
jobs often in their adulthood. Those with jobs with high status had more
stable careers.
Such findings point to psychological behavior as a product of both
heredity and environment. Inherited characteristics continue over time
reflected in the same response patterns that influence human reaction
to world realities.

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Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Another approach gaining interest in developmental Psychology is
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory. This theory explains development
in terms of relationships between people and their environment, or
contexts, as Bronfenbrenner calls them. He attempts to classify all the
individual and contextual variables that affect development and to
specify how they interact.
The contexts of development are like circles within circles. The
outermost circle, the macrosystem (or the cultural context), contains the
values and beliefs of the culture in which a child is growing up. For
example, a society’s beliefs about the importance of education exist in
the cultural context.
The next level, the exosystem (the socioeconomic context) are the
cultural institutions which have indirect influence on the child’s
development. For example, institutions acknowledge that it is the duty
of government to provide the basic services (cultural context) but the
inability of the government to provide its citizens the basic services is
hampered by the economic slowdown and budget deficits
(socioeconomic context).
The microsystem (or the immediate context) includes those units that
have directly influence on the children. Examples are: families, schools,
religious institutions, and neighborhoods.
The mesosystem consists of the interconnections between these
components. For example, the specific schools a child attends and her
own family are part of the microsystem. The parents involvement in the
school and the response of the school to their involvement are part of
the mesosystem. Thus, the culture a child is born into may strongly value
quality education. Moreover, the nation’s economy may provide ample
funds for schooling. However, her own education will be more strongly
affected by the particular school she attends and the connections or lack
thereof, between her school and her family. Thus, the child’s immediate
context may be either consistent with the cultural and socioeconomic
contexts or at odds with them.
The child’s development is also influenced by his genetic make-up.
This is attributed to the biological context. Learning and mastering a
specific skill is dependent on a combination of his culture,
socioeconomic status and family. The ability to make use of such
mastery will still be determined by the degree to which his learning skill
fits his individual needs.

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 Ecological theory calls for a way of thinking that development is a
complex of individuals and contextual variables and that development is
a result of the combined effects of all contexts.
II. Individual Differences: Theories of Intelligence that Influence Individual
Differences
Information-processing researchers’ interest in information process has
given way to a new direction in the study of intelligence and intelligence testing.
Information-processing believe that to understand intelligence, we must
supplement traditional IQ tests with procedures that asses the components of
information-processing, such as memory and problem-solving abilities people
use in performing intellectual tests.
A. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence by Stenberg
This theory points to three major components of intelligent behavior:
information-processing skills; experience with a given task or situation; and
ability to adjust one’s behavior to the demands of a context.
Information-processing skills are required to encode, combine, and
compare varying kinds of information.
From experience an individual can automize information over repeated
experiences in doing a task. There is a relative difference in intelligence
between performance of one who experienced doing a particular task or years
than one who has not.
Context accepts the view that people function according to different
situations and try to adapt to the demands of a situation by selecting and
shaping other situation as necessary to meet their own needs.
Stenberg has developed a theory of successful intelligence as an extension
of his triarchic theory. This states that man can mold, shape environment to
meet his needs as well as that of society through analytical, creative and
practical abilities.
Analytical abilities refer to the power to apply logical reasoning to arrive
at the best answer to a question.
Creative abilities involve imagining and devising new ways of addressing
issues and concerns including present demands.
Practical abilities involve the use of tacit knowledge or common sense.
These are day-to-day activities people used in the process of social and
professional interaction within the family and in the workplace.

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B. The Gender Schema Theory
The Gender Schema Theory of Sandra Bem has evolved from the social
learning approach and is a variation of the cognitive development theory. This
theory postulates an organizational pattern of behaviors that enables children
to sort out perceived information. The organized information revolves around
what the society defines and classifies in terms of accepted behavior patterns
and individual differences and the principle of gender. For example, boys do a
different set of tasks more complicated than that of girls. Girls also go for
ribbons and laces while boys are interested in balls and wagons.
Children develop a self-concept that fits this particular schema, adapting for
themselves the society’s notion of male and female better known as society’s
gender schema. Boys and girls learn to judge their behavior according to social
standards. For example, boys learn that it is important to be strong and
aggressive, while girls learn to judge their own behavior and to measure their
self-esteem by social standards.
C. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner, the exponent of the theory of multiple intelligences, opines
that human beings have seven kinds of intelligences. After 1999, he added a
new intelligence which he called as naturalist intelligence. He claimed that the
number of intelligences can even be greater than eight and possibly be nine
which he called spirituality or existential intelligence.
Three of the types of intelligence in his initial list, linguistic, logical-
mathematical, and spatial are similar to the kinds of abilities assessed in
traditional intelligence test. The remaining types have been much less widely
studied, yet according to Gardner, they are equally important to human
functioning. For example, interpersonal intelligence may be of crucial
importance to a parent, a nurse or a teacher. Bodily kinesthetic intelligence may
greatly facilitate the performance of a dancer or an athlete and even a sports
medicine professional (Hetherington, et.al 2006).
8 Multiple Intelligences
1. Linguistic - the ability to use language effectively. There are people who
are proficient in the use of the language, can speak and write, and
possess knowledge about grammar and therefore are better off in oral
and written communication. They are those who show greater linguistic
intelligence.
2. Logical-Mathematical - facility with numbers and logical problem-
solving. Logical-mathematical intelligence affords individuals to learn the
science of numbers more easily and come up with logical solutions to
different problems.

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3. Visual-Spatial - ability to appreciate works of art like paintings and
sculptures.
4. Bodily Kinesthetic - the ability to move in a coordinated way usually
common among athletes and those involved in athletics.
5. Musical - the ability to appreciate and produce music. This intelligence
is seen among musicians, singers, composers, and conductors who
have an ear for rhythm and melody.
6. Interpersonal - sensitivity to the behavior, moods, and needs of others.
People who have this intelligence are called “Helping Professionals.”
Examples are counselors, social workers, ministers, and the like.
7. Intrapersonal - the ability to understand oneself. This intelligence is
manifested by people who are able to identify their strengths. They are
good at choosing their goals in life.
8. Naturalist - the ability to be attached to the natural worlds, being able to
discriminate between the flora and fauna, patterns and designs of
human artifacts.
One of the most controversial issues in the study of human
intellectual functioning is the question of how individual differences
develop in intelligence. As early as 1969, there had been claims from
psychologist, Arthur Jensen that as much as 80 percent of difference in
IQ were attributable to genetic or inherited factors. Only a small portion
of differences comes from social environmental factors.
Jensen proposes two types of learning, both inherited but each
distinct from the other:
Associative learning (Level 1 learning) involves short term memory,
rote learning, attention, and simple associative skills. For example, a set
of objects is presented to a childlike number series and then the child is
asked to recall them.
Cognitive learning (Level 2 learning) a child as he moves on to a
higher level of learning can engage in abstract thinking, analyzing
symbols, learn concepts, and even use language in problem solving.
The ability to answer questions is an example of cognitive learning such
as:
How is a male different from a male?
What does a knife symbolize for teenagers?
The cognitive learning abilities are mostly measured by intelligence
tests. Jensen opines that cognitive learning predicts school achievement
for it manifest the mount of knowledge one is able to acquire and
therefore is a measure of performance. According to Jensen,

