InTech-Materials For Gas Turbines An Overview
InTech-Materials For Gas Turbines An Overview
InTech-Materials For Gas Turbines An Overview
1. Introduction
Advancements made in the field of materials have contributed in a major way in building
gas turbine engines with higher power ratings and efficiency levels. Improvements in
design of the gas turbine engines over the years have importantly been due to development
of materials with enhanced performance levels. Gas turbines have been widely utilized in
aircraft engines as well as for land based applications importantly for power generation.
Advancements in gas turbine materials have always played a prime role – higher the
capability of the materials to withstand elevated temperature service, more the engine
efficiency; materials with high elevated temperature strength to weight ratio help in weight
reduction. A wide spectrum of high performance materials - special steels, titanium alloys
and superalloys - is used for construction of gas turbines. Manufacture of these materials
often involves advanced processing techniques. Other material groups like ceramics,
composites and inter-metallics have been the focus of intense research and development;
aim is to exploit the superior features of these materials for improving the performance of
gas turbine engines.
The materials developed at the first instance for gas turbine engine applications had high
temperature tensile strength as the prime requirement. This requirement quickly changed as
operating temperatures rose. Stress rupture life and then creep properties became
important. In the subsequent years of development, low cycle fatigue (LCF) life became
another important parameter. Many of the components in the aero engines are subjected to
fatigue- and /or creep-loading, and the choice of material is then based on the capability of
the material to withstand such loads.
Coating technology has become an integral part of manufacture of gas turbine engine
components operating at high temperatures, as this is the only way a combination of high
level of mechanical properties and excellent resistance to oxidation / hot corrosion
resistance could be achieved.
The review brings out a detailed analysis of the advanced materials and processes that have
come to stay in the production of various components in gas turbine engines. While there
are thousands of components that go into a gas turbine engine, the emphasis here has been
on the main components, which are critical to the performance of the engine. The review
also takes stock of the R&D activity currently in progress to develop higher performance
materials for gas turbine engine application. On design aspects of gas turbine engines, the
reader is referred to the latest edition of the Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook (Boyce,
2006).
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15% equiaxed in the microstructure to optimize both creep and fatigue strength (Gogia,
2005). The alloy was aimed at replacing the Alloys 685 and 829 preferred in European jet
engines. Alloy 834 is used as a compressor disc material in the last two stages of the
medium-pressure compressor, and the first four stages of the high pressure compressor in
condition. The alloy is under evaluation by Allison Gas Turbine Engines for higher thrust
versions of their 406/GMA3007/GMA2100 family of engines, primarily for castings (Gogia,
2005). The alloy has a claimed use temperature of 600 oC. IN US, Ti6-2-4-2 (Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-
2Mo) is the preferred high temperature alloy for jet engine applications. A variant of this
alloy, Ti6-2-4-2S is also commercially available. The ‘S’ denotes addition of 0.1-0.25 % Si to
improve the creep resistance. It is used for rotating components such as blades, discs and
rotors at temperatures up to about 540 oC (Bayer, 1996). It is used in high pressure
compressors at temperatures too high for Ti-6-4, above about 315 oC, for structural
applications.
Today, the maximum temperature limit for near- alloys for elevated temperature
applications is about 540 oC. This temperature limitation for titanium alloys mean the hottest
parts in the compressor, i.e. the discs and blades of the last compressor stages, have to be
manufactured from Ni-based superalloys at nearly twice the weight. Additionally, problems
arise associated with the different thermal expansion behavior and the bonding techniques
of the two alloy systems. Therefore enormous efforts are underway to develop a compressor
made completely of titanium. Titanium alloys are required that can be used at temperatures
of 600 oC or higher. This has been the impetus for extensive research and development work
in the area of elevated temperature titanium alloys.
Table 1 gives the chemical composition and the maximum service temperature of various
grades of titanium alloys mentioned above. Figure 1 shows schematically the relative creep
capability of these grades in the form of a Larson Miller plot. The reader is referred to some
excellent reviews on use of titanium alloys in gas turbine engines (Bayer, 1998; Gogia, 2005).
The technical guide on titanium published by ASM International (Donachie, 2000) also gives
much information on titanium as a gas turbine material.
