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13t h E d it ion
Grob’s BASIC
ELECTRONICS
Mitchel E. Schultz
Grob’s Basic
Electronics
Grob’s Basic
Electronics
13th Edition
Mitchel E. Schultz
Western Technical College
GROB’S BASIC ELECTRONICS
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2021 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the
prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other
electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 24 23 22 21 20
ISBN 978-1-260-57144-8
MHID 1-260-57144-0
All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education
does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
Dedication
This book is dedicated to all of the students I have had the honor of teaching
over the span of my career. Your passion and level of commitment to learning
has truly been inspiring.

Brief Contents
I Introduction to Powers of 10 2
Chapter 1 Electricity 22
Chapter 2 Resistors 56
Chapter 3 Ohm’s Law 80
Chapter 4 Series Circuits 112
Chapter 5 Parallel Circuits 146
Chapter 6 Series-Parallel Circuits 178
Chapter 7 Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 214
Chapter 8 Analog and Digital Multimeters 238
Chapter 9 Kirchhoff ’s Laws 274
Chapter 10 Network Theorems 298
Chapter 11 Conductors and Insulators 330
Chapter 12 Batteries 360
Chapter 13 Magnetism 396
Chapter 14 Electromagnetism 416
Chapter 15 Alternating Voltage and Current 450
Chapter 16 Capacitance 494
Chapter 17 Capacitive Reactance 534
Chapter 18 Capacitive Circuits 556
Chapter 19 Inductance 582
Chapter 20 Inductive Reactance 628
Chapter 21 Inductive Circuits 650
Chapter 22 RC and L/R Time Constants 678
Chapter 23 Alternating Current Circuits 712
Chapter 24 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 742
Chapter 25 Resonance 772
Chapter 26 Filters 808
Chapter 27 Three-Phase AC Power Systems 852
vii
Chapter 28 Diodes and Diode Applications 884
Chapter 29 Bipolar Junction Transistors 932
Chapter 30 Transistor Amplifiers 966
Chapter 31 Field Effect Transistors 1008
Chapter 32 Power Amplifiers 1048
Chapter 33 Thyristors 1080
Chapter 34 Operational Amplifiers 1098
Appendix A Electrical Symbols and Abbreviations 1150
Appendix B Solder and the Soldering Process 1153
Appendix C Listing of Preferred Resistance Values 1160
Appendix D Component Schematic Symbols 1161
Appendix E Using the Oscilloscope 1167
Appendix F Introduction to Multisim 1182
Appendix G Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) 1224
Glossary 1227
Answers Self-Tests 1236
Answers Odd-Numbered Problems and Critical Thinking Problems 1242
Index 1265
viii Brief Contents

Contents
Preface xix
Electric Shock—Dangers, Precautions, and First Aid xxix
I Introduction to Powers of 10 2
I–1 Scientific Notation 4 I–6 Reciprocals with Powers
I–2 Engineering Notation and of 10 13
Metric Prefixes 6 I–7 Squaring Numbers Expressed
I–3 Converting between Metric in Powers of 10 Notation 14
Prefixes 10 I–8 Square Roots of Numbers
I–4 Addition and Subtraction Expressed in Powers of
Involving Powers of 10 Notation 14
10 Notation 11 I–9 The Scientific Calculator 15
I–5 Multiplication and Division Summary 17
Involving Powers of
10 Notation 12
Chapter 1 Electricity 22
1–1 Negative and Positive 1–7 Resistance Is Opposition to
Polarities 24 Current 38
1–2 Electrons and Protons in the 1–8 The Closed Circuit 40
Atom 24 1–9 The Direction of Current 42
1–3 Structure of the Atom 27 1–10 Direct Current (DC) and
1–4 The Coulomb Alternating Current (AC) 45
Unit of Electric Charge 30 1–11 Sources of Electricity 46
1–5 The Volt Unit of Potential 1–12 The Digital Multimeter 47
Difference 33
Summary 51
1–6 Charge in Motion Is
Current 35
Chapter 2 Resistors 56
2–1 Types of Resistors 58 2–5 Power Rating of
2–2 Resistor Color Coding 61 Resistors 68
2–3 Variable Resistors 65 2–6 Resistor Troubles 69
2–4 Rheostats and Summary 74
Potentiometers 66
Chapter 3 Ohm’s Law 80

3–1 The Current I = V/R 82 3–5 Multiple and Submultiple
3–2 The Voltage V = IR 84 Units 86
3–3 The Resistance R = V/I 85 3–6 The Linear Proportion
between V and I 88
3–4 Practical Units 86
ix
3–7 Electric Power 90 3–11 Electric Shock 99
3–8 Power Dissipation in 3–12 Open-Circuit and Short-
Resistance 94 Circuit Troubles 100
3–9 Power Formulas 95 ummary 103
S
3–10 Choosing a Resistor for a
Circuit 97
Chapter 4 Series Circuits 112

4–1 hy I Is the Same in All Parts
W 4–7 Series-Aiding and
of a Series Circuit 114 Series-Opposing
4–2 Total R Equals the Sum Voltages 123
of All Series Resistances 116 4–8 Analyzing Series Circuits
4–3 Series IR Voltage with Random
Drops 118 Unknowns 124
4–4 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law 4–9 Ground Connections in
(KVL) 119 Electrical and Electronic
Systems 126
4–5 Polarity of IR Voltage
Drops 121 4–10 Troubleshooting: Opens and
Shorts in Series Circuits 128
4–6 Total Power in a Series
Circuit 122 Summary 135
Chapter 5 Parallel Circuits 146

5–1 The Applied Voltage VA Is the 5–6 Total Power in Parallel
Same across Parallel Circuits 159
Branches 148 5–7 Analyzing Parallel Circuits
5–2 Each Branch I Equals with Random
VA /R 149 Unknowns 160
5–3 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law 5–8 Troubleshooting: Opens and
(KCL) 150 Shorts in Parallel
5–4 Resistances in Parallel 152 Circuits 160
5–5 Conductances in Summary 168
Parallel 158
Chapter 6 Series-Parallel Circuits 178

6–1 inding R T for Series-Parallel
F 6–5 nalyzing Series-Parallel
A
Resistances 180 Circuits with Random
6–2 Resistance Strings in Unknowns 185
Parallel 181 6–6 The Wheatstone Bridge 188
6–3 Resistance Banks in 6–7 Troubleshooting: Opens and
Series 183 Shorts in Series-Parallel
6–4 Resistance Banks and Strings Circuits 192
in Series-Parallel 184 Summary 198

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 1 to 6 211
xContents
Chapter 7 Voltage Dividers and Current
Dividers 214
7–1 Series Voltage Dividers 216 7–4 eries Voltage Divider
S
7–2 Current Divider with Two with Parallel Load
Parallel Resistances 220 Current 223
7–3 Current Division by Parallel 7–5 Design of a Loaded Voltage
Conductances 222 Divider 225
Summary 227
Chapter 8 Analog and Digital Multimeters 238

8–1 Moving-Coil Meter 240 8–7 Digital Multimeter
8–2 Meter Shunts 242 (DMM) 255
8–3 Voltmeters 245 8–8 Meter Applications 257
8–4 Loading Effect of a 8–9 Checking Continuity with
Voltmeter 248 the Ohmmeter 259
8–5 Ohmmeters 250 Summary 264
8–6 Multimeters 253

Chapter 9 Kirchhoff ’s Laws 274

9–1 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law 9–4 Node-Voltage Analysis 285
(KCL) 276 9–5 Method of Mesh
9–2 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law Currents 287
(KVL) 278 ummary 291
S
9–3 Method of Branch
Currents 281
Chapter 10 Network Theorems 298

10–1 Superposition Theorem 300 10–6 Thevenin-Norton
10–2 Thevenin’s Theorem 301 Conversions 310
10–3 Thevenizing a Circuit with Two 10–7 Conversion of Voltage and
Voltage Sources 304 Current Sources 312
10–4 Thevenizing a Bridge 10–8 Millman’s Theorem 314
Circuit 305 10–9 T or Y and π or Δ
10–5 Norton’s Theorem 307 Connections 316
Summary 321

Chapter 11 Conductors and Insulators 330

11–1 Function of the 11–4 Connectors 337
Conductor 332 11–5 Printed Circuit Board 338
11–2 Standard Wire Gage 11–6 Switches 339
Sizes 333
11–7 Fuses 341
11–3 Types of Wire
Conductors 335 11–8 Wire Resistance 343
Contents xi
11–9 emperature Coefficient
T 11–12 T roubleshooting Hints for
of Resistance 346 Wires and Connectors 352
11–10 Ion Current in Liquids and Summary 355
Gases 348
11–11 Insulators 350
Chapter 12 Batteries 360

12–1 Introduction to 12–7 urrent Drain Depends
C
Batteries 362 on Load Resistance 378
12–2 The Voltaic Cell 364 12–8 Internal Resistance
12–3 Common Types of Primary of a Generator 379
Cells 366 12–9 Constant-Voltage and
12–4 Lead-Acid Wet Cell 370 Constant-Current
Sources 382
12–5 Additional Types
of Secondary Cells 373 12–10 Matching a Load Resistance
to the Generator ri 384
12–6 Series-Connected and
Parallel-Connected Cells 376 Summary 388

Chapter 13 Magnetism 396

13–1 The Magnetic Field 398 13–6 Types of Magnets 407
13–2 Magnetic Flux (ϕ) 400 13–7 Ferrites 408
13–3 Flux Density (B ) 402 13–8 Magnetic Shielding 409
13–4 Induction by the Magnetic 13–9 The Hall Effect 409
Field 404 Summary 411
13–5 Air Gap of a Magnet 406
Chapter 14 Electromagnetism 416

14–1 mpere-Turns of
A 14–6 Magnetic Polarity of a
Magnetomotive Force Coil 428
(mmf ) 418 14–7 Motor Action between Two
14–2 Field Intensity (H ) 419 Magnetic Fields 429
14–3 B-H Magnetization 14–8 Induced Current 431
Curve 422 14–9 Generating an Induced
14–4 Magnetic Hysteresis 424 Voltage 433
14–5 Magnetic Field around an 14–10 Relays 437
Electric Current 426 Summary 443
Chapter 15 Alternating Voltage and Current 450

15–1 Alternating Current 15–7 Period 463
Applications 452 15–8 Wavelength 464
15–2 Alternating-Voltage 15–9 Phase Angle 467
Generator 453
15–10 The Time Factor in Frequency
15–3 The Sine Wave 456 and Phase 470
15–4 Alternating Current 457 15–11 Alternating Current Circuits
15–5 Voltage and Current Values with Resistance 471
for a Sine Wave 458 15–12 Nonsinusoidal AC
15–6 Frequency 461 Waveforms 473
xiiContents
15–13 Harmonic Frequencies 475 15–16 Three–Phase AC Power 480
15–14 The 60-Hz AC Power Summary 484
Line 475
15–15 Motors and Generators 478

Chapter 16 Capacitance 494

16–1 ow Charge Is Stored
H 16–7 Parallel Capacitances 515
in a Capacitor 496 16–8 Series Capacitances 515
16–2 Charging and Discharging 16–9 Energy Stored in Electrostatic
a Capacitor 497 Field of Capacitance 517
16–3 The Farad Unit of 16–10 Measuring and Testing
Capacitance 499 Capacitors 518
16–4 Typical Capacitors 503 16–11 Troubles in Capacitors 521
16–5 Electrolytic Capacitors 508 Summary 525
16–6 Capacitor Coding 510
Chapter 17 Capacitive Reactance 534

17–1 lternating Current
A 17–5 pplications of Capacitive
A
in a Capacitive Circuit 536 Reactance 542
17–2 The Amount of XC Equals 17–6 Sine-Wave Charge
1/(2πfC ) 537 and Discharge Current 543
17–3 Series and Parallel Capacitive Summary 548
Reactances 541
17–4 Ohm’s Law Applied to XC 542
Chapter 18 Capacitive Circuits 556

18–1 Sine Wave vC Lags iC by 18–6 RF and AF Coupling
90° 558 Capacitors 568
18–2 X C and R in Series 559 18–7 Capacitive Voltage
18–3 Impedance Z Triangle 561 Dividers 569
18-4 RC Phase-Shifter 18–8 The General Case of
Circuit 563 Capacitive Current iC 571
18–5 X C and R in Parallel 564 Summary 572

Chapter 19 Inductance 582

19–1 Induction by Alternating 19–7 Transformer Ratings 599
Current 584 19–8 Impedance
19–2 Self-Inductance L 585 Transformation 602
19–3 Self-Induced Voltage vL 588 19–9 Core Losses 606
19–4 How vL Opposes a Change 19–10 Types of Cores 607
in Current 589 19–11 Variable Inductance 608
19–5 Mutual Inductance L M 590 19–12 Inductances in Series or
19–6 Transformers 593 Parallel 609
Contents xiii
19–13 E nergy in a Magnetic Field 19–15 Measuring and Testing
of Inductance 611 Inductors 614
19–14 Stray Capacitive Summary 619
and Inductive Effects 612
Chapter 20 Inductive Reactance 628

20–1 How XL Reduces the Amount 20–5 pplications of XL for Different
A
of I 630 Frequencies 636
20–2 XL = 2πf L 631 20–6 Waveshape of vL Induced
20–3 Series and Parallel Inductive by Sine-Wave Current 637
Reactances 635 Summary 642
20–4 Ohm’s Law Applied to X L 635
Chapter 21 Inductive Circuits 650

21–1 Sine Wave iL Lags vL by 21–5 Q of a Coil 661
90° 652 21–6 AF and RF Chokes 664
21–2 XL and R in Series 653 21–7 The General Case
21–3 Impedance Z Triangle 655 of Inductive Voltage 666
21–4 XL and R in Parallel 658 ummary 668
S
Chapter 22 RC and L/R Time Constants 678

22–1 Response of Resistance 22–8 Long and Short Time
Alone 680 Constants 691
22–2 L/R Time Constant 680 22–9 Charge and Discharge
22–3 High Voltage Produced by with a Short RC Time
Opening an RL Circuit 682 Constant 692
22–4 RC Time Constant 684 22–10 Long Time Constant for an RC
Coupling Circuit 693
22–5 RC Charge and Discharge
Curves 687 22–11 Advanced Time Constant
Analysis 695
22–6 High Current Produced by
Short-Circuiting an RC 22–12 Comparison of Reactance and
Circuit 688 Time Constant 698
22–7 RC Waveshapes 689 Summary 701

Chapter 23 Alternating Current Circuits 712

23–1 C Circuits with Resistance
A 23–7 eries-Parallel Reactance
S
but No Reactance 714 and Resistance 723
23–2 Circuits with XL Alone 715 23–8 Real Power 724
23–3 Circuits with XC Alone 716 23–9 AC Meters 726
23–4 Opposite Reactances 23–10 Wattmeters 727
Cancel 717 23–11 Summary of Types of Ohms
23–5 Series Reactance and in AC Circuits 727
Resistance 719 23–12 Summary of Types of Phasors
23–6 Parallel Reactance and in AC Circuits 728
Resistance 721 Summary 733
xivContents
Chapter 24 Complex Numbers for AC
Circuits 742
24–1 Positive and Negative 24–9 onverting Polar to
C
Numbers 744 Rectangular Form 753
24–2 The j Operator 744 24–10 Complex Numbers in Series
24–3 Definition of a Complex AC Circuits 755
Number 746 24–11 Complex Numbers in Parallel
24–4 How Complex Numbers Are AC Circuits 757
Applied to AC Circuits 746 24–12 Combining Two Complex
24–5 Impedance in Complex Branch Impedances 759
Form 747 24–13 Combining Complex
24–6 Operations with Complex Branch Currents 760
Numbers 749 24–14 Parallel Circuit with Three
24–7 Magnitude and Angle of a Complex Branches 761
Complex Number 750 Summary 763
24–8 Polar Form of Complex
Numbers 752