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 associative learning is distributed across people, but Level II learning is
more concentrated in the middle class than in working class
(Hetherington, 2006).
D. Achievement Motivation and Intellectual Performance
Achievement motivation comes in various manifestations: a tendency to
strive for successful performance, to evaluate performance against specific
standards of excellence, and to experience pleasure out of a successful
performance. This academic motivation impacts on the children’s performance
along with experiences in the family, school, peers, and community.
Achievement motivation and intellectual performance vary according to the
child’s idea or concept of himself, as a person or as a learner. This is referred
to as self-esteem. The child’s self-esteem index is influenced by his negative
feeling about learning tasks which consequently affects his learning capacity in
some areas. If this happens, the learner gets distracted from the task and the
learning process is not successful.
What is intelligence?
Intelligence is the capacity to think and understand. It includes the
combination of various separate abilities that includes verbal communication,
abstract thinking logical reasoning and use of common sense.
Over the years, four different conceptual approaches to intelligence have
emerged, the psychometric approach, factor analysis and general intelligence
and the cognitive approach.
1. The Psychometric Approach refers to measurement of hidden intelligence
or mental characteristics. Through analysis of results of intelligence tests
the structure of human intelligence is caused by one factor or a combination
of factors. The Psychometric approach was established by British
psychologist Charles Spearman.
2. Factor Analysis and General Intelligence. This approach is similar to the
concept of “factoring” in mathematics where complex algebraic expressions
are simplified to arrive at the common multiplier of all terms. Applied to
intelligence, factor analysis establishes the relation of different measures of
intelligence. Factor analysis will reveal a different common factor given a
particular situation. For instance, one maybe adept in Mathematics in
particular in solving problems involving complicated solutions but poor in
giving meaning to symbols in a story.
Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence stating that all
measures of intelligence could be divided into two independent factors: a
general factor of g or general intelligence and the s factor or individual tasks.
Intellectual tasks are correlated, and each has specific factors that affect
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 performance. There are different s factors in the individual task which
influence the correlation between tasks.
3. The Cognitive Approach concerns itself with the processes that result to
intelligent behavior. The products of intelligence come from mental
operations that enable one to give answers to questions and solutions to
problems.
The cognitive approach aims at describing the specific components of a
given intellectual task and spell out the mental activities/operations to be
able to perform the task.
Different people use specific mental processes. They vary according to
the speed and rate the individual uses them. This is why cognitive theorists
consider the individual differences in learning.
A noted psychologist, Robert Stenberg has argued that there is a joint
operation of components and metacomponents of intelligence.
Components include all the cognitive processes that afford the person the
ability to respond to stimuli, store information, perform mental comparisons,
arrive at solutions, and engage in a system of recall from long-term memory.
Metacomponents are the higher-order processes that we use to
analyze a problem and to pick a strategy for solving it.
4. The Implicit Theory Approach asserts that intelligence is that which is used
every day. A person manifests practical intelligence by trying to analyze
situations, solve problems, and interpret information by being conscious of
the implications of his actions on others.
III. Factors Affecting Development: Three Factors which Affect Modern
Development, Psychologists point to Age-Related Changes – Universal,
Group Specific, and Individual

A. Universal Changes
Universal changes are changes all individuals undergo as biological
organism. We all go through the process of growth and maturation as we age.
Every organism is subject to a genetically programmed maturing process. In
other words, all physical changes that happen from infancy to adulthood are
programmed and are part of the plan for the physical body.
Some changes are universal arising from shared experiences that
eventually serve as shared patterns of normal experiences like the right time to
marry, right time to enter into a serious relationship and the right time to live an
independent life. Even the concept of three meals a day, breakfast, lunch and
dinner is a shared universal experience.
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 Age norms can lead to ageism, a set of prejudicial attitudes about older
adults, analogous to sexism and racism (Palmore, 1990 as cited by Bee and
Boyd, 2002). For example, as workers age, they are perceived to be less
efficient, traditional in their ways because they are no longer receptive to
change. Although this is more of a misconception, still the idea of retirement
due to age has revolved around the social expectations about the appropriate
age for retirement, prompting people to set a specific retirement age or simply
reduce working hours in later adulthood.
B. Group-Specific Changes
Group-specific changes are changes manifested and observed from
members growing up together in a particular group and hence influenced
heavily by the dominant culture. This includes a system of meanings, customs,
language values, attitudes, traits, laws, beliefs, moral guidelines, and physical
artifacts like tools, work of arts and dwellings. This complex and diversified
totality of symbols and meanings are handed down from one generation to
another and shape the development of the individual.
C. Individual Changes
These are changes typical of particular individuals and which result from
unique, unshared events. Every individual is unique, a product of a unique
combination of genes which sets him apart from anyone. This is attributed to
genetic differences. For example, body build, body type, skin color, facial
contours, represents the category of individual differences. There are also
characteristics unique to person like intelligence and personality, which
constitute another class of individual differences.
Other individual differences according to child development theorists are
the result of the timing of a development event. They are the critical period and
the sensitive period.
The critical period is the stage at which an individual is most sensitive to the
presence or absence of some particular experience.
The sensitive period is the stage at which a child may be particularly
responsive to specific forms of experience or particularly influenced by their
absence. A situation where a child between 6 to 12 months under the care of
a nanny in the absence of a working mother spends less hours with the child
will most likely impact on the emotional bonding between mother and child.
Still another important concept related to timing is the idea of on-time and
off-time events (Neugartea, 1979 as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002). It says an
experience that occurs at a time expected possess lesser difficulties than one
which is not. Since the situation comes when it is expected, the individual is
able to make preparations or adjustment to meet the demands of the change.
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Unexpected changes in life patterns may cause serious disruptions in the
regular activities and eventually pose hazards to the individual.
Atypical Development
It is another kind of individual change. This kind of development is harmful
to the individual in that it deviated from the typical or normal development path.
Usually, this points to the abnormal or maladaptive behavior. An alcoholic, drug
addict, mentally retarded, even those with hyperactivity disorder are examples
of deviants or individuals with atypical development.
In the past, most developmentalists held the view that development was the
result of maturation. However, development has been viewed lately, in
particular by modern developmentalists as influenced by both environment and
genes.
Development is a continuous process involving smooth and gradual change
over time and in difficult steps or stages. Still some developmentalists argue
over the role played by individual or contextual, influences. As it is, they agree
that cultural context is a factor to any phase of development.
Some developmentalists continue to debate the question of whether
individual or contextual influences are more important in determining
development.
Most developmentalists agree however that cultural context must be
considered in any account of development.
Theoretical Perspectives on Development
Theories serve two functions. First, they help explain the knowledge about
how children develop and second, they encourage further research anchored
on predictions about behavior that can be tested and evaluated. While they
take varied positions on the issue or concept of development, they are seen as
being complimentary to each other.
Structural-organismic perspectives zero in on the composites of the
developing organism. They consider the quality of various changes in the
stages of human development. Freud’s psychodynamic theory and Erickson’s
psychosocial theory belong to this category. They assert that a child responds
to a set of biological drives. Freud recognizes the early experiences as
determinants of later development. For example, the development of
personality is always associated with the concepts of id, ego, and superego.
On one hand, from the Freudian theory is the deprivation or satisfaction child’s
drives that consequently impacts on the later adult personality.
Erickson expanded Freud’s theory to include social and cultural factors as
influences on the child’s development as well as to extend the theory into a life-
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span perspective. This psychosocial theory is based on the most important
tasks both personal and social that the individual must accomplish at a
particular stage.
Piagetian theory has the intellectual development as its focus. Development
is looked upon as resulting from the complex reorganization of understanding
as a child moves from one stage to another in terms of cognitive functioning.
This theory asserts the continuous search for new knowledge, information and
experiences that are vital for his functioning as a fully developed or mature
individual.
The early behaviorists proposed that learning is regulated by environmental
factors that define and modify patterns of behavior. They may either be
classical or operant conditioning.
Cognitive social learning theory emphasizes other than behavior the
concepts of imitation as a form of learning. Learning according to this theory
results from the ability of the child to select the pattern of behavior to imitate.
Information-processing approaches have been applied in studies dealing
with cognitive development and social behavior. They focus on how a child
process information and uses this as guide in adapting a particular behavior
pattern.
Dynamic systems theories look at individuals as members of a system and
that this dynamic interaction contributes to their development. Behavior is
shaped by their constant relations with the members that make up the system.
Contextual perspectives take into account in the matter of psychological
development, the contributions of cultural factors. According to Vygotsky, a
child interacts with his social environment. Development then as the child ages,
is guided by the more mature skilled others with whom the child establishes a
continuous relationship.
Ecological theory underscores the importance of the various environmental
systems to development. These include the family, school, community, and
culture. These are referred to as ecological systems – the microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. In the ecological
theory perspective, a child acquires experiences from the environment, adds
such experiences to the built-n knowledge, and modify his understanding of the
environment.
Historical approaches acknowledge the contributions of historical events to
human development. Psychologists view development from a life-span
perspective.

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 Ethological theory describes development from a biological-evolutionary
approach. It concerns itself with the observation of behavior including
distinguishing features that cut across human societies, human cultures, and
even intrahuman species.
Evolutionary psychology touches on the cognitive development and how
cognitive capabilities and constraints influence the processes of human
evolution and meeting the survival needs.
Microsystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory focuses on the ways
children live and relate to people including institutions with the most number of
interactions like family, peers and school.
Mesosystem is the interrelations among the components of the
microsystem.
Exosystem is the actual situation a child is in that included the settings that
influence the development of the child and where the child is not directly a
participant.
Macrosystem is the system that surround the microsystem mesosystem and
exosystem; represents the values, ideologies and laws of society or culture.
Chronosystem is the time-based dimensions that can alter the operation of
al other systems in Bronfenbrenner’s model, from microsystem through
macrosystem.
IV. Exceptional Development
Every child is unique to himself, in personality traits, in cognitive abilities, in
physical stature, in emotional stability and others. Among children, these
differences are highly noticeable. Even in the aspect of learning some children
are fast learner, those gifted with exceptional intellectual capabilities and some
are slow, those who function at significantly lower intellectual levels.
An IQ score above 130 signals intellectual giftedness whereas a score
below 70 in intelligence testing indicates mental retardation visibly
demonstrated by the child’s inability to cope with appropriate activities of
everyday life. Even among the gifted children, there can be difficulties in
learning attributed to language impairments and reading disabilities, called
dyslexia (Hetherington et.al., Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint,
2006).
Exceptional development in children can be seen in both the intellectually
gifted and those with intellectual deficits. Classified as intellectual deficits are
the following: Turner Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome, Pervasive
Developmental Disorder, Autistic Disorder, and Asperger’s Syndrome.