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Materials for Gas Turbines – An Overview 295
Fig. 1. Relative creep capability of titanium alloys used for compressor parts in the form of a
Larson Miller plot (Schematic).
3. Compressor blading materials for land based gas turbines – Special steels
Until recently, all production blades for compressors are made from 12% chromium
containing martensitic stainless steel grades 403 or 403 Cb (Schilke, 2004). Corrosion of
compressor blades can occur due to moisture containing salts and acids collecting on the
blading. To prevent the corrosion, GE has developed patented aluminum slurry coatings for
the compressor blades. The coatings are also meant to impart improved erosion resistance to
the blades. During the 1980’s, GE introduced a new compressor blade material, GTD-450, a
precipitation hardened martensitic stainless steel for its advanced and uprated machines
(Schilke, 2004). Without sacrificing stress corrosion resistance, GTD-450 offers increased
tensile strength, high cycle fatigue strength and corrosion fatigue strength, compared to type
403. GTD-450 also possesses superior resistance to acidic salt environments to type 403, due
to higher concentration of chromium and presence of molybdenum (Schilke, 2004).
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Table 2 gives the chemical composition of the different steel grades used for compressor
blading.
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Materials for Gas Turbines – An Overview 297
more than 25 years (Schilke, 2004). Both these alloys have been produced through the
conventional ingot metallurgy route.
Powder Metallurgy (PM) processing is being extensively used in production of superalloy
components for gas turbines. PM processing is essentially used for Nickel-based
superalloys. It is primarily used for production of high strength alloys used for disc
manufacture such as IN100 or Rene95 which are difficult or impractical to forge by
conventional methods. LC Astroloy, MERL 76, IN100, Rene95 and Rene88 DT are the PM
superalloys where ingot metallurgy route for manufacture of turbine discs was replaced by
the PM route.
The advantages of PM processing are listed in the following:
Superalloys such as IN-100 or Rene95 difficult or impractical to forge by conventional
methods. P/M processing provides a solution
Improves homogeneity / minimizes segregation, particularly in complex Ni-base alloy
systems
Allows closer control of microstructure and better property uniformity within a part
than what is possible in cast and ingot metallurgy wrought products. Finer grain size
can be realized.
Alloy development flexibility due to elimination of macro-segregation.
Consolidated powder products are often super-plastic and amenable to isothermal
forging, reducing force requirements for forging.
It is a near net shape process; hence significantly less raw material input required and
also reduced machining cost, than in case of conventional ingot metallurgy.
Several engines manufactured by General Electric and Pratt and Whitney are using
superalloy discs manufactured through PM route.
Table 4 gives the details of disc superalloys for aircraft engines.
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Materials for Gas Turbines – An Overview 299
to reduce stringers and clusters of carbides, borides or carbonitrides have led to the
development of the Alloy 720LI. Both these alloys have been of considerable interest to land
based gas turbines. They have also been incorporated in some aircraft gas turbines (Furrer &
Fecht, 1999). Table 5 gives details of special steels / superalloys used for production of discs
for land-based gas turbines.
The reader is referred to an overview by Furrer and Fecht on nickel-based superalloys for
turbine discs for land based power generation and aircraft propulsion (Furrer & Fecht,
1999).
engines, understanding generated between age hardening, creep and volume fraction and
Recognition of the material creep strength as an important consideration for the gas turbine
the steadily increasing operating-temperature requirements for the aircraft engines resulted
in development of wrought alloys with increasing levels of aluminum plus titanium.
Component forgeability problems led to this direction of development not going beyond a
certain extent. The composition of the wrought alloys became restricted by the hot
workability requirements. This situation led to the development of cast nickel-base alloys.
Casting compositions can be tailored for good high temperature strength as there was no
forgeability requirement. Further the cast components are intrinsically stronger than
forgings at high temperatures, due to the coarse grain size of castings. Das recently
reviewed the advances made in nickel-based cast superalloys (Das, 2010).
Buckets (rotating airfoils) must withstand severe combination of temperature, stress and
environment. The stage 1 bucket is particularly loaded, and is generally the limiting
component of the gas turbine. Function of the nozzles (stationary airfoils) is to direct the hot
gases towards the buckets. Therefore they must be able to withstand high temperatures.
