Bes 133 Environmental Engineering Weeks 1 To 13

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS
Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental
College of Engineering
Office of the Program Coordinator
LEARNING MODULE
BES 133 :
ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COMPILED BY: ENG. JANREY BUENCONSEJO
2020
VISION
The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university with
recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in the
ASEAN region.
MISSION
The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in practical
arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in
technical, industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials; effect
technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of s mall-and-medium scale
industries in identified growth center. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)
QUALITY POLICY
The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality higher
and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension projects;
continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel competence and
effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory requirements; and
adhere to its core values.
CORE VALUES
T - Transparent and participatory governance

U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the mandates of
the university
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Numbers
TUP Vision, Mission, Quality Policy, and Core Values………………………1
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………..2
Course Description………………………………………………………. 3
Course Outcomes…………………………………………………………
General Guidelines/Class Rules……………………………………………
Grading System……………………………………………………………
Learning Guide (Week No. 1) …………………………………………….
Topic/s………………………………………………………………
Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………
Content/Technical Information………………………………………
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………..
References…………………………………………………………
Learning Guide (Week No. 2) ……………………………………………
Topic/s………………………………………………………………
Learning Outcomes …………………………………………………
Content/Technical Information ……………………………………
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………..
References…………………………………………………………
Learning Guide (Week No. 3)………………………………………………
Topic/s………………………………………………………………
Learning Outcomes……………………………………………………
Content/Technical Information……………………………………
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………..
References…………………………………………………………
Learning Guide (Week No. 4) ……………………………………………
Topic/s………………………………………………………………
Learning Outcomes……………………………………………………
Content/Technical Information……………………………………
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………..
References…………………………………………………………
List of References………………………………………………
About the Author/s……………………………………………………………..

COURSE DESCRIPTION
COURSE OUTCOMES
GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES
GRADING SYSTEM
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __1__
TOPIC/S
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
TRACKS/FIELDS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
ECOSYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
NAMES AND WORD DEFINITIONS
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
OTHER BASIC ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
KINDS OF ORGANISM INTERACTIONS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
ENVIRONMENT (BIOPHYSICAL)
- The biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism, or population, and includes particularly the
factors that have an influence in their survival, development and evolution.
Biotic – living component of a community. Plants, animals, fungi, protist and bacteria are all
biotic or living factors
Abiotic – nonliving factors that affect living organisms. Environmental factors such as habitat
(pond, lake, ocean, desert, mountain) or weather such as temperature, cloud cover, rain, snow,
hurricanes, climate regime etc. are abiotic factors.
ENGINEERING
The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines,

apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to
construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behaviour
under specific operating conditions.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
The application of science and engineering principles to improve the natural environment (air,
water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation and
for other organisms, and to remediate polluted sites. It involves waste water management and air
pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, radiation protection, industrial hygiene,
environmental sustainability, and public health issues as well as knowledge of environmental
engineering law. It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction
projects.
SANITARY ENGINEERING
Sanitary engineering emerged as a separate engineering field within civil engineering in the mid
1800's as the importance of drinking water treatment and wastewater treatment became
recognized. Sanitary engineering, which had an emphasis on water supply, water treatment, and
wastewater collection and treatment for many years, is the precursor of the present day field of
environmental engineering. Public concern about environmental quality issues like air pollution
and water pollution emerged in the middle third of the 20th century, leading to development of
environmental engineering as a separate discipline that deals with air pollution control,
hazardous waste management and industrial hygiene as well as the traditional sanitary
engineering fields of water supply and waste water treatment.
TRACKS/FIELDS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 Air Quality Management
 Water Quality Management
 Solid and Hazardous Waste Management
 Geoenvironment Quality Management
 Environmental Systems Engineering
ROLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS
1) Collaborate with environmental scientists, planners, hazardous waste technicians, engineers,

and other specialists, and experts in law and business to address environmental problems.
2) Provide technical-level support for environmental remediation and litigation projects,

including remediation system design and determination of regulatory applicability.
3) Inspect industrial and municipal facilities and programs in order to evaluate operational
effectiveness and ensure compliance with environmental regulations.
4) Assess the existing or potential environmental impact of land use projects on air, water, and
land.
5) Develop site-specific health and safety protocols, such as spill contingency plans and methods
for loading and transporting waste.
6) Design systems, processes, and equipment for control, management, and remediation of water,
air, and soil quality
7) Develop and present environmental compliance training or orientation sessions
8) Serve on teams conducting multimedia inspections at complex facilities, providing assistance

with planning, quality assurance, safety inspection protocols, and sampling.
9) Monitor progress of environmental improvement programs.
10) Provide administrative support for projects by collecting data, providing project
documentation, training staff, and performing other general administrative duties.
REFERENCES
Introduction To Environmental Engineering And Science – Second Edition
GILBERT M. MASTERS
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __2-3__
TOPIC/S
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
WATER CYCLE
NITROGEN CYCLE
OXYGEN CYCLE
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
SULFUR CYCLE
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
In ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or nutrient cycle is a pathway by which a
chemical element or molecule moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth. In effect, the element is recycled,
although in some cycles there may be places (called reservoirs) where the element is
accumulated or held for a long period of time (such as an ocean or lake for water). Water, for
example, is always recycled through the water cycle, as shown in the diagram. The water
undergoes evaporation, condensation, and precipitation, falling back to Earth clean and fresh.
Elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to
another and from one part of the biosphere to another through the biogeochemical cycles
SYSTEMS
All chemical elements occurring in organisms are part of biogeochemical cycles. In addition to
being a part of living organisms, these chemical elements also cycle through abiotic factors of
ecosystems such as water (hydrosphere), land (lithosphere), and the air (atmosphere). The
living factors of the planet can be referred to collectively as the biosphere. All the nutrients—
such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—used in ecosystems by living
organisms operate on a closed system; therefore, these chemicals are recycled instead of being
lost and replenished constantly such as in an open system
HYRODOLOGY AND WATER CYCLE
WATER
- A clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid essential for most plant and animal life
- Under nomenclature used to name chemical compounds, dihydrogen monoxide is the scientific
name for water, though it is almost never used.
SOME CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure. The intrinsic color of water and ice is a
very slight blue hue, although both appear colourless in small quantities. Water vapour is
essentially invisible as a gas
Water is a good solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent. Substances that dissolve
in water, e.g., salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases – especially oxygen, carbon dioxide
(carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-loving) substances, while those that do not mix
well with water (e.g., fats and oils), are known as hydrophobic (water-fearing) substances.
The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric pressure.
(On the top of Mt. Everest water boils at 68 °C, compared to 100 °C at sea level) Conversely,
water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures of hundreds of degrees
and remain liquid.
The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 °C. It has the anomalous property of becoming
less dense, not more, when it is cooled down to its solid form, ice. It expands to occupy 9%
greater volume in this solid state, which accounts for the fact of ice floating on liquid water, as in
icebergs.
WATER CYCLE
- The hydrological cycle is central to hydrology
- As shown, water evaporates from the earth’s oceans and water bodies and from land surfaces.
(About seven times more evaporation occurs from oceans than from the earth’s land surfaces)
- The evaporated water rises into the atmosphere until the lower temperatures aloft cause it to
condense and then precipitate in the form most globally as rain but sometimes as snow.
- Once on the earth’s surface, water flows into streams, lakes, and eventually discharge into
surface waters.
• Through evaporation from surface waters or transpiration from plants, water

molecules return to the atmosphere to repeat the cycle. The term evapotranspiration is
used referring to combined evaporation and transpiration.
* Transpiration - the process where water contained in liquid form in plants is

converted to vapor and released to the atmosphere. Much of the water taken up by plants
is released through transpiration.
• In general, of 100 units of rain that falls on grassland in temperate zones, 10 to
20 units will go to groundwater, 20 to 40 units will transpire and 40 to 70 units will
become stream runoff.
1) Precipitation
Transported through the circulating atmosphere the clouds move themselves inland, as a result of gravity, and lose their
water as it falls back unto the ground. This phenomenon is called rain or precipitation.
2) Infiltration
Rainwater infiltrates into the ground and sinks to the saturated zone, where it becomes groundwater. Groundwater slowly
moves from places of high elevation and pressure to places with low elevation and pressure. It moves from the area of
infiltration through an aquifer and out to a discharge area, which can be either a sea or an ocean.
3) Transpiration
Plants and other forms of vegetation take up water from the soil and excrete it again as water vapour. About 10% of the
precipitation that falls on the ground vapourizes again through transpiration of plants, the rest evaporates from seas and
oceans.
4) Surface run-off
The rainwater that does not infiltrate into the soil will directly reach the surface water, as it will run-off to rivers and lakes.
After that it will be transported back to the seas and oceans. This water is called surface run-off.
5) Evaporation
Due to the influence of sunlight the water in oceans and lakes will warm up. As a result of that it will evaporate and rise up
into the atmosphere. There it will form clouds that will eventually cause rainwater to fall back on earth. The evaporation of
oceans is the most important kind of evaporation.
6) Condensation
In contact with the atmosphere the water vapour will transform back to liquid, so that it will be visible in the air. These
accumulations of water in the air are what we call clouds.
The hydrological cycle
GROUNDWATER SUPPLIES
- Ground water is both an important direct source of water supply and a significant indirect
source since a large portion of the flow to stream is derived from subsurface water.
- Near the surface of the earth in the zone of aeration, soil pore spaces contain both air and water.
Moisture from this zone cannot be tapped as water supply source since this water is held on soil
particles by capillary forces and is not readily released.
- Below the zone of aeration is the zone of saturation, in which the pores are filled with water.
Water within this zone is referred to as Groundwater. A stratum containing a substantial
amount of groundwater is called an aquifer and the surface of this saturated layer is known as
the water table. If the aquifer is underlain by an impervious stratum, it is called an unconfined
aquifer. If the stratum containing water is trapped between two impervious layers, it is known as
confined aquifer.
THE CARBON CYCLE
Carbon moves from the atmosphere to plants.

In the atmosphere, carbon is attached to oxygen in a gas called carbon dioxide (CO2 ). With the
help of the Sun, through the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is pulled from the air to
make plant food from carbon.
Carbon moves from plants to animals.

Through food chains, the carbon that is in plants moves to the animals that eat them. Animals
that eat other animals get the carbon from their food too.
Carbon moves from plants and animals to the ground.