Chapter 25 Resonance 772

25–1 The Resonance Effect 774 25–7 Tuning 793
25–2 Series Resonance 774 25–8 Mistuning 795
25–3 Parallel Resonance 778 25–9 Analysis of Parallel
25–4 Resonant Frequency Resonant Circuits 796
___
fr = 1∕(2 π √
LC ) 781 25–10 Damping of Parallel
Resonant Circuits 797
25–5 Q Magnification Factor
of a Resonant Circuit 785 25–11 Choosing L and C for a
Resonant Circuit 799
25–6 Bandwidth of a Resonant
Circuit 789 Summary 800
Chapter 26 Filters 808

26–1 Examples of Filtering 810 26–8 High-Pass Filters 821
26–2 Direct Current Combined 26–9 Analyzing Filter Circuits 822
with Alternating Current 810 26–10 Decibels and Frequency
26–3 Transformer Coupling 813 Response Curves 831
26–4 Capacitive Coupling 814 26–11 Resonant Filters 838
26–5 Bypass Capacitors 817 26–12 Interference Filters 840
26–6 Filter Circuits 819 Summary 842
26–7 Low-Pass Filters 820

Chapter 27 Three-Phase AC Power Systems 852

27–1 Three-Phase AC 27–3 he Delta (Δ)-Connected
T
Generators 854 Three-Phase Generator 860
27–2 The Wye (Y)-Connected 27–4 Three-Phase Source/Load
Three-Phase Generator 855 Configurations 863
Contents xv
27–5 Three-Phase Power Summary 876
Calculations 871
Chapter 28 Diodes and Diode Applications 884

28–1 Semiconductor 28–5 Diode Ratings 897
Materials 886 28–6 Rectifier Circuits 898
28–2 The p -n Junction Diode 888 28–7 Special Diodes 916
28–3 Volt-Ampere Characteristic Summary 924
Curve 891
28–4 Diode Approximations 894
Chapter 29 Bipolar Junction Transistors 932

29–1 Transistor 29–4 Transistor Ratings 942
Construction 934 29–5 Checking a Transistor with an
29–2 Proper Transistor Ohmmeter 945
Biasing 936 29–6 Transistor Biasing
29–3 Transistor Operating Techniques 947
Regions 940 Summary 959
Chapter 30 Transistor Amplifiers 966

30–1 AC Resistance of a 30–6 Common-Collector
Diode 968 Amplifier 981
30–2 Small Signal Amplifier 30–7 AC Analysis of an Emitter
Operation 970 Follower 983
30–3 AC Equivalent Circuit of 30-8 Emitter Follower
a CE Amplifier 974 Applications 988
30–4 Calculating the Voltage Gain, 30-9 Common-Base Amplifier 991
A V, of a CE Amplifier 974 30-10 AC Analysis of a Common-
30–5 Calculating the Input and Base Amplifier 992
Output Impedances in a CE Summary 998
Amplifier 979
Chapter 31 Field Effect Transistors 1008

31–1 JFETs and Their 31–5 MOSFET Biasing
Characteristics 1010 Techniques 1035
31–2 JFET Biasing 31–6 Handling MOSFETs 1037
Techniques 1015 Summary 1039
31–3 JFET Amplifiers 1021
31–4 MOSFETs and Their
Characteristics 1029
Chapter 32 Power Amplifiers 1048

32–1 Classes of Operation 1050 32–4 Class C Amplifiers 1067
32–2 Class A Amplifiers 1051 Summary 1073
32–3 Class B Push-Pull
Amplifiers 1060
xviContents
Chapter 33 Thyristors 1080
33–1 Diacs 1082 33–4 Unijunction
33–2 SCRs and Their Transistors 1089
Characteristics 1082 Summary 1093
33–3 Triacs 1087
Chapter 34 Operational Amplifiers 1098

34–1 Differential Amplifiers 1100 34–4 Popular Op-Amp
34–2 Operational Amplifiers and Circuits 1124
Their Characteristics 1107 Summary 1140
34–3 Op-Amp Circuits with
Negative Feedback 1114
Appendix A Electrical Symbols and Abbreviations 1150

Appendix B Solder and the Soldering Process 1153
Appendix C Listing of Preferred Resistance Values 1160
Appendix D Component Schematic Symbols 1161
Appendix E Using the Oscilloscope 1167
Appendix F Introduction to Multisim 1182
Appendix G Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) 1224
Glossary 1227
Answers Self-Tests 1236
Answers Odd-Numbered Problems and Critical Thinking Problems 1242
Index 1265
Contents xvii
Preface
The thirteenth edition of Grob’s Basic Electronics provides students and instructors
with complete and comprehensive coverage of the fundamentals of electricity and
electronics. The book is written for beginning students who have little or no experi-
ence and/or knowledge about the field of electronics. A basic understanding of
algebra and trigonometry is helpful since several algebraic equations and right-
angle trigonometry problems appear throughout the text.
The opening material in the book, titled “Introduction to Powers of 10,”
prepares students to work with numbers expressed in scientific and engineering
notation as well as with the most common metric prefixes encountered in electron-
ics. Students learn how to add, subtract, multiply, divide, square, and take the square
root of numbers expressed in any form of powers of 10 notation.
Chapters 1 through 12 cover the basics of atomic structure, voltage, current,
resistance, the resistor color code, Ohm’s law, power, series circuits, parallel cir-
cuits, series-parallel (combination) circuits, voltage and current dividers, analog and
digital meters, Kirchhoff’s laws, network theorems, wire resistance, switches, insu-
lators, primary and secondary cells, battery types, internal resistance, and maximum
transfer of power. The first 12 chapters are considered DC chapters because the
voltages and currents used in analyzing the circuits in these chapters are strictly DC.
Chapters 13 through 27 cover the basics of magnetism, electromagnetism, relays,
alternating voltage and current, capacitance, capacitor types, capacitive reactance,
capacitive circuits, inductance, transformers, inductive reactance, inductive circuits,
RC and L/R time constants, real power, apparent power, power factor, complex num-
bers, resonance, filters, and three-phase AC power systems. Chapters 13–27 are
considered the AC chapters since the voltages and currents used in analyzing the
circuits in these chapters are primarily AC.
Chapters 28 through 34 cover the basics of electronic devices, which include
semiconductor physics, diode characteristics, diode testing, half-wave and full-wave
rectifier circuits, the capacitor input filter, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), zener
diodes, bipolar junction transistors, transistor biasing techniques, the common-
emitter, common-collector, and common-base amplifiers, JFET and MOSFET char-
acteristics, JFET amplifiers, MOSFET amplifiers, class A, class B and class C
amplifiers, diacs, SCRs, triacs, UJTs, op-amp characteristics, inverting amplifiers,
noninverting amplifiers, and nonlinear op-amp circuits. These seven additional
chapters covering electronic devices may qualify this text for those who want to
use it for DC fundamentals, AC fundamentals, as well as electronic devices.
Appendixes A through G serve as a resource for students seeking additional infor-
mation on topics that may or may not be covered in the main part of the text. Appen-
dix A provides a comprehensive list of electrical quantities and their symbols. It also
includes a listing of the most popular multiple and submultiple units encountered in
electronics as well as a listing of all the Greek letter symbols and their uses. Appen-
dix B provides students with a comprehensive overview of solder and the soldering
process. Appendix C provides a list of preferred values for resistors. The list of pre-
ferred values shows the multiple and submultiple values available for a specified
tolerance. Appendix D provides a complete listing of electronic components and
their respective schematic symbols. Appendix E provides students with an introduc-
tion on how to use an oscilloscope. Both analog and digital scopes are covered.
Appendix F provides an extensive overview on the use of Multisim, which is an
interactive circuit simulation software package that allows students to create and test
xix
electronic circuits. Appendix F introduces students to the main features of Multisim
that directly relate to their study of DC circuits, AC circuits, and electronic devices.
Appendix G provides thorough coverage of the damaging effects of electrostatic
discharge (ESD). It also discusses the proper techniques and procedures to follow to
prevent ESD from damaging sensitive electronic components and assemblies.
What’s New in the Thirteenth Edition

of Grob’s Basic Electronics?
The thirteenth edition continues to provide complete and comprehensive coverage
of the basics of electricity and electronics. Several sections throughout the book
have been updated to reflect the latest changes in the field of electronics, and new
photos and illustrations have been added and/or replaced throughout the book, giv-
ing it a fresh, new look. Significant changes are outlined below.
A new section, “Electric Shock—Dangers, Precautions and First Aid,” has
been added. Detailed coverage of the dangers associated with electricity and elec-
tronic circuits is provided in this section. A guideline of safe practices for students
to follow in a laboratory setting has also been included. This section also outlines
the first aid and medical treatment procedures a person should follow if assisting
someone who has experienced an electric shock.
Real-World Applications appearing throughout the book have been increased.
These Real-World Applications validate the importance of the topics discussed
within a given chapter.
∙ Chapter 1, Electricity: A new section, “Application in Understanding
Alternative and Renewable Energy,” has been added. This section
defines alternative and renewable energy and discusses the basics of two
common types, wind and solar energy. It also discusses the benefits and
limitations of solar and wind energy.
∙ Chapter 2, Resistors: A new section, “Application in Understanding
Varistors and Surge Protectors,” has been added. In this section, the
characteristics and ratings of metal-oxide varistors (MOVs) are
thoroughly examined. Furthermore, this section explains how MOVs are
used in surge protectors to prevent voltage spikes (power surges) from
damaging sensitive electronic equipment plugged into the 120 V AC
power line.
∙ Chapter 8, Analog and Digital Multimeters: A new section,
“Application in Understanding Clamp-On Ammeters,” has also been
added. In this section, the controls, keys, and features of a typical
clamp-on ammeter are discussed. Also discussed is the technique for
using an AC line-splitter to measure the AC current in a power cord
without splitting the conductors and/or breaking open the circuit.
∙ Chapter 15, Alternating Voltage and Current: New information on
ground-fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) has been added to the section
“Application in Understanding the 120-V Duplex Receptacle.” The
basic operation, methods of testing, and safety benefits of GFCIs are
thoroughly covered.
A new chapter, “Three Phase AC Power Systems,” has been added. This chapter
provides in-depth coverage of both wye (Y)- and delta (Δ)-connected three-phase
AC generators. In this chapter, the relationship between the phase voltages and line
voltages as well as the phase currents and line currents are thoroughly explained for
a typical three-phase AC circuit. Also included are the four possible source/load
configurations in three-phase AC power systems. The voltage, current, and power
calculations for these configurations are thoroughly covered in this chapter. And
finally, the advantages of using three-phase AC power versus single-phase AC
power are explained in detail.
xx Preface
New appendix covering electrostatic discharge, abbreviated ESD.
“Appendix G—Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)” provides detailed coverage of the
causes of ESD as well as its damaging effects. Most importantly, this appendix
provides detailed information on how to prevent the build-up of ESD and in turn
how to prevent ESD from damaging sensitive electronic components and
assemblies.
Other Significant Changes:

∙ Chapter 1, Electricity: A small section has been added regarding the
magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying conductor.
∙ Chapter 11, Conductors and Insulators: A new section has been added
on fuse ratings.
∙ Chapter 33, Thyristors: Several additions and/or clarifications were
made regarding DIACs, SCRs, and TRIACs.
Many of the features from the previous editions have been retained for this edi-
tion. For example, the “Lab Application Assignments” at the end of each chapter
and the MultiSim activities embedded within each chapter still remain. These
features have and will continue to be a benefit to those students and instructors
using the book.
Ancillary Package
The following supplements are available to support Grob’s Basic Electronics,
thirteenth edition.
Problems Manual for Use with Grob’s Basic Electronics

This book, written by Mitchel E. Schultz, provides students and instructors with
hundreds of additional practice problems for self-study, homework assignments,
tests, and review. The book is organized to correlate with the first 27 chapters of
the textbook, including the Introduction to Powers of 10 chapter. Each chapter
contains a number of solved illustrative problems demonstrating step-by-step how
representative problems on a particular topic are solved. Following the solved
problems are sets of problems for the students to solve. The changes in the thir-
teenth edition include a new section on switches and switch applications in
chapter 11, Conductors and Insulators. Also new to this edition is a brand-new
chapter (chapter 27) on three-phase AC power systems. Included at the end of
each chapter is a brief true/false self-test. The Problems Manual is a must-have for
students requiring additional practice in s olving both DC and AC circuits. It is
important to note that this book can be used as a supplement with any textbook
covering DC and AC circuit theory.
Experiments Manual for Grob’s Basic Electronics

This lab manual provides students and instructors with easy-to-follow laboratory
experiments. The experiments range from an introduction to laboratory equip-
ment to experiments dealing with operational amplifiers. New to this edition is an
experiment involving the Y-Y configuration in three-phase AC power systems. All
experiments have been student tested to ensure their effectiveness. The lab book
is organized to correlate with the topics covered in the text, by chapter.
All experiments have a Multisim activity that is to be done prior to the actual
physical lab activity. Multisim files are part of the Instructor’s Resources on
Connect. This prepares students to work with circuit simulation software, and also
to do “pre-lab” preparation before doing a physical lab exercise. Multisim cover-
age also reflects the widespread use of circuit simulation software in today’s
electronics industries.
Preface xxi
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way.
Acknowledgments
The thirteenth edition of Grob’s Basic Electronics would not have been possible
without the help of some very dedicated people. I would like to thank the highly
professional staff of McGraw-Hill Higher Education, especially Tina Bower and
Jane Mohr, and Manvir Singh of Aptara. Thank you for your patience and under-
standing during the long period of manuscript preparation.
Reviewers Russ Leonard

Ferris State University, MI
Mark Winans
Central Texas College, TX
Phillip Anderson Wang Ng Keith Casey
Muskegon Community College, MI Sacramento City College, CA Wilkes Community College
Michael Beavers Brian Ocfemia Walter Craig
Lake Land College, IL Wichita Technical Institute, KS Southern University and A & M
Jon Brutlag Robert Pagel College
Chippewa Valley Tech College, WI Chippewa Valley Technical Kenneth James
Bruce Clemens College, WI California State Long Beach
Ozarks Technical Community William Phillips Marc Sillars
College, MO Madison Area Technical College, WI Oakton Community College
Brian Goodman Constantin Rasinariu Thomas Jones
Chippewa Valley Technical Columbia College Chicago, IL Randolph Community College
College, WI LouEllen Ratliff Christopher Ritter
Mohamad Haj-Mohamadi Pearl River Community College, MS Cochise College
Alamance Community College, NC Phillip Serina Michael Parker
Patrick Hoppe Kaplan Career Institute, OH Los Medanos College
Gateway Technical College, WI James Stack Garrett Hunter
Ali Khabari Boise State University, ID Western Illinois University
Wentworth Institute of Andrew Tubesing
Technology, MA New Mexico Tech, NM
I would also like to extend a very special thank you to Jon Burman and Kevin
Hoeltzle for their input and expertise regarding both solar and wind energy. Your
help in reviewing that portion of the manuscript was greatly appreciated. My hat
goes off to both of you!
Mitchel E. Schultz
xxiiPreface
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Before you read . . .
Chapter Introductions briefly outline

the main chapter topics and concepts.
I
Chapter Outlines guide you through
Introduction to
the material in the chapter ahead. The
outlines breakdown the individual topics Powers of 10
covered, and each outline is tied to a
main heading to emphasize important
topics throughout the chapter. T he electrical quantities you will encounter while working in the field of
electronics are often extremely small or extremely large. For example, it is
not at all uncommon to work with extremely small decimal numbers such as
0.000000000056 or extremely large numbers such as 1,296,000,000. To enable us
to work conveniently with both very small and very large numbers, powers of 10
notation is used. With powers of 10 notation, any number, no matter how small or
large, can be expressed as a decimal number multiplied by a power of 10. A power of
10 is an exponent written above and to the right of 10, which is called the base. The
power of 10 indicates how many times the base is to be multiplied by itself. For
example, 103 means 10 × 10 × 10 and 106 means 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10. In
Chapter Outline electronics, the base 10 is common because multiples of 10 are used in the metric
system of units.
1–1 Negative and Positive Polarities 1–8 The Closed Circuit
1–2 Electrons and Protons in the Atom 1–9 The Direction of Current Scientific and engineering notation are two common forms of powers of 10 notation.
1–3 Structure of the Atom In electronics, engineering notation is generally more common than scientific
1–10 Direct Current (DC) and Alternating
Current (AC) notation because it ties in directly with the metric prefixes so often used. When a
1–4 The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge
1–11 Sources of Electricity number is written in standard form without using any form of powers of 10 notation,
1–5 The Volt Unit of Potential Difference
1–12 The Digital Multimeter it is said to be written in decimal notation (sometimes referred to as floating decimal
1–6 Charge in Motion Is Current
notation). When selecting a calculator for solving problems in electronics, be sure to
1–7 Resistance Is Opposition to Current
choose one that can display the answers in decimal, scientific, and engineering
notation.
Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
■ List the two basic particles of electric ■ Describe the difference between voltage and Chapter Objectives organize and
charge. current.
■ Describe the basic structure of the atom. ■ Define resistance and conductance and list highlight the key concepts covered within
■ Define the terms conductor, insulator, and
semiconductor and give examples of each ■
the unit of each.
List three important characteristics of an
the chapter text.
term. electric circuit.
■ Define the coulomb unit of electric charge. ■ Define the difference between electron flow
■ Define potential difference and list its unit of and conventional current.
sch52679_Intro_002-021.indd 2 11/11/19 5:06 PM
measure. ■ Describe the difference between direct and