DR. J. ESCALONA 66
A. The Intellectually Gifted
Questions about how to educate a gifted child, one who has exceptional
intellectual capabilities have cropped up among almost everyone in particular
those involved in developmental studies – when to put an intellectually gifted
child in school, when to be accelerated, what activities for them to engage in
and when to skip grades. Things of these sort become crucial because, placing
a child in a situation where he has to meet and deal with adults may likely
disrupt his social and emotional development. Further, these children may
show preference for older children for company. According to Terman (1954 as
cited by Hetherington, 2006) one of the earliest leaders in the study of the gifted
child bright children are usually far ahead of their age-mates, not just
intellectually, but socially and physically as well. Some researchers support
these view (Richardson and Benbow, 1990, Hetherington 2006). Veronica Dark
and Camilla Benbow (1993) suggest that the process that underlie the cognitive
achievements of gifted children are not unique – it is simply that the gifted
children are able to learn faster and more efficiently and process information at
a rapid pace, significantly better and different from the rest.
There are educational alternatives for gifted children. Some of these are in
the form of enrichment programs like, special activities designed to make their
educational advancement more interesting and challenging. There are also
special classes for the gifted where they are made to involve themselves in
particular area of their interest. In some schools, enrichment programs consist
of special courses like creative writing, painting, and even dancing. The
important consideration however, is to ascertain the particular inclination of the
child. Since the knowledge about multiple intelligence as espoused by Gardner,
has come into practical application, more schools have began to offer programs
that are designed to harness the special talents of the intellectually gifted
(Gardner, 1993; Hetherington 2006).
B. Children with Intellectual Deficits
Down syndrome is characterized by a distinct physical appearance, and
physical and mental retardation. The most common physical characteristics are
almond shaped eyes, folded eyelids, and short stature. Children with Down
Syndrome are susceptible with respiratorial infections, heart disorders,
leukemia, and pneumonia. Mental retardation can be moderate to severe. They
are also at risk to develop Alzheimer’s disease later in life. However, with the
advancement of the treatment for physical disorders afflicting these children,
their life span has greatly increased. Some are able to reach age 60 (Hayes
and Batshaw, 1993; Hetherington, 2006).
Down Syndrome is caused by a deviation in the set of chromosomes
labeled number 21. Normal individuals have a pair of these chromosomes as

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 against three for one who has Down Syndrome which is why the disorder is
also called trisomy 21. The extra 21st chromosome most often comes from the
mother’s egg, when her homologous pair of 21st chromosomes fails to separate
during meiosis. Male sperm carry the extra chromosome in only about 5
percent of cases (Antonarakis and Down Syndrome Collaboration Group,
1991; Hetherington, et.al., 2006). And for reasons that are not yet fully
understood, this error occurs more often as women age. The father’s age
matters, too; the rates of Down Syndrome births are higher for men over 50
(Hayes and Batshaw, 1993). Scientists have recently identified a gene that may
play a role in the mental retardation associated with Down Syndrome, but other
genes likely play a role as well (Smith, et.al., 1997).
Infants with Down Syndrome may develop fairly normally for their first six
months, but unless they receive special therapy their rate of intellectual growth
begins to decline after about a year. These children are generally slow to learn
to speak and often have difficulty articulating words. They also have trouble
attending to, discriminating, and interpreting complex or subtle information in
their environments.

Table 2
Risk of Down Syndrome (Sources: Gardner and Sutherland, 1996; Hsu, 1998)
Maternal Age Down Syndrome Down Syndrome Frequency of Down
Detected at 9 to 11 Detected at 16 Syndrome Among
weeks by CVS weeks by Births
Amniocentesis
20-24 1 / 1,400
25-29 1 / 1,100
30 1 / 900
35 1 / 250 1 / 250 1 / 385
40 1 / 80 1 / 70 1 / 100
45 1 / 25 1 / 25 1 / 40
Over 45 1 / 20 1 / 15 1 / 25

Abnormalities may also arise in the sex chromosomes, whey they

are rarely fatal but will lead to various physical and psychological defects.
For examples, some females are born with only one X chromosome rather

DR. J. ESCALONA 68
than the normal XX pattern. Usually this occurs because the father’s sperm
contained neither an x nor a Y chromosome. Girls with this XO pattern,
called Turner Syndrome remain short, with stubby fingers, misshaped
necks, and unusually shaped mouths and ears. They usually have normal
intelligence, and they tend to be docile, pleasant, and not easily upset. As
teenagers they do not develop secondary sex characteristics such as breast
and pubic hair, unless given female hormones. Because their internal
reproductive organs do not develop normally, they remain sterile throughout
their lives. Women with Turner Syndrome tend to have problems in social
relationships because they are immature and lacking in assertiveness.
(Hetherington, et.al., 2006). These problems are related in part to others’
responses to these women’s physical appearance. More important, women
with Turner Syndrome have difficulty discriminating and interpreting
emotional cues and facial expressions in others, skills essential for
appropriate social interactions (Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
Another sex chromosome abnormality found in females is the XXX
pattern, in which a girl inherits three X chromosomes instead of the normal
two. This triple X girls appear normal physically and have normal secondary
sexual development, but their cognitive abilities are affected, especially
their short-term memory and verbal skills (Robinson, Bender and Linden,
1992; Rovet, Netley, Keenan, Bailey, and Stewart, 1996; Hetherington,
et.al, 2006).
1. Turner Syndrome is a chromosome abnormality found in females in
which secondary sex characteristics are developed only with the
administration of female hormones. Any abnormality in the internal
reproductive organs cause permanent sterility.
2. Klinefelter’s Syndrome is a form of chromosome abnormality
characterized by feminine physical like breast development and rounded
broad, hipped figure. When a male inherits an extra X chromosome, it
results in the XXY pattern, making him sterile. Similar to a triple X
female, an individual with this type of syndrome is sometimes mentally
retarded and has verbal language deficits and reading problems.
A male who inherits an extra Y chromosome, the XYY pattern once
believed to be accompanied by excessive aggressiveness is very likely
to suffer some cognitive impairment. The XYY men generally age taller
than normal men, but they have not been shown to be anymore
aggressive or violent than others (Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
Some people carry an X chromosome that appears to be pinched or
narrowed in some areas, causing it to be quite weak or fragile. This
fragile X syndrome is more frequent in males than females accounting
for about 5 percent of retarded males with IQ scores ranging between
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 30 and 55. However, not all males with the fragile X syndrome are
retarded (Hagerman and Cronister, 1996; Jacobs, 1991; Hetherington,
et.al., 2006). Moreover, people with fragile X syndrome often have
physical abnormalities and psychological and social problems. More
common physical abnormalities are cleft palate, seizures, abnormal
EEG’s and eye disorders. Psychological and social problems include
anxiety, hyperactivity, attention deficits, and abnormal communication
patterns. Males may have deficits in social interaction, and females may
be more likely to suffer from depression (Hagerman and Cronister, 1996;
Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
The severity of the manifested symptoms or persons with fragile X
syndrome arising from hereditary disorders is related to the degree to
which the person has a supportive environment. (Evans and Gray, 2000;
Hodap, 2002; Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
3. Pervasive Developmental Disorder is a collection of disorders
characterized by gross deficits in many areas of cognitive, emotional,
and social development. These result from severe and pervasive
impairment of social interaction and communication skills. (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000). Such disorders are often referred to as
psychoses (broadly, disturbances in which the person’s functioning is so
maladaptive that he or she is said to be out of touch with reality).
Behaviors are unusual and incapacitating than other forms of
psychoses.
Pervasive development disorders have often been confused with
schizophrenia a serious disorder characterized by hallucinations,
delusions, and other kinds of thought disorders not found in the
pervasive development disorders. These two disorders differ in ages of
onset: while pervasive development disorders, become evident in the
first few years of life schizophrenia most commonly manifests in late
adolescents or early adulthood. Schizophrenia is not found with any
great frequency in children.
4. Autistic Disorder is a pervasive developmental disorder otherwise
known as early infantile autism or childhood autism. The first to have
identified this disorder is psychiatrist Leo Kanner (another name for the
disorder is Kanner’s autism) who noted its many puzzling and siturbing
characteristics (Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
Autistic disorder is characterized by the inability of the children to
communicate and interact socially. These autistic children have specific
language deficiencies, demonstrates a need for sameness in their
environment, and engage in repetitive behaviors.