When plants and animals die, their bodies, wood and leaves decay bringing the carbon into the
ground. Some becomes buried miles underground and will become fossil fuels in millions and
millions of years.
Carbon moves from living things to the atmosphere.
Each time you exhale, you are releasing carbon dioxide gas (CO2 ) into the atmosphere. Animals
and plants get rid of carbon dioxide gas through a process called respiration.
Carbon moves from fossil fuels to the atmosphere when fuels are burned.
When humans burn fossil fuels to power factories, power plants, cars and trucks, most of the
carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide gas. Each year, five and a half billion
tons of carbon is released by burning fossil fuels. That’s the weight of 100 million adult African
elephants! Of the huge amount of carbon that is released from fuels, 3.3 billion tons enters the
atmosphere and most of the rest becomes dissolved in seawater.
Carbon moves from the atmosphere to the oceans

The oceans, and other bodies of water, soak up some carbon from the atmosphere.
NITROGEN CYCLE
• The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical
forms.
• Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and
denitrification.
a) Nitrogen Fixation
• Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed" to be used by plants.
• There are four ways to convert N2 (atmospheric nitrogen gas) into more chemically
reactive forms:
1) Biological fixation: some symbiotic bacteria and some free-living bacteria are able to
fix nitrogen as organic nitrogen.
2) Industrial N-fixation: Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600 C, and with the
use of an iron catalyst, hydrogen and atmospheric nitrogen can be combined to form
ammonia
3) Combustion of fossil fuels: automobile engines and thermal power plants, which
release various nitrogen oxides (NOx )
4) Other processes: In addition, the formation of NO from N2 and O2 due to photons and
especially lightning, can fix nitrogen.
b) Ammonification
• When a plant or animal dies, or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is
organic. Bacteria, or fungi in some cases, convert the organic nitrogen within the remains
back into ammonium , a process called ammonification or mineralization
b) Nitrification
• This is the biological oxidation of ammonium. This is done in two steps, first from the
nitrite form then to the nitrate form. Two specific chemoautotrophic bacterial genera are
involved, using inorganic carbon as their source for cellular carbon.
𝑵𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒔 𝑵𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑵𝑯𝟒+ + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑵𝑶𝟐− + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑵𝑶−
𝟑
c) Denitrification
• This is the biological reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. This can proceed through
several steps in the biochemical pathway, with the ultimate production of nitrogen gas. A
fairly broad range of heterotrophic bacteria are involved in the process, requiring an
organic carbon source for energy.
𝑵𝑶−
𝟑 + 𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 → 𝑵𝑶−
𝟐 + 𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 → 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Most of the world’s phosphorus is locked up͟ in rocks–it can only be released by weathering
Weathering - refers to a group of processes by which surface rock disintegrates into smaller
particles or dissolve into water due to the impact of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. The
weathering processes often are slow (hundreds to thousands of years).
• Weathering processes are divided into three categories:

– Physical Weathering – abrasion, thermal expansion and contraction, wetting and drying etc
– Chemical Weathering – hydrolysis, oxidation - reduction
– Biological Weathering – lichen
A lot of the phosphorus that runs off into the ocean also gets ͞buried into the ocean floor because
it precipitates into solid form and settles to the bottom as sediment. . Only the occasional
upwellings in the ocean can recycle phosphorus back to the top of the ocean. **Note that birds
are one of the few manners of carrying phosphorus back to land because they eat fish (that eat
phosphorus-rich phytoplankton) and then excrete the phosphorus back onto land
The top 4 reservoirs for Phosphorus are:
1. SEDIMENT (LITHOSPHERE)
2. SOIL (LITHOSPHERE)
3. OCEANS
4. MINEABLE ROCK (LITHOSPHERE)
SULFUR CYCLE
Sulfur is one of the constituents of many proteins, vitamins and hormones. It recycles as in other
biogeochemical cycles.
The essential steps of the sulfur cycle are:
• Mineralization of organic sulfur to the inorganic form, hydrogen sulfide: (𝐻2 𝑆).
• Oxidation of sulfide and elemental sulfur (S) and related compounds to sulfate (𝑆𝑂42−).
• Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.
• Microbial immobilization of the sulfur compounds and subsequent incorporation into the
organic form of sulfur.
Sulfur is produced naturally as a result of volcanic eruptions and through emissions from hot
springs. It enters the atmosphere primarily in the form of sulfur dioxide, then remains in the
atmosphere in that form or, after reacting with water, in the form of sulfuric acid.
Sulfur is carried back to Earth's surface as acid deposition when it rains or snows
On Earth's surface, sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid react with metals to form sulfates and
sulfides. The element is also incorporated by plants in a form known as organic sulfur. Certain
amino acids, the compounds from which proteins are made, contain sulfur. Organic sulfur from
plants is eventually passed on to animals that eat those plants. It is, in turn, converted from plant
proteins to animal proteins.
When plants and animals die, sulfur is returned to the soil where it is converted by
microorganisms into hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide gas is then returned to the atmosphere,
where it is oxidized to sulfuric acid
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __4 & 6__
TOPIC/S
ECOLOGICAL CHAIN
ECOSYSTEM
ECOSYSTEM TERMS
1) Lithosphere - The earth’s outer layer consisting of the soil and rocks. The soil is ended upon
non-living and natural matter. There are 2 types of lithosphere namely oceanic lithosphere and
continental lithosphere.
2) Hydrosphere - This comprise all water possessions both surface and ground water. Only less
than 1% of water resources are obtainable for human exploitation. Water is considered to be a
widespread compound with unusual property.
3) Atmosphere - It is the state of layer adjoining the earth and extends up to 500 kms above the
earth’s shell. Atmosphere is also called as layer of gases. The atmosphere, which is a gaseous
wrap, protects the earth from cosmic radiations and provides life supporting oxygen. The
atmosphere plays a major role in asserting the heat balance of the earth by gripping the re-
emitted radiation from the earth.
4) Biosphere - The biosphere is a shell encompassing the earth’s surface where all the living
things subsist. This segment extends from 10000 m underneath sea level to 6000 m above sea
level. Biosphere is the total computation of all ecosystems
ECOSYSTEM
- a community of organisms interacting with each other and with their environment such that
energy is exchanged and system-level processes, such as the cycling of elements, emerge.
- Ecosystems include living organisms, the dead organic matter produced by them, the abiotic
environment within which the organisms live and exchange elements (soil, water, atmosphere),
and the interactions between these components
- Ecosystems embody the concept that living organisms continually interact with each other and
with the environment to produce complex systems with emergent properties, such that “ the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts” and “everything is connected”
ECOSYSTEM TERMS
* Habitat - the natural environment in which an organism lives.
* Species - consists of a group of organisms that look alike and have similar characteristics,
share the same ecological niche and are capable of interbreeding.
* Population - consists of organisms living in the same habitat at the same time.
* Community - a natural collection of plant and animal species living within a defined area or
habitat in an ecosystem.
* Ecological niche - the function of an organism or the role it plays in an ecosystem
1. Production – creation of new, organic matter. The synthesis and storage of organic
molecules during the growth and reproduction of photosynthetic organisms.
Photosynthesis reaction :
𝑺𝑼𝑵𝑳𝑰𝑮𝑯𝑻
𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐𝑶 → 𝑪𝑯𝟐𝑶 + 𝑶𝟐
𝑫𝑶𝑵𝑬 𝑩𝒀 𝑷𝑯𝑶𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑹𝑶𝑷𝑯𝑺
Chemosynthesis – inorganic substances are converted to organic substances in the
absence of sunlight. Done by chemotrophs which are specialized bacteria
2. Respiration – process of unleashing bound energy for utilization

𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐𝑶
3. Consumption – process in which a substance is completely destroyed, used up, or
incorporated or transformed into something else. It acts as a regulator for production
and decomposition.
4. Decomposition – responsible for the breakdown of complex structures
* Abiotic decomposition – degradation of a substance by chemical or physical
processes
* Biotic decomposition (biodegradation4 - the metabolic breakdown of materials
into simpler components by living organisms
NAMES AND WORD DEFINITIONS
Producers - organisms, such as plants, that produce their own food are called autotrophs. The
autotrophs convert inorganic compounds into organic compounds. They are called producers
because all of the species of the ecosystem depend on them.
Consumers - all the organisms that can not make their own food (and need producers) are called
heterotrophs. In an ecosystem heterotrophs are called consumers because they depend on others.
They obtain food by eating other organisms. There are different levels of consumers. Those that
feed directly from producers, i.e. organisms that eat plant or plant products are called primary
consumers. Organisms that feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers. Those
who feed on secondary consumers are tertiary consumers.
• Consumers are also classified depending on what they eat.
* Herbivores are those that eat only plants or plant products. Example are grasshoppers,
mice, rabbits, deer, beavers, moose, cows, sheep, goats and groundhogs.
* Carnivores, on the other hand, are those that eat only other animals. Examples of
carnivores are foxes, frogs, snakes, hawks, and spiders.
* Omnivores are the last type and eat both plants (acting a primary consumers) and meat
(acting as secondary or tertiary consumers).
* Trophic level - corresponds to the different levels or steps in the food chain. In other
words, the producers, the consumers, and the decomposers are the main trophic levels.
1) Food chain – transfer of food energy from the source through a series of organisms in a
process of repeated/sequential eating or being eaten pattern.
a) Grazing food chain – starts from plants to grazing herbivores to carnivores
b) Detritus food chain – starts from dead organic matter to microorganisms such as
bacteria, fungi, etc.
Above: Grazing Food Chain

Below: Detritus Food Chain
2) Food Web – refers to the interconnected or interlocking relationships among food chains
in an ecosystem
3) Food Pyramid – constitute the over – all structure of dependency among the living
elements

1) Diversity - variety of habitats, living communities, and ecological processes in the living
world. It also refers to the extent that an ecosystem possesses different species.
2) Distribution - the frequency of occurrence or the natural geographic range or place

where species occur
* Immigration - used to describe the process by which a person moves into a country for
the purpose of establishing residency. In such a case, the individual is not a native of the
country which he immigrates to
* Emigration - process by which a person leaves his place or country of residency, to
relocate elsewhere. In this case, the individual moving is referred to as an emigrant
(Immigration is movement to a country; emigration is movement from a country)
* Migration – parent term of the aforementioned terms
3) Population Density - the number of individuals of a population per unit of living space
(say, number of trees per hectare of land)
4) Dominance - the degree to which a specie is more numerous than its competitors in an
ecological community, or makes up more of the biomass. Most ecological communities
are defined by their dominant species
* Keystone species - species that have a disproportionately large effect on its
environment relative to its abundance. Such species play a critical role in maintaining the
structure of an ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem
and helping to determine the types and numbers of various other species in the
community.
5) Limiting Factors – environmental factors, chemical and physical factors etc.

