Gated Communities
Gated Communities
Gated Communities
net/publication/250074253
Article in Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning · January 2010
DOI: 10.1680/udap.2010.163.1.31
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Gated communities became an ‘object of study’ in the There are several definitions used to conceptualise the
1990s as social scientists observed their growth in several phenomenon of gated communities. While it is true that some
cities; they are now a feature of the urban landscape in features are context specific, it is useful to have a common
most cities around the world. The expansion of gated understanding of what they are or what they are not, and
communities has led to prolific research, examining therefore it is relevant to review their main features.
different aspects of this type of residential development
and providing evidence from case studies worldwide. This In Fortress America, the first published book focusing solely on
paper reviews how gated communities are conceptua- gated communities, Blakely and Snyder (1997) explain
lised according to the literature and identifies the main
Gated communities are residential areas with restricted access in
factors influencing their development. It also considers
which normally public spaces are privatised. They are security
spatial, economic, political and social consequences of the
developments with designated perimeters, usually walls or fences,
development of gated communities. These elements
and controlled entrances that are intended to prevent penetration by
should be taken into account by planners and policy- non-residents. They include new developments and older areas
makers to minimise their negative impacts and maximise retrofitted with gates and fences, and they are found from the inner
the positive consequences of a residential option that is cities to the exurbs and from the richest neighbourhoods to the
likely to be part of the urban landscape for a long time. poorest.
Urban Design and Planning 163 Issue DP1 Gated communities: definitions, causes and consequences Roitman 31
argues that gated communities are not isolated, but articulated
with different kinds of services, schools and consumption and
recreation places. According to Svampa (2001) (all quotations
originally in Spanish have been translated by the current author)
the peculiarity of gated communities is that they assume a
configuration that affirms, from the beginning, social segmentation
(from a differentiated and restrictive access), reinforced later by the
multiplying effects of the spacialisation of social relations (a
constitution of social frontiers more rigid each time).
32 Urban Design and Planning 163 Issue DP1 Gated communities: definitions, causes and consequences Roitman
lifestyle communities, prestige communities and security zone
communities (Blakely and Snyder, 1997). In the case of
Argentina, there are six or seven types according to different
authors – ‘clubes de campo’, ‘closed neighbourhoods’, ‘garden-
towers’, ‘farm-clubs’, ‘nautical-clubs’, ‘mega-projects’ and
‘condominiums’ (these condominiums, however, are not the
same as the Brazilian condominiums) (Roitman, 2008; Svampa,
2001). Bearing in mind all the elements that characterise gated
communities, having a clearer definition of the concept allows
for a better understanding of the causes of their development.
Considering all the features mentioned by several authors, this Economic globalisation influences the real estate market and
article suggests the following definition of gated communities produces ‘a massive increase in foreign and domestic investment
(Roitman, 2008). in luxury commercial and residential construction’ (Sassen,
1991). In the case of real estate activity, Sassen (1994) noted ‘the
Closed urban residential settlements voluntarily occupied by a
retreat of many real estate developers from the low- and
homogeneous social group, where public space has been privatised
by restricting access through the implementation of security devices.
medium-income housing market who are attracted to the
Gated communities are conceived as closed settlements from their rapidly expanding housing demand by the new highly paid
inception and are designed with the intention of providing security professionals and the possibility for vast over-pricing of this
to their residents and prevent penetration by non-residents; their housing supply’. This social group demands residential areas
houses are of high quality and have services and amenities that can with high quality services and infrastructure, and gated
be used only by their residents, who pay regular compulsory communities thus become an option for this high-income
maintenance fees. They have a private governing body that enforces group.
internal rules concerning behaviour and construction.
Foreign investments spread foreign tendencies. Gated commu-
Finally, it is important to mention that the expansion of gated nities, considered a common feature of the urban landscape in
communities as a residential option over the last two decades the USA, have become a frequent element in other cities as
has led to a diversification of this ‘object of study’. Whereas developers export this urban model. In his analysis of gated
gated communities appeared to be originally targeted at affluent communities in Buenos Aires, Thuillier (2000) mentions the
residents, developers have more recently built some gated introduction of the ‘American way of life’. Janoschka and Glasze
communities for the middle classes; these might not have the (2003) view gated communities as ‘the diffusion of a successful
top-quality residences or sport the same infrastructure, but they real estate product’ and explain that ‘in developing countries,
have the elements previously examined. This diversification of gated communities are part of the image of the international and
gated communities means that there is a typology of gated modern elite and are commercialised as part of this ‘global
communities that considers three main types in the USA: culture’’. The expansion of gated communities also shows the
Urban Design and Planning 163 Issue DP1 Gated communities: definitions, causes and consequences Roitman 33
great influence that developers and investors can exert on (c) desire for a sense of community
planning and how the media have an important role in (d) a search for social homogeneity
disseminating this lifestyle (Caldeira, 2000). (e) aspirations for higher social status and social distinction
within particular social groups.