However they are subjected to lower mechanical stresses than the buckets. An important
design requirement for the nozzle materials is that they should possess excellent high
temperature oxidation and corrosion resistance.
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Materials for Gas Turbines – An Overview 301
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By early 1980s, DS superalloys became available and were operating in gas turbines. DS
MAR-M-200+Hf became available. Another DS grade CM247LC is the outcome of extensive
efforts to optimize the chemical composition to improve carbide microstructure, grain
boundary cracking resistance, to minimize the formation of deleterious secondary phases
and to avoid HfO2 inclusion problem. Pratt and Whitney developed an equivalent DS grade
PWA 1422.
Table 9 gives details of DS superalloy compositions for aircraft engines.
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Materials for Gas Turbines – An Overview 303
of SC superalloy grades PWA 1484, CMSX4, Rene N5, TUT92. These grades gave about 30
oC metal temperature improvement over the early SC superalloys.
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Materials for Gas Turbines – An Overview 305
RR2060 63Ni15Cr5Co2Mo2W5Ta2Ti5Al
CMSX2 66.2Ni8Cr4.6Co0.6Mo8W6Ta1Ti5.6Al
CMSX3 66.1Ni8Cr4.6Co0.6Mo8W6Ta0.1Hf1Ti5.6Al
Rene N4 62Ni9.8Cr7.5Co1.5Mo6W4.8Ta0.15Hf0.5Nb3.5Ti4.2Al
CMSX4 61.7Ni6.5Cr9Co0.6Mo6W3Re6.5Ta0.1Hf1Ti5.6Al
Rene N5 63.1Ni7Cr7.5Co1.5Mo5W3Re6.5Ta0.15Hf6.2Al0.05C0.004b0.01Y
TUT 92 68Ni10Cr1.2Mo7W0.8Re8Ta1.2Ti5.3Al
Third to
CMSX10 69.6Ni2Cr3Co0.4Mo5W6Re8Ta0.03Hf0.1Nb0.2Ti5.7Al 1135
fifth
TMS 80 58.2Ni2.9Cr11.6Co1.9Mo5.8W4.9Re5.8Ta0.1Hf5.8Al0.5B3.0Ir
MC-NG 70.3Ni4Cr<0.2Co1Mo5W4Re5Ta0.1Hf0.5Ti6Al4.0Ru
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306 Advances in Gas Turbine Technology
sodium and sulfur in the operating environment and there is potential for extensive hot
corrosion damage.
Alloying with elements which have a beneficial effect of cutting down the extent of hot
corrosion has been adopted as an important approach to mitigate the problem. Similarly
alloying with aluminum to enable the material form its own protective layer has been
adopted to prevent high temperature oxidation. However these approaches do not take very
far, as there are other functional requirements which also have to be taken care. Accordingly
protective coatings have been developed to ward off the degradation. Most of the
superalloys used for gas turbine components receive protection from specially engineered
coatings.
9. Coatings
Having to perform under increasing firing temperatures and excessive contamination in the
operating environment, it has become difficult to design superalloys which have the
necessary creep strength on one side and the required resistance to corrosion / oxidation on
the other side. It has hence become inescapable to bring coatings on to the surface of the
blades to provide the necessary protection to the blades. The progress in coatings for gas
turbine airfoils has been reviewed (Goward,1998). The function of the coating is to act as
reservoir of elements which will form very protective and adherent oxide layers, thus
protecting the underlying base material from oxidation, corrosion attack and degradation.
Hot corrosion is distinctly different from the pure oxidation of an aircraft environment; it
can therefore be readily appreciated that coatings for heavy duty gas turbines have different
capabilities, compared to coatings for aircraft engines.
There are three basic types of coatings
Aluminide (diffusion) coatings
Overlay coatings
Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs)
The diffusion coatings have been the most common type for environmental protection of
superalloys. An outer aluminide layer (CoAl or NiAl) with an enhanced oxidation resistance
is developed by the reaction of Al with the Ni/Co in the base metal. In recent years
extremely thin layers of noble metals such as platinum have been used to enhance the
oxidation resistance of aluminides. For most stage 1 buckets, GE used a platinum-aluminum
diffusion coating until 1983 (Schilke, 2004). This coating offered superior corrosion
resistance to straight aluminide coatings both in burner rig tests and in field trials. Their
high temperature performance is however limited by oxidation behavior of the coatings.
