Early Buddhist Art and the Theory of Aniconism

Author(s): Susan L. Huntington

Source: Art Journal, Vol. 49, No. 4, New Approaches to South Asian Art (Winter, 1990), pp.
401-408
Published by: College Art Association
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Early Buddhist Art and
the Theory of Aniconism

By Susan L. Huntington

n the late nineteenthand early twentieth concludes that the absence of Buddhafig-
centuries,EuropeanandIndianscholars ures in humanformin the early artreflects
were puzzled by the absence of anthro- the Buddha's "true Nirvana essence
pomorphicrepresentationsof the historical [whichis] inconceivablein visual formand
BuddhaSakyamuniin the earliest surviv- human shape."7While such concepts are
ing Buddhistart. EarlyBuddhistart, it was centralto Buddhistthinking,they may not
assumed, either avoided Buddha images be pertinentto the issue of aniconism. Al-
entirely,or favoredthe use of symbols to though such references recur throughout
referto the Buddhaor importantevents in Buddhist literature,they do not directly
the Buddha'slife. For example, the depic- address the issue of whether a Buddha
tion of a specific tree in early stone reliefs should be representedin humanform.
was interpretedto signify the Buddha'sen- So deeply embeddedwithin a matrixof
lightenmentbeneaththe bodhitreeat Bodh long-standingviews of Buddhistdoctrinal,
Gaya (fig. 5). Similarly, portrayalsof the institutional, and sectarian history is the
wheel representing Buddhist law were aniconic interpretationof early Buddhist
often thought to be symbolic representa- artthat any erosion of the theorythreatens
tions of the Buddha'sfirst sermon at Sar- Figure 1 Devotion to a BuddhistWheel, to crumble the foundations upon which
nath (fig. 1). This supposed practice of carvingon railing, ca. second or third decades of scholarship have been built.
either avoiding images of the Buddha or decade of 1st centuryA.D., stone. Stupa
2, Sanchi, MadhyaPradesh,India. Acceptance of a so-called period of
using symbols as substitutes for Buddha aniconism preceding an image-making
images became known as "aniconism." phase has been so strongthat a numberof
Fornearlya hundredyears, the theoryof like Foucher, accepted the theory of cases may be cited where secure archae-
aniconism has been universally accepted aniconismto explain the art in which por- ological, inscriptional, and literary evi-
in the interpretationof early Buddhistart. trayalsof the Buddha in human form did denceto the contraryhas been dismissedto
The early twentieth-centurywriter Alfred not occur. accommodatethe theory.8
Foucherwas the first to articulatethe the- Considering some of the underlying Nonetheless, a fresh analysis based on
ory.' He based his ideas on the assumption principles of Buddhism, it has not been archaeological, literary,and inscriptional
thatthe earliestBuddhaimages were those difficult for scholars to suggest explana- evidence casts doubt on the practice of
produced in the Gandhararegion of an- tions for the absence of anthropomorphic deliberate avoidance of Buddha images.
cient Indiaduringthe earlycenturiesof the images of the Buddha in early Buddhist Forinstance,one of the cornerstonesof the
Christianera-more than half a millen- art.One authornotesthat"theBuddhawas aniconic theoryhas been that the early art
niumafterthe Buddhalived. In Gandhara, not shown at all, to symbolize the fact that reflected"Hinayana"9formsof Buddhism
he surmised, Indian artists were intro- he wasnibbuta('extinguished'),"4thusre- and that "Hinayana" Buddhists had
duced to what he considered a superior lating the notion of aniconism with the doctrinalproscriptionsagainstthe creation
sculpturalheritage-that of the Greekand very essence of Buddhism-the cessation of works of art showing Buddhasin their
classical world-which stimulated the of existence in physical form. Another human forms. Proponents of the theory
creationof anthropomorphicimages of the scholarcites a verse fromthe Suttanipdta, havecontendedthatthe practiceof creating
Buddha.2Indian sentiment was naturally which states, "He who is passionless re- anthropomorphicrepresentationsof the
offended at the suggestion that Western garding all desires, Resorts to nothing- Buddhawas initiatedonly when Mahayana
influencewas requiredto motivatethe pro- ness,"5 to suggest that the Buddha's tran- Buddhism began to flourish around the
duction of the Buddha image. Ananda scendence of personal, egoistic existence early centuriesof the Christianera. How-
Coomaraswamytook the case to the Art may be linked with the artisticphenome- ever, one respected Buddhologist has re-
Bulletin, where he contended in a fre- non. This authorfurthersuggests that "As cently suggested on the basis of textual
quently cited article that the impetus for flame . .. blown by the force of wind goes evidencethat"Hinayanists"wereprobably
creatingthe Buddha image was rooted in out and is no longer reckoned. . . . Even as receptiveto the makingof the image as
indigenous beliefs and sculptural tradi- so the sage, releasedfromname and form, Mahayanists.10 Another distinguished
tions.3 At the same time, Coomaraswamy, goes out and is no longerreckoned,"6and Buddhologisthas concludedthatthe asso-