1. Competition - two species share a requirement for a limited resource  reduces fitness of
one or both species
2. Predation - one species feeds on another  enhances fitness of predator but reduces
fitness of prey
3. Symbiosis – close long lasting relationship of 2 different species
a) Parasitism - one species feeds on another

- enhances fitness of parasite but reduces fitness of host
2 Kinds of Parasites
a.1) Ectoparasites – live on the bodies of the host (ex. molds, flies, lice)
a.2) Endoparasites – live inside the bodies of the host (ex. Tapeworms, bacteria,
fungi)
b) Commensalism – one species receives a benefit from another species  enhances

fitness of one species; no effect on fitness of the other species
c) Mutualism – two species provide resources or services to each other  enhances

fitness of both species
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __7__
TOPIC/S
ECOLOGICAL PRESERVATION
MAN’S ROLE IN PRRESERVATION OF NATURE
POLLUTION
ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES AND ETHICS
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS VIEWED AT DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES

ENVIRONMENT PRESERVATION
It is established fact that man and nature are interdependent for their survival, and man
through his action has brought about serious changes / distortions in the relationship. Inter-linkages
between ecosystems and natural and human interactions create the matrix which needs to be
delineated for evolving strategies for developing future human settlements, not only for human
beings but for all living organisms.
Environment - includes water, air and land and the interrelationships that exists amongst
them and human beings and micro organisms and property. It is nothing but the sum total of
physical, chemical and biological characteristics which affect the living organisms.
The natural resources should be preserved for the future through the Sustainable
development, which is nothing but the development for the present without encroachment of the
future resources. It is the process in which the exploitation of resources and direction of
investments are made consistent with future as well as the present needs i.e. development which
does not lead to the exhaustion of resources.
The population of the world has tripled in this century alone. Even greater is the increase
in scale and intensity of human activity. All these developments have damaged and deteriorated
the ecological systems and natural resources. There is an urgent need to provide a healthy
environment for the future generations and for that extremely necessary is to abate pollution. The
developments have created many environmental problems. The effects of pollution cannot be
understood at this stage.
Seven vital areas covered under environment are:-
1) Air quality,
2) Water resources,
3) Soil resources,
4) Solid waste management,
5) Energy,
6) Forest resources, &
7) Bio-diversity.
The composition of clean and dry air at or near sea is as follows:
Constituents % by volume(Approx.)
Nitrogen 78.084
Oxygen 20.948
Argon 0.934
Hydrogen 0.00005
Carbon dioxide 0.0314
Methane 0.0002
Other gases minute quantity.
Pollution is the presence in the environment, of any environmental pollutant, that directly or
indirectly affects the quality of environment, thus affecting the quality of life.
Environmental pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such
concentration as may be or tends to be injurious to the environment.
Types of pollution are:-

 Air pollution,
 Water pollution,
 Land/ soil pollution, &
 Noise pollution.
Air pollution is defined as the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants
or combinations thereof in such concentrations / quantities and for such duration as may be or tend
to be injurious to human, plant, animal life or property or which unreasonably interferes with the
comforts of life or conduct of business. In short it is the existence of any unwanted physical,
chemical, biological or radio-active material in the ambient air and changes the normal
composition of the air.
The various types of air pollutants are:-

 Particulate matter - Suspended particulate matter, Respirable particulate matter, dust fall,
etc.
 Sulphur containing compounds like SO2, H2S, SO3, H2SO4, etc.,
 Organic compounds,
 Carbon monoxide,
 Nitrogen compounds like NO, NO2, NO3, HNO3, etc.,
 Halogen compounds,
 Radio active compounds,
 Biological material - air borne bacteria and viruses.
The possible effects of air pollutants are stated below:-
Pollutants Effects
* Particulate matter Respiratory diseases, soiling effect, erosion of property, reduced

photosynthesis.
* Sulphur dioxide Suffocation, irritation of throat and eyes, respiratory diseases,
destruction of sensitive crops & yield reduction , and corrosion of
property.
* Nitrogen oxides irritation, bronchitis, oedema of lungs.
* Carbon monoxide Reduced oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
Water pollution is the waste water generated due to industrial and domestic activity, which does
not have any apparent value. Types of water pollutants are:
1. Organic pollutants,
2. Inorganic pollutants,
3. Suspended solids,
4. Physical pollutants like heat, etc.
Soil / land pollution - occurs due to dumping of waste water or hazardous substances or garbage
due to industrial / mining / domestic activity on soil, or due to excessive use of pesticides in
agriculture. Due to this the characteristics of soil is changed, which is harmful to the plants and
micro-organisms.
Hazardous substance - means any substance or preparation, which by reason of its chemical or
physicochemical properties or handling, is liable to cause harm to human beings, other living
creatures, plant, micro-organisms, property or the environment.
Noise pollution is the unwanted / undesirable sound which occurs due to Industrial / construction
/ transportation activities / movement of heavy machineries. It is generally not a pollution, but a
nuisance if above 80 dB(A).
Social and psychological hazards due to noise are community annoyance, sleep
interference, reduced working efficiency, impairment of mental and creative performance, etc.
Health hazards due to noise are continual ringing in ears called “tinnitus”, for which there
is no cure, dizziness, sleeplessness, stress and strain, headache tiredness, high blood pressure,
muscle tension, etc.
The evidence for environmental effects of various types of pollutions include:

 Loss of biodiversity (species depletion and extinction)
 Atmospheric effects (global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion, acid rain and poor air
quality),
 Water pollution (Acid rain, sewage, chemical or other waste contamination of rivers, lakes,
groundwater and the oceans),
 Land contamination (land-filling, illegal dumping of toxic industrial waste, industrial spillage),
etc.
The general control measures include avoid / prevent pollution at source, reduce waste,
Apply best available control technology to control pollution, explore recycling the wastes, reusing
the waste as raw material / resource, etc.
Environment pollution contribution of Thermal power station, and its control measures.
To generate 210 MW electrical energy, the coal based thermal power station consumes about
3000 Tons/day of coal producing about 1200 Tons /day of ash and other gases. The coal handling
also generates the coal dust. The total amount of pollutants from the thermal power plants, if
allowed to enter into our atmosphere without any control, would pose a serious threat to ecological
balance, climate and environment. The gas based power stations use Natural Gas instead of coal,
which leads to lesser environmental pollution as there is no dusting and Sulphur-dioxide problem
is almost Nil.
In coal / lignite based thermal power plants, Particulate matter (Suspended as well as
Respirable), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) are the major emissions resulting
from the fuel combustion during the power generation. The other air pollutants include CO,
aerosols from the cooling towers and heat releases.
The coal dust dispersion in the ambient air from the coal handling process can be controlled
by water sprinkling before / during unloading, sprinkling of water during transfer of coal,
sprinkling of water at stacked coal and through dust extraction / dust suppression systems.
To control the particulate matter emissions into the atmosphere, the following instruments
/ procedures can be generally used:
1. Grit collector,
2. Cyclone separator,
3. Wet collector,
4. Mechanical dust collector
5. Fabric filter, &
6. Electrostatic Precipitators
Advantages of Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs):

1. Used for the particulate matter removal from the gas stream,
2. Capacity to handle large volumes of gas,
3. High collection efficiencies even for sub-micron size particles,
4. Low energy consumption,
5. Ability to operate with relatively high temperature gases,
6. Can collect dust in both dry and wet conditions,
7. Low operating cost,
8. Long life,
9. Can be built into multiple units.
Electrostatic precipitation is a physical process by which particles suspended in gas stream
are charged electrically and under the influence of the electric field they are separated from the gas
stream. Normally in coal / lignite based thermal power stations, ESPs are used to control the
particulate matter. In addition to this, low ash coal is also used. Massive tree plantation is also
carried out in and around the power station and ash dyke to control the dusting. Tall stacks
(Chimneys) are provided for better dispersion / dilution of the gases and pollutants.
The water pollutants include Boiler blowdown, Cooling tower blowdown, Ash handling
plant overflow / leakages, D.M. plants wastes, Floor washings, Maintenance of boilers / other
units, Domestic waste, etc.
The liquid wastes are collected, treated as per the requirement in the Neutralizing pits and
Effluent / Sewage Treatment Plant and reused in the plant or discharged after meeting the GPCB
norms.
The solid wastes include ash, sludge from the treatment plants, etc. which need to be
disposed of in a safe manner without any impact on environment. The ash collected from the
various hoppers is either sent for utilization and / or disposed of into the ash dyke.
The Hazardous Waste include used oil / residue containing oil, used Ion exchange resin at
DM plant, Asbestos containing material, empty containers of hazardous material, etc. These
wastes shall be properly stored without any adverse effect on the environment.
The hazardous wastes like Used oil and empty containers of hazardous material is given
to MOEF / CPCB registered party, waste containing oil and Used Ion exchange resin is disposed
off for incineration at approved common waste disposal facility (TSDF) and the asbestos
containing waste is disposed of at landfill site of approved common waste disposal facility (TSDF).
Noise generation occurs due to use of various high capacity auxiliaries in the plant.
However, the noise is controlled through regular maintenance of equipments, providing casings
on high noise equipments, providing separate cabins for employees working in high noise areas
and also by enforcing the use of PPEs like ear plugs and ear muffs by the employees working in
high noise area.
General Impacts of power generation on Environment.
* Environmental pollution.
* Resource depletion.
* Displacement of population.
* Health hazards.
* Drastic change in land use pattern.
* Loss of forests.
* Corrosion of structures, buildings, etc.
* Reduction in the yield of crops.
However, the impact of power station on environment depends to a large extent on its
location with respect to human settlements, meteorological conditions, ambient air quality, water
bodies, agricultural and forests lands.
ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES AND ETHICS
1) Development Ethics
• based on action
• it assumes that human race should be the master of nature, and that earth and its
resources exist for the benefit and pleasure of human
• reinforced by work ethics which dictates that human should be busy creating continual
change, and that bigger and better things represent progress which is good
2. Preservation Ethics
• Consider nature special in itself
• Some preservationists have an almost religious belief regarding nature
• They hold reverence for and respect the right of all creatures to live no matter what the
social or economic costs
• Preservationists also include those whose interest in nature is primarily aesthetics or

recreational
3. Conservation Ethics
•Stresses a balance between development and absolute preservation
•It recognizes the desirability of decent living standards but works towards a balance of
resource use and resource availability
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS VIEWED AT DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES
1. Corporate Environmental Ethics  Corporation
– legal entity designed to operate at a profit
• Ethics are involved when a corporation cuts corners in production quality or waste
disposal to maximize profit
• These corporate decisions involve only minimal considerations to the public interest,
while every effort is exerted to maximize profit.
TOOLS USED TO EVALUATE ENVIRONMENTAL CORPORATE

RESPONSIBILITY
a) Valdez Principles
- have been formulated to guide and evaluate corporate conduct towards the environment
- the Valdez Principles support a wide range of environmental issues. Protection of the
biosphere is one of its objectives, and it encourages industries to minimize or eliminate
the emission of pollutants. The principles are also devoted to protecting biodiversity and
insuring the sustainable development of land, water, forests, and other natural resources.
The principles advocate the use of recycling whenever possible, support safe disposal
methods, and encourage the use of safe and sustainable energy sources. Energy efficiency
is also a goal, as well as the marketing of products that have minimal environmental
impact.
- They are named after the Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker which ran aground off the
Alaskan coast in 1989, causing considerable environmental damage
b) ISO 14000 (International Standard Organization)
- certification for environmental management, i.e., on meeting environmental

responsibilities, controlling risks and reducing liabilities
- a family of standards related to environmental management that exists to help

organizations
(a) minimize how their operations (processes etc.) negatively affect the environment (i.e.
cause adverse changes to air, water, or land); AND
(b) comply with applicable laws, regulations, and other environmentally oriented
requirements
2. Societal Environmental Ethics
Society – composed of a great variety of people with different viewpoints
•many societies tend to exploit their resources
•Societies tend to continue to consume natural resources as if the supplies

were never ending
•Growth, expansion and domination remain the central socio-cultural

objectives of most advance societies
•Economic growth and exploitation – attitudes share by developing

societies
3. Individual Environmental Ethics
• We have to recognize that each of us is individually responsible for the quality of the
environment we live in and that our personal actions affect environmental quality, for
better or for worse
• Recognition of individual responsibility must then lead to real changes in individual

behavior
• In other words, our environmental ethics must be reflected in changes in the ways we all
live our daily lives
o Environmental Movements – have been effective in influencing public opinion

and in moving the business community towards environmental ethics
4. Global Environmental Ethics
• Much of the current environmental crisis is rooted in and exacerbated by the widening
gap between rich and poor nations
• Industrialized countries contain only 23% of the ǁorld’s population and yet they control
80% of the world’s goods and are responsible for a majority of its pollution
• Developing countries struggle to catch up with developed countries and this seem to
result to destruction of their forests and the depletion of their soils
• International Protocols - international conventions where nations can work together to

solve common environmental problems
Examples:
1) The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer
- a landmark international agreement designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer.