GE has since switched over to overlay type coatings for stage 1 buckets (Schilke, 2004) . At
least one of the major constituents in a diffusion coating (generally Ni) is supplied by the
base metal. An overlay coating, in contrast, has all the constituents supplied by the coating
itself. The advantage is that more varied corrosion resistant compositions can be applied to
optimize the performance of the coating and thickness of the coating is not limited by
process considerations. The coatings are generally referred to as MCrAlY, where M stands
for Ni or Co or Ni+Co. Incorporation of yttrium improves corrosion resistance. The coatings
are generally applied by vacuum plasma spray process. A high temperature heat treatment
is performed (1040-1120 oC) to homogenize the coating and ensure its adherence to the
substrate.
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Materials for Gas Turbines – An Overview 307
The TBCs provide enough insulation for superalloys to operate at temperatures as much as
150 oC above their customary upper limit. TBCs are ceramics, based on ZrO2 – Y2O3 and
produced by plasma spraying.
The ceramic coatings use an underlay of a corrosion protective layer e.g., MCrAlY that
provides the oxidation resistance and necessary roughness for top coat adherence. Failures
occur by the thermal expansion mismatch between the ceramic & metallic layers and by
environmental attack on the bondcoat. This type of coating is used in combustion cans,
transition pieces, nozzle guide vanes and also blade platforms. Improved efficiency of gas
turbine engines is realized by adopting TBCs (Gurrappa & Sambasiva Rao, 2006)
10.2 Intermetallics
During the last 30 years, extensive efforts have gone into development of intermetallic alloys
for application in aircraft gas turbine engines. The primary driving force was to replace
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nickel based alloys with a density of 8-8.5 gm/cm3 with lower density materials (4-7
gm/cm3) and gain weight saving of the engine. Titanium and nickel based aluminides were
the systems which received the maximum attention.
Excellent reviews are available on the subject of development of titanium based
intermetallics for aero-engine applications (Gogia, 2005; Kumphert et al., 1998; Lasalmanie,
2006; Leyans & Peters, 2003)
and the TiAl based alloys. In the 1970’s the research was centered mainly around the 2
The titanium aluminum system offers two possibilities – the Ti3Al (2) based intermetallics
alloys. Although interesting results were obtained, these materials did not get into flying
engines because their fracture toughness and resistance to growth of fatigue cracks was
significantly inferior to high temperature titanium alloys processed through conventional
methods. They offered little or no advantage with reference to temperature capability over
the alloys such as IMI 834, Ti6242, Ti1100. In their present state of development, there is not
There is large volume of published work on second generation TiAl alloys, developed in
enough justification for wide spread usage of Ti3Al based intermetallics into aeroengines.
1990’s. Considering the specific strength and oxidation resistance they are potential
candidates to replace nickel alloys in the temperature range 650-750 oC. These alloys have
also interesting properties at lower temperatures – high Young’s modulus and resistance to
fire and good HCF properties. All the main turbine engine manufacturers including
General Electric Aircraft Engines, Pratt and Whitney and Rolls Royce have successfully gone
through demonstration programmes for rotating and static engine components in the
Stronger third generation TiAl alloys have been developed by GKSS with a wider
compressor, combustor, turbine and nozzle.
temperature range of interest – room temperature to 850 oC, making them candidate
materials also for LP compressor components (Lasalmanie, 2006).
The most recent alloy family within the titanium aluminides is represented by the
orthorhombic titanium based intermetallics based on Ti2AlNb. They appear to have better
toughness, higher ductility, higher specific strength and lower coefficient of thermal
expansion than TiAl base intermetallics. This property profile makes orthorhombic titanium
aluminides attractive for compressor casings. Even compressor discs can be considered, if
their damage tolerance can be improved.
Table 13 is a compilation of representative grades from different groups of titanium
aluminides and their maximum service temperature.