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 study that explores the early art of Bud- along with five ascetics and a pair of deer
dhist India with these questions in mind flanking a wheel below. These elements
and offers new interpretationsof the con- typify illustrations of the Buddha's first
tent of these carvings. The corpus of so- sermon,which he deliveredto an audience
called aniconicreliefs displaysa varietyof of five heretics at the Deer Park and at
subjects, including abstract,animal, and Benares. Three additionalfigures, distin-
foliate motifs, naturespirits, and narrative guished by their costumes, are also in at-
scenes. Among these, the narrativescenes tendance, although their presence is not
are of the greatestimportanceto the study requisitein the scene.
of the problemof aniconism, for the vast Two observations may be made about
majorityare generally identifiedeither as reliefs that actually portrayBuddha'slife
events in the life of the historicalBuddha events: (1) the place being shown is the
Figure 2 SakyamuniBuddha'sFirst
Sermon, from Gandhararegion, Sakyamuni(ca. 560-480 B.C.)or as depic- place wherethe eventoccurred,and(2) the
tions of jdtaka stories relatinghis previous time of the activitydepictedin the compo-
Pakistan,Kusanaperiod, ca. 2nd or 3rd lives. 14 sition is the time of the event itself. These
century A.D., stone. Lahore Museum, This article presents some of my find-
Lahore,Pakistan. two conditionsgenerallyarenot presentor
ings in a preliminaryfashion by focusing even implicit in reliefs of the "aniconic"
on one type of representation.15 Specifi- type, such as the scene showingthe wheel.
ciation of the Buddha image solely with cally, I will examine a type of relief thatis Earlierscholarshaveassumedthatcompo-
Mahayanais incorrectand that "almostall among those that are usually said to illus- sitions like this record events during the
the Hinayanaschools were actively inter- trate scenes from the life of the Buddha, lifetime of the Buddha,in spite of both the
ested in andconcernedwith images andthe with the Buddha,however,not depicted. It absenceof the Buddhaand the presenceof
cult of images."" Indeed, in the entire is possible that most, if not all, of these otherelements in the compositionthatin-
corpus of Buddhist literature, scholars compositionsdo not representeventsin the dicate that another activity is occurring.
have been able to find only a single, indi- life of the Buddhaat all, but ratherportray Without accounting for the counterevi-
rect referenceto a proscriptionagainstthe worship and adorationat sacredBuddhist dence, they haveconcludedthatsuch com-
creation of Buddha images, and that is sites. Although some of these reliefs may positions represent Buddha life scenes
limited to the context of a single Buddhist depict devotionsmade at sacredsites even with the Buddhaabsent.
sect. 12 while the Buddhawas still alive, most of Place and time, which are explicitly in-
Archaeological evidence also chal- them probablyshow the sites as they were dicated in iconic images of Buddha'slife
lenges one of the mainstaysof the aniconic worshipedafterthe lifetimeof the Buddha. events, are key issues in the interpretation
theory, namely, the long-held conviction Further,I hope to show that the so-called of the aniconic reliefs, as may be clarified
that the Buddha image was first created aniconic symbols, such as empty thrones, by examininga recently discoveredimage
duringthe Kusanaperiod aroundthe first trees, wheels, and stupas (hemispherical from Amaravati (fig. 3). This second-
or second century A.D. Recently a number structurescontainingrelics), were not in- centuryA.D.carvingdepicts neithera non-
of sculpted Buddha images belonging to tendedby the makersof the reliefsto serve figurativesubjectnor a Buddha.Instead,it
the pre-Kusanaperiod have been identi- as surrogatesfor Buddhaimages, but were shows what is clearly a Buddha image
fied.13 The existence of these pre-Kusana the sacrednuclei of worshipat these sites.
sculpted Buddhas underminesthe theory The reliefs, then, are essentially "por-
thatKusanapatronagewas responsiblefor traits"of the sites andshowthe practicesof
the introductionof anthropomorphicBud- pilgrimage and devotion associated with
dhaimages. The early dateof these images them. 16
confirms that representationsof Buddhas
were being producedat the same time as A comparisonbetween an iconic image
the so-called aniconic reliefs, thus sug- of the Buddha'sfirst sermon and an
gesting thatthe absence of Buddhaimages image that has been identified as an an-
in the reliefs cannot be attributedto wide- iconic version of the same scene demon-
spreadprohibitionsagainst the creationof stratesthe visual and thematicdifferences
Buddhaimages. between the two types. In the so-called
The widening gap between recent his- aniconic type, seen in a first-centuryA.D.
torical, art-historical,andtextualevidence relief at Sanchi, a largewheel is the central
and the traditionalaniconic theory raises object in the composition (fig. 1). The
many questions. Can it still be assumed wheel-the Buddhist wheel of law
that the pre-Kusanareliefs that do not de- (righteousness)-is invariablyassociated
pict the Buddha in human form reflect a with the Buddha's first sermon, during
deliberate avoidance of his portrayal? which he is said to have set the wheel of
Might there be other explanationsfor the law in motion. Therefore, compositions
apparentabsence of Buddhafigures in the like this are generally identifiedas depic-
early reliefs? Can the recently identified tions of the Buddha'sfirstsermonwith the
Buddhaimages from pre-Kusanatimes be Buddha not shown in anthropomorphic
reconciled with the other artistic remains form. The otherimage, a second- or third-
of those periods? And, most importantly, centuryA.D. relief from the Gandharare-
if the subjects of the hundreds of pre- gion of Pakistan,is of the "iconic" type
Kusanareliefs do not containedveiled ref- andbearsa figureof a Budda seatedupon Figure 3 Devotion to an Image of a
erences to a being who is never shown, a throne(fig. 2). Like most images show- Buddha,from the AmaresvaraTemple,
what might they have been intended to Amaravati,AndhraPradesh,India, ca.
ing a Buddha,this carving is later in date late 2nd centuryA.D., stone. Amaravati
communicate? thanmost of the "aniconic"images. In the
At present, I am engaged in a detailed Site Museum, Amaravati,India.
Gandharanrelief, the Buddhais portrayed