■ Define current and list its unit of measure. alternating current.
Important Terms
alternating current conductor electron valence ohm
(AC) conventional current element potential difference Important Terms help students
ampere
atom
coulomb
current
free electron
insulator
proton
resistance
identify key words at the beginning of
atomic number dielectric ion semiconductor each chapter. They are defined in the
circuit direct current (DC) molecule siemens
compound electron neutron static electricity
text, at the end of the chapter, and in the
conductance electron flow nucleus volt glossary.
Electricity 23
xxiv
sch52679_ch01_022-055.indd 23 10/08/19 10:15 PM
While you read . . .
Figure 1–5 Physical force between electric charges. (a) Opposite charges attract. (b) Two
negative charges repel each other. (c) Two positive charges repel.
Pioneers in Electronics offer Opposite Like – Like +

charges charges charges
background information on the scientists attract repel repel
and engineers whose theories and + – – – + +
discoveries were instrumental in the (a) (b) (c)
Bettmann/Getty Images
development of electronics.
repel in Fig. 1–5b, and two positive charges of the same value repel each other in
Fig. 1–5c.
GOOD TO KNOW
1–1 Negative and PositivePIONEERS Polarities
Good Ato Know
battery boxes provide
is a device that
IN ELECTRONICS
We see the effects of electricity in a battery, static charge, lightning, radio, televi-
sion, and many other applications. What do they all have in common that is electri-
Polarity of a Charge
French natural philosopher Charles-
additional information in the margins of
converts chemical energy into cal in nature? The answer is basic particles of electric charge with opposite polarities. An electric charge must have either negative or positive polarity, labeled −Q or +Q,
with an excess of either electrons or protons. A neutral condition is considered zero
electrical energy. All the materials we know, including solids, liquids,Augustin Coulomb
and gases, (1736–1806)
contain two basic
the text. particles of electric charge: the electron and the proton. developed a method
An electron forsmallest
is the measuring charge. On this basis, consider the following examples, remembering that the elec-
tron is the basic particle of charge and the proton has exactly the same amount,
amount of electric charge having the characteristic the called
forcenegative
of attraction and The
polarity.
proton is a basic particle with positive polarity. although of opposite polarity.
repulsion between two electrically
The negative and positive polarities indicate twocharged
opposite characteristics
spheres. Coulomb that
seem to be fundamental in all physical applications. Just as magnets have north and
established the law of inverse
south poles, electric charges have the opposite polarities labeled negative and posi-
Figure 1–1 Positive and negative tive. The opposing characteristics provide a methodsquares and defined
of balancing the basicthe
one against unit
other to explain different physical effects. of charge quantity, the coulomb.
polarities for the voltage output of a
Section Self-Reviews
typical battery. allow students to It is the arrangement of electrons and protons as basic particles of electricity
that determines the electrical characteristics of all substances. For example, this
check their understanding
Negative – Positive + of the material paper has electrons and protons in it. There is no evidence of electricity, though, Example 1-1
because the number of electrons equals the number of protons. In that case, the A neutral dielectric has 12.5 × 1018 electrons added to it. What is its charge in
just presented. They are located at the opposite electrical forces cancel, making the paper GOOD TOneutral.
electrically KNOW The coulombs?
neutral condition means that opposing forces are exactly balanced, without theany
end of each section within a chapter,
Cindy Schroeder/McGraw-Hill Education
As an aid for determining

net effect either way. ANSWER This number of electrons is double the charge of 1 C. Therefore,
added charge (±Q) to a neutral
When we want to use the electrical forces associated with the negative and posi-
with answers at the end of the chapter. dielectric,
tive charges in all matter, work must be done to separate use theand
the electrons following
protons.
−Q = 2 C.
Therefore, the net number of electrons moved in the direction of the more posi-
Changing the balance of forces produces evidenceequation:of electricity. A battery, for tive charge depends on the difference of potential between the two charges. This
instance, can do electrical work because its chemical energy Number of electrons electric
separates potential difference is the same for all three cases, as shown in Fig. 1–7. Potential
±Q = ________________________
added or removed
difference is often abbreviated PD.
charges to produce an excess of electrons at its negative terminal6.25and× 10
an18excess of
electrons/C
protons at its positive terminal. With separate and opposite charges at the two termi- The only case without any potential difference between charges occurs when
nals, electric energy can be supplied to a circuit connected to the battery. Figure 1–1 they both have the same polarity and are equal in amount. Then the repelling and
shows a battery with its negative (−) and positive (+) terminals marked to empha- attracting forces cancel, and no work can be done in moving electrons between the
Bettmann/Getty Images
size the two opposite polarities. two identical charges.
■ 1–1 Self-Review Example 1-2

The Volt Unit
GOOD TO KNOW Answers at the end of the chapter. AThe
dielectric hasofapotential
volt unit positive charge of 12.5
difference × 1018after
is named protons. What isVolta
Alessandro its charge in
(1745–1827).
Electricity is a form of energy,
a. Is the charge of an electron positive or negative? coulombs?
Examples throughout the text expand
Fundamentally, the volt is a measure of the amount of work or energy needed to
move an electric charge. By definition, when 0.7376 foot-pound (ft · lb) of work is
b Is the charge of a proton positive or negative?
where energy refers to the ability PIONEERS
c. Is it true or false that the neutral condition means equal positive and ANSWER
required to moveThis6.25on key concepts and offer students a
is the
× same amount of
1018 electrons charge as
between twoinpoints,
Examplethe1potential
but positive.
difference
to do work. More specifically, negative charges? IN ELECTRONICS Therefore, +Q =two
between those 2 Cpoints
. is one volt. (Note that 6.25 × 1018 electrons make up one
electrical energy refers to the
In 1796, Italian physicist Alessandro
deeper understanding of complex
coulomb of charge.) The metric unit of work or energy is the joule (J). One joule is
the same amount of work or energy as 0.7376 ft ⋅ lb. Therefore, we can say that the
energy associated with electric
charges.
Volta (1745–1827) developed the material.
potential difference between two points is one volt when one joule of energy is
expended in moving one coulomb of charge between those two points. Expressed
1–2 Electrons and ProtonsElectricity
infirst
the Atom
chemical battery, which
provided the first practical source as a formula, 1 V = ____ 1J . 31
1C
Although there are any number of possible methods by which electrons and protons
of electricity. In electronics, potential difference is commonly referred to as voltage, with the
might be grouped, they assemble in specific atomic combinations for a stable symbol V. Remember, voltage is the potential difference between two points and
arrangement. (An atom is the smallest particle of the basic elements which forms that two terminals are necessary for a potential difference to exist. A potential dif-
the physical substances we know as solids, liquids, and gases.) Each stable combi- ference cannot exist at only one point!
nation of electrons and protons makessch52679_ch01_022-055.indd
one particular type of31atom. For example, Fig. Consider the 2.2-V lead-acid cell in Fig. 1–8a. Its output of 2.2 V means that this 10:16 PM
10/08/19
Figure 1–2 Electron and proton in 1–2 illustrates the electron and proton structure of one atom of the gas, hydrogen. is the amount of potential difference between the two terminals. The lead-acid cell,
hydrogen (H) atom. This atom consists of a central mass called the nucleus and one electron outside. then, is a voltage source, or a source of electromotive force (emf). The schematic
Multisim Icons, identify circuits for The proton in the nucleus makes it the massive and stable MultiSim
part of the atom1–8
Figure because
Chemical cell as symbol for a battery or DC voltage source is shown in Fig. 1–8b.
Proton
Electron a proton is 1840 times heavier than an electron. a voltage source. (a) Voltage output is the Sometimes the symbol E is used for emf, but the standard symbol V represents
which there is a Multisim activity.
in nucleus
in orbit
In Fig. 1–2, the one electron in the hydrogen atom ispotential
shown in an orbital
difference ring the two
between any potential difference. This applies either to the voltage generated by a source or
around the nucleus. To account for the electrical stabilityterminals.
of the atom, we can con-
(b) Schematic symbol of any to the voltage drop across a passive component such as a resistor.
Multisim files can+ be– found on the sider the electron as spinning around the nucleus, as planets DCrevolve
voltage source
aroundwith
the constant
sun. polarity. It may be helpful to think of voltage as an electrical pressure or force. The higher
Then the electrical force attracting the electrons toward the Longer line indicates
nucleus positive
is balanced by side. the voltage, the more electrical pressure or force. The electrical pressure of voltage is
Instructor Resources section for in the form of the attraction and repulsion of an electric charge, such as an electron.
The general equation for any voltage can be stated as
Connect.
24 Chapter 1 W
V = __ (1–1)
Q
where V is the voltage in volts, W is the work or energy in joules, and Q is the charge
in coulombs.
Let’s take a look at an example.
sch52679_ch01_022-055.indd 24 10/08/19 10:15 PM
Example 1-5
What is the output voltage of a battery that expends 3.6 J of energy in moving
0.5 C of charge?
ANSWER Use equation 1–1.

W
V = __
(a) Q
3.6 J
= _____
V = 2.2 V 0.5 C
+ –
= 7.2 V
(b)
Guided Tour xxv

34 Chapter 1
After you’ve read . . .
Real-world applications bring to

life the concepts covered in a specific
Application of Ohm’s Law and Power Formulas chapter.
HOME APPLIANCES rating of 120 V and a power rating of 850 W, the current drawn
Every electrical appliance in our home has a nameplate attached by the toaster is calculated as follows;
to it. The nameplate provides important information about the
appliance such as its make and model, its electrical specifications I = __ 850 W = 7.083 A
P = _____
V 120 V
and the Underwriters Laboratories (UL) listing mark. The
nameplate is usually located on the bottom or rear-side of the Some appliances in our homes have a voltage rating of 240 V
appliance. The electrical specifications listed are usually its rather than 120 V. These are typically the appliances with very
power and voltage ratings. The voltage rating is the voltage at high power ratings. Some examples include: electric stoves,
which the appliance is designed to operate. The power rating is electric clothes dryers, electric water heaters, and air
the power dissipation of the appliance when the rated voltage is conditioning units. These appliances may have power ratings as
applied. With the rated voltage and power ratings listed on the high as 7.2 kW or more. The reason the higher power appliances
nameplate, we can calculate the current drawn from the have a higher voltage rating is simple. At twice the voltage you
appliance when it’s being used. To calculate the current (I) simply only need half the current to obtain the desired power. With half
divide the power rating (P) in watts by the voltage rating (V) as much current, the size of the conductors connecting the
in volts. As an example, suppose you want to know how much appliance to the power line can be kept much smaller. This is
current your toaster draws when it’s toasting your bread. To important because a smaller diameter wire costs less and is
find the answer you will probably need to turn your toaster physically much easier to handle.
upside down to locate its nameplate. For example, the toaster in Table 3-1 lists the electrical specifications of some common
Fig.3-12a has the nameplate shown in Fig. 3-12b. With a voltage household appliances.
Each chapter concludes