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Materials for Gas Turbines – An Overview 309
way. The materials show large scatter in mechanical properties, with the result that the
minimum property may be so low that the weight saving becomes negligible. They show
very low tolerance to defects such as casting porosities, ceramic inclusions, machining
cracks etc. There are a number of manufacturing difficulties. The production cost is much
higher, compared to present technologies, particularly for complex components. Further
research in alloy development and processing is required, it appears, before they get into
NiAl is better than current Ni alloys in high temperature oxidation and in creep at very
flying aircraft engines.
high temperatures and was actively considered for turbine components in the range 1100-
1650 oC. Serious obstacles to productionisation were faced – manufacturing difficulties, high
cost of production, poor properties below 1000 oC, intrinsic brittleness. Large amount of
research was done to improve the mechanical properties by developing complex multiphase
intermetallic structures. The manufacturing difficulties and the brittleness still plague these
materials and they are unlikely to be adopted as gas turbine materials (Lasalmanie, 2006).
Many other intermetallic aluminide systems have been studied, to a lesser extent, in the
context of application in aircraft engines; the materials have not taken off; the problems
faced with their development are similar to those enumerated above.
10.3 Composites
10.3.1 Polymer matrix composites
Substantial progress has been made with reference to development and use of polymer
matrix composites in the cold section of jet engines. GE is producing its front fan blades out
of epoxy resin-carbon fiber composites, resulting in substantial weight savings.
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Materials for Gas Turbines – An Overview 311
11. Conclusion
Turbine entry temperature has increased by ~500 oC over last 6 decades and about 150 oC of
that is due to improved superalloys and introduction of DS / SC technologies for blade
casting. Advanced thermal barrier ceramic coatings on platform and full airfoil have
contributed to another about 100 oC of this improvement. The developments in gas turbine
materials and coatings have been largely due to increasing demands placed by the aircraft
sector – higher engine thrust, thrust to weight ratio and fuel efficiency – necessitating higher
operating temperatures and pressures. The land based industrial gas turbine industry has
placed its own demands on materials, bringing in resistance to hot corrosion as an
aircraft gas turbines on one side and land based gas turbines on the other side. Partial
important requirement. Several SC superalloy compositions have been developed for
solutioning has been adopted in a number of SC IGT alloys to avoid incipient melting and
control the extent of recrystallisation. Intense R&D is also going on development of
advanced materials for gas turbine engine application – intermetallics, ceramics, composites,
chromium / molybdenum / platinum based materials to improve the engine efficiency and
bring down the harmful emissions. Major improvements in the coating technology have also
been achieved. Present day coatings last 10-20 times longer than the coatings used in the late
90’s. As much as 100% improvement is now being achieved in the blade life in the field
through the process of coating. TBCs are being used in the first few stages in all advanced
gas turbines. Intense R&D is underway to improve the thermal fatigue of the TBC’s and
thereby increase their life. This includes development of techniques for production of
uniform and high density coatings.
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12. Acknowledgment
The author is grateful to the Management of VIT University for their kind consent to publish
this Chapter. He is also indebted to Ms. Brunda, his wife, for all the support he received
from her in preparing this manuscript.
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Advances in Gas Turbine Technology
Edited by Dr. Ernesto Benini
ISBN 978-953-307-611-9
Hard cover, 526 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 04, November, 2011
Published in print edition November, 2011
Gas turbine engines will still represent a key technology in the next 20-year energy scenarios, either in stand-
alone applications or in combination with other power generation equipment. This book intends in fact to
provide an updated picture as well as a perspective vision of some of the major improvements that
characterize the gas turbine technology in different applications, from marine and aircraft propulsion to
industrial and stationary power generation. Therefore, the target audience for it involves design, analyst,
materials and maintenance engineers. Also manufacturers, researchers and scientists will benefit from the
timely and accurate information provided in this volume. The book is organized into five main sections
including 21 chapters overall: (I) Aero and Marine Gas Turbines, (II) Gas Turbine Systems, (III) Heat Transfer,
(IV) Combustion and (V) Materials and Fabrication.
How to reference
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Nageswara Rao Muktinutalapati (2011). Materials for Gas Turbines – An Overview, Advances in Gas Turbine
Technology, Dr. Ernesto Benini (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-611-9, InTech, Available from:
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