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 Buddhistsacredspot, or pltha. Regarding with garlands, making offerings, and
the time of the event, the presence of the kneelingin respect.It is clearthatthe relief
image suggests that the scene probably illustratesactivitiesthataretakingplace at
occurredafterthe lifetimeof the Buddha.17 the holy site some time after Visvabhu's
Scholars have assumed that all the early enlightenment. Further, the scene is
reliefs of the type underdiscussion-both clearly an exaltationof Buddhistdevotion,
the "iconic" and "aniconic"examples- specifically lay devotion, since the figures
were meantto indicatean eventduringthe are lay worshipers, as indicated by their
lifetime of the Buddha,but it is clear that seculargarb.
anotheralternativeexists: I contendthatat Several other reliefs from the Bharhut
least some of the so-called aniconicscenes railingshow the trees of othermortalBud-
depict sacredlocationsof Buddhismbeing dhas and are accompaniedby inscriptions
visited by laypersons, most likely some indicatingthatthe scenes representthe sa-
time afterthe Buddhahadlived. A number cred trees at their sacredsites, ratherthan
of featuresin the "aniconic" carvings of enlightenmentevents. The most detailed
this type, such as the devoutworshipersin of these compositions shows an elaborate
the Sanchi scene (fig. 1), clearly indicate temple enshrining an asvattha tree, the
this type of practice. bodhitreeof Sakyamuni(fig. 5). This first-
The strongest and perhaps most un- century B.C. panel is commonly said to
equivocalevidence thatthe scene showing representthe enlightenmentof the Bud-
the venerationof the wheel of law (fig. 1) dha, with the Buddha absent due to an-
Figure 4 The Bodhi Tree of Visvabhu and numerousotherso-called aniconic re- iconic interdictions.However,the inscrip-
Buddha,from Bharhut,MadhyaPradesh, liefs are depictions of sacredplaces, with tion that accompanies this carving says
India, Suiga period, ca. 100-80 B.C., lay practitionersworshipingat them (and
stone. IndianMuseum, Calcutta. bhagavato Sakamuninobodho,20 that is,
not events in the life of the Buddha),is the the bodhi (tree) of holy Sakyamuni, and
body of inscriptionsassociatedwith some thus parallels the inscription identifying
of the "aniconic"reliefsfromBharhutdat- the tree of BuddhaVisvabhii.21
placed upon a throne. The focus of the ing fromthe firstcenturyB.C. One criticof The compositionincludesa depictionof
relief is a rectangularthrone,behindwhich my theory has accused me of being a platformwith the tree, a building, and
is an asvattha tree, as identified by the "blissfully unawareof the plethoraof in- worshipers.Thereis no evidencefromsur-
shapeof its leaves. Upon the thronerests a scriptionsat Bharhutthatspecificallyiden- viving literary or archaeological sources
roundelbearing a figure of a seated Bud- tify these representationsas events in the that any kind of temple existed at the site
dha displaying the gesture of reassurance Buddha'slife."'8 On the contrary,a closer when the Buddhameditatedunderhis sa-
with his right hand. A pair of footprints examinationof the inscriptionsrevealsthat cred tree. Indeed, EmperorAsoka (r. ca.
appearsbelow. To the far right and rearof they argue strongly for my case, because 272-231 B.C.) is credited with having built
the pictorial space, a portion of a roofed many of the epigraphs clearly indicate the first importanttemple at Bodh Gaya,
buildingor pavilionis visible. Flankingthe places, not events. Indeed, it is precisely and thereforethe presence of the temple
centralthroneand tree is a pair of figures the confusion of location and eventthat is
(thaton the viewer'sleft being badly dam- at the root of what I believe to be the
aged). These figures are seated with one misperception about many of the early
leg pendant on platforms that flank the reliefs.
central altar, and the figure at the right
holds a fly whisk over his right shoulder. everal examples from Bharhutclarify
There is no doubt that this relief repre- the issues relating to this confusion.
sents a certain place. The setting of the One of the most incontrovertibleillustra-
relief is strikinglysuggested by the build- tions is a ca. first-centuryB.C. roundel
ing at the right rear, which apparentlyis showing a tree with an altarin front of it
includedas partof the portrayalof the site. being veneratedby a male andfemalecou-
It seems clear thatthe scene is not an event ple and a pair of children (fig. 4). The
in the life of Buddha, since the Buddhais inscriptionaccompanyingthis relief says
not presentand he (or anotherBuddha)is bhagavatoVesabhundbodhi salo, that is,
specificallydepictedin an image. Because "The Bodhi treeof the holy Vesabhu(Vis-
the scene does not representa life event of vabhu), a Sala tree."19 The inscription
the Buddha, one cannot even be certain clearlyidentifiesthe scene as a representa-
thatthe place being depicted is one where tion of the tree of enlightenment(bodhi
an eventin the Buddha'slife occurred.The tree) of the BuddhaVisvabhu,one of the
presenceof the asvattha tree might imply mortalBuddhaswho precededSakyamuni
thatthe site was Bodh Gaya,but, as is well in time. In other words, the relief depicts
known, specimens of the asvatthatree,the the tree under which the enlightenment
enlightenmentor bodhi tree of Sakyamuni took place, but not the event of Buddha
Buddha, are sacred and are enshrined Visvabhu'senlightenmentitself. The in-
throughoutthe Buddhistworld. The Bud- scription implies the location-the place
dha in the roundel is not in the earth- where the tree was rooted-while the hu-
touching gesture that characterizesrepre- man figures and other elements in the
sentationsof his imminent enlightenment roundelindicatethe activity that is taking Figure 5 The Bodhi Tree of Sakyamuni
at Bodh Gaya, thus providingfurtherevi- Buddha,from Bharhut,MadhyaPradesh,
place. The roundel features the tree, an India, Sufigaperiod, ca. 100-80 B.C.,
dence that the site is not Bodh Gaya. One altarfor offerings, andthe humandevotees
can only say that the scene representsa stone. IndianMuseum, Calcutta.
who are worshipingthe tree by drapingit