Figure 3-12 with a
Identifying electrical specifications of household appliances.
Conductor — any material that allows from a negative to a positive Nucleus — the massive, stable part of
Summary, a comprehensive (a) Toaster
recap (b) Nameplate on bottom of toaster
the free movement of electric potential, which is in the opposite the atom that contains both protons
charges, such as electrons, to provide direction of conventional current. and neutrons.
of the major points and takeaways. Summary
an electric current. Electron valence — the number of Ohm — the unit of resistance.
Conventional current — the direction of electrons in an incomplete outermost Potential difference — a property
■ Electricity is present
current flow associated with positive in all matter in shell
■ of ancoulomb
One atom. (C) of charge is a ■ An electric
associated circuit
with two is a charges
unlike closed path
in
charges the in form of electrons
motion. The current and protons.
flow Elementquantity
— a substanceof electricity
that cannot be closefor current to
proximity flow.
each A voltage
other. must be
direction is from aispositive to particle
a corresponding to 6.25 by × 1018 connected
■ The electron the basic
negative potential, which is in the
decomposed any further chemical Proton — the mostacross a circuitof
basic particle to
of negative charge, and the proton action.
electrons or protons. The symbol for positive produce current flow. In the
charge.
opposite direction of electron flow. charge— Q. electron that can
is an external circuit outside tothe
thevoltage
Sarah Schultz Photography
Sarah Schultz Photography
is the basic particle of positive Free electron Resistance — the opposition flow
10. If a neutral atom loses one of 16. One ampere of current corresponds Coulombcharge.
21. The nucleus of— anthe atombasic unit ofup
is made electric source, electrons
charge. 1 C = 6.25 × 10 electrons
move
■ freely from
Potential one atom
difference or to the next.
voltage is an of current in an electricflow from the
circuit.
its valence electrons, it becomes to of 18
negative terminal toward the
■ A
or protons. conductor is a material in which Insulator — a
electricalmaterial
pressure with oratoms
force in
that Semiconductor — a material that is
a(n) a. electrons and neutrons. positive terminal.
1 C
a. ___. whichexists
the electrons
between two tendpoints.
to stayThein unit
a. negative ion. 1s Current electrons
b. ions. — a movement can move easilycharges
of electric from one
their of
own orbits. difference is the volt (V).
neither a good conductor nor a good
1J atom to thepath next.or circuit. potential A motion of positive charges, in the
insulator.
■
around a closed 1 that
J
b. electrically charged atom. b. ___. c. neutrons and protons. is a material in which Ion — an 1 Vatom
= ___ Inhas eitherV gained
general, W . or
= __ Siemensopposite
— the unitdirection of electron flow,
of conductance.
1C ■
Dielectric An— insulator
another name for 1 C Q
c. positive ion. d. electrons only. lost one or more valence electrons is considered conventional current.
c. 6.25 × 10 electrons.
18 electrons
insulator. tend to stay in their own Current
■ become
to is the ratecharged.
electrically of movement of Static electricity — any charge, positive
d. both b and c. orbit. Another Voltagethat
or negative,
■ can isexist withoutor
stationary current,
not
Table 3–1 Electrical Specifications
d. 0.16 × 10−18 C/s. of Common Household 22. HowDirectmuch current
charge (DC)
Appliances —name
is accumulated
for insulator
a current flow is Molecule electric
— thecharge.
smallest The
unitsymbol
of a for
that dielectric.
has just one direction. in motion.
but current cannot exist without
11. The unit of electric current is the in a dielectric that is charged by a current is I, and
compound with the same chemicalthe basic unit of
17. Conventional Volt — the voltage.
unit of potential difference or
Rating current is considered The
— atomic number of an element measure is the ampere (A).
4-A ■
current
Electron for 5the
seconds?
most basic particle of characteristics.
Appliance
a. volt. Power Voltage Rating Q. 1J
1 C In general, I = __ Direct
1 Vcurrent
= ____. has just one direction
■
b. ampere.
a. the motion of negative charges in a. 16 C.negative givescharge.
the number of protons in the Neutron1— A =a ___
particle contained inT the voltage.
Clothes Iron 1.2thekW 120 Vnucleus 1s because a1DC C voltage source has
opposite direction of electron
b. 20Electron
C. flow —ofthe themovement
atom, balanced of by an nucleus
■
of an atom that is electrically
Resistance is the opposition to the
c. coulomb. flow. equalthat
electrons number of orbital
provides electrons.
current in a neutral. fixed polarity. Alternating current
Toasterd. siemens. 800 – 1500 W c. 1.25120 C. V
circuit. The current flow direction is
flow of current. The symbol for periodically reverses in direction as
b. the motion of positive charges in ■ Electron valence refers to the resistance is R, and the basic unit of
Related Formulas are a quick, easy
Microwave
12. A semiconductor, such as silicon,
600 – the1500sameWdirection as electron d. 0.8120C. V
number of electrons in the measure is the ohm (Ω).
the AC voltage source periodically
Waffle hasIron
an electron valence of 1.2
flow.
kW
Related
23. A charge120ofV6for
outermost
C moves Formulas
shell of
past a given an atom. Except reverses in polarity.
way to locate the important formulas
a. ±4.
c. the motion of positive charges in the point every 0.25 Hsecond.
and He,How the goal
much of valence is
■ Conductance is the reciprocal of
resistance. The symbol for
■ Table 1–6 summarizes the main
Coffee Maker 800 – opposite
1200 W direction of electron flow. is the1120
current
C=V
eight
6.25flow× 10
for
in 18all atoms.
amperes?
electrons = and
I × Tthe basic unit
features of electric circuits.
conductance isQG,
from the chapter. b. +1.
Blowc.Dryer−7.
d. none of the above.
1 kW
a. 24 A.■ Charges of opposite polarity attract,
120W V of measure is R
the= 1/G
siemens (S).
■ A digital multimeter is used to
b. 2.4 =
V A. ___ and charges of like polarity repel. measure the voltage, current, or
d. 0. 18. When using a DMM to measure the Q ■ R = 1/G and G = G=1/R1/R.
Flat Screen TV 100value
– 150of aW resistance in a circuit.
resistor c. 1.5120A. V
13. Which of the following statements is 1200a.–make sure I = Q/T
Dishwasher 2400 Wthat the resistor is in a d. 12120A. V
true? circuit where voltage is present.
Water a. Heater
Current can exist without voltage. 4.5b.– make
5.5 kWsure there is no voltage 24. What240 is the Table
Voutput 1–6 voltage of a Electrical Characteristics
present across the resistor. battery that expends 12 J of energy
b. Voltage
Electric Stovecan exist without current. 9.6 kW
c. make sure there is no other
Self-Test
240 Characteristic
in moving V
1.5 C of charge? Symbol Unit Description
c. Current can flow through an open a. 18 V.
circuit. component connected across the Electric Q or q * Coulomb (C) Quantity of electrons or protons;
Multiple-Choice Self-Tests at the
d. Both b and c.
leads of the resistor. b. 6 V.
Answers Chargeat the back of the book. 4. The electron
copper atom is
valence of a neutral Q = I 7.
× TIn a metal conductor, such as a
copper wire,
102 d. both b and c. c. 125 mV. Chapter 3
end of every chapter allow for quick
14. The unit of resistance is the
19. In a circuit, the opposition to the flow
1. The
d. 8 V. charge
most basic particle of
Current
is the
negative
I or i* a. +1. Ampere (A) Charge a. in positive
motion;ions I =areQ/T the moving
charges that provide current.
a. volt. b. 0.
learning assessment. Voltage V oris v * Volt (V) Potential difference between two unlike
,†
of current is called 25. Which ofa.the coulomb.
following statements
b. coulomb. c. ±4. b. free electrons are the moving
a. conductance. false? b. electron. charges; makes chargescharge
that providemove to
current.
c. siemens. d. −1. produce I
b. resistance. a. The resistance
c. proton.of an open circuit is c. there are no free electrons.
d. ohm. c. voltage. practically zero.
sch52679_ch03_080-111.indd 102 d.Resistance
neutron. R or r30/10/19
‡ 5. The unit ofOhm
8:58 PM potential (Ω)difference is Opposition d. nonethatof reduces
the above.amount of
d. current. b. The resistance of a short circuit is the current; R = 1/G
15. Except for hydrogen (H) and helium
2. The coulomb
practically zero. is a unit of a. volt. 8. A 100-Ω resistor has a conductance,
(He) the goal of valence for an atom
is 20. Aluminum, with an atomic number a.Conductance
c. The resistanceelectricofcharge.
an open circuit G or is g
‡
Siemens (S) Reciprocal G, ofof R, or G = 1/R
b. ampere.
of 13, has infinitely high.
b. potential difference. a. 0.01 S.
a. 6. c. siemens.
a. 13 valence electrons. d. There*c. isSmall
no letter q, i, or
current
current. invanis used
open for an instantaneous value of a varying charge, current, or voltage. b. 0.1 S.
b. 1. †
E or e is sometimes used for a generated emf, but the standard d. symbol
coulomb.for any potential difference is V or v in the international system of units (SI).
b. 3 valence electrons. circuit. c. 0.001 S.
c. 8. ‡
d. voltage.
Small letter r or g is used for internal resistance or conductance of transistors.
c. 13 protons in its nucleus. 6. Which of the following statements is d. 1 S.
d. 4. 3. Which of the following is not a good true?
d. both b and c. Important
conductor? Terms 9. The most basic particle of positive
Essay Questions a. copper.
a. Unlike charges repel each other.
charge is the
b. Like charges repel each other.
Alternating
b. silver. current (AC) — a current Atom — the smallest particle of
1. Name two good conductors, two good insulators, and 7. List three important characteristics that periodically
c. glass.
of an electric reverses in direction c. Unlike
an elementcharges The Essay Questions at the end of
thatattract
still has each
the other.
same
Circuit
Compound
— a path for current flow.
a. coulomb.
b. electron.— a combination of two or
two semiconductors. circuit. as the alternating voltage periodically d. Both b and c. as the element.
characteristics
2. In a metal conductor, what is a free electron? 8. Describe the difference between

d. gold.
reverses in polarity.
an— open
Atomic number — the number of each chapter are great ways to spark more elements.
c. proton.
Conductance
d. neutron. — the reciprocal of
Ampere thecircuit
basic unitand ofa current. protons, balanced by an equal
3. What is the smallest unit of a compound with the same
short circuit.
1 A = ___ 1C classroom discussion, and they make
number of electrons, in an atom.
resistance.
1s
chemical characteristics? 9. Is the power line voltage available in our homes a DC or
an AC voltage? 52 great homework assignments. Chapter 1
4. Define the term ion.
10. What is the mathematical relationshipElectricity between 51
5. How does the resistance of a conductor compare to that resistance and conductance?
of an insulator?
11. Briefly describe the electric field of a static charge.
6. Explain why potential difference is necessary to produce
sch52679_ch01_022-055.indd 52 10/08/19 10:16 PM
current in a circuit.
sch52679_ch01_022-055.indd 51 10/08/19 10:16 PM
Electricity 53
xxvi Guided Tour

sch52679_ch01_022-055.indd 53 10/08/19 10:16 PM
13. What is another name for an insulator? 18. Write the formulas for each of the following statements:
(a) current is the time rate of change of charge
14. List the particles in the nucleus of an atom. (b) charge is current accumulated over a period of time.
15. Explain the difference between electron flow and 19. Briefly define each of the following: (a) 1 coulomb (b) 1 volt
conventional current. (c) 1 ampere (d) 1 ohm.
16. Define −3 C of charge and compare it to a charge of 20. Describe the difference between direct and alternating
+3 C. current.
Problems
SECTION 1–4 THE COULOMB UNIT OF ELECTRIC SECTION 1–6 CHARGE IN MOTION IS CURRENT
CHARGE 1–11 A charge of 2 C moves past a given point every 0.5 s.
1–1 If 31.25 × 1018 electrons are removed from a How much is the current?
neutral dielectric, how much charge is stored in
1–12 A charge of 1 C moves past a given point every 0.1 s.
coulombs?
How much is the current?
1–2 If 18.75 × 1018 electrons are added to a neutral 1–13 A charge of 0.05 C moves past a given point every 0.1 s.
End-of-Chapter Problems, dielectric, how much charge is stored in coulombs? How much is the current?
1–3 A dielectric with a positive charge of +5 C has 18.75 × 1–14 A charge of 6 C moves past a given point every 0.3 s.
organized by chapter section, provide 1018 electrons added to it. What is the net charge of the How much is the current?
dielectric in coulombs?
another opportunity for students to 1–4 If 93.75 × 1018 electrons are removed from a
1–15 A charge of 0.1 C moves past a given point every 0.01 s.
How much is the current?
check their understanding, and for neutral dielectric, how much charge is stored in
coulombs? 1–16 If a current of 1.5 A charges a dielectric for 5 s, how
much charge is stored in the dielectric?
instructors to hone in on key concepts. 1–5 If 37.5 × 1018 electrons are added to a neutral 1–17 If a current of 500 mA charges a dielectric for 2 s, how
dielectric, how much charge is stored in coulombs? much charge is stored in the dielectric?
1–18 If a current of 200 μA charges a dielectric for 20 s, how
SECTION 1–5 THE VOLT UNIT OF POTENTIAL much charge is stored in the dielectric?
DIFFERENCE
1–6 What is the output voltage of a battery if 10 J of energy SECTION 1–7 RESISTANCE IS OPPOSITION TO
is expended in moving 1.25 C of charge?
CURRENT
Critical Thinking Problems for each 1–7 What is the output voltage of a battery if 6 J of energy is
expended in moving 1 C of charge?
1–19 Calculate the resistance value in ohms for the following
conductance values: (a) 0.001 S (b) 0.01 S (c) 0.1 S (d) 1 S.
chapter provide students with more 1–8 What is the output voltage of a battery if 12 J of energy 1–20 Calculate the resistance value in ohms for the following
conductance values: (a) 0.002 S (b) 0.004 S (c) 0.00833
is expended in moving 1 C of charge?
challenging problems, allowing them to S (d) 0.25 S.
1–9 How much is the potential difference between two
Answers
polish critical to Self-Reviews
skills needed on the job.
1–1 a. negative 1–7 a. carbon points if 0.5 J of energy is required to move 0.4 C of 1–21 Calculate the conductance value in siemens for each of
b. positive b. 4.7 Ω charge between the two points? the following resistance values: (a) 200 Ω (b) 100 Ω
c. true c. 1⁄10 S or 0.1 S (c) 50 Ω (d) 25 Ω.
1–10 How much energy is expended, in joules, if a voltage 1–22 Calculate the conductance value in siemens for each of the
1–2 a. conductors 1–8 a. true of 12 V moves 1.25 C of charge between two
b. silver b. false points? following resistance values: (a) 1 Ω (b) 10 k Ω (c) 40 Ω
c. silicon c. true (d) 0.5 Ω.
1–3 a. 14 1–9 a. negative

b. 1
Critical Thinking
b. negative
c. 8 c. true
1–23 Suppose that 1000 electrons are removed from a 1–25 Assume that 6.25 × 1015 electrons flow past a given
1–4 a. 6.25 × 1018 1–10 a. true neutral dielectric. How much charge, in coulombs, is point in a conductor every 10 s. Calculate the current I
b. −Q = 3 C b. true stored in the dielectric? in amperes.
c. attract
1–11 a. electrons
1–24 How long will it take an insulator that has a charge 1–26 The conductance of a wire at 100°C is one-tenth its
1–5 a. zero b. magnetic fieldC to charge to +30 C if the charging current
of +5 value at 25°C. If the wire resistance equals 10 Ω at 25°C
b. 9 V c. spark is 2 A? calculate the resistance of the wire at 100°C.
1–6 a. 2 A 1–12 a. true
b. true b. true
c. zero 54
c. false Chapter 1
Laboratory Application Assignment
In your first lab application assignment you will use a DMM to Measuring Resistance
sch52679_ch01_022-055.indd 54 10/08/19 10:16 PM
measure the voltage, current, and resistance in Fig. 1–22.
Disconnect the meter leads from the power supply terminals.
Refer to Section 1–12, “The Digital Multimeter,” if necessary.
Set the DMM to measure resistance. Keep the meter leads in
4-50 Involtage.
the same jacks you used for measuring Fig. 4–48, assume
Connect theR1 becomes open. How much is 4-52 In Fig. 4–48, assume that the value of R2 has increased
Equipment: Obtain the following items from your instructor. but is not open. What happens to
• Variable dc power supply DMM test leads to the leads of the 1 kΩ a. the total as
resistor, shown in RT?
resistance,
• 1-kΩ, ½-W resistor Fig. 1–22b. Record your measured resistance.
b. the series current, I ? a. the total resistance, RT?
• DMM R = __________ (The measured resistance will most
c. the voltage likely each
across be resistor, R , R , and R ? b. the series current, I ?
1 2 3
• Connecting leads displayed as a decimal fraction in kΩ.) c. the voltage drop across R2?
4-51 In Fig. 4–48, assume R3 shorts. How much is d. the voltage drops across R1 and R3?
Measuring Current a. the total resistance, RT?
Measuring Voltage
Set the DMM to measure DC current.b. Also,
themove
seriesthe red test
current, I?
Set the DMM to measure DC voltage. Be sure the meter leads
are inserted into the correct jacks (red lead in the VΩ jack and
lead to the appropriate jack for measuring small DC currents
c. the voltage across each resistor, R1, R2, and R3?
(usually labeled mA). Turn off the variable DC power supply. Laboratory Application
the black lead in the COM jack). Also, be sure the voltmeter
range exceeds the voltage being measured. Connect the
Connect the red test lead of the DMM to the positive (+)
terminal of the variable DC power supply as shown in Fig. Assignments, reinforce one or more
DMM test leads to the variable DC power supply as shown in
Fig. 1–22a. Adjust the variable DC power supply voltage to any
Critical
1–22c. Also, connect the black test lead of the Thinking
DMM to one lead
of the chapter’s main topics by asking
of the 1 kΩ resistor as shown. Finally, connect the other lead of
value between 5 and 15 V. Record your measured voltage. the resistor to the negative (−) terminal of the variable DC
V = __________ Note: Keep the power supply voltage set to 4–53
power supply. Turn on the variable Three resistors
DC power in series have a total resistance RT of
supply. Record students
varies fromto
1 to build and
5 mA. V and R aretest
to have circuits
T fixed or
1
in a
this value when measuring the current in Fig. 1–22c. 2.7 kΩ. If R2 is twice the value of R1 and R3 is three times constant values.
your measured current.
I = __________
the value of R2, what are the values of R1, R2, and R3? laboratory environment.
4–54 Three resistors in series have an RT of 7 kΩ. If R3 is
Figure 1–22 Measuring electrical quantities. (a) Measuring voltage. (b) Measuring resistance. (c) Measuring 2.2 times larger than R1 and 1.5 times larger than R2,
current. Figure 4–49 Circuit diagram for Critical Thinking Prob. 4–57.
what are the values of R1, R2, and R3?
(red) (red) (black)
A A 100-Ω, 1⁄8-W resistor is in series with a 330-Ω, ½-W
4–55 R1
resistor. What is the maximum series current this circuit
+ R
Variable DC Ω DMM Variable DC
+ can handle without exceeding the wattage rating of
V DMM 1 kΩ = 1 kΩ
power supply – power supply – eitherRresistor?
4–56 A 1.5-kΩ, ½-W resistor is in series with a 470-Ω, ¼-W + R2 = 1 kΩ–0 Ω

(black) (b) Measuring resistance. resistor. What is the maximum voltage that can be VT
applied to this series circuit without exceeding the
(c) Measuring current. −
(a) Measuring voltage. wattage rating of either resistor?
4–57 Refer to Fig. 4–49. Select values for R1 and VT so that