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 These features include:
a. Extreme autistic aloneness. An autistic is a loner. He expresses lack
of interest in other people.
b. Language abnormalities. Rather than engage in conversation, the
autistic tends to repeat the words rather than reply, answer or
engage in conversation.
c. Repetitive behaviors. An autistic extends concentration on
something and preserves the sameness of the environment.
Public awareness about autism has improved. There are more films
and books about autism aside from the introduction of the use of a
broader diagnostic criterion thus increasing the number of children being
labeled autistic. Usually, autism commonly appears in boys than in girls.
(American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
5. Asperger’s Syndrome was first identified by an Austrian physician
Hans Asperger in 1944 calling it a developmental disorder which has
many symptoms similar to that of autism. However, it is considered a
mild form of autism since people with this syndrome manifest a higher
mental functioning. DSM-IV, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders classifies Asperger’s as a separate disorder although a
controversy has existed as to whether it is a distinct syndrome or a form
of autism. Some professional believe that the definition of autism should
include Asperger’s because no biological tests have been yet identified
for either disorder.
Although Asperger’s syndrome and autism have many similarities,
there are important differences. Both are classified as pervasive
developmental disorder which impairments exist in social interaction,
communication and other range of activities and interest. The
differences lie in the degree of impairment. For example, an autistic may
have a delayed speech but an individual with Asperger’s does not suffer
from it, although he may have difficulty with understanding the abstract
forms of spoken language such as humor or irony (APA, 2000 as cited
by Sousa, 2001).
Cognitive ability is another distinction between the two disorders.
Children with Asperger’s do not suffer from cognitive delay. In the case
of autistics, some are likely to have mental retardation. A person with
Asperger’s usually has an average to above average intelligence. (APA,
2000 as cited by Sousa, 2001).
Other characteristics of Asperger’s which are not present in autistics
are the need for high stimulation, overdeveloped use of imagination,
have fewer language deficits are more social and willful in their behavior.
DR. J. ESCALONA 71
These differences from autistic children are not noticeable at the early
elementary years, the reason why they go undiagnosed.
Children with autism seem to have a world of their own. They prefer
inanimate objects to human interaction, avoid looking at others in the
eye and fail to regulate social interaction. Very often, they are not even
aware of themselves.
Echolalia is a form of autism where the autistic repeats what is said
by another rather than respond to a question. It is usually a word for
word repetition. If you are to ask an echolalic “Where do you live?” he
will answer by saying “Where do you live.” Moreover, they suffer from
language problem called pronoun reversals. Autistic refers to
themselves by “you” and to others as “I”. Even after acquiring speech,
still it is not used for effective social communication. They do not
respond to verbal comments.
Professionals working with these disorders, add that compared to
people with autism, those with Asperger syndrome have a need for high
stimulation, have an overdeveloped use of imagination, tend to be more
social, have fewer language deficits and are more willful in their
behavior. As a result of these differences, young children with
Asperger’s syndrome, often go undiagnosed through their early
elementary years because their strengths masked their deficits.
Asperger syndrome was first recognized in 1980 and sometimes was
confused with autism. Though both share same manifestations in terms
of social and affective deficits, children with Asperger syndrome are able
to progress in school at a rate farther than those who suffer from autism
(Gelfand and Drew, 2003; Pennington, 2002; Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
Autistic children seem to live in a different world, unmindful of the
immediate surroundings. They are not interested in other people, thus
lack social interaction. They may not be even aware of themselves.
Many autistic children learn to master only a few tasks of life. They need
constant help with feeding, cleaning, dressing, and even toileting. The
impression autistic children give is the presence of sensory deficits
though in reality their senses function adequately. The obsessive self-
stimulating behavior is noted among. Autistic children, like, switching
lights on or off throwing objects, and spinning of objects (Baker, 2000).
Although Asperger disorder shares some of the social and affective
deficits associated with autism, children with Asperger symptomatology
do not show significant language delays and are often able to progress
in school at a satisfactory rate (Gelfand and Drew, 2003; Pennington,
2002; Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
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 It is difficult to imagine just how disturbed an autistic child is, but once
you have observed one of these unfortunate children, the memory will
last forever. If two autistic children are placed side by side in a room full
of toys, chances are they will ignore each other and most of the toys.
These children seem to be living is a world much different from our own,
a world in which they seem to prefer inanimate objects to human
interaction. Autistic children often avoid eye contact with others and fail
to modulate social interaction in any way. Often, they appear to be
unaware not only of other people but even of themselves.

Study Guide
1. Explain the intellectual development reflecting changes in the cognitive structures
of children.
2. Explain the concept of the zone of proximal development of Vygotsky.
3. Enumerate and explain the basic assumptions of information-processing
approach.
4. Compare and contrast the theories of nativism, ethology, and Socio-biology.
5. Explain the contextual variables that affect development and specify how they
interact.
6. Enumerate and explain the eight (8) multiple intelligences of Gardner.
7. Name the factors affecting development. How are they related to each other?
8. Discuss giftedness and mental retardation.

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 Chapter 5
Social and Emotional Development of Children and Adolescents
Objectives
1. Identify the various theories of socioemotional development
2. Reflect on the interaction between drives and cultural demands
3. Analyze how Bandura’s how social cognitive theory can best apply in life-like
situations.
4. Explain socialization and the development of identity and social relations
5. Analyze how the various theories of development of moral reasoning, attitudes,
and beliefs can best improve the development of individuals.

I. Theories of Socioemotional Development: Erickson’s Psychosocial

Theory of Human Development, Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theories,
Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence
Theories related to the way children grow and mature have influenced
greatly the scientific approach to child development. First, they facilitate the
organization and integration of whatever information there is into a more
interesting, understandable, and coherent account of how children develop.
Second, the theories bring out testable predictions and interferences about
children’s behavior. However, in the field of child psychology, despite a number
of theories, still not one theory dominates that field, that is to say that no single
theory can explain comprehensively all aspects of human development.
A. Erik Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development
Erickson considered development as resulting from the interaction between
internal drives and cultural demands; thus, his theory is about psychosocial
stages and not psychosexual ones.
Development according to Erickson is a continuous process encompassing
the entire life span.
Table 3
Erickson Psychosocial Stages
Period Stage Positive Characteristic Gained and Typical Activities
Birth to Trust vs. Hope: trust in primary caregiver and in one’s own ability
1 yr. Mistrust to make things happen

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1 to 3 Autonomy Will: new physical skills lead to demand for more
versus choices, most often seen as saying “no” to caregivers;
shame and child learns self-care skills such as toileting.
Doubt
3 to 6 Initiative Purpose: ability to organize activities around some
versus Guilt goals; more assertiveness and aggressiveness (Oedipus
or electra conflict with parent of same sex may lead to
gulit)
6 to 12 Industry Competence: cultural skills and norms, including school
versus skills and tools use (failure to master these leads to
Inferiority sense of inferiority)
12 to Identity Fidelity: adaptation of sense of self to pubertal changes,
18 versus Role consideration of future choices, achievement of a more
confusion mature sexual identity, and search for new values
18 to Intimacy Love: person develops intimate relationships beyond
30 versus adolescent love; many become parents
Isolation
30 to Generativity Care: people rare children, focus on occupational
old age versus achievement or creativity, and train the next generation;
Stagnation turn outward from the self toward others
Old Integrity Wisdom: person conducts a life review, integrate earlier
age versus stages and come to terms with basic identity; develop
Despair self-acceptance

Erickson view achievement of a healthy personality through successful

resolution of a crisis at each of the eight stages of development where each crisis
consists of a pair of opposing possibilities, such as trust versus mistrust or integrity
versus despair. When a crisis is solved there is a development of the positive side
of the dichotomy. However, a resolution does not always guarantee a complete
movement to the positive side. A healthy development requires a favorable positive
ratio of positive to negative. Of the eight stages, so much focus has been given to
the first four in research and even in the amount of theorizing; trust in infancy;
identity in adolescence, intimacy in early adulthood, and generativity in middle
adulthood.
Erickson acknowledge the major role the caregiver (usually the mother)
plays in the most critical stage and that is the first life crisis: trust versus mistrust.
It is required of the caregiver for a successful resolution of crisis to be consistently
loving and attentive and respond to the child predictably and reliably. Infants early