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suggests that the depiction shows the site them, built up of bricks and chased
in the Asokanperiodor later.Furthermore, stones ornamentedwith jewels, on
an examinationof the activity in the relief the ancient foundations (three lad-
revealsthat it is a representationof human ders) resemblingthe old ones. They
devotees, specifically lay devotees, wor- are about 70 feet high. Above them
shipingthe sacredspot. Therefore,though theybuilta viharain which is a stone
it is certainthat the relief portraysthe tree image of Buddha,and on eitherside
underwhich the Buddha became enlight- of this is a ladderwith the figuresof
ened at Bodh Gaya,thereis everyevidence Brahmaand Sakra,just as they ap-
that the event portrayedis not the enlight- peared when first rising to accom-
enment itself. pany Buddhain his descent.24
A comprehensivestudy of the other in-
Thus, at one time the focus of devotionat
scriptions at Bharhutconfirms that many
of the compositions commonly identified Sankasya had apparently been a set of
as Buddha life events with the Buddha stairserectedby the early royaltyof India.
lacking are instead depictions of sacred Therefore,insteadof representingthe Bud-
dha life event itself, with the main actors
sites, including devotional activities at
these sites. The major scholars who have missing, the Bharhut carving seems to
studied the inscriptions during the past show a laterworshipscene at the holy site
of Sankasya,wherethe descenttook place.
centuryhave read the pertinentepigraphs
in the mannerI describe here.22Nonethe-
less, those discussing the arthave invaria- Figure 6 Devotion at Sankasya,from Another panel from Bharhut, dating
bly misconstrued the contents of the Bharhut,MadhyaPradesh,India, Sunga from about the first century B.C.,
inscriptions-if they have consulted them period, ca. 100-80 B.C., stone. Indian shows a subjectcommon in the early Bud-
at all-to refer to Buddha life events. Museum, Calcutta. dhist relief art of India, a depiction of a
Thus, their identificationsof the activities stupa (fig. 7). Because the Buddha'srelics
and subjectsshown in the reliefs havecon- weredivided andenshrinedin eight sttpas
formedto the assumptionthatthe subjects shortly after his demise, depictions of
are life scenes with the Buddha absent. stupas in the early art are often said to
Even Heinrich Liiders, who so carefully depictthe Buddha'sgreatdecease (parinir-
rereadand analyzedthe inscriptions,enti- vana). Yet, as in other reliefs alreadydis-
tled one of his chapters "InscriptionsAt- cussed, the presence of lay worshipersin
tached to Scenes of Buddha's Life," in the composition suggests that the main
spiteof the fact thathis own translationsof subject of the carving is the practice of
the inscriptionsdid not supportthe identi- making pilgrimage to the sacred sites
ficationof the scenes as eventsin the life of where relics of the Buddha were housed.
the Buddha.23 The pillar crownedwith addorsedlions at
the left suggeststhatthe stupasite is shown
Another example of a so-called an- as it appearedafteraroundthe thirdcentury
iconic composition that invites a new B.C., when Emperor Asoka erected nu-
interpretationis an uninscribed carving meroussimilarpillarsat the sacredsites of
fromBharhuttraditionallyidentifiedas the Buddhism. Many other reliefs at Bharhut
Buddha's descent from Trayastrirhsa and other sites show a wheel, a tree, a
heavenat the site of Sankasya(fig. 6). The stupa, a pillar,or othertype of monument,
usualinterpretationof this ca. first-century and I believe these also should be inter-
B.C. relief is that the ladder by which the preted as depictions of places, not events
Buddhamade the descent is shown in the with the main actors missing. At least by
center of the composition, but due to the Asoka'stime in the thirdcenturyB.C., nu-
presumedaniconicproscriptions,the Bud- merousplaces associatedwith the Buddha
dha was not shown. However,the theory had become famousp(thas (holy "seats,"
that I am proposing-that reliefs like this i.e., holy places), and shrines, pillars, or
portraya place but not an event of the other monuments had been erected at
Buddha'slife-allows anotherinterpreta- them. The almost invariablepresence of
tion that perhaps better accounts for the devoteesand worshipersin such composi-
elementsdepictedin the relief. The figures tions suggests that it is not a historical
appearto move as if in a clockwise proces- eventin the life of the Buddhathatis being
sion aroundthe laddersin the nearlyubiq- represented, but rather the activities of
uitous circumambulationritual used in Figure 7 Devotion at a BuddhistStupa, darsana-of "seeing" a sacredplace, per-
Buddhism. Eyewitness accounts of Bud- from Bharhut,MadhyaPradesh,India,
son, or object-and the associated devo-
dhist pilgrims to Sankasya and archae- Sufigaperiod, ca. 100-80 B.C., stone. tional practices.25
ological evidenceat the site indicatethatas IndianMuseum, Calcutta. Inasmuchas specific sacred sites were
early as the third century B.C. Sankasya the focus of many of the early reliefs, the
hadbecome a majorpilgrimagecenterand significance attached to pilgrimage to
that an actual set of stairs-perhaps the Some centuriesago, the laddersstill these locations forms an importantback-
veryones depictedin this relief-were the existed in theiroriginalposition, but ground for understandingearly Buddhist
focal point of worship.Regardingthe lad- now they have sunk into the earth art. The Buddhahimself, upon his death-
ders, the seventh-centuryChinese pilgrim and disappeared. The neighboring bed, instructedhis followers to make pil-
Xuanzang(Hsuan-tsang)observed: princes, grieved at not having seen grimageto the sites of the fourmainevents