As mentioned earlier, there is much discussion in relation to the
socio-economic level of gated community residents. Some 3.2.1. Fear of crime. According to the literature, this is the
researchers reject the link between social polarisation and the main driving force behind the multiplication of gated
rise of gated communities, arguing that it is not only the elite communities. Fear of crime, which refers to citizens’ perception
who move to gated communities but also citizens with middle- of crime, constitutes an individual’s response to an increase in
income salaries (Janoschka and Glasze, 2003), while others urban crime. It is related to state withdrawal from security
mention the existence of gated communities for low-income provision. If citizens feel insecure and consider the state is not
households (Blakely and Snyder, 1997; Smith Bowers and able to provide security, those who can solve this problem by
Manzi, 2006). However, as Svampa (2004) explains, gated private means move to safer places such as gated communities.
community residents are usually ‘successful groups’: highly Blakely and Snyder (1997) show how fear of crime results in
skilled workers who have been able to adapt to the new increasing ‘gating-up’ as an apparent solution to crime even
conditions of the economy and can afford to pay for the services when it is not related to an actual increase in crime figures.
provided in gated communities. Wilson-Doenges (2000) argues that there is not always a direct
correlation between increasing crime rates and increased fear of
Gated communities, as the literature shows, appear as a spatial crime. The latter appears overemphasised in comparison with
response for particular social groups to globalisation processes. actual crime rates.
This is related to the second structural theme that refers to the
rise of urban violence and privatisation of security as a result of 3.2.2. Search for a better lifestyle. This refers not only to
state withdrawal from the provision of basic services, in this security, but also to better living conditions. Gated communities
case mainly public security. Economic restructuring and the are advertised in the real estate market as places different from
implementation of neo-liberal policies have resulted in many the city where it is possible to have closer contact with nature as
countries having to cut back on government functions. well as larger houses and plots and access to social amenities.
Reductions in the supply of basic services such as health, They represent a ‘green lifestyle’, ‘doors to paradise’ (Svampa,
education, housing, employment and security has left large
2001) and the ‘anti-city’ because ‘the underlying philosophy
population groups without these public provisions.
implies that there is a paradisal order within their limits,
Accompanied by wealthy citizens’ ability to produce their own
whereas there is chaos outside’ (Cabrales Barajas and Canosa
private solutions (e.g. the creation of gated communities
Zamora, 2001). According to these researchers, gated
(Janoschka and Glasze, 2003) or privatisation of security), this
communities offer the possibility of achieving a greener and
challenges the state’s previous monopoly of legitimated use of
better lifestyle that is different from the urban lifestyle despite
force (Caldeira, 2000).
being located in urban areas. However, the achievement of a
truly better life quality does not always happen: some gated
Although it has not been widely analysed, the explosion of
communities do not possess large green areas and are located in
gated communities is also related to the lack of human and
dense urban areas.
financial resources faced by governments, and local govern-
ments in particular. With insufficient resources to carry out all
3.2.3. Achieving a sense of community. Community ‘includes a
necessary assessments and controls on private sector activities,
sense of mutual responsibility, significant interaction, and
occupied gated communities with no final planning permission
cooperative spirit’ (Blakely and Snyder, 1997). Discussion on
and increased lobbying on policy-making processes are
‘community’ and ‘sense of community’ has received important
becoming common (Thuillier, 2005).
attention in the gated community literature because it is part
of the wording of the concept and also raises the question of
The withdrawal of the state from the provision of security has
whether or not a ‘decline of community’ has led to their
led to an increase in violence in many cities (Dammert, 2001)
increase. Gated communities appear in the literature as places
and thus the privatisation of security (e.g. fences, guards, alarms
that encourage a sense of community in the context of a
and gated communities). These two structural reasons for the
decrease of community in city life. As Wilson-Doenges (2000)
worldwide spread of gated communities are essential to an
notes
understanding of the ‘forting-up’ phenomenon. Nevertheless, it
is important to consider that not all urban residents choose to The decline in sense of community has sent Americans searching for
live in a gated community, which indicates that subjective this lost prize. Developers and marketers of communities see this
causes are also relevant. need and are attempting to meet it. One way to do this is to develop
gated communities.