The treaty was originally signed in 1987 and substantially amended in 1990 and 1992.
The Montreal Protocol stipulates that the production and consumption of compounds that
deplete ozone in the stratosphere--chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon
tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform--are to be phased out by 2000 (2005 for methyl
chloroform). Scientific theory and evidence suggest that, once emitted to the atmosphere,
these compounds could significantly deplete the stratospheric ozone layer that shields the
planet from damaging UV-B radiation.
* The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985), which
outlines states' responsibilities for protecting human health and the environment against
the adverse effects of ozone depletion, established the framework under which the
Montreal Protocol was negotiated.
Kyoto Protocol – Convention On The Global Climate Change
- an international agreement that sets a target reduction of GHG emissions for 37

industrialized countries and European communities starting from 2008 to 2012.
Specifically, it requires an average reduction of five percent from the GHG emission
recorded in 1990
• Participating countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol have committed to cut
emissions of not only carbon dioxide, but of also other greenhouse gases, being:
- Methane(CH4 )
- Nitrous oxide (N2O)
- Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
- Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
- Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6 )
• Before, engineers were able to practice their profession without having to address
environmental ethics to the same depth as it is now required
• Legislations require us to produce an environmental report (EIS) prior to the design

stage of a process
• Engineering as a profession has great achievements in the general area of public health,
water supply, sewage treatment, waste treatment, etc. and we are proud of all of these.
However, modern engineers now realize that there are also negative and long-term
impacts of engineering projects on ecology as well as on human health.
• The dilemmas for engineers for the design for such projects are many since no longer
can engineers and scientists hide behind technology and economics
• Our profession must share responsibility for the ethical dilemmas or face the long-term
consequences of such issues returning to haunt us
• Engineers today are very different from generations ago
• Traditionally, an engineer could live out a technical career without public participation
as a professional
• Engineers have the technical competence of a backroom technician with the ability to
interact with groups, other than engineers, at a public level
• Engineers must be more adaptable, flexible and be able to collaborate with groups
(environmental and community groups) for inputs at the inception of projects
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __8__
TOPIC/S
WATER TREATMENT
WATER CLASSIFICATIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES
COAGULATION/FLOCCULATION
SEDIMENTATION
FILTRATION
DISINFECTION
STORAGE
WASTE WATER CHARACTERISTICS
WASTE WATER TREATMENT PROCESS
STAGES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT

WATER TREATMENT
Water treatment is a process of making water suitable for its application or returning its natural
state. Thus, water treatment required before and after its application. The required treatment
depends on the application.
Water treatment involves science, engineering, business, and art. The treatment may include
mechanical, physical, biological, and chemical methods. As with any technology, science is the
foundation, and engineering makes sure that the technology works as designed. The appearance
and application of water is an art.
General Wastewater Treatment
Water is a renewable resource. All water treatments involve the removal of solids, bacteria, algae,
plants, inorganic compounds, and organic compounds. Removal of solids is usually done by
filtration and sediment. Bacteria digestion is an important process to remove harmful pollutants.
Converting used water into environmentally acceptable water or even drinking water
is wastewater treatment
REVISED WATER USAGE AND CLASSIFICATION/WATER QUALITY CRITERIA

IN THE PHILIPPINES
(a) Fresh Surface Waters (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc.)
CLASSIFICATION BENEFICIAL USE

CLASS AA Public Water Supply Class I. This class is intended primarily for
waters having watersheds which are uninhabited and otherwise
protected and which require only approved disinfection in order to
meet the National Standards for Drinking Water (NSDW) of the
Philippines.
CLASS A Public Water Supply Class II. For sources of water supply that
will require complete treatment (coagulation, sedimentation,
filtration and disinfection) in order to meet the NSDW.
CLASS B Recreational Water Class I. For primary contact recreation such
as bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc. (particularly those
designated for tourism purposes).
CLASS C 1) Fishery Water for the propagation and growth of fish and other
aquatic resources;
2) Recreational Water Class II (Boatings, etc.)
3) Industrial Water Supply Class I (For manufacturing processes
after treatment).
CLASS D 1) For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering, etc.
2) Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g. cooling, etc.)
3) Other inland waters, by their quality, belong to this
classification.
b) Coastal and Marine Waters

CLASSIFICATION BENEFICIAL USE
CLASS SA 1) Waters suitable for the propagation, survival and harvesting of
shellfish for commercial purposes;
2) Tourist zones and national marine parks and reserves established

under Presidential Proclamation No. 1801; existing laws and/or
declared as such by appropriate government agency.
3) Coral reef parks and reserves designated by law and concerned

authorities.
CLASS SB 1) Recreational Water Class I (Areas regularly used by the public
for bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.);
2) Fishery Water Class I (Spawning areas for Chanos chanos or

"Bangus" and similar species).
CLASS SC 1) Recreational Water Class II (e.g. boating, etc.);
2) Fishery Water Class II (Commercial and sustenance fishing);
3) Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish and wildlife

sanctuaries;
CLASS SD 1) Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g. cooling, etc.);
2) Other coastal and marine waters, by their quality, belong to this

classification.
WATER TREATMENT PROCESS
Clean, safe water is vital for everyday life. Water is essential for health, hygiene and the
productivity of our community. The water treatment process may vary slightly at different
locations, depending on the technology of the plant and the water it needs to process, but the basic
principles are largely the same. This section describes standard water treatment processes.
Coagulation / Flocculation
 Coagulation removes dirt and other particles suspended in water. Alum and other chemicals
are added to water to form tiny sticky particles called "floc" which attract the dirt particles.
The combined weight of the dirt and the alum (floc) become heavy enough to sink to the
bottom during sedimentation.
 During coagulation, liquid aluminum sulfate (alum) and/or polymer is added to untreated
(raw) water. When mixed with the water, this causes the tiny particles of dirt in the water
to stick together or coagulate. Next, groups of dirt particles stick together to form larger,
heavier particles called flocs which are easier to remove by settling or filtration.
WHAT IS REMOVED DURING COAGULATION?
Coagulation can successfully remove a large amount of organic compounds, including

some dissolved organic material, which is referred to as Natural Organic Matter (NOM)
or Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC). Coagulation can also remove suspended particles,
including inorganic precipitates, such as iron. A large amount of DOC can give water an
unpleasant taste and odour, as well as a brown discolouration. While coagulation can
remove particles and some dissolved matter, the water may still contain pathogens.
SEDIMENTATION
 The heavy particles (floc) settle to the bottom and the clear water moves to filtration.
 As the water and the floc particles progress through the treatment process, they move into
sedimentation basins where the water moves slowly, causing the heavy floc particles to
settle to the bottom. Floc which collects on the bottom of the basin is called sludge, and is
piped to drying lagoons. In Direct Filtration, the sedimentation step is not included, and
the floc is removed by filtration only.

The chart below shows the length of time that is required for particles of different
sizes to settle through the water.
Filtration
 The water passes through filters, some made of layers of sand, gravel, and charcoal that
help remove even smaller particles.
 Water flows through a filter designed to remove particles in the water. The filters are made
of layers of sand and gravel, and in some cases, crushed anthracite. Filtration collects the
suspended impurities in water and enhances the effectiveness of disinfection. The filters
are routinely cleaned by backwashing.
FILTRATION METHODS
Rapid sand filtration is a physical process that removes suspended solids from the water.
Rapid sand filtration is much more common than flow sand filtration, because rapid sand filters
have fairly high flow rates and require relatively little space to operate. In fact, during rapid
sand filtration, the water flows at a rate up to 20 metres per hour. The filters are generally
cleaned twice per day with backwashing filters and are put back into operation immediately.
Slow sand filtration is a biological process, because it uses bacteria to treat the water. The
bacteria establish a community on the top layer of sand and clean the water as it passes through,
by digesting the contaminants in the water. The layer of microbes is called a schumtzdecke (or
biofilm), and requires cleaning every couple of months, when it gets too thick and the flow rate
declines
An ultrafiltration filter has a pore size around 0.01 micron. A microfiltration filter has a
pore size around 0.1 micron, so when water undergoes microfiltration, many microorganisms
are removed, but viruses remain in the water. Ultrafiltration would remove these larger
particles, and may remove some viruses. Neither microfiltration nor ultrafiltration can remove
dissolved substances unless they are first adsorbed (with activated carbon) or coagulated (with
alum or iron salts).
A nanofiltration filter has a pore size around 0.001 micron. Nanofiltration removes most
organic molecules, nearly all viruses, most of the natural organic matter and a range of salts.
Nanofiltration removes divalent ions, which make water hard, so nanofiltration is often used
to soften hard water.
Reverse osmosis filters have a pore size around 0.0001 micron. After water passes through
a reverse osmosis filter, it is essentially pure water. In addition to removing all organic
molecules and viruses, reverse osmosis also removes most minerals that are present in the
water. Reverse osmosis removes monovalent ions, which means that it desalinates the water.
To understand how reverse osmosis works, it is helpful to understand osmosis.
Osmosis occurs when a semi-permeable membrane separates two salt solutions of different
concentrations. The water will migrate from the weaker solution to the stronger solution, until
the two solutions are of the same concentration, because the semi-permeable membrane allows
the water to pass through, but not the salt. In the following diagram, (A) and (B) illustrate the
process of osmosis.
In reverse osmosis, the two solutions are still separated by a semi-permeable membrane, but
pressure is applied to reverse the natural flow of the water. This forces the water to move from
the more concentrated solution to the weaker. Thus, the contaminants end up on one side of
the semi-permeable membrane and the pure water is on the other side. In the diagram below,
reverse osmosis is represented in (C).
WHAT DO THESE THREE PROCESSES REMOVE?
Ultrafiltration removes bacteria, protozoa and some viruses from the water.
Nanofiltration removes these microbes, as well as most natural organic matter and some natural
minerals, especially divalent ions which cause hard water. Nanofiltration, however, does not
remove dissolved compounds.
Reverse osmosis removes turbidity, including microbes and virtually all dissolved substances.
However, while reverse osmosis removes many harmful minerals, such as salt and lead, it also
removes some healthy minerals, such as calcium and magnesium. This is why water that is
treated by reverse osmosis benefits by going through a magnesium and calcium mineral bed.
This adds calcium and magnesium to the water, while also increasing the pH and decreasing
the corrosive potential of the water. Corrosive water may leach lead and copper from
distribution systems and household water pipes.
Disinfection
 A small amount of chlorine is added or some other disinfection method is used to kill any
bacteria or microorganisims that may be in the water.
 Water is disinfected before it enters the distribution system to ensure that any disease-
causing bacteria, viruses, and parasites are destroyed. Chlorine is used because it is a very
effective disinfectant, and residual concentrations can be maintained to guard against
possible biological contamination in the water distribution system.
METHODS OF DISINFECTIONS
Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas. By providing high pressure, the gas becomes liquid. It is toxic.
Chlorine gas is mostly used as a water disinfectant. Introducing chlorine to water plays a very
effective role for removing almost all pathogenic microorganisms. It can be used both as a
primary and a secondary disinfectant.
Ozone is produced from a gas containing oxygen (usually ambient air or pure oxygen). The gas is
then passed through an electric field. The air is treated to make sure that it is dry and free from
dust impurities. Oxygen is converted to ozone in an electrical field. The ozone is then fed to the
contact tank so that ozone is dissolved by water to proceed disinfection process.
UV disinfection units are used nowadays as water disinfection methods. The design is quite simple
that consists of a UV light source that is enclosed in a transparent protective sleeve. The light
source is mounted so that water can pass through a flow chamber so that UV rays can be both
admitted and absorbed into the stream. No change in taste and color occur that is an advantage of
this method. The contact time is also very short as these rays kill the pathogenic bacteria quickly.
Storage
 Water is placed in a closed tank or reservoir in order for disinfection to take place. The
water then flows through pipes to homes and businesses in the community.
WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS
Wastewater contains the impurities added as a result of domestic, commercial and