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of his life: his birth, enlightenment, first interpretedas symbolic representationsof
sermon, and death (parinirvdna).26The the Buddha, for they show sacred trees,
practiceof making such pilgrimages was stupas, or footprints. However, in Sri
popularizedin the third century B.C. by Lankathereis no doubtthatthese are por-
EmperorAsoka, Buddhism'sparadigmatic traitsof sacredplaces.
lay devotee, whose pious journey was im- The importanceof a cult of pilgrimage
mortalized in the Asokdvadana.27 The to the sacred sites of Buddhism is also
sametext also recordsAsoka'swell-known verified from Buddhisttexts that describe
embellishmentof the sacred sites of Bud- the three types of relics (cetiya) that the
dhism with architecturaland artistic cre- Buddhais said to haveleft after his death:
ations, some of which may be depicted in (1) sartraka(pieces of the body), (2) par-
the "aniconic" compositions. The pres- ibhogaka (things he used), and (3) ud-
ence of lay worshipersin virtuallyall of the desaka (reminders, i.e., representations,
reliefs in question supportsthe theorythat or images).29The meaning of sarlraka is
they record a practice of lay devotion. A eminentlyclear-here, Buddhistsrefernot
number of reliefs specifically show de- only to the crematedashes of the Buddha,
votees performingthe Buddhistrite of cir- but also to any otherbodily relic, such as a
cumambulation,which maybe ascertained hair,a tooth, a fragmentof bone, or nails.
by the depictionof the figuresas if turning Smallcasketscontainingsuch sacredrelics
in space as they walk arounda sacredob- became an importantfocal point of Bud-
ject of devotion(fig. 8). dhistworship,andmonumentsand shrines
The reinterpretationof the reliefs as de- said to contain such relics are found
pictions of places ratherthan events bears throughoutthe Buddhist world. The sec-
directlyupon the issue of whetherthe var- ond category of relic, paribhogaka, in-
ious objects that appearin the reliefs, like cludes objectslike his robe,begging bowl,
wheels, sacredtrees, stipas, or pillars, are turban,and any chair or seat upon which
"symbolic" representationsof the Bud- he sat, among others. The most important
dha. If we consider that these reliefs may of theparibhogakaobjectsis the bodhitree
representsacredplaces, then it would fol- at Bodh Gaya. But any place the Buddha
low that the artists would depict the focal visited, rested, or traversedwould also be
point of worshipat each of them. In repre- consideredparibhogaka.The thirdof the
sentations of the site of Bodh Gaya, the threetypes of relics arethe uddesaka,spe-
templeand/orthe treemightbe shown(fig. cifically, images (pratima)of the Buddha.
5); in representationsof Sarnath,a wheel The aniconic theoryencodes the expec-
or temple with an enclosed wheel could be tation that the image of the Buddhamust
depicted.28The place where the Buddha's be of primaryimportanceand that other
death took place, or the sites where his depictions, such as a bodhitree, were sec- Figure 8 Devotees circumambulatinga
relics wereenshrined,mightbe shownby a BuddhistPillar with a Wheel Capital,
ondary substitutesfor a figurativeform.
renderingof a stupa. Similarly,depictions However,in the Buddhistcontext it is pri- railingpillar, Sufigaperiod, ca. 1st
of other sites might be portrayedby illus- marily the sarlraka and paribhogakathat centuryB.C., stone. Bodha Gaya.
trationsof theiridentifyingor most charac- have provided the main impetus for pil-
teristic features. grimageandreverenceat Buddhistsites. In
the Mahdvamsa, the Buddha is cited as image a primacythat it did not have in the
hat objects installed at Buddhist sa- havingpronounced:"In remembrancethat early Buddhistcontext. I propose that the
cred sites can be worthyof devotionin I have used these, do homage to them."30 sacredtrees, stipas, andotherfeaturesthat
their own right and not merely substitute Further in the "Mahaparinibbana- mark special places associated with the
fora forbiddenanthropomorphic rendering suttanta,"the Buddha explains that such Buddha had inestimable importance in
of a Buddhais attestedby a phenomenon places should be seen and admired, and their own right and that the cult of image
seen in Sri Lankan Buddhism. The phe- that whoever dies with a contented mind worship was secondary.This concept is
nomenon is likely to have had an Indian while on a pilgrimage will be reborn in expressed in the Commentaryon the Vi-
source, perhapsin the early Buddhismof heaven.31In a Sri Lankanmonastery,the bhahga, wherein it states that one obtains
the periodof concernto the aniconicques- most importantelement is the relic, which Buddhalambanapiti (joy or ecstasy derived
tion (ca. second century B.C. throughthe is enshrined in the mahastupa, the focal by looking at or thinking about the Bud-
firstcenturyA.D.).Based on the belief that point of the monasticplan. Second in im- dha) by looking at a stupa housing a relic
the Buddhavisited theirislandthreetimes, portance is the bodhi tree (mahdbodhi), of the Buddhaor a bodhitree,but no men-
Sri LankanBuddhistsreverethe places he and indeed every monasteryin Sri Lanka tion is madeof the meritgainedby looking
visitedor rested, and sites housing some of has at least one majorbodhi tree. Thirdin at an image of the Buddha.33To view sa-
his relics. These, along with severalother importanceis the image house (pratima- credtrees, stupas, and othersuch formsas
sacredsites, have been codified into a cult ghara). Therefore,the image and image substitutesor symbols for somethingelse
of the Sixteen GreatPlaces, which are the hall are far less importantthan the stupa is to misunderstandtheir intrinsic impor-
focus of Sri Lankanpilgrimageandconsti- and the bodhi tree at Sri Lankan tance in the Buddhistscheme.
tute a centraltheme in the artand literature monasteries.32
of the country.Most Buddhist temples in While the Sri Lankanevidencedoes not
Sri Lankabear painted or sculpted depic- provethe existence in Indiaof such a rank- ssentially,I suggest thatthe earlyBud-
tions of the sixteen sites, and the motif ing, I believe that the importance of dhist art of India was not primarily
appearscommonly on other types of ob- sarlraka and paribhogaka relics has concerned with the biography of Sakya-
jects, such as Buddhistbooks covers (fig. been greatly underestimatedby Western muni Buddha,as has been assumedfor so
9). At firstglance, such depictionscould be scholars, who have given the idea of the many decades. Instead, an importantem-