DR. J. ESCALONA 75
develop mistrust when early care is erratic and harsh. When the child is not able
to resolve this crisis, the development of personality is affected which will render
the resolution of later tasks much more difficult.
Erickson’s description of the central adolescent dilemma, which is identity
versus role confusion has been particularly influential. He believed that every
adolescent goes through examination his identity and the roles he must occupy. It
is imperative that he develops a concept of self, what he wants to be, and what
appropriate sexual role he should have. Very likely, he will suffer from confusion
arising from a variety of roles opening up to him at this age.
The adult builds on the identity during the first three adult stages to meet
the crisis of intimacy versus isolation.
Erickson defines intimacy as the ability to fuse one’s identity with someone
else’s without fear of losing something. The fusion of identities can only be reached
when young people have already formed a clear identity, contrary to what is usually
perceived as finding identity in any relationship. For young adults whose identity is
still weak or unformed, relationships will also be shallow, thus resulting in a sense
of isolation or loneliness.
The middle adulthood crisis points to generativity versus stagnation, which
is the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation. One way to achieve
generativity is through the rearing of children, but this is not the only way. Achieving
generativity can also be done by serving as model/mentor to younger colleagues,
doing creative work, playing an active role in an organization or community/society.
When the adult becomes self-absorbed, and non-generative, he may feel a sense
of stagnation.
Each new crisis constitutes a development thrust on the person as he
contends with changes in social demands that most always accompany changes
in age. The fourth stage industry versus inferiority begins when the child starts
school and must learn to read and write. What he doesn’t absorb in the elementary
will be pushed forward into his high school. Such unresolved crisis will be carried
over as excess baggage. Thus, the childhood crisis sets the stage for crisis in the
adolescence and adulthood.
B. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Among the developmental psychologists, Albert Bandura has been the
most influential in terms of learning concepts. He argues that reinforcement is
not always a pre-requisite to learning. Learning may also occur as a result of
watching someone else perform an action and experience reinforcement or
punishment. This kind of learning called observational learning or modeling,
involves a wide range of behaviors. For example, children learn to strut by
watching other people do it in real life and on television.

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 In the matter of skills acquisition, adults learn them by simply observing
others.
Bandura also calls attention to a class for reinforcements called intrinsic
reinforcements. These are reinforcements within an individual, such as the joy
and pleasure felt after having written a poem, or on the part of a child, his having
drawn a star or a flower. Bandura has bridged the gap between learning
theories and other approaches by emphasizing the role of cognitive (mental)
elements in learning. That is to say, that whatever a person learns from
observing others as they perform tasks is influenced by processes such as
attention and memory.
Another important consideration is maturation. It needs maturity to be able
to understand/perform a more complicated task, thus, a 4-year-old cannot be
expected to learn geometry by simply watching a high school student learn
geometry. Further, as Bandura suggests that what an observer learns from a
particular model is influenced by his own goals, expectations about what kinds
of consequences are likely if he adopts the model’s behavior and judgements
of his own performance (Bee and Boyd, 2002).
A child goes through four sets of processes to produce a behavior that
matches that of a model.
First, a child’s experience in particular situation influences his ability to
achieve a model behavior.
Second, whatever skills are retained from what a child has observed a
modeled behavior.
Third, the reproduced behavior is dependent on other cognitive skills, that
includes feedback from others.
Fourth, the motivation to produce the behavior is influenced by various
incentives; his own standards, and his tendency to compare himself with others
(Bandura, 1989 as cited by Hetherington, et.al., 2006).
C. Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is a type of social intelligence that affords the
individual the ability to monitor his own and others’ emotions, to discriminate
among them, and to use the information to guide his thinking and actions.
There are three components of EQ:
1. The awareness of one’s own emotions;
2. The ability to express one’s emotions appropriately; and
3. The capacity to channel emotions into the pursuit of worthwhile objectives

DR. J. ESCALONA 77
 As Goleman claims, an individual does not achieve one’s intellectual
potential in the absence of emotional intelligence. This view has been
strengthened by research on the relationship between self-control in early
childhood and achievement in adolescence. Children’s ability to exercise
control over their emotions in early childhood is strongly related to measures of
academic achievement in high school (Shoa, Mischel, and Peake, 1990 as
cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002).
Major qualities that make up emotional intelligence and how they can be
developed:
1. Self-awareness. The ability to recognize a feeling as it happens is the
keystone of emotional intelligence. People who have greater certainty about
their emotions are better pilots of their lives.
2. Mood Management. The ability to change mood from good to bad and vice
versa.
What should be done to relive rage? It is said that ventilating is one way
to feel better. However, researchers found that it is one of the worst
strategies. Sudden outbursts of rage cause brain arousal making one
angrier.
a. Reframing is a more effective technique which means reinterpreting
a situation and looking at it in a more positive light.
b. Going off alone to cool down is also an effective way to defuse anger.
c. Praying also works for all moods.
3. Self-motivation. Trying to feel more enthusiastic and developing more zeal
and confidence to arrive at concrete achievement.
4. Impulse Control. The essence of emotional self-regulation is the ability to
delay impulse in the service of a goal.
5. People Skills. The ability to feel for another person, whether in job, in
romance, in friendship and in the family.
II. Socialization and the Development of Identity and Social Relations
The child’s sole interpersonal relationships in the early years are with his
parents who present their cultural beliefs, values, and attitudes to their children.
The parents, own personalities as well as their own family backgrounds,
attitudes, values, education, religious beliefs, socioeconomic status, and
gender influence the socialization process.
Socialization is the process by which parents and others set the child’s
standards of behavior, attitudes, skills, and motives to conform closely to what
the society deems appropriate to his role in society.

DR. J. ESCALONA 78
 Children interact with peers and the interaction is more free and more
egalitarian than their parents. This helps in the development of the children’s
social competence and acquisition of the concept of social justice.
Development of Identity
James E. Marcia, a psychologist, had figured well on research that dealt
with identity issues during adolescence. For him, identity is internal, self-
constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, and individual history.
He has identified four identity or statuses and correlated them with other
aspects of personality. These are anxiety, self-esteem, moral reasoning, and
patterns of social behavior. These stages do not form a progression: and are not
in any way included in the identity search but they are not necessarily permanent.
A person’s identity status may change as he or she develops (Cobb, 2001).
Marcia’s four identity statuses are determined by the presence or absence
of the two elements which to Erickson are crucial to forming identity: crisis and
commitment. Marcia defines crisis as a period of conscious decision making while
commitment as a personal investment in an occupation or a system of beliefs
(ideology).
Marcia identifies four categories of identity information: identity
achievement, foreclosure, diffusion, and moratorium.
1. Identity Achievement. (crisis leading to commitment). Those with identity
achievements are characterized by flexible strength and tendency to be
thoughtful, although not so introspective. These individuals function well under
stress, have sense of humor, are receptive to new ideas and ready for intimate
relationships in accordance to their own standards.
2. Foreclosure. (commitment without crisis) characterized by rigid strength; self-
assurance; self-satisfied; and strong sense of family ties. These are the people
who recognize the need for law and order, as well as obedience to a leader.
They can be dogmatic when their ideas are put to test.
3. Identity Diffusion (no commitment). They are those who shy away from
commitment. As carefree individuals, they drift in the absence of focus.
Oftentimes they are carefree, thus, in the absence of intimate relationship they
become unhappy.
4. Moratorium (in crisis). They may not necessarily be in good relationship but
express preference for intimacy. They are characteristically talkative,
competitive, lively and anxious.
Erickson believes that individuals have to confront with old troubles before
they arrive at an identity. This, he refers to the sense of self usually achieved
through an examination and commitment to the particular role an in individual
should pay as an adult member of society. Identity affords the individual to