industrial use. The analyses used to characterize the principal physical, chemical. And
biological impurities found in wastewater.
Characteristics:
 PHYSICAL
 CHEMICAL
 INORGANIC CHEMICAL
 ORGANIC CHEMICAL
 BIOLOGICAL
 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs)
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Solid Contents
 TOTAL SOLIDS
found in wastewater are consist of the insoluble or suspended solids and the
soluble compounds dissolved in the water
 SUSPENDED SOLIDS
are found by drying and weighing the residue removed by filtering the sample
 VOLATILE SOLIDS
are organic matter that are burned at high temperature
 SETTLEABLE SOLIDS
(milliliters per liter) are solids that can be removed by sedimentation
 Colour
 LIGHT BROWN COLOR
Wastewater is less that 6 hour old
 LIGHT-TO-MEDIUM GREY COLOR
Wastewater that have undergone some decomposition or that have been in the
collection system
 DARK GREY OR BLACK COLOR
The water is septic having undergone extensive bacterial decomposition under
anaerobic conditions
 odour
 HYDROGEN SULFIDE
Principal odorous compound
 Indol, skatol, cadaverin, and mercaptan
Are formed under anaerobic conditions that may cause odours that are more
offensive that hydrogen sulfide
 ANAEROBIC CONDITION
Condition in absence of Oxygen
 Temperature
 COLD REGIONS
The temperature will vary from 45ºF to 65ºF (7ºC to 18ºC)
 WARMER REGIONS
The temperature will vary from 55ºF to 75ºF (13ºC to 24ºC)
 INORGANIC CHARACTERISTICS
Specific inorganic constituents are determined to assess the presence or absence of priority
pollutants and to determine if any potential treatment or disposal problems will develop.
Some chemicals includes:
 Nitrogen
 Phosphorus
 Chloride Sulfate
 pH
 Alkali
 ORGANIC CHARACTERISTICS
Laboratory Methods used to measure gross amounts of organic matter in waste water
includes:
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by
aerobic biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given water
sample at certain temperature over a specific time period.
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) - is an indicative measure of the amount of oxygen

that can be consumed by reactions in a measured solution. It is commonly expressed in
mass of oxygen consumed over volume of solution which in SI units is milligrams per
litre (mg/L).
 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) - is a measure of the total amount of carbon in organic
compounds in pure water and aqueous systems
0
WASTE WATER TREATMENT PROCESS
1.Physical Water Treatment Operations
In the physical unit operations physical forces are utilized in some water treatment units for the
removal of solid contaminants. The physical unit water treatment operations are:
1. Water Treatment Screening

2. Water Treatment Mixing
3. Water Treatment Flocculation
4. Water Treatment Sedimentation
5. Water treatment Flotation
6. Water Treatment Filtration
2 Chemical Water treatment Processes
In chemical unit Water Treatment process the removal or conversion of some solids, is brought
about by the addition of chemicals or by other reactions. Common examples of chemical unit water
treatment process are:
 Gas transfer by aeration,
 Adsorption, and
 Disinfection
3 Biological water treatment Processes
In biological water treatment processes the removal or conversion of organic solids is brought about
by the biological activities. They remove colloidal or dissolved bio-degradable organic substances
in wastewater. Organic substances are converted into gases that can escape to the atmosphere and
as biological cell tissues that can be removed by settling.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
1
STAGES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT
Types and nature of solids present in wastewater and unit operations/processes used for their
removal
Type of solids Nature of solids Unit Operations/Process used for

removal
Floating Coarse Organic and Coarse screen

inorganic
Fine organic and Microscreens

inorganic solids and
algae
Suspended Settleble inorganic Grit chamber

Solids
Settleble organic Primary sedimentation tank
Non settleble organic Biological process followed by

secondary sedimentation tank
Dissolved solids Organic Biological process
Inorganic Reverse Osmosis
Root zone treatment with certain type of

trees and aquatic plants
The wastewater treatment is achieved in three stages; primary, secondary and tertiary treatments..
Some of the unit operations and processes are included in each stage of treatment. The process flow
diagram of a typical wastewater treatment plant is furnished.
1 Primary Sewage Treatment
The first stage of sewage treatment is known as primary treatment which also includes certain
preliminary operations such as flow equalization, communication (or grinding), grease removal,
flow measurement, etc. The unit operations in primary treatment are screening to remove larger
floating objects, grit removal for removing inert sand and inorganic particles, and settling for
removing settleable suspended organic solids. The main purpose of the primary treatment is to
produce a generally homogeneous liquid capable of being treated biologically and a sludge that can
be separately treated or processed.
2
2 Secondary sewage Treatment
The next stage of sewage water treatment is secondary treatment, which is designed to remove
soluble organics from the wastewater. Secondary treatment consists of a biological process and
secondary settling. Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content
of the sewage such as derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent.
3 Types of Biological Treatment based on Process
There are two types of biological water treatment process; aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic process
means that dissolved oxygen (DO) is present for the microbes for respiration. Anaerobic process
means that the process proceeds in the absence of DO.
The effluent from primary water treatment units is further treated generally using aerobic biological
processes. For these processes to be effective, the microorganisms require both dissolved oxygen
and a substrate on which to live. Oxygen can be supplied either through natural process or artificial
mechanical means. In both cases, the bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic
contaminants and bind much of the less soluble fractions into floc particles. The oxidization of
organic substances can be achieved by anaerobic process also by anaerobic organisms, which don’t
need DO. They take their oxygen requirement from complex organic substances, such as sulphate
(SO4), phosphate (PO4), etc.
The end-products of aerobic and anaerobic processes are different. Under aerobic conditions, if
completely oxidized, organic matter is transformed into non-hazardous products such as CO2 and
H2O and cell tissues. But an anaerobic process, apart from CO 2 and H20 and cell tissues, can also
produce methane (CH,), which is explosive, and ammonia (NH 3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which
are toxic. Some materials are better degraded under anaerobic conditions than under aerobic
conditions. In some cases, the combination of anaerobic and aerobic systems in a series provides
better and more economical treatment than either system could alone provide.
Classification of biological sewage treatment based on growth system
Biological sewage treatment systems are classified into systems: (a) attached growth system, and
(b) suspended growth systems. Aerobic and anaerobic biological systems are available in both
attached and suspended growth configurations. Examples are as follows:
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 Aerobic attached growth systems: trickling filter and RBC;
 Aerobic suspended growth systems: activated sludge process, aerated lagoon, waste
stabilization ponds etc.
 Anaerobic attached growth systems: anaerobic filters and upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
units.
 Anaerobic suspended growth systems: septic tanks and anaerobic ponds.
 The final step in the secondary treatment stage is to settle out the biomass as biological
floc or filter material generated during biological treatment and produce sewage water
containing very low levels of organic material and suspended matter. This settled biomass
or secondary sludge is then piped to sludge-management systems, while the effluent from
SST is disposed.
Sludge treatment and disposal
The sludge accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated and disposed of in a safe
and effective manner. The purpose of sludge digestion is to reduce the amount of organic matter
and the number of disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids. The most common
treatment options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and composting. The choice of a
wastewater sludge treatment method depends on the amount of solids generated and other site-
specific conditions. However, in general, composting is most often applied to smaller-scale
applications followed by aerobic digestion and then lastly anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale
municipal applications.
4 DISINFECTION
The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of wastewater is to substantially reduce the number of
living organisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment. The effectiveness of
disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated (e.g., TSS, pH, etc.), the type of
disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and other environmental
variables. Turbid water will be treated less successfully since solid matter can shield organisms,
especially from ultraviolet light or if contact time is low. Generally, short contact times, low doses
and high flows are against effective disinfection. Common methods of disinfection include use of
ozone, chlorine, or UV light. Chloramine, which is used for drinking water, is not used in waste
water treatment because of its persistence. Disinfection follows secondary clarification in most
treatment plants or after tertiary treatment when the wastewater reclamation and reuse is
contemplated. Disinfection is normally accomplished with chlorine. Due to the potential
environmental impact of chlorine, most plants now dechlorinate wastewater effluents before
discharge.
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5 TERTIARY SEWAGE TREATMENT
Third stage waste water treatment is referred to as tertiary sewage treatment or advanced waste
water treatment. More commonly used advanced systems are adsorption to activated carbon,
filtration through sand and other media, ion exchange, various membrane processes, nitrification-
denitrification, coagulation-flocculation, and micro-screening.
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __10-11__
TOPIC/S
AIR ENVIRONMENT
Air Quality
Air Pollution and Control
SOLID ENVIRONMENT
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
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AIR QUALITY, AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL
AIR QUALITY
Pure air is described as a mixture of the following gases:
78.0% N2 , 0.03% CO2 ,
20.1% O2 , 0.002% Ne,
0.9% Ar, 0.005% He plus other gases.
Such pure air does not exist but it serves as a reference for clean air.
4 MAJOR LAYERS OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
1) Troposphere (contains more than 80% air)
2) Stratosphere (contains 90% ozone)
3) Mesosphere
4) Thermosphere
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS
I. PARTICULATES
II. II. GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
I. PARTICULATES
a) Dust (100µ) – solid particles created by the break up of larger masses through processing or
handling of materials such as coal, ash, cement, grains by crushing or grinding.
- direct offspring of a parent material undergoing mechanical operation (sawdust from wood works)
- entrained materials used in mechanical operations (sand blasting) - natural phenomena (volcanic
eruption)
b) Fume (0.03 – 0.3µ) – a solid particle frequently a metallic oxide formed by the
condensation of vapors by sublimation, distillation, calcinations, or chemical
reaction processes.
Ex. Zinc and lead oxides from oxidation and condensation
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c) Mist (0.5 – 3.0µ) – an entrained liquid particle formed by the condensation of a

vapor, dispersion of a liquid (as foaming or splashing) and by chemical reaction
(formation of sulfuric acid mists)
- Mist is also called fog when its concentration is high enough to obscure visibility.
d) Smoke (0.05 – 1.0µ) – entrained solid particles formed as a result of incomplete