Winter1990 405

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phasis was placed on the practice of lay stone-carversof India in full activity, we explanation is "in appearance . .. simple-
devotionat the sacred sites of Buddhism. observe that they are very industriously mindedenough, but one which, in India,is
That merit is derived from viewing the engaged in carryingout the strangeunder- still sufficientfor all: 'If they did not do it,
sacredtraces of the Buddhais clear from taking of representingthe life of Buddha it was because it was not the custom to do
the literarysources and, I believe, the sur- without Buddha."35Foucher further as- it.' "39 The insubstantialityof his explana-
viving artisticremains. That such sancti- serted: "Such is the abnormal,but indis- tion makes it difficultto comprehendhow
fied places (specifically "seats," or putablefactof which everyhistoryof Bud- the theory he propoundedever took root
"p.thas") are believed to contain great dhist art will have at the outset to render and has been embracedso tenaciously by
power is also well known throughoutthe account."36Characterizingthis phenome- generationsof scholars. Indeed, the devel-
Buddhistworld. non as a "monstrous abstention,"37he opment and passionate advocacy of the
The many early Buddhist relief sculp- read into the reliefs what a moder Euro- aniconic theory constitutes an intriguing
turessurvivingtodaywere not isolatedim- pean scholar unacquaintedwith the prac- chapterin intellectualhistoryand involves
ages, but were part of the adornmentof tices of early Buddhism might have ex- an arrayof political, social, and cultural
majorarchitecturalstructures.Ratherthan pected to be there. His premise that the factors.Forinstance,it is doubtfulthatthe
serving as the focus of these monuments, lack of a Buddhaimagereflectedan abnor- theory of aniconism would have achieved
the reliefs played a subsidiaryrole in the malitybecamethe foundationstoneforthe its sanctified place in art-historicalwrit-
overall schemes. For the most part, the view that the art created by these early ings if the related issue of where the first
carvedreliefs were located on railingsand Buddhistswas a substitutefor something Buddhaimage was made had not been so
gateways,or, in some cases, as partof the else thathad been deliberatelyavoided. hotly debated. Foucher and his Western
facing of the exterior of stupas. In their Ultimately,Foucher'smeasuringrod of followersbelieved that the Buddha image
secondary but essential role, the images expectationsled him and his followers to was first created in the Greco-
helped to communicateand reinforcethe overlook the intrinsicmessage of the art. Roman-influenced region of Gandhara,
central meaning of the monuments they The problem-the misunderstandingof thus claiming an essentially Westernori-
adorned.Consideringthe functionof these the thematic content of the art-is inex- gin for the idea of the image.40 Ananda
monumentsas repositoriesor adornments tricably related to and has been perpetu- Coomaraswamyand his Indiannationalist
for importantBuddhistrelics, it is not sur- atedby the terminologythathas been used sympathizers,perhaps attemptingto cast
prisingthatdepictionsof worshipersvisit- to describe this artistic phenomenon. off the yoke of Westernimperialism, as-
ing similar places constitute one of their Using a term-aniconism-that defineda serteda strictlyIndianorigin at Mathura.41
majorartisticthemes. Further,since devo- phenomenonaccordingto what it is not, In retrospect,the argumentscan be viewed
tion to the relics of the Buddha was an scholarshave been overly concernedwith in light of twentieth-centurypolitical is-
activity specifically associated with the whattheybelieveshouldbe in the artrather sues that polarized Europeanand Indian
laity ratherthan with the clergy, the inclu- thanwith what is actuallythere.Believing scholars. Yet so intent was each cultural
sion of lay worshipersas a prominentmotif that the scenes shown on the monuments campon claimingthe primacyof its contri-
in the carvings is fittingindeed.34 were meantto illustrateepisodes in the life bution to Buddhist art, that other, poten-
of the Buddha,Foucherof coursefoundthe tially more important issues were over-
If the reinterpretationoffered here is absence of the Buddhafigure perplexing. looked. Indeed, throughout the debate,
valid, one must ask how these artistic Inferringthat the objects in the reliefs- what I believe to be a more fundamental
remainshavebeen so misunderstoodby so such as trees, stipas, and thrones-were questionwas neverposed: Wastherereally
many for so long. How did the aniconic intended as symbols for something that an aniconic period?42
idea originate and what argumentswere was not shown, namely,an anthropomor- Because the idea of an aniconic period
put forthto validatethe idea of the avoid- phic representation of the Buddha, was neverdoubted,the preconceptionsas-
ance of Buddhaimages? How did the the- Foucherand his followerswere led astray sociatedwith the theoryof aniconismhave
ory continueto be reinforcedand why was from the intrinsicmeaningof the art. saturatedart-historicalthinkingfor nearly
it neverdoubted?The historyof the theory While virtuallyall otherauthorsespous- a century.The idea of aniconism has been
provides some of the answers. Although ing the aniconic theoryhave assumedthat so thoroughly embedded in scholarly
nineteenth-centurywriters had observed there were religious interdictionsagainst thoughtthat it has led scholars to misread
the absence of Buddhasin the early art of the creationof the Buddhaimage, Foucher inscriptions, dismiss literary documenta-
India,Foucherwas the firstscholarto pro- himself expresslystatedthathe knewof no tion attestingto an early image tradition,
pound the theory of what has come to be textual proscriptionsagainst such a prac- and express skepticismaboutscientific ar-
knownas aniconismin early Buddhistart. tice.38 Foucher toyed with a number of chaeologicaldataconfirmingthe early ex-
Writing in the early twentieth century, suggestions to explain the aniconic phe- istence of Buddha images. Perhaps the
Foucherstated:"Whenwe findthe ancient nomenon and finally concluded that the most seriousandfar-reachingconsequence

Figure 9 The Sixteen

GreatPlaces of
Pilgrimagein Sri Lanka
(far left stupa not shown
in photo), design on a
silver book cover from
Kandy,Sri Lanka, ca. late
18th or early 19th century.
Los Angeles County
Museumof Art, Herbert
Cole Bequest.

406 Art Journal

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has been in the area of interpretation,in the exaltationof lay worship,suchcarvings millennia. We, like the countless pilgrims
which scholars have misunderstood the are completely compatible with the re- who have visited Bodha Gaya since the
subject matterof the images and misread cently provenexistence of Buddhaimages time the great sage sat there in deepest
the overallmessage of the monumentsthe even from early periods of Indianhistory. meditation,cannotexpect to see him there
sculpted images adorned. Assuming that The emphasison sacredplthas and pil- in the flesh. Yet we should not be disap-
the points I make in my full-length study grimage to them in Buddhism has never pointed at the sight of an empty seat, for
arevalid, the conclusionswill requirea re- waned, although the "aniconic" period the powerof the sacredp.tha still resonates
examinationandprobablya revisionof vir- was broughtto a close manycenturiesago. andcan be felt by anyonewho standsin the
tually all of these areasof study.43 A record left by the thirteenth-century presenceof the spot where the Buddha-to-
monk Dharmasvaminof his visit to Bodh be sat and was shelteredby the sacredtree
have suggested that the subjects in a Gayais especiallyinterestingin light of the on the day of his awakening.
specifictype of compositionarenot sub- problem of aniconism. Like earlier pil-
stitutesor symbols for somethingelse, but grimsto the sacredsite, Dharmasvamindid
are importantemblems of Buddhistdevo- not find the living Buddhaat Bodh Gaya. Susan L. Huntington, professor of
tion in their own right. While these early Instead, what he described is not unlike historyof art at The Ohio State
reliefs do not containBuddhafigures, this what we see in some of the so-called an- University,is authorof The "Pala-Sena"
absence is not to be explained by an an- Schools of Sculpture(1984) and Art of
iconic reliefs, for he said that "inside the
iconic proscriptionor by the belief that courtyard stood the empty throne of Ancient India (1985). WithJohn C.
these common motifs reflecta substitution Sakyamuni . . . which was worshipped, Huntington,
she cocurated and
for a figure of a Buddha. Expressingcon- and an eternal offering lamp was kept in coauthoredthe cataloguefor the major
cepts centralto the practiceof Buddhism frontof it."44Today,the sacredspot is also travelingexhibition "Leavesfrom the
duringthis period, particularlyrelatingto vacant, as it has been for two and a half Bodhi Tree"(1990).