Design credit Multisim: ©Stockbyte/Getty Images when R2 varies from 1 kΩ to 0 Ω, the series current
Electricity 55
Troubleshooting Challenge
Table 4–1 shows voltage measurements taken in Fig. 4–50. The first row shows the normal values that exist when the circuit is
sch52679_ch01_022-055.indd 55
operating properly. Rows 2 to07/10/19
15 are 9:05
voltage
PM
measurements taken when one component in the circuit has failed. For each row,
identify which component is defective and determine the type of defect that has occurred in the component.
Figure 4–50 Circuit diagram for Troubleshooting Challenge. Normal values for V1, V2, V3,
V4, and V5 are shown on schematic.
3V 5.4 V
R1 = 100 Ω R2 = 180 Ω
+ − + −
Troubleshooting Challenges appear

V1 V2
+
+
in selected chapters to give students a V T = 24 V
−
6.6 V V 3 R3 = 220 Ω
feel for troubleshooting real circuits, 5.4 V

V5
3.6 V
V4
−
again providing real-world applications of −

R5 = 180 Ω
+ −
R4 = 120 Ω
+
chapter content.
142 Chapter 4
Guided Tour xxvii
sch52679_ch04_112-145.indd 142 16/08/19 7:07 PM

About the Author
Mitchel E. Schultz is an instructor at Western Technical College in
La Crosse, Wisconsin, where he has taught electronics for the past
31 years. Prior to teaching at Western, he taught electronics for 8 years
at Riverland Community College in Austin, Minnesota. He has also
provided training for a variety of different electronic industries over the
past 39 years.
Before he began teaching, Mitchel worked for several years as an
electronic technician. His primary work experience was in the field of
electronic communication, which included designing, testing, and
troubleshooting rf communications systems. Mitchel graduated in
1978 from Minnesota State, Southeast Technical College, where he
earned an Associate’s Degree in Electronics Technology. He also
attended Winona State University, Mankato State University, and the
University of Minnesota. He is an ISCET Certified Electronics
Technician and also holds his Extra Class Amateur Radio License.
Mitchel has authored and/or co-authored several other electronic

textbooks which include Problems Manual for use with Grob’s
Basic Electronics, Electric Circuits: A Text and Software
Problems Manual, Electronic Devices: A Text and Software
Problems Manual, Basic Mathematics for Electricity and
Electronics, and Shaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of
Electronic Communication.
xxviii
Electric Shock—Dangers,
Precautions, and First Aid
Electricity is a form of energy that provides an endless number of useful functions
in our daily lives. However, no matter how useful electricity may be, it can also be
very dangerous. Perhaps the greatest danger is from an electric shock. If a person
comes into contact with a “live” conductor or circuit, it only takes a small amount
of current through the human body to paralyze the victim, making it impossible for
1  of an Ampere (A), which is
him or her to let go. A current in excessive of about  ____
100
the basic unit of current, is about all it takes. If the current approaches ___  1   of an
10
Ampere, or more, the shock can be fatal. The danger of electric shock increases with
higher voltages because a higher voltage can produce more current through the skin
and internal organs. Lower voltages, such as those associated with AA or AAA bat-
teries, for example, can be handled with little or no danger because the resistance of
human skin is normally high enough to keep the current well below the threshold of
sensation. However, when a person’s skin is moist or cut, the resistance to the flow
of current decreases drastically. When this happens, even moderate voltages can
produce an electric shock. Therefore, safe practices must always be followed when
working in and around electric circuits to avoid accidental electric shock, fires, and
explosions.
Guideline of Safe Practices

The following is a list of safe practices that will help protect you and your fellow
classmates while performing experiments in the laboratory. These same rules
apply to those individuals working in industry. It is a good idea to review these
safe practices from time to time so that you are reminded of their importance.
1.Never work on electrical equipment and/or machinery if you are under
the influence of either drugs or alcohol.
2. Never work on electrical equipment and/or machinery if the lighting is
poor or insufficient.
3. Never work on electrical equipment and/or machinery if your shoes and/
or clothing are wet.
4. Wear rubber-soled shoes or stand on an insulated mat when working on
electrical equipment.
5. If possible, never work alone.
6. Avoid wearing any metal objects such as bracelets, rings, necklaces, etc.,
when working in and around electric circuits.
7. Never assume that the power applied to a circuit is off! Either unplug the
equipment you are working on or use a known-good meter to check for
power.
8. Measure voltages with one hand in your pocket or behind your back
when possible.
9. Do not remove safety grounds on three-prong power plugs and never use
AC adapters to defeat the ground connection on any electrical equipment.
10.
Power cords should always be checked before use. If the insulation is
cracked or cut, they should not be used until they are properly repaired.
xxix
11.
Wear eye protection (safety glasses or goggles) when appropriate,
Figure S-1 Safety glasses are required
especially when soldering, de-soldering, or clipping wires and/or wire
when soldering and/or de-soldering.
leads. See Fig. S-1.
12.
Avoid having liquids such as water, coffee, or soda at your workstation or
Monty Rakusen/Cultura/Getty Images

around electrical equipment or machinery in general. Liquids are
excellent conductors of electricity and therefore increase the risk of
electric shock.
13.
When possible, use a lockout-tagout (LOTO) procedure when working
on electrical equipment and/or machinery. See Fig. S-2. Lockout-tagout
or lock and tag is a safety procedure that is used in laboratory, industrial,
and research settings. LOTO ensures that dangerous machines are
properly shut off and are not able to be started up again prior to the
completion of maintenance or repair work.
14.
Some components, like capacitors, can store a lethal electric charge and
should be fully discharged before repairing and/or replacing components
Figure S-2 Lockout-tagout (LOTO) or modules in an electronic system.
procedure used in industry. 15.
Never override any safety devices, such as an interlock switch, when
working on electrical equipment and/or machinery. An interlock switch
(usually a micro switch) is a switch that shuts off power to components
(motors and lamps, for example) if a machine is opened. The purpose of
an interlock switch is to prevent injury if someone inadvertently attempts
to open a machine while it is still powered up and running. An interlock
switch is sometimes called a “safety switch.”
16.
Keep your work station or work area organized and clean. A cluttered,
disorganized work area is hazardous.
17.
Be sure to secure loose-fitting clothing and ties when working near
rotating machinery.
18.
Make sure you know the proper procedures and potential safety hazards
before working on any equipment, either electrical or mechanical.
19.
Keep all tools and test equipment in good working condition. Be sure to
regularly inspect the insulation on the handles of tools as well as the
alacatr/iStock/Getty Images
insulation on both test leads and insulated probes.

20.
In a laboratory or industrial setting, be sure you know the location of the
circuit breaker panel or main power-off switch so you can turn off power
quickly, if necessary.
21. Know the location and operation of all fire alarms and fire extinguishers.
22. Know the location of all emergency exits.
23. Do not indulge in horseplay or practical jokes in the laboratory.
24.
Know the location of the first-aid kit. If an accident should occur, notify
your instructor and/or supervisor immediately.
25.
Take a careful and deliberate approach to each task while working in
the lab.
First Aid
The danger from an electric shock depends on
∙ The type of current (AC or DC)
∙ The amount of voltage present
∙ How the current traveled through the person’s body
∙ The person’s overall health
∙ How quickly the person receives treatment
An electric shock may cause minor to severe burns or leave no visible mark at all.
Either way, an electric current can cause internal damage, including cardiac arrest
or other injuries. Even a small amount of electricity through the body can be fatal
under certain circumstances.
xxx Electric Shock—Dangers, Precautions, and First Aid

A person who has suffered an injury from contact with electricity should
ALWAYS see a doctor!
If you are trying to help a person who is suffering from an electric shock,
follow these guidelines:
∙ Do not touch them if they are still in contact with the source of electricity.
∙ Stay at least 20 feet away from any high-voltage wires until the power has
been turned off.
∙ Don’t move the person unless they are in immediate danger.
Call 911 if the injured person experiences the following:
∙ Injuries from a high-voltage wire or lightning
∙ Severe burns
∙ Confusion
∙ Loss of consciousness
∙ Breathing difficulty
∙ Cardiac arrest
∙ Muscle pain and contractions
∙ Heart rhythm problems
∙ Seizures
Take these actions immediately while waiting for medical help:
∙ If possible, turn off the electricity. If not, use a dry, nonconducting object
(cardboard, plastic, or wood) to move the source away from you and the
injured person.
∙ If there are no signs of circulation (breathing, coughing, or movement)
begin CPR.
∙ Keep the injured person from becoming chilled.
∙ Cover any burned areas with a sterile gauze bandage, if possible.
Otherwise use a clean cloth. Don’t use a towel or blanket, as the loose
fibers can stick to the burns.
Electric Shock—Dangers, Precautions, and First Aid xxxi

Grob’s Basic
Electronics
I
Introduction to
Powers of 10
T he electrical quantities you will encounter while working in the field of
electronics are often extremely small or extremely large. For example, it is
not at all uncommon to work with extremely small decimal numbers such as
0.000000000056 or extremely large numbers such as 1,296,000,000. To enable us
to work conveniently with both very small and very large numbers, powers of 10
notation is used. With powers of 10 notation, any number, no matter how small or
large, can be expressed as a decimal number multiplied by a power of 10. A power of
10 is an exponent written above and to the right of 10, which is called the base. The
power of 10 indicates how many times the base is to be multiplied by itself. For
example, 103 means 10 × 10 × 10and 106 means 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10. In
electronics, the base 10 is common because multiples of 10 are used in the metric
system of units.
Scientific and engineering notation are two common forms of powers of 10 notation.
In electronics, engineering notation is generally more common than scientific
notation because it ties in directly with the metric prefixes so often used. When a
number is written in standard form without using any form of powers of 10 notation,
it is said to be written in decimal notation (sometimes referred to as floating decimal
notation). When selecting a calculator for solving problems in electronics, be sure to
choose one that can display the answers in decimal, scientific, and engineering
notation.
Chapter Outline
I–1 Scientific Notation I–6 Reciprocals with Powers of 10
I–2 Engineering Notation and Metric I–7 Squaring Numbers Expressed in Powers
Prefixes of 10 Notation
I–3 Converting between Metric Prefixes I–8 Square Roots of Numbers Expressed in
Powers of 10 Notation
I–4 Addition and Subtraction Involving
Powers of 10 Notation I–9 The Scientific Calculator
I–5 Multiplication and Division Involving
Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
■ Express any number in scientific or ■ Multiply and divide numbers expressed in
engineering notation. powers of 10 notation.
■ List the metric prefixes and their ■ Determine the reciprocal of a power of 10.
corresponding powers of 10. ■ Find the square of a number expressed in
■ Change a power of 10 in engineering powers of 10 notation.
notation to its corresponding metric prefix. ■ Find the square root of a number expressed
■ Convert between metric prefixes. in powers of 10 notation.
■ Add and subtract numbers expressed in ■ Enter numbers written in scientific and
powers of 10 notation. engineering notation into your calculator.
Important Terms
decimal notation metric prefixes scientific notation
engineering notation powers of 10
Introduction to Powers of 10 3

I–1 Scientific Notation
Before jumping directly into scientific notation, let’s take a closer look at powers
Table I–1 Powers of 10 of 10. A power of 10 is an exponent of the base 10 and can be either positive or
negative.
1,000,000,000 = 109
100,000,000 = 108
10,000,000 = 107
1,000,000 = 106
Exponent
100,000 = 105 Base 10X
10,000 = 104
1,000 = 103
100 = 102 Positive powers of 10 are used to indicate numbers greater than 1, whereas negative
10 = 10 1 powers of 10 are used to indicate numbers less than 1. Table I–1 shows the powers
of 10 ranging from 10−12 to 109 and their equivalent decimal values. In electronics,
1 = 100 you will seldom work with powers of 10 outside this range. From Table I–1, notice
0.1 = 10−1 that 100 = 1 and that 101 = 10. In the case of 100 = 1, it is important to realize
that any number raised to the zero power equals 1. In the case of 101 = 10, it is
0.01 = 10−2
important to note that any number written without a power is assumed to have a
0.001 = 10−3 power of 1.
0.0001 = 10−4
0.00001 = 10−5 Expressing a Number in Scientific Notation
0.000001 = 10−6 The procedure for using any form of powers of 10 notation is to write the original
−7 number as two separate factors. Scientific notation is a form of powers of 10 notation
0.0000001 = 10
in which a number is expressed as a number between 1 and 10 times a power of 10.
0.00000001 = 10−8 The power of 10 is used to place the decimal point correctly. The power of 10
0.000000001 = 10−9 indicates the number of places by which the decimal point has been moved to the
left or right in the original number. If the decimal point is moved to the left in the
0.0000000001 = 10−10 original number, then the power of 10 will increase or become more positive. Con-
0.00000000001 = 10−11 versely, if the decimal point is moved to the right in the original number then the
power of 10 will decrease or become more negative. Let’s take a look at an
0.000000000001 = 10−12 example.
Example I-1
Express the following numbers in scientific notation: (a) 3900 (b) 0.0000056.
ANSWER (a) To express 3900 in scientific notation, write the number as a number between 1 and 10, which is 3.9
in this case, times a power of 10. To do this, the decimal point must be shifted three places to the left. The number of
places by which the decimal point is shifted to the left indicates the positive power of 10. Therefore, 3900 = 3.9 × 103
in scientific notation.
(b) To express 0.0000056 in scientific notation, write the number as a number between 1 and 10, which is 5.6 in this
case, times a power of 10. To do this, the decimal point must be shifted six places to the right. The number of places by
which the decimal point is shifted to the right indicates the negative power of 10. Therefore, 0.0000056 = 5.6 × 10−6 in
scientific notation.
4Introduction
When expressing a number in scientific notation, remember the following rules:
Rule 1: Express the number as a number between 1 and 10 times a power

of 10.
Rule 2: If the decimal point is moved to the left in the original number, make
the power of 10 positive. If the decimal point is moved to the right in
the original number, make the power of 10 negative.
Rule 3: The power of 10 always equals the number of places by which the
decimal point has been shifted to the left or right in the original
number.
Let’s try another example.
Example I-2
Express the following numbers in scientific notation: (a) 235,000 (b) 364,000,000 (c) 0.000756 (d) 0.00000000000016.
ANSWER (a) To express the number 235,000 in scientific notation, move the decimal point five places to the left, which
gives us a number of 2.35. Next, multiply this number by 105. Notice that the power of 10 is a positive 5 because the decimal
point was shifted five places to the left in the original number. Therefore, 235,000 = 2.35 × 105in scientific notation.
(b) To express 364,000,000 in scientific notation, move the decimal point eight places to the left, which gives us a number
of 3.64. Next, multiply this number by 108. Notice that the power of 10 is a positive 8 because the decimal point was shifted
eight places to the left in the original number. Therefore, 364,000,000 = 3.64 × 108in scientific notation.
(c) To express 0.000756 in scientific notation, move the decimal point four places to the right, which gives us a number of
7.56. Next, multiply this number by 10−4. Notice that the power of 10 is a negative 4 because the decimal point was shifted
four places to the right in the original number. Therefore, 0.000756 = 7.56 × 10−4.
(d) To express 0.00000000000016 in scientific notation, move the decimal point 13 places to the right, which gives us
a number of 1.6. Next, multiply this number by 10−13. Notice that the power of 10 is a negative 13 because the decimal
point was shifted thirteen places to the right in the original number. Therefore, 0.00000000000016 = 1.6 × 10−13in scientific
notation.
Decimal Notation
Numbers written in standard form without using any form of powers of 10 notation
are said to be written in decimal notation, sometimes called floating decimal nota-
tion. In some cases, it may be necessary to change a number written in scientific
notation into decimal notation. When converting from scientific to decimal nota-
tion, observe the following rules.
Rule 4: If the exponent or power of 10 is positive, move the decimal point

to the right, the same number of places as the exponent.
Rule 5: If the exponent or power of 10 is negative, move the decimal point to

the left, the same number of places as the exponent.