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know himself better, prepare for his future and realize his dreams and
ambitions. The perception of self includes how others see us, and the
importance they attach to the values and accomplishments (Patterson,
Socthing and Marcia, 1992 as cited by Cobb, 2001).
In defining identity, Erickson also considered three domains to be of
paramount importance: sexuality as expressed in an adult gender role
occupation, and ideology or religious and political beliefs.
The Process of Identity Consolidation
Before adolescence, children’s identities are reflective of the conscious but
simple identification with parents. As observed, children take on what they see
in terms of behaviors and ways of fathers and mothers. Most likely, they
develop the same patterns of doing things and acting out roles in the family. It
is when they reached the period of adolescence that they moved beyond form
what they were able to organize by way of identity, putting together all elements
to create a new whole that will bear the new sets of interest, values, and
choices. This process is called identity formation. At this stage, adolescents act
and behave in a manner distinctly their own which when put together will
manifest an inner sense of self. The process begins in early adolescence and
even in early adulthood when individuals feel free to make choice about studies
jobs and relationships. Identity helps direct the adolescent’s commitment to
occupation, religious, political and gender roles, and values.
When individuals develop a sense of self thereby being able to identify what
is common to oneself from that of others, they understand their uniqueness,
decide for themselves, rely on personal judgements and evaluate themselves
in terms of concrete accomplishments. They can also become intimate with
others without fear of blurring their personal boundaries (Cobb, 2001).
Gender Differences in Identity Information
Gender-biased behaviors are influenced by both biological and
psychological factors. The behavior patterns associated with gender can be
explained psychologically in four ways:
1. Freudian Theory – Process of Identification
2. Cognitive Social Learning Theory
3. Gender – Schema Theory
4. Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender Typing
The process by which children acquire the motives, values and behaviors
viewed as appropriate for males and females within a culture is called gender
typing. Children developed gender-based beliefs, largely on the basis of gender
stereotypes; the latter are reflected in gender roles. Children adopt a gender
identity early in life and develop gender role preferences as well.
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 Gender based beliefs are ideas and expectations about what is appropriate
behavior for males and females.
Gender stereotypes are beliefs and characteristics typified in the behavior
of males and females and which are deemed appropriate and therefore
acceptable.
Gender roles are the composites of behaviors typical of the male or female
in a given culture.
Gender identity is the perception of oneself as either masculine or feminine.
There are differences evident in males and females however, it should be
remembered that the overlap between the distribution is always greater than
the differences between them. Such differences have no direct explanation why
they exist. What is clear is that boys and girls have different opportunities and
experiences as they grow older, which are responsible for diverse outcomes in
terms of behavior patterns.
Lateralization of brain function including hormones are the biological factors
that shape gender differences. Hormones provide a biological predisposition.
Further, social experiences or interactions with others may also alter the
hormonal level.
Men’s edge over women in the accomplishment of spatial and math tasks
is attributed to the greater lateralization of brain function. In the same way, this
also explains the female tendency to be more flexible than males. There are
differences in the brain organization.
Androgenized female fetuses may become girls whose behavior and
interests are traditionally male. On one hand, exceptionally high prenatal
androgens level in females may be correlated with greater visuo-spatial skills.
Development of both sexes traditional and non-traditional is influenced by
environmental factors.
Androgynous persons are those with both masculine and feminine
psychological characteristics. They can be caring and loving in nurturing
children, successful in their endeavors but can be fiercely competitive and
firmly decisive. They are also better adjusted and more creative (Norlander
et.al., 2000 as cited by Hetherington et.al., 2006).
The gender-oriented interests and concerns change as individuals age.
Women may become ultra-feminine and men more androgynous. The increase
in femininity in later life may also reflect the increased dependency both
genders may experience as they continue to age (Hyde et.al., 1991 as cited by
Hetherington et.al., 2006).

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 Siblings influence the brother’s gender socialization. A child who has
siblings of the opposite gender may likely model his sisters’ behavior. Usually,
the younger siblings model their older siblings’ behaviors, regardless of gender.
The sex of the older sibling may determine the character of his or her play with
a younger sibling. Such can result in the younger sibling’s development of less
stereotypical gender-role concepts.
The development theory of Kohlberg states that gender-typed behavior is
not seen until a child is able to achieve gender constancy. Usually, it comes at
around age six (6). Children, however, show signs of gender-typed toy and
activity preference at s much earlier stage. The preference for same-sex
playmates comes at a latter age. Findings suggest that the relation between
the acquisition of gender concepts and the resulting behavior depends on
gender understanding the kind of behavior.
Gender-schema theory suggests that children need only basic information
about gender in order to develop naive mental schemas that help them
organize their experiences and form rules concerning gender. Research finding
to date give the nod to gender-schema theory, which has show that gender
labeling is enough to affect gender-typed preferences well before a child has
achieved gender constancy.
III. Theories of the Development of Moral Reasoning, Attitudes, and Beliefs:
Kohlberg, Turiel, Gilligan
One of the good things socialization brings about is communicating ethical
standards to a developing child. His behavior is shaped by the acquired
concept of what is right and wrong which is imposed by the society where he
assumes membership. Society’s culture may differ in what is desirable in terms
of acceptable patterns of behavior, but such differences are reflected in the set
of rules or system of rules each society adapts. Adults expect children to
conform to the ethical standards set and experience satisfaction when
conforming to them, emotional discomfort or guilt when violating them.
Psychological research has emphasized the three basic components of
morality – cognitive, behavioral, and emotional, their relationships and their
roles in the process of internalization. The cognitive involves knowledge of
ethical rules and judgement of what is good and what is bad. The behavioral
component is the person’s actual behavior, his response to situations involving
ethical considerations. The emotional component involves the person’s feeling
and conduct in reaction to situations that need moral and ethical decisions.
A. Lawrence Kohlberg Cognitive Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg opines that the child’s cognitive capabilities determine
the growth of his moral reasoning. Further, moral development builds on

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 concept acquired in various stages, such that the attainment in each stage
becomes a product of the previous stages.
Kohlberg experimented on this theory by interviewing boys aged 10 to 16.
They were presented moral dilemmas and were made to decide whether to
respect and follow the authority, obey the rules, and respond to the needs and
welfare of other people.
Below is a representative story presented to Kohlberg’s young participants:
The husband (Heinz) needs a particular expensive drug for his dying wife.
However, the pharmacist who discovered and has control of the supply of drug
refuses to give him the drug for the money he now has is not enough.
Heinz promised to pay the rest later. Husband must now decide whether to
steal or not to steal the drug to save his wife, that is whether to obey the rules
and laws of society or to violate them to respond to the needs of his wife.
Husband now decides on what opinions to take. Whatever opinion he takes will
depend on his moral values.
Table 4
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Level I – Preconventional Morality
Stage 1 – To avoid punishment, the child defers to
Obedience and prestigious or powerful people, usually the
Punishment parents. The morality of an act is defined by its
Orientation physical consequence.
Stage 2 – Naive The child conforms to gain rewards. The child
Hedonistic and understands reciprocity and sharing, but this
Instrumental reciprocity is manipulative and self-serving rather
Orientation than based on a true sense of justice, generosity,
sympathy, or compassion. It is a kind of bartering:
“I’ll lend you my bike if I can play with your
wagon.” “I’ll do my homework now, if I can watch
the late-night movie.”
Level II – Conventional Morality: Conventional Rules and Conformity

DR. J. ESCALONA 83
Stage 3 – Good boy The child’s good behavior is designed to maintain
Morality approval and good relations with others. Although
the child is still basing judgements of right and
wrong on others, responses, he is concerned with
their approval and disapproval rather than their
physical power. It is to maintain good will that he
conforms to families’ and friends’ standards.
However, the child is starting to accept others’
social regulations and to judge the goodness or
badness of behavior in terms of a person’s intent to
violate these rules.
Stage 4 – Authority The person blindly accepts social conventions and
and Morality that rules, they should be maintained to avoid censure.
Maintain the Social He now conforms not just to other individuals’
Order standards but to the social order. This is the
epitome of ‘law and order’ morality, involving
questioning acceptance of social regulations. The
person judges behavior as good according to
whether it conforms to a rigid set of rules.
According to Kohlberg

Level III – Postconventional Morality: Self-accepted Moral Principles

Stage 5 – Morality of People now have a flexibility of moral beliefs they
Contract: Individual lacked in earlier stages. Morality is based on an
Rights, and agreement among individuals to conform that
Democratically appear necessary to maintain the social order and
Accepted Law the rights of others. However, because this is a
social contract, it can be modified when people
within a society rationally discuss alternatives that
might be more advantageous to more members of
society.
Stage 6 – Morality of People conform both to social standards and to
Individual Principles internalized ideals. Their intent is to avoid self-
and Conscience condemnation rather than criticism by others.
People base their decisions on abstract principles
involving justice, compassion and equality. This is
a morality based on a respect for others. People
who have attained this level of development will
have highly individualistic moral beliefs that may at
times conflict with rules accepted by the majority of

DR. J. ESCALONA 84
 a society. According to Kohlberg, among the non-
violent activists students who demonstrated in the
mid to late 1960’s against the Vietnam War, more
had attained the postconventional level of morality
than had non-activist students.