Notes
I am deeply indebtedto MirandaShaw for reading of the BuddhaImage," Journalof the American ated with the term "Hinayana," but use it in
this manuscriptand for her many astuteand valuable OrientalSociety 46 (1926): 165-70. its broadestsense to refer to the Theravadaand
suggestions. 4 RichardF Gombrich,Preceptand Practice: Tra- other Pali text-based non-MahayanaBuddhist
1 Alfred Foucher, "The Beginnings of Buddhist ditional Buddhism in the Rural Highlands of traditions.
Art," in his The Beginnings of BuddhistArt and Ceylon (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 112. 10 Lewis R. Lancaster,"AnEarlyMahayanaSermon
OtherEssays inIndianand Central-AsianArchae- 5 David L. Snellgrove,ed., TheImage of the Bud- aboutthe Body of the Buddhaand the Makingof
ology (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1917), 1-29. This dha (Paris:UNESCO, 1978), 23. Images," ArtibusAsiae 36, no. 4 (1974): 291.
essay was originally published in JournalAsia- 6 Ibid. 11 GregorySchopen, "Mahiaynain IndianInscrip-
tique, January-February1911. 7 Ibid., 24. tions," Indo-lranian Journal 21, no. 1 (January
2 See Alfred Foucher, "The Greek Origin of the 8 For example, the well-knowngold and ruby reli- 1979): 16 n. 7.
Image of the Buddha,"in Beginningsof Buddhist quary found at Bimaran in Afghanistan is gener- 12 The allusionto a proscriptionoccursin the rulesof
Art, 111-37. This essay was first presentedas a ally assigned a date of about the second century the order (vinaya) of the Sarvastivadinsect. See
lecture at the Mus6e Guimet and published in A.D. in spiteof the virtuallyincontrovertible scien- JohnC. Huntington, "The Origin of the Buddha
Bibliothequede vulgarisationdu Musde Guimet tific evidence surroundingit that suggests that it Image:EarlyImageTraditionsandthe Conceptof
38 (1913): 231-72. was made about the first century B.C. The re- Buddhadarsanapunya," in Studiesin BuddhistArt
3 AnandaK. Coomaraswamy,"The Origin of the sistance to the early dating of the reliquaryis of South Asia, ed. A. K. Narain (New Delhi:
Buddha Image," Art Bulletin 9, no. 4 (1927): based solely on the assumptionthat Buddhaim- Kanak, 1985), 27.
287-328. The idea that Coomaraswamy pro- ages werenot introducedinto the Buddhistartistic 13 The scholars who have noted these images move
poundedandbecame famousfor was in factprevi- repertoireuntilthe earlycenturiesof the Christian the dateof the adventof the Buddhaimage earlier
ously proposedby VictorGoloubewin his review era, and thereforethat any work that bears an but do not question the existence of the "an-
of Foucher'swork, which Goloubewpublishedin image of the Buddha must be of a comparably late iconic" phase in art. See J. E. van Lohuizen-de
Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient date. For discussion, see Susan L. Huntington Leeuw, "New Evidencewith Regardto the Origin
23 (1924): 438-54, esp. 451. Coomaraswamy (with contributions by John C. Huntington), Art of of the BuddhaImage," in SouthAsian Archaeol-
also presentedhis ideas in a shorter article that AncientIndia (Tokyoand New York:JohnWeath- ogy, 1979, ed. HerbertHartel (Berlin: Dietrich
precededthe moredefinitivearticleby a year.See erhill, 1985), 629-30 n. 2. Reimer Verlag, 1981), 377-400; and Domenico
AnandaK. Coomaraswamy,"The IndianOrigin 9 Here,I do not wish to addressthe problemsassoci- Faccenna,Excavationsof the Italian Archaeologi-