combustion of carbonaceous materials (wood, coal, tobacco, other combustibles)
e) Spray (10 – 1000µ) – a liquid particle formed by the atomization of a parent liquid,
settles out by gravity
f) Fly ash – consists of finely divided, non – combustible particles contained in flue
gases arising from combustion of coal and other combustibles.
MEASUREMENT OF PARTICULATES
a) Measurement of Total Suspended Particulates (TSP)
- High – volume sampler is used which operates like a vacuum cleaner by simply forcing
more than 2000 m3 of air through a filter for 24 hours
- Analysis is gravimetric and the air flow is measured by small flow meter (calibrated in
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ft /min)
b) Measurement of Respirable Particulates (particulates < 0.3µ)
- Measurement done in relation to health
c) Measurement of PM10 : Particulate Matter less than 10 microns
- a measure used in ambient air quality standards
II. GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
• Gaseous pollutants include substances that are gases at normal temperature and pressure as well
as vapors of substances that are liquid or solid at normal T and P.
• The following are some gaseous air pollutants: SO2 , SO3 , H2 S, N2O, NO2 , CO, CO2 , O3 , HC’s,
CH4 , CFC
• Measurement: use of bubbler in combination with colorimeter of other spectrophotometers
2
SOME GASEOUS POLLUTANTS & THEIR EFFECTS:
a) SO2 – colorless gas, intense choking odor, highly soluble in water to form H 2 SO3 . Can damage
property, health and vegetation.
b) SO3 – soluble in water to form H2SO4 , highly corrosive
c) H2S – has a rotten egg odor at low concentrations and odorless at high concentrations, highly
poisonous
d) N2O – colorless gas, used as carrier gas in aerosol bottles, relatively inert, not produced in
combustion.
e) NO – colorless gas produced during high temperature – high pressure combustion, oxidizes to
NO2
f) NO2 – brown to orange gas, major component in the formation of photochemical smog
g) CO – colorless and odorless gas, product of incomplete combustion, poisonous
h) CO2 – colorless and odorless gas, formed during complete combustion, greenhouse gas
i) O3 – highly reactive, can damage vegetation and property, produced mainly during the formation
of photochemical smog
j) HC’s CXHY – some are emitted from automobiles and industries, others are formed in the
atmosphere
k) CH4 – highly combustible, odorless, greenhouse gas
l) CFC (cholorofluorocarbons) – non-reactive, with excellent thermal properties, depletes ozone

layer
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Air Pollutants are also classified as:
a) Primary Air Pollutants
• Materials released directly into the atmosphere in their unmodified forms and in
sufficient quantities to pose health risk. Among them are CO, HC’s, particulates,
SO2 , NO and NO2 .
b) Secondary Air Pollutants
• Products from the interaction of the primary air pollutants with one another in the
presence of an energy source. *Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants
resulting from the interaction of NO & NO 2 w/ ultraviolet light.
• Comes from chemical reactions
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
Two Most Destructive Formed:
1) Ozone, O3 – destroys chlorophyll and injures the lung tissue, can damage rubber such as tires.
2) Peroxyacetylnitrates – eye irritants. These are excellent oxidizing agents, they react readily with
many other compounds causing destructive damage.
Other Classification of Air Pollutants
a) Criteria Pollutants – emissions to the urban air traditionally sees as polluting: NOx, CO, SOx,
PM10, VOC, HC, O3 , Pb
b) Non - criteria Pollutants – pollutants whose emissions are set C 6H6 , C7H8 , CS2 , VC, PAH
(polynuclear aromatic HC’s), Arsenic, Asbestos, TCDD (2,3,7,7 tetrachloro – dibenzon – p –
dioxin)
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SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
I. Natural Processes
• Particulates from pollen grains, fungus spores, smoke and dust particles from forest fires, ash from
volcanic eruption, natural breakdown of CH4 into CO, HC’s in the form of terpenes from pine trees,
H2S and CH4 from anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, NOx from fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen.
II. Man – made Pollutants – classified as:
a) Stationary Combustion - Comes from residential, commercial, or industrial power and heating,
burning of coal or oil fuels
b) Mobile Transportation - Motor vehicles, aircraft, railroads, ships, handling or evaporation of

gasoline
c) Industrial Process - Chemical, metallurgical, pulp and paper industries, petroleum refineries
d) Solid waste Disposal - Household/commercial refuse, coal refuse etc.
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EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
1) Reduce in visibility – particulates reduce visibility both by adsorbing the light and by scattering
the light
2) Causes allergies (aeroallergens) – airborne substances cause allergies from sources such as
pollens and spores, common to asthmatic people
3) Global warming – CH4 , N2O and CO2 , greenhouse gases cause heating of the earth’s surface
4) Damage to plants animals and other living things • Acid rain may result to acidic surface
waters which may not be able to sustain marine life, fishes and marine plants. Acid rain also
destroys forests. Acid causes abnormal bone development in fishes causing their death.
5) Ozone depletion – destruction of the ozone layer (which protects us from UV rays) because of
the use of CFC’s that destroy the ozone layer, thus potential effect on the incidence of skin
cancer, Radiation from space is less filtered causing skin cancers.
6) Damage to non – living things - particulate matter can damage materials by soiling clothing
and textiles, corroding metals. Acid rain is corrosive to galvanized iron, materials for roofs, even
zinc and steel materials, discolors and destroys painted surfaces; ozone can also damage rubber in
automobile tires.
7) Causes Health problems – affects especially the respiratory system; diseases and illnesses such
as lung cancer, asthma and other respiratory diseases; emphysema; irritates eyes (O 3 ) or skin
(acids); blood hemoglobin has greater affinity to CO than oxygen thus hemoglobin to carry
oxygen is decreased and may cause death by Asphyxiation; H 2S causes nausea, nervous
breakdown and is also detrimental at high concentrations.
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INDOOR AIR POLLUTION
• Indoor air quality is important to human health simply because we spend so much time indoors
and the quality of the air we breathe is not monitored.
• Indoor air may contain: asbestos from fireproofing and vinyl floors; CO from smoking, space
heaters, stoves; formaldehyde from carpets, ceiling tiles and paneling; particulates from smoking,
fireplaces, dusting; nitrogen oxides from kerosene stoves, gas stoves; ozone from photocopying
machines; radon diffused from soil; etc
METHODS OF CONTROL OF INDOOR POLLUTION
1) Decrease pollutant source – modify behaviors (no smoking)
2) Change of consumer products of lower emission rates of toxic compounds
3) Increase rate of pollutant removal – increase ventilation, use filters and air conditioning units
Air Pollution Legislation (RA 8749) Clean Air Act
• Set emission and ambient air quality limits. AIR QUALITY CONTROL Air Pollutant Emission
and Control
1) Control Emissions
2) Understand process (transport, transformation and removal)
3) Monitor concentration
4) Protection from effects
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CONTROL OF PARTICULATES
1) Settling chambers – consist of wide places in the exhaust flue where large particles can settle
out, usually with baffle to slow the emission stream. Only particulates > 100 µm can be removed.
2) Cyclones – most effective means of controlling particulates. The dirty air is blasted into a
conical cylinder but off center line. This creates a violent swirl within the cone and the heavy
solids migrate to the wall of the cylinder where they slow down due to friction, slide down the
cone and finally exit at the bottom. The clean air is in the middle of the cylinder and exits out at
the top.
3) Bag filters (fabric filters) – operate like the common vacuum cleaner. They are used to collect
dust then removed from the bag. This filter can remove submicron sizes of particulates but are
sensitive to high temperature and humidity. Filter bags are widely used in many industrial
applications. The dust particles adhere to the fabric due to entrapment and surface forces.
4) Spray Tower or scrubber – effective for removing large particulates. Drawbacks include
producing visible plume, albeit only water vapor. The waste is converted to liquid which needs
treatment
5) Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP) – widely used in power plants, because power is readily
available. The particulates are first charged by electrons jumping from one high – voltage
electrode to the other and then migrating to the positively charge collecting electrode. Effective in
removing submicron particles.
8
CONTROL OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
1) Wet Scrubbers – the gaseous pollutants are dissolved in water. Alternatively, a chemical may
be injected which reacts with the pollutants (usually done to remove SO 2 and SO3 )
2) Adsorption – used when it is possible to bring the pollutant into contact with an adsorber like
activated carbon.
3) Incineration or Flaring – used when organic pollutant can be oxidized to CO 2 and water,
catalytic combustion.
CONTROL OF SOx
1) Change to low sulfur fuel (coal to natural gas, more expensive)
2) Desulfurize the coal
3) Tall stacks to disperse SO2
4) Flue gas desulfurization – reduce SO2 emitted by cleaning the gases coming from the
combustion process
DISPERSION OF POLLUTANTS
• Dispersion is the process of spreading out the emission over a large area and thereby reducing
the concentration of the specific pollutants. Dispersion is in two dimensions: horizontal or
vertical. The amount of dispersion is directly related to the stability of the air, or how much
vertical air movement is taking place.
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STABILITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE
• As the air rises in the earth’s atmosphere, it experiences lower and lower pressure from the
surrounding air molecules and thus expands. This expansion lowers the temperature of the air.
• Ideally, a rising air cools at a rate of 1°C/100 m and warms at a rate of 1°C/100 m if it is coming
down. • The warming or cooling is termed the dry adiabatic lapse rate
• The adiabatic lapse rate is independent of prevailing atmospheric temperatures
• When there is moisture in the air, the lapse rate becomes the wet adiabatic lapse rate
1) Superadiabatic lapse rate – strong lapse rate
- Occurs when the atmospheric temperature drops more than 1°C/100 m - Atmospheric conditions
are unstable - A great deal of vertical movement and turbulence are produced, and dispersion is
enhanced.
2) Subadiabatic lapse rate – weak lapse rate - Characterized by a drop of less than 1°C/100 m,
stable atmospheric condition
3) Inversion – special case of a weak lapse rate - Extreme subadiabatic condition - A condition
that has warmer air above colder air - Stable atmospheric condition
4) Adiabatic
5) Inversion over super adiabatic
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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Common practice:
• Non – sorting at the source, mixed solid wastes, burning of wastes, open dumping, sanitary
landfill
* Open Dumping – has brought about a variety of health, ecological and aesthetic problems.
* Burning – gases are produced that can pollute air, gases that contribute to global warming and
gases that can destroy the ozone layer.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT and DISPOSAL
What is a Solid Waste?
• A solid waste is a non – liquid waste material arising from domestic, trade, commercial,
industrial and mining activities. It also includes waste arising from the conduct of public services
such as street sweepings, landscape maintenance and the clearing of typhoon – wrought debris.
Note that the term ͞ ” non – liquid” is relative because it includes sludge coming from industrial
sources and sewage treatment plants.
What is Solid Waste Management?
• Solid Waste Management refers to all activities pertaining to control, transfer and transport,
processing and disposal of solid wastes in accordance with the best principles of public health,
economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other environmental considerations. It
includes attendant administrative, financial, legal, planning and engineering functions.
Why manage municipal solid waste?
• Improper management of solid wastes has direct adverse effects on health
• The uncontrolled fermentation of garbage creates a food source and habitat for bacterial growth.
• Inadequate storage of solid wastes provides breeding ground for vermin such as flies,
mosquitoes, cockroaches, rodents and birds which may act as passive vectors in disease
transmission
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PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECTS OF SWM Solid wastes may contain:
1) Human Pathogens – diapers, handkerchiefs, contaminated food and surgical dressings
2) Animal Pathogens – wastes from pets
2) Soil Pathogens – garden wastes
Pathogens and Diseases:
Bacteria: diarrhea / Campylobacterfetus; cholera / Vibrio comma; Typhoid fever/Salmonella