B. Elliot Turiel’ Moral Rules

Elliot Tuirel (1983) as cited by Cobb 2001) a psychologist at the University
of California, Berkeley, maintain that even very young children can distinguish
moral rules from what are dictated by conventions and are accepted ways of
doing things. This is seen in standards of dressing and even in speech. Moral
rules manifest a concern for the welfare of others and are not influenced by
opinion.
Moral acts such as hurting someone or hitting somebody as part of a game
cannot be legitimized actions. The youngest children however were less clear
about acts leading to psychological harm, such as name calling as part of a
game (Cobb, 2001).
C. Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development
Carol Gilligan (1989) of Harvard University, speaks of moral development
which strikes a balance between male-oriented theories as expounded by
Kohlberg’s and Freud’s and insights from interviews with females. Based from
Gilligan’s findings most females think of morality more personally than males
do. They usually are more ethical. To them, morality is to be treated in terms of
their responsibilities to others rather than as the rights of individuals. Females
are more compassionate by nature and are careful and fair in their actions.
Gilligan adds that females tend to see themselves in terms of their
relationships with others. On the contrary, males have the tendency to view
themselves as distinct than separate from others. The concepts of separation
and connectedness translated into approaches to morality. The assumption
that one is separate from others emphasizes the need for rules to regulate the
conduct of human behavior and actions of each with respect to others. The
assumption that one is connected to others recognizes the responsibility each
has for the other (Gilligan, 1982 as cited by Cobb 2001).
Males and females look at responsibility differently. For males,
responsibility is conceived as not doing something that would transgress on the
rights of others as when one is guilty of a physical assault. Females think of
responsibility in terms of meeting the needs of others as in caring for the sick.

DR. J. ESCALONA 85
 Sex is therefore a differentiating factor although as Gilligan point out, any
attempt to chart moral development as a single sequence is bound to present
only half the picture.
The moral development in females is traced through three levels each
showing a different resolution to the conflict between responsibility to others.
Movement from one level to the next occurs in two traditional periods.
At the first level, the primary concern is with oneself. When one sees caring
for oneself as selfish and not congruent to responsibility to others, transition to
the next level happens.
At the second level, female equate morality with goodness, self-sacrifice,
and caring for others. The transition to the next level occurs when they meet
problems in their relationships resulting from their exclusion from their own
care.
At the third level, morality is equated with care for both themselves and
others.
IV. Factors Affecting Development: Parenting, Role Models, Peer Groups
and Interactions

A. Parenting
Parenting includes everything that one does while waiting for
something else to happen. It is going out of one’s way to assist, help, listen,
do something for a child. Parenting is learned and picked up from how
individuals are parented. Cobb (2001) stresses that parenting is more a
matter of who one is done what one does, passed on from one generation
to the next.
Diana Baumrind (1996 as cited by Cobb, 2001) has distinguished
four styles of parenting in terms of differences in parental responsiveness
and demandingness. Responsiveness refers to how sensitive, supportive,
and involved parents are. Demandingness is the degree to which parents
hold high expectations for their children’s behavior and supervise their
activities.

DR. J. ESCALONA 86
 Table 5
Styles of Parenting
Parenting Style Characteristics Resulting Social Behavior in
Child
1. Authoritative Demanding, encourages Social competence and
independence; responsibility
responsive, warm, and
nurturing; disciplines with
explanation; maintains
open dialogue
2. Authoritarian Demanding; consistent Ineffective social interaction;
in enforcing standards; inactive
restrictive; controlling
3. Indulgent Responsive, warm and Social competence, well-
nurturing; undemanding; adjusted; peer oriented;
uses punishment misconduct
inconsistently; exercises
little control
4. Neglectful Unresponsive, little Poor orientation to work and
warmth or nurturance, school; behavior problems
undemanding; sets few
limits and provide little
supervision

Authoritative parenting is a style of parenting that stress self-reliance

and independence. Parents maintain open communication lines with
children and give reasons when instilling discipline.
Authoritarian parenting is a style of parenting that stresses
obedience, respect for authority, and traditional values.
Indulgent parenting is a style of parenting characterized by show of
affection, love, warmth, and nurturance but with little supervision.
Neglectful parenting is a style of parenting characterized by little
warmth, nurturing, and supervision.
Although parenting practices differ from ethnicity, parents should
have similar attitudes and practices. There is a considerable overlap.

DR. J. ESCALONA 87
 Discipline gives children a sense of mastery and accomplishment.
On the part of the children, discipline involves learning and self-control and
on the part of the parents, teaching and correction. Discipline necessitates
consistent application of rules along with encouragement in the form of
rewards. Criticism and punishment are not advisable, rather, children
should be allowed to earn the responsibilities they request.
Poverty is associated with increased numbers of risks for children.
When children develop into healthy individuals despite the risk factors, they
are said to be resilient. The greater the number of protective factors in a
child’s life, such as supportive family, church, or school, the greater the
likelihood of resilience (Cobb 2001).
B. Role Models
Working mothers normally serve as role models for their children.
The role modeling, they provide influence both son’s and daughter’s
perception of men and women. Children of working mothers have more
egalitarian views of gender role (Hoffman 2000, Herrington et.al., 2006),
and children in middle class families whose mothers and employed have
higher educational and occupational goals. The differences in goals are
attributed to the fact that working mother compared to homemaker mother
focus on training their children for independence and self- sufficiency. Even
daughters are less likely to display traditional feminine interests. They tend
to show characteristics of females who perceive the women’s role as
involving freedom of choice, satisfaction, and competence. Their daughters
in turn are career are achievement oriented, independent minded with high
self-esteem index. The sons of working mothers compared to sons of full-
time homemaker mothers, not only perceive women as more competent
and judicious, but view men as warmer and more expressive.
What are the long-term effects of maternal employment? Gottfried
(2002) and colleagues found no relationship between maternal employment
and children’s development form infancy to age of 12. They concluded that
there were no sleeper effects associated with mothers working outside the
home.
The children of both mothers who were full-time homemakers and
mothers who worked outside the home were similar in cognitive,
socioemotional, academic, motivational, and behavioral domains from
infancy through adolescence. Research has shown that such factors as
parental involvement and the quality of home environment were clearly
linked to children’s development, regardless of mothers’ occupation
(Bradley, et.al., 2001; Park and Buriel, 2006 as cited by Hetherington, et.al.,
2006).

DR. J. ESCALONA 88
 More than the status of the mothers whether working outside the
home or as a homemaker, children’s development are influenced to a
greater degree by individual differences among mothers. Mothers who have
a sense of satisfaction and self-efficacy in their roles, whether at home or in
their workplace, show more positive relations with their husbands and with
their children than homemakers who feel unhappy with their status and who
would be interested to gain employment outside (Hoffman, 2000). However,
mothers and their attitudes toward maternal employment and the wife’s
work status are not congruent.
Studies show that for as long as there is alternative childcare,
maternal employment does not usually have bad effects on children. Any
attempts to evaluate the effects of maternal employment will require of
examination of other factors that may be relevant such as mother’s reasons
for working, her level of job satisfaction, the demands her employment may
place on other family members, the attitudes of these family members
toward her employment, and the quality of the care and guidance given to
the children.
Peers also influence acquisition of knowledge behaviors. By serving
as role models, children are able to follow their actions and behave like
them. Social skills are learned by modeling or imitating. What the peers do
are copied and followed by those who observe them.
Children also imitate older more powerful and more prestigious peer
models (Ruben, et.al. 2006; Hetherington, et.al., 2006). It is when children
have internalized what values they get through social interactions and learn
the rules of society that imitating others is lessened. By imitation, even
young children can sustain joint play between partners and even join
sophisticated forms of play.
As children age, they learn to reinforce peers’ behaviors. To reinforce
is to pay attention to another’s behavior, either to praise or criticize it, or to
share in it. This is very common among parents who are disappointed when
children simply ignore parental advice. Instead, they prefer listening to
peers. This is where “peer pressure” takes the better of parents’ counsel
which leads to acquisition of deviant behavior among adolescents. Peer
influence can be both harmful and beneficial.
Peer interactions provide opportunity for specific instruction and
learning. This is clearly seen in school games and sport competition where
peers can teach each other and learn and acquire new skills together. Aside
from skills acquisition, peer interaction serves as a good venue for
developing personal and group relationships including the sense of
belonging.