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 cal Mission (IsMEO)in Pakistan:Some Problems 22 In additionto Liiders'volume,see AlexanderCun- 31 Rhys Davids, "The Mahf-ParinibbanaSuttanta,"
of GandharanArt and Architecture,CentralAsia ningham,TheStupaof Bharhut:A BuddhistMon- 91.
in the KushanPeriod-Proceedings of the Inter- umentOrnamentedwithNumerousSculpturesII- 32 WalpolaRahula,History of Buddhismin Ceylon:
nationalConferenceon the History,Archaeology, lustratedof BuddhistLegend and History in the TheAnurddhapura Period,3rd CenturyB.C.-10th
andCultureof CentralAsia in the KushanPeriod, Third CenturyB.C. (London: W. H. Allen and CenturyA.C., 2nd ed. (Colombo: M. D. Gun-
Dushanbe,September27-October 6, 1968, vol. 1 Co., 1879; reprint, Varanasi:Indological Book asena and Co., 1966), 120-21.
(Moscow, 1974), 126-76, esp. 174. House, 1962); and BenimadhabBarua, Barhut 33 Ibid., 126-27.
14 The interpretationof jdtakas, or stories of the (Calcutta:Universityof Calcutta, 1934; reprint, 34 After the death of the Buddha, his relics were
Buddha'sformerlives, also requiresconsiderable Patna:IndologicalBook Corporation,1979). An- entrustedto membersof the laity, not the clergy.
revisionaccordingto the new evidenceandwill be anda K. Coomaraswamywas the exception. See Although members of the Buddhist clergy of
an importantcomponentof my longer study. Ananda K. Coomaraswamy,La Sculpture de course also reverethe Buddha'srelics, the activity
15 The full, book-length study involves a thorough Bharhut, Annales du Mus6e Guimet, Biblio- of devotionto them is especially characteristicof
reexaminationof the artisticremains, the related thequed'Art,n.s., 6 (Paris:Vanoest, 1956). In the the laity. For the division of the relics among the
body of inscriptions,and the early Buddhisttex- reliefs showing the bodhi trees of the past mortal kings of ancient India, see Rhys Davids, "The
tual materials. Buddhas,he interpretedthe termbodhito referto Maha-ParinibbfnaSuttanta,"131-36.
16 It mightbe arguedthatin turnthe use of an empty the respectiveBuddha'senlightenmentratherthan 35 Foucher, "The Beginnings of Buddhist Art," 4.
throne,a wheel, a tree, or anothernonfigurative the tree,except in the case of Visvabhu,wherethe 36 Ibid., 5.
objectas the mainfocus of venerationat a site is in type of tree was named. 37 Ibid., 7.
itself proofof aniconism. That is, the installation 23 Indeed, in his text, Liiders even questions the 38 Ibid.
and venerationof nonfigurativeforms might be interpretationof some of the scenes as life events. 39 Ibid.
seen as substitutesfor Buddhaimages. However,I See esp. Liiders,BharhutInscriptions,96, where 40 ForFoucher'sviews, see "TheGreekOriginof the
believe that while such objects might be used to he discusses the relief illustratedhereas fig. 5 and Image of the Buddha."
commemorateBuddha life events, they are not questionsan earlierscholar'sinterpretationof the 41 For Coomaraswamy'sarguments,see "The Ori-
meantto depict the events. Therefore,they do not relief as the Buddha'senlightenment. gin of the BuddhaImage."
require an anthropomorphicrepresentationof a 24 SamuelBeal, trans.,Si-yu-ki.BuddhistRecordsof 42 An importantaspect of my full study will be an
Buddha. the WesternWorld.Translatedfromthe Chineseof examinationof the historiographyof the theoryof
17 It is possible thatthe scene could show veneration Hiuen Tsiang (A.D. 629), 2 vols. (London: aniconism, namely, the intellectual, social, and
of an image of the Buddha created during his Trubnerand Co., 1884; reprint,Delhi: Oriental politicalprocessesby which the originalidea was
lifetime, ratherthan after he had died. However, Books ReprintCorporation,1969), 1: 203. proposed,perpetuated,andultimatelycanonized.
this seems unlikely, because most of the other 25 Such sites are not always necessarily associated By examiningthe originof the idea in the writings
worshipscenes seem to show buildings and fea- withSakyamuniBuddha,butmaybe relatedto the of Foucherand tracingthe concept of aniconism
turesthatwere addedto the sacredsites long after previousmortalBuddhasor othergreatBuddhist and its alter ego, the "origin" of the Buddha
the lifetime of the Buddha. personages. image,I hope to showhow the issues wereclouded
18 See PratapadityaPal's review of Huntingtonand 26 T. W. Rhys Davids, trans., "The Maha-Parinib- by Westernimperialismand Indian nationalism.
Huntington,Art of AncientIndia in Arts of Asia banaSuttanta,"in BuddhistSuttas,SacredBooks By studyinghow the idea of aniconismbecame so
17, no. 3 (May-June 1987): 128. of the East, vol. 11 (Oxford:Oxford University thoroughlyentrenchedin scholarly thinking and
19 HeinrichLiiders, ed., BharhutInscriptions,rev. Press, 1881; reprint,Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, why it is so staunchlydefended, I hope also to
and supplemented by Ernst Waldschmidt and 1968), 90. contribute to knowledge about nineteenth- and
Madhukar Anant Mehendale, Corpus Inscrip- 27 See JohnS. Strong,TheLegendof KingAgoka:A twentieth-centuryintellectual history by explor-
tionum Indicarum,vol. 2, pt. 2 (Ootacamund: Studyand Translationof theASokdvaddna (Prince- ing the relationshipsbetween scholarlywork and
GovernmentEpigraphistfor India, 1963), 83-84, ton: PrincetonUniversityPress, 1983). other political, social, and culturalagendas.
inscriptionB14 on pl. 17. 28 Scenes that show a wheel as the main object of 43 At this time, I am unableto predictwhetherthere
20 Ibid., 95-96, inscriptionB23 on pl. 37. venerationare not necessarily referencesto Sar- are indeed some images that require a Buddha
21 The parallelismbetweenthis inscriptionand that nath, since the Buddha taught at a number of figureand mustbe seen as truly "aniconic"in the
referringto VisvabhuBuddha'stree makes it im- places. Thus, the site depictedin fig. 1 mayor may sense thattheyemploy a symbol as a substitutefor
plicit that the term bodhi refers to the enlighten- not be a referenceto Sarnath. what should be an anthropomorphicrepresenta-
ment tree, not the enlightenmentevent. For an 29 A fourthcetiya, dhammacetiya,is also sometimes tion. However, even if a few images are truly
inexplicablereason,Liiderstranslatesthe inscrip- cited, referringto the doctrinalreminders,such as aniconic, the vast majorityarenot, andthe role of
tion as "The buildingroundthe Bodhi tree of the the writtenandoralcanonicaltexts. See StanleyJ. "aniconism"has been vastlyoveremphasized,ul-
holy Sakamuni(Sakyamuni)"(Liiders, Bharhut Tambiah,"FamousBuddhaImagesandthe Legit- timately leading to the misinterpretationof most
Inscriptions,95). The inscription,however,is pre- imationof Kings:The Caseof the SinhalaBuddha of the extant art.
cisely parallelto those he examinesin his chapter (PhraSihing) in Thailand,"Res, Autumn1982, 5 44 George N. Roerich, trans., Biographyof Dhar-
on "Inscriptions Attached to Bodhi-Trees," n. 4. masvdmin (Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal), A
wherein he correctly translatesthe similar epi- 30 Wilhelm Geiger, trans., The Mahdvam.saor the TibetanMonkPilgrim (Patna:K. P. JayaswalRe-
graphsas referringto the bodhitreesof the various Great Chronicle of Ceylon (1912; reprint, Lon- searchInstitute,1959), 71.
Buddhas. See Liiders, Bharhut Inscriptions, don: Luzac and Co. for the Pali Text Society,
82-86, esp. 84. 1964), 7.

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