Example I-3
Convert the following numbers written in scientific notation into decimal
notation: (a) 4.75 × 102(b) 6.8 × 10−5.
ANSWER (a) To convert 4.75 × 102into decimal notation, the decimal

point must be shifted two places to the right. The decimal point is shifted to the
right because the power of 10, which is 2 in this case, is positive. Therefore,
4.75 × 102 = 475in decimal notation.
(b) To convert 6.8 × 10−5into decimal notation, the decimal point must
be shifted five places to the left. The decimal point is shifted to the left
because the power of 10, which is −5 in this case, is negative. Therefore,
6.8 × 10−5 = 0.000068in decimal notation.
■ I–1 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Are positive or negative powers of 10 used to indicate numbers less
than 1?
b. Are positive or negative powers of 10 used to indicate numbers
greater than 1?
c. 100 = 1. (True/False)
d. Express the following numbers in scientific notation: (a) 13,500
(b) 0.00825 (c) 95,600,000 (d) 0.104.
e. Convert the following numbers written in scientific notation into
decimal notation: (a) 4.6 × 10−7(b) 3.33 × 103(c) 5.4 × 108
(d) 2.54 × 10−2.
I–2 Engineering Notation

and Metric Prefixes
Engineering notation is another form of powers of 10 notation. Engineering notation
is similar to scientific notation except that in engineering notation, the powers of 10
are always multiples of 3 such as 10−12, 10−9, 10−6, 10−3, 103, 106, 109, 1012, etc. More
specifically, a number expressed in engineering notation is always expressed as a
number between 1 and 1000 times a power of 10 which is a multiple of 3.
Example I-4
Express the following numbers in engineering notation: (a) 27,000 (b) 0.00047.
ANSWER (a) To express the number 27,000 in engineering notation, it must be written as a number between 1 and
1000 times a power of 10 which is a multiple of 3. It is often helpful to begin by expressing the number in scientific
notation: 27,000 = 2.7 × 104. Next, examine the power of 10 to see if it should be increased to 106 or decreased to 103. If
the power of 10 is increased to 106, then the decimal point in the number 2.7 would have to be shifted two places to the left.
6Introduction
Because 0.027 is not a number between 1 and 1000, the answer of 0.027 × 106is not representative of engineering
notation. If the power of 10 were decreased to 103, however, then the decimal point in the number 2.7 would have to be
shifted one place to the right and the answer would be 27 × 103, which is representative of engineering notation. In
summary, 27,000 = 2.7 × 104 = 27 × 103in engineering notation.
(b) To express the number 0.00047 in engineering notation, it must be written as a number between 1 and 1000 times a
power of 10 which is a multiple of 3. Begin by expressing the number in scientific notation: 0.00047 = 4.7 × 10−4. Next,
examine the power of 10 to see if it should be increased to 10−3 or decreased to 10−6. If the power of 10 were increased to
10−3, then the decimal point in the number 4.7 would have to be shifted one place to the left. Because 0.47 is not a number
between 1 and 1000, the answer 0.47 × 10−3is not representative of engineering notation. If the power of 10 were decreased
to 10−6, however, then the decimal point in the number 4.7 would have to be shifted two places to the right and the answer
would be 470 × 10−6which is representative of engineering notation. In summary, 0.00047 = 4.7 × 10−4 = 470 × 10−6 in
engineering notation.
When expressing a number in engineering notation, remember the following

rules:
Rule 6: Express the original number in scientific notation first. If the power
of 10 is a multiple of 3, the number appears the same in both
scientific and engineering notation.
Rule 7: If the original number expressed in scientific notation does not use a
power of 10 which is a multiple of 3, the power of 10 must either be
increased or decreased until it is a multiple of 3. The decimal point in
the numerical part of the expression must be adjusted accordingly to
compensate for the change in the power of 10.
Rule 8: Each time the power of 10 is increased by 1, the decimal point in

the numerical part of the expression must be moved one place to
the left. Each time the power of 10 is decreased by 1, the decimal
point in the numerical part of the expression must be moved one
place to the right.
You know that a quantity is expressed in engineering notation when the original
number is written as a number between 1 and 1000 times a power of 10 which is a
multiple of 3.
Metric Prefixes
The metric prefixes represent those powers of 10 that are multiples of 3. In the field
of electronics, engineering notation is much more common than scientific notation
because most values of voltage, current, resistance, power, and so on are specified in
terms of the metric prefixes. Once a number is expressed in engineering notation, its
power of 10 can be replaced directly with its corresponding metric prefix. Table I–2
lists the most common metric prefixes and their corresponding powers of 10. Notice

Table I–2 Metric Prefixes
GOOD TO KNOW
Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation
The uppercase letter K is not
used as the abbreviation for the 1012 tera T
metric prefix kilo because its use 9
10 giga G
is reserved for the kelvin unit of
106 mega M
absolute temperature.
103 kilo k
−3
10 milli m
10−6 micro µ
−9
10 nano n
−12
10 pico p
that uppercase letters are used for the abbreviations of the prefixes involving positive
powers of 10, whereas lowercase letters are used for negative powers of 10. There is
one exception to the rule however; the lowercase letter “k” is used for kilo corre-
sponding to 103. Because the metric prefixes are used so often in electronics, it is
common practice to express the value of a given quantity in engineering notation first
so that the power of 10, which is a multiple of 3, can be replaced directly with its
corresponding metric prefix. For example, a resistor whose value is 33,000 Ω can be
expressed in engineering notation as 3 3 × 103 Ω. In Table I–2, we see that the metric
prefix kilo (k) corresponds to 103. Therefore, 33,000 Ω or 33 × 103 Ω can be expressed
as 33 kΩ. (Note that the unit of resistance is the ohm abbreviated Ω.)
As another example, a current of 0.0000075 A can be expressed in engineering nota-
tion as 7.5 × 10−6 A. In Table I–2, we see that the metric prefix micro (µ) corresponds
to 10−6. Therefore, 0.0000075 A or 7.5 × 10−6 A can be expressed as 7.5 µA.
(The unit of current is the ampere, abbreviated A.)
In general, when using metric prefixes to express the value of a given quantity,
write the original number in engineering notation first and then substitute the appro-
priate metric prefix corresponding to the power of 10 involved. As this technique
shows, metric prefixes are direct substitutes for the powers of 10 used in engineering
notation.
Table I–3 lists many of the electrical quantities that you will encounter in your
study of electronics. For each electrical quantity listed in Table I–3, take special note
Electrical Quantities with Their Units

Table I–3
and Symbols
Quantity Unit Symbol
Current Ampere (A) I
Voltage Volt (V) V
Resistance Ohm (Ω) R
Frequency Hertz (Hz) f
Capacitance Farad (F) C
Inductance Henry (H) L
Power Watt (W) P
8Introduction
of the unit and symbol shown. In the examples and problems that follow, we will use
several numerical values with various symbols and units from this table. Let’s take
a look at a few examples.
Example I-5
Express the resistance of 1,000,000 Ω using the appropriate metric prefix from
Table I–2.
ANSWER First, express 1,000,000 Ω in engineering notation: 1,000,000 Ω =

1.0 × 106 Ω. Next, replace 106 with its corresponding metric prefix. Because
the metric prefix mega (M) corresponds to 106, the value of 1,000,000 Ω can be
expressed as 1 MΩ. In summary, 1,000,000 Ω = 1.0 × 106 Ω = 1 MΩ.
Example I-6
Express the voltage value of 0.015 V using the appropriate metric prefix from
Table I–2.
ANSWER First, express 0.015 V in engineering notation: 0.015 V = 15 ×

10−3 V. Next, replace 10−3 with its corresponding metric prefix. Because the
metric prefix milli (m) corresponds to 10−3, the value 0.015 V can be expressed
as 15 mV. In summary, 0.015 V = 15 × 10−3 V = 15 mV.
Example I-7
Express the power value of 250 W using the appropriate metric prefix from
Table I–2.
ANSWER In this case, it is not necessary or desirable to use any of the

metric prefixes listed in Table I–2. The reason is that 250 W cannot be expressed
as a number between 1 and 1000 times a power of 10 which is a multiple of 3. In
other words, 250 W cannot be expressed in engineering notation. The closest we
can come is 0.25 × 103 W, which is not representative of engineering notation.
Although 103 can be replaced with the metric prefix kilo (k), it is usually
preferable to express the power as 250 W and not as 0.25 kW.
In summary, whenever the value of a quantity lies between 1 and 1000, only the
basic unit of measure should be used for the answer. As another example, 75 V
should be expressed as 75 V and not as 0.075 kV or 75,000 mV, and so forth.
a. Express the following numbers in engineering notation:
(a) 36,000,000 (b) 0.085 (c) 39,300 (d) 0.000093.

b. List the metric prefixes for each of the powers of 10 listed:
(a) 10−9 (b) 106 (c) 10−12 (d) 103 (e) 104.
c. Express the following values using the appropriate metric prefixes:
(a) 0.000010 A (b) 2,200,000 Ω (c) 0.000000045 V (d) 5600 Ω (e) 18 W.
I–3 Converting between Metric Prefixes

As you have seen in the previous section, metric prefixes can be substituted for pow-
ers of 10 that are multiples of 3. This is true even when the value of the original
quantity is not expressed in proper engineering notation. For example, a capacitance
value of 0.047 × 10−6 F could be expressed as 0.047 µF. Also, a frequency of
1510 × 103 Hz could be expressed as 1510 kHz. Furthermore, the values of like
quantities in a given circuit may be specified using different metric prefixes such as
22 kΩ and 1.5 MΩ or 0.001 µF and 3300 pF, as examples. In some cases, therefore,
it may be necessary or desirable to convert from one metric prefix to another when
combining values. Converting from one metric prefix to another is actually a change
in the power of 10. When the power of 10 is changed, however, care must be taken
to make sure that the numerical part of the expression is also changed so that the
value of the original number remains the same. When converting from one metric
prefix to another, observe the following rule:
Rule 9: When converting from a larger metric prefix to a smaller one,

increase the numerical part of the expression by the same factor by
which the metric prefix has been decreased. Conversely, when
converting from a smaller metric prefix to a larger one, decrease
the numerical part of the expression by the same factor by which
the metric prefix has been increased.
Example I-8
Make the following conversions: (a) convert 25 mA to µA (b) convert 2700 kΩ
to MΩ.
ANSWER (a) To convert 25 mA to µA, recall that the metric prefix milli
(m) corresponds to 10−3 and that metric prefix micro (µ) corresponds to 10−6.
Since 10−6 is less than 10−3 by a factor of 1000 (103), the numerical part of the
expression must be increased by a factor of 1000 (103). Therefore, 25 mA =
25 × 10−3 A = 25,000 × 10−6 A = 25,000 µA.
(b) To convert 2700 kΩ to MΩ, recall that the metric prefix kilo (k)
corresponds to 103 and that the metric prefix mega (M) corresponds to 106.
Since 106 is larger than 103 by a factor of 1000 (103), the numerical part of the
expression must be decreased by a factor of 1000 (103). Therefore, 2700 kΩ =
2700 × 103 Ω = 2.7 × 106 Ω = 2.7 MΩ.
a. Converting from one metric prefix to another is actually a change in
the power of 10. (True/False)
b. Make the following conversions: (a) convert 2.2 MΩ to kΩ
(b) convert 47,000 pF to nF (c) convert 2500 µA to mA
(d) convert 6.25 mW to µW.
10Introduction
I–4 A
ddition and Subtraction Involving
When adding or subtracting numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation, observe
the following rule:
Rule 10: Before numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation can be added

or subtracted, both terms must be expressed using the same power
of 10. When both terms have the same power of 10, just add or
subtract the numerical parts of each term and multiply the sum or
difference by the power of 10 common to both terms. Express the
final answer in the desired form of powers of 10 notation.
Let’s take a look at a couple of examples.
Example I-9
Add 170 × 103and 23 × 104. Express the final answer in scientific notation.
ANSWER First, express both terms using either 103 or 104 as the common
power of 10. Either one can be used. In this example, we will use 103 as the
common power of 10 for both terms. Rewriting 23 × 104using 103 as the power
of 10 gives us 2 30 × 103. Notice that because the power of 10 was decreased by
a factor of 10, the numerical part of the expression was increased by a factor of
10. Next, add the numerical parts of each term and multiply the sum by 103
which is the power of 10 common to both terms. This gives us
(170 + 230) × 103 or 400 × 103. Expressing the final answer in scientific
notation gives us 4.0 × 105. In summary, (170 × 103) + (23 × 104) =
(170 × 103) + (230 × 103) = (170 + 230) × 103 = 400 × 103 = 4.0 × 105.
Example I-10
Subtract 250 × 103from 1.5 × 106. Express the final answer in scientific
notation.
ANSWER First, express both terms using either 103 or 106 as the common
power of 10. Again, either one can be used. In this example, we will use 106 as
the common power of 10 for both terms. Rewriting 250 × 103using 106 as the
power of 10 gives us 0.25 × 106. Notice that because the power of 10 was
increased by a factor 1000 (103), the numerical part of the expression was
decreased by a factor of 1000 (103). Next, subtract 0.25 from 1.5 and multiply
the difference by 106, which is the power of 10 common to both terms. This
gives us (1.5 − 0.25) × 106 or 1.25 × 106. Notice that the final answer is
already in scientific notation. In summary, (1.5 × 106) − (250 × 103) =
(1.5 × 106) − (0.25 × 106) = (1.5 − 0.25) × 106 = 1.25 × 106.

a. Add the following terms expressed in powers of 10 notation. Express
the answers in scientific notation. (a) (470 × 104) + (55 × 106)
(b) (3.5 × 10−2) + (1500 × 10−5).
b. Subtract the following terms expressed in powers of 10 notation.
Express the answers in scientific notation. (a) (65 × 104) −
(200 × 103)(b) (850 × 10−3) − (3500 × 10−4).
I–5 M
ultiplication and Division
Involving Powers of 10 Notation
When multiplying or dividing numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation, observe
the following rules:
Rule 11: When multiplying numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation,

multiply the numerical parts and powers of 10 separately. When
multiplying powers of 10, simply add the exponents to obtain the
new power of 10. Express the final answer in the desired form of
powers of 10 notation.
Rule 12: When dividing numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation, divide

the numerical parts and powers of 10 separately. When dividing
powers of 10, subtract the power of 10 in the denominator from
the power of 10 in the numerator. Express the final answer in the
desired form of powers of 10 notation.
Let’s take a look at a few examples.
Example I-11
Multiply (3 × 106)by (150 × 102). Express the final answer in scientific
notation.
ANSWER First, multiply 3 × 150 to obtain 450. Next, multiply 106 by 102
to obtain 106 × 102 = 106+2 = 108. To review, (3 × 106) × (150 × 102) =
(3 × 150) × (106 × 102) = 450 × 106+2 = 450 × 108. The final answer expressed
in scientific notation is 4.5 × 1010.
Example I-12
Divide (5.0 × 107)by (2.0 × 104). Express the final answer in scientific notation.
ANSWER First, divide 5 by 2 to obtain 2.5. Next, divide 107 by 104 to