DR. J. ESCALONA 89
C. Peer Group and Interactions
As the young are experiencing rapid physical changes, they take
comfort with other people who are undergoing the same changes. At a time
when they tend to entertain questions about the value of adult standards
and the need for parental guidance, they turn to friends for advice. They feel
consoled that they can understand and sympathize with them since they
are also placed in the same situation. Even when they try new ideas and
new values, they test these ideas on their peers knowing they will be less
ridiculed unlike when they try them on their parents. The peer group has
always been a source of affection, sympathy, and understanding; a place
for experimentation and a supportive setting for the achievement of
autonomy and independence from parents.
There are variations in interactions with parents and sibling
associated with birth order. Usually, firstborn children are affected
emotionally after a birth of a sibling. They show behavioral problems like
craving for attention. These, however, are mediated by the mother’s show
of concern, by attending to the first born and encouraging father to get
involved in activities. Generally, parents, involvement is highest among
firstborn often having high expectations and exerting greater pressure for
achievement.
Firstborns differ in characteristics from later born children. Firstborns
are more anxious, adult-oriented, helpful, self-controlled, and conforming
than their siblings. Further, they tend to excel in both academic and
professional endeavors. While children experience many of the same
parental demands of firstborns, they do not really have to compete with
siblings.
Birth order and variations in sibling relations are related. Eldest
children are usually expected to help the younger children and assume their
responsibility. This leads to nurturant behavior toward younger siblings. As
expected, eldest children treat parents as sources of social learning,
whereas younger children use both parents and older siblings as models
and teachers.
Children’s social status is fairly stable throughout the grade school
years. A number of statuses can be distinguished according to their
interactive style. Popular and average children are both cooperative, willing
to take turns, and play well with others. Popular children tend to act as
leaders, set the rules for the group and are able to maintain play with others
for long periods. Rejected children are more aggressive than others, more
active physically and verbally, and are indifferent to others, are more likely

DR. J. ESCALONA 90
to exclude others when playing. These statuses appear to reflect genuine
different in skills, intervention programs need to focus on skill building.
Children who make friends with aggressive children may either
become the object of relational aggression or of being drawn into
interactions with others. A relatively stable characteristic of children is
victimization other than aggression. Those who are likely to be victimized
are children who cry easily, have poor social skills, and are submissive
when attacked (Cobb, 2001).
Adolescence is a stage which individuals can handle with ease and
grace. However, support from peers allows for more involvement with them
which may put pressure on their behavior, thus getting disapproval from
parents.
Shared activities and interests are essential elements in the selection
of friends in adolescence. However, similarities in interests and attitudes
become more pronounced during the teenaged years. For example,
adolescents tend to choose friends who share their beliefs about smoking,
drug use, sex, and the importance of academic achievement (Urdan, 1997
as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002).
Teen friendships are more intimate because they can share each
other’s feelings and secrets. They are more knowledgeable about each
other’s feelings. Among teenagers the more valued characteristics are
loyalty and faithfulness. However, the ability to manifest these traits like
intimacy, loyalty and faithfulness does not come automatically with age. The
variation may be the result of individual differences in temperament and
personality or teens experiences with family relationships (Updegraff and
Obeidallah, 1999 as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002).
Teens prefer friends who go for the same interests – sports, music,
dance, and so on. They are able to maintain their friendship through these
activities which contribute to a stable friendship in adolescence.
In the early years of adolescence, cliques are common, and they are
of the same sex groups usually a hold-over from the preadolescent pattern.
Gradually, however, cliques are combined into larger sets that Dunphy
(1963 as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002) called crowds which include both
males and females. Later the same crowds break down into cliques of both
sexes and then into loose associations of couples. Based on Dunphy’s
study, adolescents socialized in crowds roughly between 13 and 15. These
are the years when they demonstrate extreme conformity to peer pressure.
Contemporary researchers on adolescence have changed Dunphy’s
labels (Brown, 1990; Mory & Kinny, 1994 as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002).

DR. J. ESCALONA 91
 The word crowd is made to refer to the based group with which the young
person is identified, either by choice or by peer designation. Such groups
are labeled jocks, brains, nerd, dweebs, punks, druggies, toughs, normals,
popular, prepies and loners. Labeling others and oneself as belonging to
one or more of these groups helps to create or reinforce the adolescent’s
own identity (Brown, et.al., 1994). Such labeling also helps the adolescent
identify potential friends or foes.
Within any given school, the various crowds are organized into a
fairly clear, widely understood pecking order. In US schools, the groups
labeled as some variant of jocks, populars, or normal are typically at the top
of the heap, with brains, somewhere at the middle and druggies, and loners,
and nerds at the bottom (Brown, et.al., 1994).
In one school system, researchers found that junior high students
labeled only two major crowds, one small high-status group called trendies
and the great mass of lower status students called dweebs (Kinney, 1993).
Another two low status groups are grits and punkers.
V. Exceptional Development
Gifted children are those who score 130 or above on an intelligence test
and have creative, artistic, leadership. The special talents these children have
make them gifted. Gifted children fail to fit any stereotype. For this reason,
varied educational programs are offered to provide them with more experiences
for enrichment. These are experiences beyond what children ordinarily get.
Acceleration is also done to gifted children allowing them to advance beyond
their grade level. Gifted children may excel in music, art, mathematics,
language, science, and even in sports.
On the other hand, there are children with learning disabilities. They are of
average or above average intelligence and manifest a discrepancy between
expected and actual performance. These children perform academic tasks
poorly, which may likely be attributed to a neurological dysfunction. Learning
among disabled students falls at least two grade levels behind classmates and
whatever difficulties related to learning cannot be traced to emotional or
sensory dysfunction. Social skills are also affected reflected in their inability to
relate, interact with others and work with groups, thus, reducing opportunities
to learn and acquire skills, necessary to learn faster and better.
A. Juvenile Delinquency
Juvenile delinquents are classified into two. One is the status offender. He
is the young person who is truant, disregard house rules, engages in activities
not allowed for his age or has likely done something which can be classified a
crime were it not for his being minor.

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 The second kind of juvenile delinquent is one who has done something that
is considered a crime regardless of who commits. Example: robbery, murder or
rape. Young persons aged 16 to 18 are treated differently from other criminals.
B. Psychological Disorders that Affect Children
Behaviors that a child fails to control to be able to suit the demands of a
given environment are termed under-controlled disorders. They can come in
the form of non-compliance, disobedience, rule violation, and aggression.
These behaviors impact on those people in the child’s environment. These
disorders are classified as conduct disorders and deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Conduct disorder manifests in repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior
where a young person transgresses on the basic rights of others or violates
societal norms or rules. This is considered a disorder of undercontrol. When a
young person in the company of peers show this behavior, the problem is
termed a socialized conduct disorder, whereas when the behavior occurs
primarily when the child is alone, the disorder is said to be unsocialized.
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a persistent pattern of
inattention and hyperactivity or impulsivity that is far and excess of such
behaviors observed in children in various stages of development. This disorder
creates difficulties in relating to people at home, in the classroom and in the
peer group. Studies have shown that hyperactivity children can run into conflict
with adults in their environment like school and home and that they have poor
academic performance. They also create serious problems in classroom
management for the teachers. Children with this disorder show overactivity,
limited attention span, impulsivity, and problems related to adherence to
instructions and rules.
The overcontrolled disorders have adverse effect on the child himself. The
child with this disorder is characterized as withdrawn, passive, disinterested in
things and in people, in general, not the happy child a parent would want to
have. Relationship with people in his environment is restrained and overly
controlled, hence, the disorder makes the child feel sad, fearful, and worried.
In cases where there is excessive fear it may cause considerable discomfort
not only to the children but their families as well.
Most phobias are learned through association of the experience of being in
a state of fear with a specific stimulus. For example: a child’s experience with
an overly strict teacher who over-burdened him with series of questions which
he could not answer could have embarrassed the child deeply so that the child
will have the tendency to be inactive during recitation. He will likely shy away
from school activities that will involve discussion or sharing of ideas. These
phobias are usually learned and will need therapeutic intervention to unlearn

DR. J. ESCALONA 93
the association. As it is, many people are able to overcome their phobias by
exposure to the fear-producing stimulus until they are relieved of the anxiety.
Anxiety disorders are characterized by the feeling of apprehension and low
self-confidence that may be felt through the adult years.
Anxiety disorders associated with moods are the most common type of
mental difficulty. One kind of these disorders is depression which is higher in
the early adulthood than in adolescence or middle age. Thus, the time in life
which people experience the peak of physical and intellectual functioning is
also the time when they are most prone to feelings of sadness. Depression
rates are higher in early adulthood because these are the years that involve
creating new attachment relationships while at the same time separating from
parents. The brief periods in the life of people in the early adulthood result in
feelings of loneliness and contribute to failure in social interaction.
It is important to remember that under-controlling and over-controlling
behaviors occur together. An aggressive child may also experience
depression. It is like saying bad things as well as good things occur together.
Comorbidity is the term used to describe this co-occurrence of two or more
problem behaviors (Pennington, 2002; Hetherington, et.al, 2006).

DR. J. ESCALONA 94
 Study Guide
1. Discuss Erickson’s psychosocial theory of human development.
2. Reflect on the interaction between drives and cultural demands.
3. Analyze how Bandura’s social cognitive theory can best apply in life-like
situations.
4. Explain socialization and the development of identity and social relations.
5. Analyze how the various theories of development of moral reasoning,
attitudes, and beliefs can best improve the development of individuals.

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