typhi
Virus: Hepa – A, Hepa – B, polio virus
Protozoa: amoebic dysentery / Entamoeba histolytica; giardiasis / Giargia lamblia etc
Helminths: flat worms, round worms, tape worms
Routes for Pathogenic transfer:
1) Inhalation – (air – aerosol – inhalation)
2) Percutaneous – (skin – percutaneous)
3) Ingestion – (hands – mouth – food – ingestion; passive vector – food – ingestion). This can be
negated by good hygiene and dietary habits
* Those involved on a regular basis with solid waste are usually vaccinated for a range of
pathogenic diseases. Rodent control is also essential as they are carriers of serious illnesses.
Storage and handling techniques to reduce risk of SW contamination to employees must be
observed. Automation must prevail.
THREE GENERAL CATEGORIES OF SOLID WASTE
1) Municipal Wastes – will include residential, commercial solid wastes.
2) Industrial Wastes – will include waste arising from industrial activities and typically include
rubbish, ashes, demolition and construction wastes, and special wastes.
3) Hazardous Wastes – wastes that pose a substantial danger immediately or over a period of time
to human, plant, or animal life. Hazardous wastes exhibit any of the following: a) ignitability b)
corrosivity c) reactivity d) toxicity
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• Hazardous wastes are also grouped into the following categories:
(1) radioactive substances
(2)chemicals – includes wastes that are corrosive, reactive or toxic
(3) biological wastes – principal sources are hospitals and biological research facilities
(4) flammable wastes
(5) explosives
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES
Classification of materials comprising Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW)
1) Garbage (food wastes) – meat, fruit or vegetable residues resulting from handling,
preparation, cooking and eating of food. These are putrescible and will decompose
rapidly especially in warm weather.
2) Rubbish – combustible and non – combustible solid wastes, excluding food

wastes or other putrescible materials. Typically combustible consists of materials
such as paper, cardboard, plastics, rubber, leather, wood, furniture, and garden
trimmings. Non combustible rubbish consists of items such as glass, tin cans,
aluminum cans, ferrous & non – ferrous metals, dirt and construction waste.
3) Ashes and Residues – materials remaining from burning of wood, coal, coke and
other combustible wastes. Ashes and residues are normally composed of fine,
powdery materials, cinders, clinkers and small amounts of burned and partially
burned materials
4) Demolition and Construction Wastes – wastes from construction, remodeling,

and repairing of residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. This includes
dirt, stones, concrete, bricks, plaster, lumber, shingles and plumbing, heating and
electrical parts.
5) Special Wastes – wastes such as street sweepings, roadside litter, catch – basin
debris, dead animals, abandoned vehicles
6) Treatment Plant Wastes – solid and semi – solid wastes from water, wastewater,
and industrial waste treatment facilities.
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7) Trash – larger items such as refrigerators, tree limbs, mattresses, and other bulky
items not collected in the household refuse.
SOURCES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES
1) Residential – wastes generated at the household level, i.e. food wastes, rubbish, ashes, and
special wastes from family dwellings, apartments
2) Commercial – food wastes, rubbish, ashes, demolition and construction wastes, special wastes,
occasionally hazardous wastes from stores, restaurants, markets, office buildings, hotels, motels,
print shops, auto repair shops, medical facilities and institutions
3) Open Areas – special wastes, rubbish from streets, alleys, parks, vacant lots, playgrounds,
beaches, highways, recreational centers etc.
4) Treatment plant sites
COMPOSITION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
A. Physical Composition
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
1) Moisture content 2) Density 3) Field Capacity
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B. Chemical Composition
1) Proximate analysis: moisture (loss at 105°C for 1 hour), volatile matter (additional loss on
ignition at 950°C), ash (residue after burning) and fixed carbon (remainder)
2) Fusing point of ash
3) Ultimate analysis - % C, % H, % O, % N, & S and % ash
4) Heating Value
Building Principles of Solid Waste Management
1) Waste is a resource
2) Waste prevention is better than waste regulation control
3) There is no single management and technological approach to solid waste. An integrated solid
waste management system will best achieve solid waste management goals
4) All elements of society are fundamentally responsible for solid waste management
5) Those who generate waste must bear the cost of its management and disposal
6) Solid waste management should be approached within the context of resource conservation,
public health, environmental protection and sustainable development.
7) Solid waste management programs should take into consideration the physical and socio –
economic conditions of the concerned communities and be designed according to their specific
needs.
HIERARCHY OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
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FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF SWM
Interrelationship of functional elements comprising SWM
Three R’s of Solid Waste Management at the Source
1) Reduce – avoid wasteful consumption of goods. Begin by asking, ͞Do I really need it?͟ In so
doing, we minimize our waste and conserve our natural resources.
2) Reuse – any activity that considers waste as a resource or as another input material without
changing the physical features of the item or undergoing transformation.
3) Recycle – any activity that considers waste as a resource to recover valuable materials or inputs
or can be used in another process. This involves change in physical feature or transformation of
material into another form or product. Waste can be a valuable resource. Sort waste and use for
something of benefit to yourself or to others.
II. On – Site Handling, Storage and Processing
• It is not practical to design a solid waste management system that collects and disposes waste at
the instant it is generated. For this reason, waste must be stored prior to collection. A good on –
site storage must meet the following requirements:
(a) it must be aesthetically acceptable (b) it must isolate wastes from the environment
to avoid creating health hazards (c) it must facilitate collection
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• On – Site Handling – refers to activities associated with the handling of solid wastes until they
are placed in the containers used for their storage before collection.
• On – Site Storage – factors that must be considered in the on – site storage include (1) type of
container to be used (2) the container location (3) public health and aesthetics (4) the collection
methods to be used
• On – Site Processing – used to recover usable materials from solid wastes, reduce the volume, or
to alter the physical form. The most common on – site processing operations include manual
sorting, compaction, and incineration.
III. Collection
• This involves gathering of solid wastes and hauling them to transfer stations, processing and
recovery stations, or to final disposal sites. In most solid waste management systems, the cost of
collection accounts for a significant portion of the total cost (from 40 to 80%)
• The type of collection, types of waste and distance to the disposal site all determine the type of
collection vehicle to be used. Collection deserves careful considerations as it can become the most
expensive of the functions of solid waste management.
Types of Collection:
1) Curb service – containers with wastes on curb side
2) Alley service – containers of wastes on alleys
3) Backyard carry – collection crew enters the home owner’s property and removes wastes from
containers
4) Set – out service
5) Set – out – set back service
Types of Containers:
1) Hauled container system (HCS) 2) Stationary container system (SCS)
Transfer Means and Methods:
1) Motor vehicle transport: open – top trailers and semi – trailers, with compaction mechanism.
2) Railroad Transport – used where highway travel is difficult and railroad is available.
3) Water Transport – use of barges, scows, special boats to transport solid wastes
4) Pneumatic Transport – use of low pressure air and vacuum conduit transport system
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Classification of Transfer Stations
1) Direct discharge – elevated or located in a depressed ramp; waste is directly discharged to

larger vehicles.
2) Storage discharge – storage pit; waste is temporarily stored for purposes of processing
3) Combined direct and storage discharge
Important Factors in the Design of Transfer Stations
1) Transfer station to be used
2) Capacity requirements
3) Equipment and accessory requirements
4) Environmental requirements
Considerations for Locating a Transfer Station
1) Nearness to solid waste scaling and disposal
2) Accessibility to major routes or other secondary routes
3) Minimal public and environmental objection
4) Economical construction and operation
V. Processing and Recovery
• This functional element includes size reduction, magnetic separation, and density separation
using air classifier and other processes and operations designed to recover or produce usable
materials like compost or energy such as electricity,
A. Material Recovery (Material Recovery Facility – MRF)
• Materials recovery facilities recover as much reusable waste material as possible including
paper, cardboard, glass, metals, aluminum cans, PET and HDPE plastics etc.
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B. Energy Recovery
• May involve recovering material but essentially it is the recovery of the fuel value of the waste.
This include the following:
1) Incineration – the heat given off in the process of incinerating waste may be utilized to produce
steam which in turn can be used.
2) Pyrolysis – a process that brings about a chemical change in the waste through the action of
high temperatures without oxygen. This process is also called destructive distillation. It results to
the production of liquids and gases which can be recombined to produce fuel such as methanol.
The residual solids are inert vitrified materials (glassy slag) and ashes.
3) Bio – digesters – organic waste is ground up and mixed with water and the slurry is kept in
sealed tanks equipped with pipes to extract the methane gas produced under anaerobic conditions.
4) Refuse – Derived Fuel (RDF) – involves the segregation of the combustible portion of the
waste and processing it into fuel for burning
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5) Landfill Gas Extraction – utilization of landfill gases as process fuel for generating electricity
or as a chemical feedstock, through the application of various technologies such as drilling
techniques, plant, equipment and gas pipeline systems.
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE
• Defined by the EPA as any substance that because of its quantity, concentration, or physical,
chemical or infectious characteristics may cause, or significantly contribute to, or an increase in
mortality, or cause an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness; pose a
substantial present or potential hazard to human health and the environment when improperly
treated, stored, transported, or disposed of, or otherwise managed.
• Hazardous waste is a term given to a material that when intended for disposal meets one of two
criteria:
1) Contains one or more criteria pollutants or chemicals explicitly identified as hazardous.
2) Waste that exhibit at least one of the ff:
a) Flammable/Ignitable b) Corrosive c) Reactive d) Toxic e) Radioactive
CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE
1) Ignitability
• Identifies wastes that pose fire hazards during routine management. These are liquids with flash
points below 60°C. Fires not only present immediate dangers of heat and smoke but can also
spread harmful particles over wide areas.
2) Corrosiveness
• Identifies wastes requiring special containers because of their ability to corrode standard
material, or requiring segregation from other wastes because of their ability to dissolve toxic
contaminants
• Include materials that, in aqueous solution, have pH values outside the range of 2 to 12.5 or
liquids that exhibit corrosivity to steel at a rate greater than 6.35 mm/yr.
3) Reactivity (or explosiveness) – identifies wastes that, during routine management, tend to react
vigorously with air or water, to be unstable to shock or heat, to generate toxic gases, or to explode
4) Toxicity – identifies wastes that, when improperly managed, may release toxicants in sufficient
quantities to pose a substantial hazard to human health or to the environment.
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5) Radioactive – identifies wastes that emit ionizing radiation that are highly detrimental to
human health. Toxicity – defined by EPA in terms of four criteria:
a) Bioconcentration
b) LD50
c) LDC50
d) Phytotoxicty
a) Bioconcentration
• Ability of a material to be retained in animal tissue.
Ex: Many pesticides will reside in the fatty tissues of animals and will not break down very fast.
As smaller creatures are eaten by larger ones, the concentration in the fatty tissues of the larger
organisms can reach toxic levels.
b) Lethal Dose
• A measure of how much of a certain chemical is needed to kill half of a group of test specimens
such as mice. Mice are fed progressively with higher doses of the poison until half of them die.
The lower the amount of the toxin used to kill 50% of the specimen, the higher the toxic value of
the chemical.
c) Lethal Dose Concentration
• The concentration at which some chemical is toxic, used where the amount ingested cannot be
measured, such as in the aquatic environment or in evaluating the quality of air. Specimens such
as goldfish are placed in series of aquariums and increasingly higher concentrations of toxins are
administered.
d) Phytotoxicity
• Toxicity to plants. All herbicides are toxic materials and must be disposed of and treated as
hazardous wastes.
21
I. HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATION

• Some Industries producing hazardous wastes
1) Battery industries – Cd, Pb, Ag, Zn
2) Chemical processes/manufacturing
3) Electrical/electronics – Cu, Co, Pb, Hg, Zn, Se, organics
4) Electroplating – Co, Cr, Cu, Zn
5) Printing – As, Cr, Cu, Pb, Se, organics
6) Textiles – Cr, Cu, organics
7) Pharmaceuticals – As, Hg, organics
8) Paint industries – Cd, Cr, Cu, Co, Pb, Hg, Se
9) Plastic industries – Co, Hg, Zn, organics, HC’s
10) Leather – Cr, organics
• Medical Hazardous Wastes
1) Obsolete medicines past expiry date
2) Cytostatica
3) Infectious material (used wound dressings, used transfusion equipment)
4) Pathological wastes
5) Sharp and pointed objects (injection needles)
6) Wastes from dental clinics
22
• Household Hazardous Wastes
1) Kitchen – cleaners, insect killers and sprays, aerosols, floor care products, metal polish with
solvents, glass/window cleaners, oven cleaners
2) Bathroom – bathroom and toilet cleaners, disinfectants, hair relaxers
3) Garage – antifreeze, batteries, brake fluids, car wax w/ solvent, diesel fuel, gasoline, kerosene,
metal polish w/ solvent, paint brushes, paint latex, paint thinner, paint stripper, glue, varnish, etc.
4) Garden – fertilizers, fungicide, herbicide, insecticide, rat killer etc.
5) Medicine cabinet – expired medicine
6) Miscellaneous – solidified nail polish, perfumes, lotions, etc.
23
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: 12-13
TOPIC/S
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS
I. Pollution Control Legislations

II. EIS (Environmental Impact System) Regulations
III. Preservation of Natural Resources
IV. Others
24
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND POLICIES
• Environmental legislation includes all laws pertaining to the management of natural resources
and the regulation of discharge of materials into the environment
• It plays a critical role in promoting environmental protection through:
– Sustainable use of natural resources
– Pollution prevention
– Integration of environment and development objectives
• Provides an important framework for regulating social behavior and transforming

sustainable development policies into enforceable norms of behavior
• Environmental laws assist the government in adhering to international protocols and building
national capacities to address major global, national, regional and local environmental issues and
problems in the context of sustainable development.
I. Pollution Control Legislations
1. Republic Act No. 3931 (July 10, 1967)
• An act creating the National Water and Air Pollution Control Commission (NAPCC)
2. Presidential Decree No. 1251
• Imposing a fee on Operating Mining Companies to be known as Mine Wastes and Tailing Fee to
compensate for Damages to Private landowners and for other purposes
3. Presidential Decree No. 1151 (June 6, 1977) Philippine Environmental Policy:
• Defines the general policies on the pursuit of a better quality of life for the present and future
generations
• It mandates the undertaking of EIA for all projects which may significantly affect the
environment
4. Presidential Decree No. 1152 Philippine Environmental Code:
• It defined the objectives of the policy and strategies for various aspect of environmental
management, such as air, water quality, natural resource development, land and waste
management
• It tells about how to implement /enforce PD 1151
25
5. Presidential Decree No. 825 • November 7, 1985
• Providing penalty for improper disposal of garbage and other forms of uncleanliness and for
other purposes
6. Presidential Decree No. 984 (August 8, 1976) Pollution Control Law:
• It seeks to prevent, abate, and control pollution of water, air, and land for a more effective
utilization of the resources of the country
• Providing for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution from motor vehicles and
other purposes (installation of pollution control device)
• Vesting authority in Barangay captains to enforce pollution and environmental control laws and
for other purposes
9. DENR Administrative Order No. 34 (DAO 34)
• Revised water usage and classification / water quality criteria
10. DENR Administrative Order No. 35 (DAO 35)
• Revised effluent regulations
11. Republic Act No. 6969 (with IRR DAO 92-29)
• An act to control toxic substances, hazardous, and nuclear wastes
12. DENR Administrative Order No. 14 ( series of 1993)
• Revised air quality standards
13.Republic Act 8749 – Clean Air Act of 1999
• Provides for a comprehensive air pollution control policy
• Stipulates the development of an integrated air quality improvement framework, standards on

ambient air quality from mobile and stationary sources and mitigation of all sources of air
pollution
14.Presidential Decree 856
• Sanitation Code of the Philippines 15.Republic Act 9003
• Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
26
II. EIS (Environmental Impact System) Regulations
• Environmental Impact Statement System
• It declares the policy to ensure the attainment of environmental quality that is conducive to a life
of dignity and recognizes the right of the people to a healthy environment
2. DENR Administrative Order No. 08 (series of 1991)
• Guidelines on the issuance of Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) or
• Environmental Clearance (EC) for the conversion of agricultural lands to non-agricultural uses.
• Amended the revised rules and regulations implementing PD 1586 (EISS)
• Supplementing DAO 21 series of 1992 and providing for Programmatic Compliance Procedures
within the EIS
III. Preservation of Natural Resources
1. PD 705 : Amended Forestry Reform Code
• Codifies, updates and revises all forestry laws and emphasizes sustainable utilization of forest
resources
2. PD 953 & 1153
• Laws penalizing illegal cutting of trees
3. PD 331
• Requires all public forests to be developed on a sustainable yield basis.
4. PD 1067: Water Code of the Philippines
• Integrates all laws governing the ownership, appropriation, use, exploitation development,
conservation and protection of the country’s water resources
5. PD 1198
• Reinforces restoration of mined-out areas to their original condition to the extent possible
27
6. RA 8550: Fisheries Code of the Philippines
• Defines policies on the protection, conservation, and effective management of fisheries stock as
well as identifying allowable fishing methods in the country’s coastal waters.
7. RA 9275: Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (PCWA)
• An act providing for a comprehensive water quality management and for other purposes
8. RA 9147
• Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act of 2001
9. DAO 15-90
• Regulations governing the utilization, development and management of mangrove resources
10. DAO 2000 – 29
• Guidelines regulating the harvesting and utilization of forest products within community-based
forest management areas
11. RA 7586 – National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of 1992 (NIPAS)
• DAO 25 –IRR
• Set forth in detail the processes by which DENR and other concerned institutions and agencies
will establish and manage the NIPAS
12.RA 7942
• Philippine Mining Act of 1995
• An act instituting a new system of mineral resources exploitation, development, utilization and
conservation
• DAO Series of 1996
• IRR of RA 7942
28
13.RA 1219
• Coral Resources Development and Conservation Decree
• A decree providing for the exploration, exploitation, utilization and conservation of coral
resources
14. RA 9168 : Philippine Plant Variety Protection Act of 2002
• An act to provide protection to new plant varieties, establishing a national plant variety
protection board
IV. OTHERS
1. Executive Order No. 259
• An act to rationalize the soap and detergent surfactant industry and thereby promote and expand
the utilization of chemicals derived from coconut oil and for other purposes
2. RA 9211: Tobacco Regulation Act
3. DAO 2000 -92
• Chemical Control order for asbestos (CCO)
• In accordance to RA 6969 and DAO 29 Series of 1992
4. DAO 97-38
• CCO for cyanide and cyanide compounds
5. RA 8485 : Animal Welfare Act of 1998
• An act to promote animal welfare in the Philippines
6. RA 8435: Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997
7. RA 3983
• An act to protect wild flowers and plants in the Philippines
• To prescribe conditions under which they may be collected, kept , sold, exported and for other
purposes
8. RA 9792 : Climate Change Act of 2009
• An act mainstreaming climate change into government policy formulations, establishing the
framework strategy and program on climate change, creating for this purpose the Climate Change
Commission and for other purposes
29
9. RA 9367 – Biofuel Act of 2006
• A mandatory biofuels standard which requires a 5% ethanol blend for gasoline within two years,
increasing to 10% within 4 years under the approval of a new National Biofuels Board
• A 1% biodiesel blend for diesel is required within 3 months, to be increased to 2% within 2

years

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental

DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COMPILED BY: ENG. JANREY BUENCONSEJO

T - Transparent and participatory governance

About the Author/s……………………………………………………………..

GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES

Week No.: __1__

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

TRACKS/FIELDS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

NAMES AND WORD DEFINITIONS

OTHER BASIC ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

KINDS OF ORGANISM INTERACTIONS

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines,

ROLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS

1) Collaborate with environmental scientists, planners, hazardous waste technicians, engineers,

2) Provide technical-level support for environmental remediation and litigation projects,

7) Develop and present environmental compliance training or orientation sessions

8) Serve on teams conducting multimedia inspections at complex facilities, providing assistance

9) Monitor progress of environmental improvement programs.

Introduction To Environmental Engineering And Science – Second Edition

Week No.: __2-3__

SOME CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

- The hydrological cycle is central to hydrology

• Through evaporation from surface waters or transpiration from plants, water

* Transpiration - the process where water contained in liquid form in plants is

Carbon moves from the atmosphere to plants.

Carbon moves from plants to animals.

Carbon moves from plants and animals to the ground.

Carbon moves from the atmosphere to the oceans

• Weathering processes are divided into three categories:

Week No.: __4 & 6__

* Habitat - the natural environment in which an organism lives.

* Ecological niche - the function of an organism or the role it plays in an ecosystem

2. Respiration – process of unleashing bound energy for utilization

NAMES AND WORD DEFINITIONS

• Consumers are also classified depending on what they eat.

Above: Grazing Food Chain

OTHER BASIC ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

2) Distribution - the frequency of occurrence or the natural geographic range or place

KINDS OF ORGANISM INTERACTIONS

a) Parasitism - one species feeds on another

b) Commensalism – one species receives a benefit from another species  enhances

c) Mutualism – two species provide resources or services to each other  enhances

Week No.: __7__

MAN’S ROLE IN PRRESERVATION OF NATURE

ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES AND ETHICS

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS VIEWED AT DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES

Seven vital areas covered under environment are:-

Types of pollution are:-

The various types of air pollutants are:-

The possible effects of air pollutants are stated below:-

* Particulate matter Respiratory diseases, soiling effect, erosion of property, reduced

The evidence for environmental effects of various types of pollutions include:

Advantages of Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs):

General Impacts of power generation on Environment.

ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES AND ETHICS

Week No.: 1

Week No.: 2-3

Week No.: 4 & 6

Week No.: 7

Week No.: 8