3.2. Subjective causes
Subjective causes of the expansion of gated communities are Low (2003) agrees with the notion of a ‘lost prize’, writing
considered as resulting from individuals’ desires, interests, Gated community residents are interested in ‘community’, but a
viewpoints and opportunities. There are five main subjective specific kind of community that includes protecting children and
causes suggested in the literature keeping out crime and strangers whilst at the same time controlling
the environment and the quality of services. The ‘community’ they
(a) increased fear of crime are searching for is one imagined from childhood or some idealized
(b) a search for a better lifestyle past.
34 Urban Design and Planning 163 Issue DP1 Gated communities: definitions, causes and consequences Roitman
3.2.4. Search for social homogeneity. This is related to search 4.1. Spatial effects
for a sense of community. Low (2000) examined what happens The most important positive effects on urban space identified in
when particular areas of a city suffer a change in social the literature are the provision of services and infrastructure to
composition to become mixed neighbourhoods. According to areas formerly not well equipped (Salcedo and Torres, 2004) and
Low, ‘many interviewees mentioned the changes in the social the creation of spaces with high environmental quality (Cabrales
composition of the surrounding areas [of their formerly ‘open Barajas and Canosa Zamora, 2001). Negative impacts include
neighbourhoods’] as a primary motivation for moving [to gated the closure of streets, the hindrance of emergency services
communities]’ (here open neighbourhoods refer to non-gated (Landman, 2000), fragmentation of urban space and loss of a
neighbourhoods). Svampa (2001) noted the importance that liveable urban centre (Low, 2003). Gated communities encou-
gated community residents in Argentina give to homogeneity in rage the use of private cars and discourage pedestrian and cycle
terms of age and economic level of fellow residents. Arizaga mobility outside the limits of the development (Landman, 2008).
(2005) explains that contact among peers reinforces social
identity and makes the difference with ‘the other’ (who is outside
4.2. Economic effects
the walls) more explicit. According to her, the closure and social
The economic impacts of gated communities refer chiefly to
homogeneity of the gated community are essential to providing
effects on housing and land markets and on the local economy.
a place that protects against a world that is always changing.
The attraction of new services and infrastructure for gated
community residents can improve the local economy (Sabatini
Social homogeneity is preserved in gated communities mainly
and Salcedo, 2005) and increase property values (Lemanski,
based on a socio-economic level. Some communities place
2005). Gated community developments create low-skilled jobs
implicit and explicit restrictions on ability to buy a plot; many
(Salcedo and Torres, 2004; Svampa, 2001) and increase tax
gated community residents associations reserve the right to
revenues for local governments (Le Goix, 2005). They work as
accept or refuse a new member (McKenzie, 1994; Rojas, 2007;
‘economic clubs’ that provide more efficient services to be
Svampa, 2001). Class (or socio-economic level) appears to be the
collectively consumed by their residents (Webster, 2001).
most important dimension to keep residents in or out. However,
However, they can also have negative economic consequences
ethnicity and religion also play an important role in demarcat-
such as potentially less revenue because some gated commu-
ing the characteristics of certain gated communities. In
nities refuse to pay taxes to the local government if they are not
Argentina, some prestigious gated communities ban Jewish
getting the services (McKenzie, 1994). Monthly charges for
residents and, as a consequence, gated communities for only
maintenance and security also imply higher costs for residents
Jewish people have been built (Rojas, 2007; Svampa, 2001). In
(Landman, 2000). Finally, the presence of gated communities
South Africa and the USA, social homogeneity is also achieved
can reduce property values in non-gated surrounding neigh-
through race segregation. Age is also becoming a relevant
bourhoods (Le Goix, 2005).
dimension for differentiation in the USA, with several gated
communities targeted at retired residents who have particular
needs and interests (Blakely and Snyder, 1997). 4.3. Political effects
The most significant positive political effects are the exercise of
3.2.5. Search for higher status and social distinction. Some political participation and civil engagement within the gated
move to such neighbourhoods as it offers social prestige, among community (Lang and Danielsen, 1997), and fewer responsi-
other ‘benefits’: they ‘provide the cachet of exclusive living’ bilities and problems for local governments (Cabrales Barajas
(Blakely and Snyder, 1997). Walls and security devices are not and Canosa Zamora, 2001). Some authors have noted the
just physical elements – they also provide status and distinction. political and economic advantages for gated community
Caldeira (2000) calls this situation the ‘aesthetics of security’, residents as they can organise the provision of services and
arguing that ‘the more ostensibly secure and enclosed the shared consumption agreements following the economic theory
property, the higher its status’. Svampa (2004) considers living of clubs (Foldvary, 1994; Lee and Webster, 2006; Webster,
in gated communities within a group of distinction strategies 2001).