7 7
  5.0 × 104  = __
obtain 107−4 = 103. To review, ________   5  × ___
  104 = 2.5 × 103.
2.0 × 10 2 10
Notice that the final answer is already in scientific notation.
12Introduction
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There is no need, therefore, for surprise at the isolation of Murray
Island, a fact which had influenced me in deciding to make it the
scene of our more detailed investigations.
On landing we were welcomed by Mr. John Bruce, the
schoolmaster and magistrate. He is the only white man now resident
on the island, and he plays a paternal part in the social life of the
people. I was very affectionately greeted by Ari the Mamoose, or
chief of the island, and by my old friend Pasi, the chief of the
neighbouring island of Dauar, and we walked up and down the sand
beach talking of old times, concerning which I found Pasi’s memory
was far better than mine.
I found that one of the two Mission residences on the side of the
hill that were there ten years before was still standing and was
empty, so I decided to occupy that, although it was rather
dilapidated; and it answered our purpose admirably. The rest of the
day and all the next was busily spent in landing our stuff and in
unpacking and putting things to rights. We slept the first night at
Bruce’s house, which is on the strand. When I went up next morning
to our temporary home I found that the Samoan teacher Finau and
his amiable wife had caused the house to be swept, more or less,
and had put down mats, and placed two brightly coloured tablecloths
on the table, which was further decorated with two vases of flowers!
It seemed quite homely, and was a delicate attention that we much
appreciated.
I engaged two natives, Jimmy Rice and Debe Wali, to get wood
and water for us and to help Ontong. We had various vicissitudes
with these two “boys,” but we retained them all through our stay, and
they afforded us much amusement, no little instruction, and a very
fair amount of moral discipline. The legs of two of our party were still
so sore that they had to be carried up the hill, and on Saturday night
we were established in our own quarters, and eager to commence
the work for which we had come so far.
We had a deal of straightening up to do on Sunday morning, but I
found time to go half-way down the hill to the schoolhouse, and was
again impressed, as on my former visit, with the heartiness of the
singing, which was almost deafening. The congregation waited for
me to go out first, and I stood at the door and shook hands with
nearly all the natives of the island as they came down the steps, and
many were the old friends I greeted. I invited them to come up and
see some photographs after the afternoon service.
We made the place as tidy as possible, and we had a great
reception in the afternoon. Nearly all my old friends that were still
alive turned up, besides many others. To their intense and hilarious
delight I showed them some of the photographs I had taken during
my last visit, not only of themselves, but also of other islands in the
Straits. We had an immense time. The yells of delight, the laughter,
clicking, flicking of the teeth, beaming faces and other expressions of
joy as they beheld photographs of themselves or of friends would
suddenly change to tears and wailing when they saw the portrait of
someone since deceased. It was a steamy and smelly performance,
but it was very jolly to be again among my old friends, and equally
gratifying to find them ready to take up our friendship where we had
left it.
Next morning when we were yarning with some natives others
solemnly came one by one up the hill with bunches of bananas and
coconuts, and soon there was a great heap of garden produce on
the floor. By this time the verandah was filled with natives, men and
women, and I again showed the photographs, but not a word was
said about the fruit. They looked at the photographs over and over
again, and the men added to the noise made by the women. On this
occasion there was more crying, which, however, was enlivened with
much hilarity. Then the Mamoose told Pasi to inform me in English,
for the old man has a very imperfect command even of the jargon
English that is spoken out here, that the stack of bananas and
coconuts was a present to me. I made a little speech in reply, and
they slowly dispersed.
On Tuesday evening McDougall, Myers, and Wilkin arrived, and
our party was complete.
CHAPTER II
THE MURRAY ISLANDS
Torres Straits were discovered and passed through in August,

1606, by Luis Vaez de Torres. They were first partially surveyed by
Captain Cook in 1770, and more thoroughly during the years 1843-5
by Captain Blackwood of H.M.S. Fly, and in 1848-9 by Captain
Owen Stanley of H.M.S. Rattlesnake. H.M. cutter Bramble was
associated with both these ships in the survey. But in the meantime
other vessels had passed through: of these the most famous were
the French vessels the Astrolabe and Zélée, which in the course of
the memorable voyage of discovery under M. Dumont d’Urville were
temporarily stranded in the narrow passage of the Island of Tut in
1840.
Bampton and Alt, the adventurous traders and explorers of the
Papuan Gulf, came in the last years of the eighteenth century, and
since then there have not been wanting equally daring men who,
unknown to fame, have sailed these dangerous waters in search of a
livelihood.
Mr. John Jardine was sent from Brisbane in 1862 to form a
settlement at Somerset, in Albany Pass; but the place did not grow,
and in 1877 the islands of Torres Straits were annexed to
Queensland, and the settlement was transferred from the mainland
to Thursday Island.
The islands of Torres Straits, geographically speaking, fall into
three groups, the lines of longitude 140° 48′ E. and 143° 29′ E.
conveniently demarcating these subdivisions.
The western group contains all the largest islands, and these, as
well as many scattered islets, are composed of ancient igneous
rocks, such as eurites, granites, quartz andesites, and rhyolitic tuff.
These islands are, in fact, the submerged northern extremity of the
great Australian cordillera that extends from Tasmania along the
eastern margin of Australia, the northernmost point of which is the
hill of Mabudauan, on the coast of New Guinea, near Saibai. This
low granitic hill may be regarded as one of the Torres Straits islands
that has been annexed to New Guinea by the seaward extension of
the alluvial deposits brought down by the Fly River. Coral islets also
occur among these rocky islands.
The shallow sea between Cape York peninsula and New Guinea is
choked with innumerable coral reefs. By wind and wave action sandy
islets have been built up on some of these reefs, and the coral sand
has been enriched by enormous quantities of floating pumice. Wind-
wafted or water-borne seeds have germinated and clothed the
sandbanks with vegetation. Owing to the length of the south-east
monsoon, the islands have a tendency to extend in a south-easterly
direction, and consequently the north-west end of an island is the
oldest, hence one sometimes finds that in the smaller islands a
greater vegetable growth, or the oldest and largest trees, is at that
end of an island; but in time the vegetation extends uniformly over
the whole surface. The islands of the central division are entirely
vegetated sandbanks.
The eastern division of Torres Straits includes the islands of
Masaramker (Bramble Cay), Zapker (Campbell I.), Uga (Stephen’s
I.), Edugor (Nepean I.), Erub (Darnley I.), and the Murray Islands
(Mer, Dauar, and Waier), besides several sandbanks, or “cays.”
All the above-named islands are of volcanic origin. The first five
consist entirely of lava with the exception of two patches of volcanic
ash at Massacre Bay, in Erub, to which I have already referred. Mer,
the largest of the Murray Islands, is composed of lava and ash in
about equal proportions, while Dauar and Waier consist entirely of
the latter rock. It is interesting to note that where the Great Barrier
Reef ends there we find this great outburst of volcanic activity. It was
evidently an area of weakness in one corner of the continental
plateau of Australia. In pre-Carboniferous times the tuffs were
ejected and the lava welled forth that have since been
metamorphosed into the rocks of the Western Islands; but the
basaltic lavas of the Eastern Islands belong to a recent series of
earth movements, possibly of Pliocene age.
MAP OF TORRES STRAITS
Strictly speaking, to the three islands of Mer, Dauar, and Waier

should the name of Murray Islands, or Murray’s Islands, be confined;
but in Torres Straits the name of Murray Island has become so firmly
established for the largest of them that, contrary to my usual custom,
I propose to adopt the popular rather than the native name.
Mer, or Murray Island, is only about five miles in circumference,
and is roughly oval in outline with its long axis running roughly north-
east to south-west. The southerly half consists of an extinct crater, or
caldera, which is breached to the north-east by the lava stream that
forms the remainder of the high part of the island. This portion is very
fertile, and supports a luxuriant vegetation, which, when left to itself,
forms an almost impenetrable jungle; it is here that the natives have
the bulk of their gardens, and every portion of it is or has been under
cultivation. The great crescentic caldera valley, being formed of
porous volcanic ash and being somewhat arid, is by no means so
fertile; the vegetation, which consists of grass, low scrub, and
scattered coconut palms, presents a marked contrast to that of the
rest of the island. The slopes of the hills are usually simply grass-
covered.
Fig. 1. The Hill of Gelam, Murray Island
The most prominent feature of Mer is the long steep hill of Gelam,
which culminates in a peak, 750 feet in height. It extends along the
western side of the island, and at its northern end terminates in a low
hill named Zomar, which splays out into two spurs, the outer of which
is called Upimager and the inner Mĕkernurnur. Gelam rises up from
a narrow belt of cultivated soil behind the sand beach at an angle of
30 degrees, forming a regular even slope, covered with grass save
for occasional patches of bare rock and low shrubs. At the southern
end the ground is much broken. The termination of the smooth
portion is marked by a conspicuous curved escarpment; beyond this
is a prominent block of rock about half-way up the hill. This is known
as the “eye.” The whole hill seen from some distance at sea bears a
strong resemblance to an animal, and the natives speak of it as
having once been a dugong, the history of which is enshrined in the
legend of Gelam, a youth who is fabled to have come from Moa. The
terminal hill and the north end of Gelam represents the lobed tail of
the dugong, the curved escarpment corresponds to the front edge of
its paddle, while the “eye” and the broken ground which indicates the
nose and mouth complete the head.
The highest part of Gelam on its landward side forms bold, riven
precipices of about fifty feet in height. A small gorge (Werbadupat) at
the extreme south end of the island drains the great valley; beyond it
rises the small, symmetrical hill Dĕbĕmad, which passes into the
short crest of Mergar. The latter corresponds to Gelam on the
opposite side of the island; it terminates in the steep hill Pitkir.
Fig. 2. Murray Island from the South, with its Fringing Reef
Gelam and Mergar form a somewhat horseshoe-shaped range,

the continuity of which is interrupted at its greatest bend, and it is
here the ground is most broken up. The rock is a beautifully stratified
volcanic ash, with an outward dip of 30 degrees. Within this crater is
a smaller horseshoe-shaped hill, which is the remains of the central
cone of the old volcano. The eastern limit of the degraded cone is
named Gur; the western, which is known as Zaumo, is prolonged
into a spur called Ai. In the valley (Deaudupat) between these hills
and Gelam arises a stream which flows in a northerly and north-
easterly direction, and after receiving two other affluents empties
itself into the sea at Korog. It should be remembered that the beds of
all the streams are dry for a greater portion of the year, and it is only
during the rainy season—i.e. from November to March, inclusive—
and then only immediately after the rain, that the term “stream” can
be applicable to them. There are, however, some water-holes in the
bed of the stream which hold water for many months.
The great lava stream extends with an undulating surface from the
central cone to the northern end of the island. It forms a fertile
tableland, which is bounded by a steep slope. On its west side this
slope is practically a continuation of the sides (Zaumo and Ai) of the
central cone, and bounds the eastern side of the miniature delta
valley of the Deaudupat stream. At the northern and eastern sides of
the island the lava stream forms an abrupt or steep declivity,
extending either right down to the water’s edge or occasionally
leaving a narrow shore.
A fringing coral reef extends all round Mer, but has its greatest
width along the easterly side of the island, where it forms an
extensive shallow shelf which dries, or very nearly so, at spring tides,
and constitutes an admirable fishing ground for the natives.
A mile and a quarter to the south of Mer are the islands of Dauar
and Waier. The former consists of two hills—Au Dauar, 605 feet in
height, and Kebe Dauar, of less than half that height. Au Dauar is a
steep, grassy hill like Gelam, but the saddle-shaped depression
between the two hills supports a luxuriant vegetation. There is a
sand-spit at each end.
Waier is a remarkable little island, as it practically consists solely
of a pinnacled and fissured crescentic wall of coarse volcanic ash
about 300 feet in height. There is a small sand-spit on the side facing
Dauar, and a sand beach along the concavity of the island. At these
spots and in many of the gullies there is some vegetation, otherwise
the island presents a barren though very picturesque appearance.
Fig. 3. Waier and Dauar, with their Fringing Reef
Dauar and Waier are surrounded by a continuous reef, which

extends for a considerable distance towards the south-east, far
beyond the region that was occupied by the other side of the crater
of Waier. We must regard Dauar and Waier as the remnants of two
craters, the south-easterly side of both of which having been blown
out by a volcanic outburst, but in neither case is there any trace of a
lava stream.
The climate, though hot, is not very trying, owing to the
persistence of a strong south-east tide wind for at least seven
months in the year—that is, from April to October. This is the dry
season, but rain often falls during its earlier half. Sometimes there is
a drought in the island, and the crops fail and a famine ensues.
During the dry season the temperature ranges between 72° and 87°
F. in the shade, but in the dead calm of the north-west monsoon a
much greater temperature is reached, and the damp, muggy heat
becomes at such times very depressing.
The reading of the barograph shows that there is a wonderful
uniformity of atmospheric pressure. Every day there is a remarkable
double rise and fall of one degree; the greatest rise occurs between
eight and ten o’clock, morning and evening, while the deepest
depression is similarly between two and four o’clock. In June, that is
in the middle of a dry season, the barograph records a pressure
varying between 31 and 33, which gradually decreases to 28 to 30 in
December, again to rise gradually to the midsummer maximum.
These data are obtained from inspection of the records made on the
island by Mr. John Bruce on the barograph we left with him for this
purpose.
Like the other natives of Torres Straits, the Murray Islanders
belong to the Melanesian race, the dark-skinned people of the West
Pacific who are characterised by their black frizzly or woolly hair.
They are a decidedly narrow-headed people. The colour of the skin
is dark chocolate, often burning to almost black in the exposed
portions. The accompanying illustrations give a far better impression
of the appearance and expression of the people than can be
conveyed by any verbal description. Suffice it to say, the features are
somewhat coarse, but by no means bestial; there is usually an alert
look about the men, some of whom show decided strength of
character in the face. The old men have usually quite a venerable
appearance.
PLATE I
ARI, THE MAMOOSE OF MER
PASI, THE MAMOOSE OF DAUAR
Their mental and moral character will be incidentally illustrated in

the following pages, and considering the isolation and favourable
conditions of existence with the consequent lack of example and
stimulus to exertion, we must admit that they have proved
themselves to be very creditable specimens of savage humanity.
The Murray Islanders have often been accused of being lazy, and
during my former visit I came across several examples of laziness
and ingratitude to the white missionaries. As to the first count, well,
there is some truth in it from one point of view. The natives certainly
do not like to be made to work. One can always get them to work
pretty hard in spurts, but continuous labour is very irksome to them;
but after all, this is pretty much the same with everybody. Nature
deals so bountifully with the people that circumstances have not
forced them into the discipline of work.
The people are not avaricious. They have no need for much
money; their wants are few and easily supplied. Surely they are to be
commended for not wearing out their lives to obtain what is really of
no use to them. The truth is, we call them lazy because they won’t
work for the white man more than they care to. Why should they?
As to ingratitude. They take all they can get and, it is true, rarely
appear as grateful as the white man expects; but this is by no means
confined to these people. How often do we find exactly the same trait
amongst our own acquaintances! They may feel grateful, but they
have not the habit of expressing it. On the other hand, it is not
beyond the savage mind for the argument thus to present itself. I did
not ask the white man to come here. I don’t particularly want him. I
certainly don’t want him to interfere with my customs. He comes here
to please himself. If he gives me medicines and presents that is his
look-out, that is his fashion. I will take all I can get. I will give as little
as I can. If he goes away I don’t care.
Less than thirty years ago in Torres Straits might was right, and
wrongs could only be redressed by superior physical force, unless
the magic of the sorcery man was enlisted. For the last fifteen years
the Queensland Government has caused a court-house to be
erected in every island that contains a fair number of inhabitants,
and the chief has the status of magistrate, and policemen, usually
four in number, watch over the public morality.
The policemen are civil servants, enjoying the following annual
emoluments—a suit of clothes, one pound sterling in cash, and one
pound of tobacco. In addition, they have the honour and glory of their
position; they row out in their uniforms in the Government whale-boat
to meet the Resident Magistrate on his visits of inspection to the
various islands, and they go to church on Sundays dressed in their
newest clothes. There are doubtless other amenities which do not
appear on the surface.
The Mamoose, or chief, being a great man, “all along same Queen
Victoria,” as they proudly claim and honestly imagine, is not
supposed to receive payment. I well remember the complex emotion
shown on my former visit by the Mamoose of Murray Island, who
was torn by conflicting desires. Whether to share the golden reward
with his subordinates, or to forego the coin on account of his being a
great man, was more than he could determine; it was clear that he
preferred the lower alternative—for what worth is honour if another
man gets the money? I suspected he almost felt inclined to abdicate
his sovereignty on the spot for the sake of one pound sterling; but
the Hon. John Douglas, who was then on his tour of inspection, kept
him up to the dignity of his position, and pointed out that great men
in his position could not take money like policemen. Possibly the
poor man thought that reigning sovereigns ruled simply for the
honour and glory of it, and had no emoluments. Mr. Douglas’
intention was solely to support the dignity of Ari’s office, for, to do him
justice, when old Ari visited the Government steamer on the
following morning a little matter was privately transacted in the cabin
which had the effect of making Ari beamingly happy.
But there are recognised perquisites for the Mamoose in the
shape of free labour by the prisoners. It would seem as if such a
course was not conducive to impartial justice, for it would clearly be
to the judge’s interest to commit every prisoner; this temptation is,
however, checked by the fact that all trials are public, and popular
opinion can make itself directly felt.
Most of the cases are for petty theft or disputes about land. It is
painful to have to confess that during our recent stay in Murray
Island many of the cases were for wife-beating or for wife-slanging.
The Mamoose is supplied with a short list of the offences with which
he is empowered to deal and the penalties he may inflict. The
technical error is usually made of confusing moral and legal crimes. I
gathered that very fair justice is meted out in the native courts when
left to themselves.
The usual punishment is a “moon” of enforced labour on any
public work that is in operation at the time, such as making a road or
jetty, or on work for the chief, such as making a pig-sty or erecting
fences. The alternative fine used to be husking coconuts and making
copra; the natives in some cases had to supply their own coconuts
for this purpose—the number varied from 100 to 1,000, according to
the offence. This was chiefly the punishment of the women, the
copra was one of the Mamoose’s perquisites. Fines are now paid in
money.
At night-time the prisoners are supposed to sleep in jail—an
ordinary native house set apart for this purpose—but at the present
time in Murray Island, owing to the absence of a jail, they sleep at
home! and during the whole of the time they are under the
surveillance of one or more policemen. Very often it appeared to me
that a policeman’s chief duty consisted in watching a prisoner doing
nothing. Very bad, or often repeated, offenders are taken to
Thursday Island to be tried by the Resident Magistrate.
CHAPTER III
WORK AND PLAY IN MURRAY ISLAND
The first thing we did after arranging the house was to convert a
little room into a dispensary, and very soon numbers of natives came
to get medicine and advice. McDougall, Myers, and Seligmann
worked hard at this, partly because they were really interested in the
various cases, and partly since it brought natives to the house who
could be utilised for our other investigations.
The doctors also paid visits to bad cases in their homes. As the
former white missionaries on the island in days gone by had been
accustomed to dispense, to the best of their ability, from their
somewhat large assortment of drugs, the natives took it for granted
that we should do the same; hence there were no special signs of
gratitude on their part. Bruce, too, does what he can for the natives,
but his remedies are naturally of a simple, though often drastic,
character.
The medical skill and gratuitous advice and drugs of our doctors
did a great deal to facilitate the work of the expedition. Towards the
end of our time, hearing Captain H⸺ of Darnley Island was
seriously ill, McDougall volunteered to go over and nurse him, and
he remained there for a week or two.
It was a great safeguard for us, too, having so many doctors
about; but fortunately we only required their aid, or they each other’s,
for malarial fever or for minor ailments like sores. Only on three
occasions during the time we were away, till we left Borneo, were
there sufficiently bad cases of fever to cause the least anxiety. So,
on the whole, we came off remarkably well on the score of health.
Although we have a fair amount of information about the external
appearance, the shape of the head, and such-like data of most of the
races of mankind, very little indeed is known about the keenness of
their senses and those other matters that constitute the subject
commonly known as experimental psychology. My colleagues were
the first thoroughly to investigate primitive people in their own
country, and it was the first time that a well-equipped psychological
laboratory had been established among a people scarcely a
generation removed from perfect savagery.
Dr. Rivers undertook the organisation of this department, and
there were great searchings of heart as to what apparatus to take
out and which to leave behind. There was no previous experience to
go upon, and there was the fear of delicate apparatus failing at the
critical time, or that the natives would not be amenable to all that
might be required of them. Fortunately the latter fear was
groundless. It was only in the most tedious operations, or in those in
which they were palpably below the average, that the natives
exhibited a strong disinclination to be experimented upon.
Sometimes they required a little careful handling—always patience
and tact were necessary, but taking them as a whole, it would be
difficult to find a set of people upon whom more reliable and
satisfactory observations could be made. I refer more particularly to
the Torres Straits islanders.
In his work in Murray Island, Rivers was assisted by Myers and
McDougall. During his trips to New Guinea, Seligmann made some
supplemental observations of interest. The subjects investigated
included visual acuity, sensitiveness to light, colour vision, including
colour blindness, binocular vision, and visual space perception;
acuity and range of hearing; appreciation of differences of tone and
rhythm; tactile acuity and localisation; sensibility to pain; estimation
of weight, smell, and taste; simple reaction times to auditory and
visual stimuli, and choice reaction times; estimation of intervals of
time; memory; strength of grasp and accuracy of aim; reading,
writing, and drawing; the influence of various mental states on blood-
pressure, and the influence of fatigue and practice on mental work.
The visual acuity of these people was found to be superior to that
of normal Europeans, though not in any very marked degree. The
visual powers of savages, which have excited the admiration of
travellers, may be held to depend upon the faculty of observation.
Starting with somewhat superior acuteness of vision, by long
attention to minute details coupled with familiarity with their
surroundings, they become able to recognise things in a manner that
at first sight seems quite wonderful.
The commonest defect of eyesight among Europeans is myopia,
or short-sightedness, but this was found to be almost completely
absent amongst savages. The opposite condition, hypermetropia,
which is apparently the normal condition of the European child, was
very common among them.
The colour vision of the natives was investigated in several ways.
A hundred and fifty natives of Torres Straits and Kiwai were tested by
means of the usual wool test for colour-blindness without finding one
case. The names used for colours by the natives of Murray Island,
Mabuiag, and Kiwai were very fully investigated, and the derivation
of such names in most cases established. The colour vocabularies of
these islands showed the special feature which appears to
characterise many primitive languages. There were definite names
for red, less definite for yellow, and still less so for green, while a
definite name for blue was either absent or borrowed from English.
The three languages mentioned, and some Australian languages
investigated by Rivers, seemed to show different stages in the
evolution of a colour vocabulary. Several North Queensland natives
(from Seven Rivers and the Fitzroy River) appeared to be almost
limited to words for red, white, and black; perhaps it would be better
to call the latter light and dark. In all the islands there was a name for
yellow, but in Kiwai, at the mouth of the Fly River, the name applied
to green appeared to be inconstant and indefinite, while there was
no word for blue, for which colour the same word was used as for
black. In Torres Straits there are terms for green. In Murray Island
the native word for blue was the same as that used for black, but the
English word had been adopted and modified into bŭlu-bŭlu. The
language of Mabuiag was more advanced; there was a word for blue
(maludgamulnga, sea-colour), but it was often also used for green. In
these four vocabularies four stages may be seen in the evolution of
colour languages, exactly as deducted by Geiger, red being the most
definitive, and the colours at the other end of the spectrum the least
so. As Rivers has also pointed out, it was noteworthy, too, that the
order of these people in respect to culture was the same as in regard
to development of words for colours. Rivers found that though the
people showed no confusion between red and green they did
between blue and green. The investigation of these colour-names,
he thought, showed that to them blue must be a duller and darker
colour than it is to us, and indeed the experiments carried out with an
apparatus known as Lovibond’s tintometer afforded evidence of a
distinct quantitative deficiency in their perception of blue, though the
results were far from proving blindness to blue.
Numerous observations were made by Rivers on writing and
drawing, the former chiefly in the case of children. The most striking
result was the ease and correctness with which mirror writing was
performed. Mirror writing is that reversed form of writing that comes
right when looked at in a looking-glass. In many cases native
children, when asked to write with the left hand, spontaneously wrote
mirror writing, and all were able to write in this fashion readily. In
some cases children, when asked to write with the left hand, wrote
upside down.
Experiments were made on the estimation of time. The method
adopted was to give signals marking off a given interval; another
signal was then given as the commencement of a second interval,
which the native had to finish by a similar signal when he judged it to
be equal to the previous given interval. Rivers found that this
somewhat difficult procedure met with unexpected success, and
intervals of ten seconds, twenty seconds, and one minute, were
estimated with fairly consistent results.
The conditions for testing acuity of hearing were very unfavourable
on Murray Island, owing to the noise of the sea and the rustle of the
coconut palms. Myers found that few Murray Islanders surpassed a
hyper-acute European in auditory acuity, while the majority could not
hear as far. No great weight, however, could be attached to the
observations, because all the men were divers, an occupation that
certainly damaged the ears to some extent. To investigate their
range of hearing a Galton’s whistle was used, and it was found they
could hear very high notes. Twelve Murray Islanders were tested for
their sense of rhythm; this was found to be remarkably accurate for
120 beats of the metronome to the minute, and somewhat less so for
60 beats.
Myers tested their sense of smell by means of a series of tubes
containing solutions, of varying strength, of odorous substances like
valerian and camphor, and the results, while not altogether
satisfactory, tended to show that they had no marked superiority in
this respect over the members of the expedition.
With regard to taste it was very difficult to get information, as the
natives, naturally enough, did not like strange substances being put
into their mouths. Sugar and salt were readily recognised, acid was
compared to unripe fruit, bitter is most uncertain, and there is no
distinctive name for it in the Murray Island vocabulary.
Numerous time reaction experiments were made by Myers. The
time of the simple reaction is not sensibly longer, but probably in
many cases even shorter, than would be that given by a
corresponding class of Europeans. Myers points out that the
experiments clearly showed the great difference of temperament
among the individuals investigated. There was at one extreme the
slow, steady-going man, who reacted with almost uniform speed on
each occasion; at the other extreme was the nervous, high-strung
individual, who was frequently reacting prematurely.
There is a consensus of opinion that savages are less sensitive to
pain than Europeans, but there is always the doubt whether they are
really able to bear pain with fortitude. However, the conclusion
McDougall arrived at, that the Murray Islanders were distinctly less
sensitive than the Europeans in the expedition, was supported not
only by their statements, but also by tests depending on simple
pressure of the skin made by a small piece of apparatus. It should be
understood that the degree of pain produced was in all cases so
slight as not to spoil the pleasure and interest of the subjects in the
proceedings.
It was found that the natives had points on their skin specially
sensitive to cold, exactly as in the case with Europeans. As to touch,
when tested by McDougall to see how close the points of a pair of
compasses must be put on the skin before they cease to be felt as
two, their sensitiveness was in general better than that of the
members of the expedition.
A series of tin canisters of the same size and appearance, but
variously weighted, was prepared by McDougall; another series
having the same weight, but of different sizes, was also provided: the
first experiment was to test the delicacy of discrimination of the
differences of weight, and the second to determine the degree of
their suggestibility by the effect of size, as appreciated by sight and
grasp, on the judgment of weight. It was interesting to find that
although the abstract idea of weight seemed entirely new to the
minds of these people, who had no word to express it, and who,
moreover, could have had no practice, yet they were more accurate
than a practised European.
It would be tedious to recount all the work that was accomplished
in the psychological laboratory; but it was most interesting to watch
the different operations and to see what earnestness, I may say
conscientiousness, most of the subjects exhibited in the performance
of the tasks set them. We never knew what they thought of it all, or
of us—perhaps it was as well that we did not.
In the preliminary report Rivers has published, he notes that our
observations were in most cases made with very little difficulty, and,
with some exceptions, we could feel sure that the natives were doing
their best in all we asked them to do. This opinion is based not only
on observation of their behaviour and expression while the tests
were being carried out, but on the consistency of the results; the
usually small deviations showed that the observations were made
with due care and attention.
Attempts were made, but with very little success, to find out what
was actually passing in the minds of the natives while making these
observations.
One general result was to show very considerable variability. It
was obvious that in general character and temperament the natives
varied greatly from one another, and very considerable individual
differences also came out in our experimental observations. How
great the variations were as compared with those in a more complex
community can only be determined after a large number of
comparative data have been accumulated.
Another general result pointed out by Rivers is that these natives
did not appear to be especially susceptible to suggestion, but
exhibited a very considerable independence of opinion. This
observation is of importance, as there is a widely spread idea that
the reverse is the case for backward peoples. Leading questions
were found not to be so dangerous as was expected.
Whenever possible I spent the mornings in measuring the natives.
In this I was helped by Wilkin, who also photographed them. It is not
always easy to obtain good portraits when the accessories of a well-
lighted studio are absent, but the expedition is to be congratulated
on the success of Wilkin’s labours. Most of the Murray Island
photographs were developed on the spot, and in a considerable
number of cases copies of the portraits were given to the sitters in
consideration for their submitting to be psychologised.
Nearly all the Torres Straits and New Guinea photographs were
taken by Wilkin, and it is greatly to his credit that there were very few
failures.
Wilkin also paid some attention to native architecture in Torres
Straits and on the mainland of New Guinea, and to the laws
regulating land tenure and inheritance of property in Torres Straits.
As Seligmann did not return with Ray, Wilkin, and myself after our
trip to the Central District of British New Guinea, he had only two and
a half weeks on Murray Island. During that time he collected some
natural history and botanical specimens, and paid attention to native
medicine and surgery as well, and he also made some clinical
observations on the diseases of the natives. During his New Guinea
trips, and when he rejoined us in the western islands of Torres
Straits, he continued on much the same lines; so that in the end he
gained a very fair insight into “folk-medicine.” He also at various
times made some interesting ethnological observations and
measured some tribes I was not able to visit. Frequently he assisted
Rivers and myself in our investigations in Mabuiag.

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Grob’s Basic Electronics, 13th Edition

Grob's Basic Electronics 13th latest edition Mitchel E.

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Problems Manual for Grob’s Basic Electronics 12th

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Basic Electrical, Electronics and Measurement

Experiments Manual for Grob’s Basic Electronics 12th

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering-II

Desarrollo humano 13th Edition Diane E. Papalia

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viii Brief Contents

Chapter 3 Ohm’s Law 80

Chapter 4 Series Circuits 112

Chapter 5 Parallel Circuits 146

Chapter 6 Series-Parallel Circuits 178

Chapter 8 Analog and Digital Multimeters 238

Chapter 9 Kirchhoff ’s Laws 274

Chapter 10 Network Theorems 298

Chapter 11 Conductors and Insulators 330

Chapter 12 Batteries 360

Chapter 13 Magnetism 396

Chapter 14 Electromagnetism 416

Chapter 15 Alternating Voltage and Current 450

Chapter 16 Capacitance 494

Chapter 17 Capacitive Reactance 534

Chapter 18 Capacitive Circuits 556

Chapter 19 Inductance 582

Chapter 20 Inductive Reactance 628

Chapter 21 Inductive Circuits 650

Chapter 22 RC and L/R Time Constants 678

Chapter 23 Alternating Current Circuits 712

Chapter 25 Resonance 772

Chapter 26 Filters 808

Chapter 27 Three-Phase AC Power Systems 852

Chapter 28 Diodes and Diode Applications 884

Chapter 29 Bipolar Junction Transistors 932

Chapter 30 Transistor Amplifiers 966

Chapter 31 Field Effect Transistors 1008

Chapter 32 Power Amplifiers 1048

Chapter 34 Operational Amplifiers 1098

Appendix A Electrical Symbols and Abbreviations 1150

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Chapter Introductions briefly outline

measure. ■ Describe the difference between direct and

Pioneers in Electronics offer Opposite Like – Like +

and engineers whose theories and + – – – + +

viii Brief Contents

Guided Tour xxv

xxvi Guided Tour

Guided Tour xxvii

xxx Electric Shock—Dangers, Precautions, and First Aid

Electric Shock—Dangers, Precautions, and First Aid xxxi

Introduction to Powers of 10 3

Introduction to Powers of 10 5

ANSWER (a) To convert 4.75 × 102into decimal notation, the decimal

I–2 Engineering Notation

Introduction to Powers of 10 7

ANSWER First, express 1,000,000 Ω in engineering notation: 1,000,000 Ω =

ANSWER First, express 0.015 V in engineering notation: 0.015 V = 15 ×

Introduction to Powers of 10 9

Rule 10: Before numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation can be added

Introduction to Powers of 10 11

Rule 11: When multiplying numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation,

Rule 12: When dividing numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation, divide