such as practising exclusive sports, having membership to
selected clubs and attending exclusive schools. However, Blakely and Snyder (1997) found that gated commu-
nities do not always increase participation. Moreover, McKenzie
It is hoped that this analysis of the structural and subjective (1994) noted that some homeowner associations function as
causes of the development of gated communities will allow for corporations run by managers whose main objective is the
better comprehension of the process of ‘forting-up’. The two protection of property values. Gated communities also reinforce
types of drivers, which are interrelated, provide a clear base private laws known as ‘covenants, conditions and restrictions’
from which to survey the consequences of the spread of gated (Judd, 1995; McKenzie, 1994). Caldeira (2000) mentions the
communities. privatisation of public spaces through the use of walls and
fences that prevent public access and the undermining of the
4. CONSEQUENCES OF THE RISE OF concepts of democracy and citizenship because
GATED COMMUNITIES
among the conditions necessary for democracy is that people
Gated communities constitute a complex urban phenomenon
acknowledge those from different social groups to be co-citizens,
and their development has provoked different types of having similar rights despite their differences. However, cities
consequences, which have received considerable academic segregated by walls and enclaves foster the sense that different
attention. Their rise has positive and negative effects that can be groups belong to separate universes and have irreconcilable claims.
analysed according to the sphere they influence: spatial, Cities of walls do not strengthen citizenship but rather contribute to
economic, political and social. its corrosion.
Urban Design and Planning 163 Issue DP1 Gated communities: definitions, causes and consequences Roitman 35
The undemocratic character of gated communities is also noted According to Caldeira (2000) there is
in the literature. Covenants, conditions and restrictions, which
a new pattern of spatial segregation where different social groups are
in many cases are very intrusive, rule life inside a gated again closer to one another but are separated by walls and
community (Blakely and Snyder, 1997; Judd, 1995). technologies of security, and they tend not to circulate or interact in
common areas. The main instrument for this new pattern of spatial
4.4. Social impact segregation is what I call ‘fortified enclaves’.
Social consequences are probably the most often discussed
effects within the literature on gated communities. Some argue Low (2003) argues that gated communities contribute to
that gated communities encourage a sense of community segregation because
(Arizaga, 2005), especially in developments with important sport during periods of economic decline and social stress, middle-class
amenities because people there share more activities. However, people become anxious about maintaining their social status… Social
many scholars have questioned this. For example, studying splitting offers a strategy that is reinforced by cultural stereotypes
gated communities in Johannesburg, Beall et al. (2002) found ‘in and media distortions, allowing people to psychologically separate
neither case, in our research, was there much evidence of a sense themselves from people who they perceive as threatening their
of deep community resulting from proximate living’. Lang and tranquillity and neighbourhood stability. The walls and gates of the
Danielsen (1997) state that ‘the walls are there to sharply community reflect this splitting physically as well as metaphorically,
with ‘good’ people (the good part of us) inside, and the ‘bad’
delineate status and provide security, rather than signify a
remaining outside.
collective understanding amongst equals’. There thus seems to
be no agreement in the literature on whether gated communities
It seems that there is a relationship between gated communities
contribute to the enhancement of a sense of community or not.
and segregation that can be explained through the social
In this sense, Smith Bowers and Manzi (2006) proposed use of
practices, opinions and values of their residents, but at the same
the term ‘gated residential development’ rather than ‘gated
time the features of gated communities also influence this
community’ as ‘it does not carry the same weight of sociological
relationship. It is also relevant to consider that segregation
baggage’.
might not only be an intended, but also an unintended
consequence of the spread of gated communities as their
Within the negative social consequences of gated communities,
residents do not pursue this effect (Roitman, 2008).
the literature mentions
36 Urban Design and Planning 163 Issue DP1 Gated communities: definitions, causes and consequences Roitman
This review has demonstrated that the social consequences of Research and Training Network Urban Europe, Report 02/
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The author thanks two anonymous referees and the editorial appropriate urban design approach? Urban Design
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