Cognitive Psychology Short Answer Prep

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SHORT ANSWER PREP
1. Describe the scope and goals of cognitive psychology

-scientific study to understand mental processes
-how the mind operates, characteristics of the mind and the properties of the mind
-also, can include language, attending to information and perceiving your environment
2. Describe the limitations of introspection as a method of scientific inquiry
-introspection= looking within, observing, and recording your own mental thoughts and
experiences with as little interpretation as possible
-individuals require in depth training (ex: given specific vocabulary to use)
-some thoughts remain unconscious, and we cannot report them
-thoughts are not directly observable/measurable
-it is close to impossible to know if self-reporting thoughts accurately reflects conscious
experiences
3. Compare and contrast classical behaviourism and cognitive psychology
-behaviourism= based on concrete actions and views behaviour as a consequence of
environmental stimuli
-cognitive psychology= based on mental representations and view behaviour as a result
of driving mental processes behind actions
4. Describe the role of computer science in emergence of cognitive psychology and the
development of “computer intelligence”
-humans might use processes and procedures like a computer
-introduces information-processing approach to studying the mind= operation of the
mind occurs in stages and looks at artificial intelligence and its ability as a computer to
perform tasks similar to human tasks
5. Name and describe main parts of the neuron
-cell body = portion of cell containing neurons and the nucleus and all elements for cell
activities
-dendrites= input side of the cell that receives signals
-axon= the output side of the cell that sends neural impulses to other neurons
-myelin sheath= insulation that wraps around axons and protects signals
6. Describe events of synapse and describe differences between within cell and between-
cell neural communication
-2 neurons come close enough to communicate and are separated by the synaptic clef
-presynaptic neuron sends signals while postsynaptic receives signal
-neurotransmitters are released by vesicles to change the postsynaptic membrane to
inhibitory or excitatory
-if there is enough ionic flow to surpass a cells threshold an action potential is produced
-with in = electrical signaling
-between-cell = chemical signaling
7. Describe the distinct functions of the hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
-hindbrain= heartbeat, breathing rhythms, posture, balance, and alertness
-midbrain= coordinating movement (especially eye), auditory pathways and regulating
pain
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-forebrain= processing info related to cognitive activities, sensory and associative
functions, and voluntary motor activities
8. Describe function of these subcortical structures: hypothalamus, hippocampus, and
amygdala
-hypothalamus= controls behaviours that play a role in biological needs (eating, drinking,
sex)
-hippocampus= learning and memory
-amygdala= emotional processing (especially fear associated with danger)
9. Explain the role that the corpus callosum plays in the brain and how lesioning that
structure affects behaviour
-corpus callosum is the largest commissure (connects right and lef hemispheres)
-ensures both sides of the cerebral hemispheres are able to communicate and send
signals to one another
-lesions can limit communication and affect language processing and spatial judgement
10. Describe Capgras syndrome including the behavioural and neural correlates
-patients recognize loved ones but think they are imposters
-results from a conflict, the amygdala is linked to emotional processing such as feelings
of familiarity, memory for emotional events, and emotional decision making so when
damaged people don’t experience the feeling of safety/security when looking at a loved
one’s face
-also, could have damage to prefrontal cortex which impairs reasoning (their illogical
thoughts are not dismissed which causes confusion or paranoia)
11. Explain what we can learn about the relationship between the mind and the brain by
studying the effects of brain disorders and trauma
-neuropsychology studies the brain’s structures and their function
-we can understand the function of intact and undamaged brains by looking at lesions
and specific areas of damage
-depending on which part of the brain has a lesion, it can affect the mind’s processing
capabilities differently ex: lesions to the hippocampus produce memory problems but
not language disorders
12. Describe the various imaging techniques and recording techniques that can be used to
study the brain
-CT scans= uses x-rays to create accurate 3D images of the brain’s anatomy
-PET scans= determines the functioning of specific areas of the brain by injecting glucose
which is consumed by cells that are active and then detected by the scan
-MRI= construct 3D image of the brain (more precisely) by using magnetic fields
-fMRI= acquire 3D structure of the brain along with activity levels of particular areas at
specific times by using magnetic fields that detect blood oxygenation of active areas
-EEG= detects electrical communication between neurons by recording firing of action
potentials in a neuron
-TMS= uses strong magnetic pulses to stimulate or disrupt nerve cells in the brain by
creating temporary lesions
13. Describe how rods and cones are different from each other
-rods= found in periphery but never in the fovea, sensitive to dim light, has low acuity
and is colour-blind
-cons= mostly found in or near the fovea never in periphery, cannot function in dim light,
higher acuity and is colour-sensitive
14. Explain how single-cell recordings have been used to understand neural functioning in
the visual system
-patterns of electrical changes within a single neuron are recorded
-the neuron firing rates depend on the stimulus
-it maps out the receptive field (this size and shape of the visual world to which the cell
responds to)
15. Explain how lateral inhibition promotes edge perception
-lateral inhibition= when a stimulated neuron inhibits activity of its neighbouring
neurons which cause edge enhancement (sharpens edges for boundaries)
-this causes perception of increased brightness on the bright side of a boundary and
increased darkness on the dark side of the boundary
16. Describe what a “receptive field” is and describe the various types of receptive fields
-receptive field= certain area of the sensory field where a stimulus can cause a sensory
neuron to respond electrically
-stimulus in the centre of the field leads to faster firing rates
-stimulus in surrounding area leads to slower firing (causes inhibition)
-stimulus covering field has same effect as no stimulus
17. Describe advantages and disadvantages of parallel processing
Advantages:
-speed and efficient (“divide and conquer”)
-mutual influence among a variety of systems (different analysis happening at same time
and working in harmony to find a solution that satisfies both systems)
Disadvantages:
-absence of awareness (brain is focusing on multiple things at once as opposed to
focusing on one thing at a time)
18. Explain what the “binding problem” is and identify some of the mechanisms that
contribute to the solution to this problem
-binding problem= how items are encoded by certain brain circuits can be combined for
perception, decision, and action
-mechanisms that contribute are…
-spatial position- helps create overlap map of “what forms where” with a map of
“what colours where”

-neural synchrony- how the brain seems to register synchronized firing as a cue
that attributes to a single object
-attention- in the absence of attention, conjunction errors are common
19. Describe evidence indicating the perceiver’s active role in shaping perception of the
world
-evidence from illusions like the white vase in the middle of a black background, if the
perceiver chooses to focus on the foreground they see a vase however, if they shif their
focus to the background, they see 2 faces
-demonstrates how changing the focus of attention changes how we can perceive the
same stimuli in different ways
20. Describe the Gestalt principles and how they influence visual perception
-explains why ambiguous scenes are interpreted the way they are
-we do not ofen detect this ambiguity because of how fast we are able to interpret
stimuli
-ex: good continuation
-similarity= similar colours or shapes grouped together
-proximity= items close together will be grouped together
-closure= incomplete shapes/figures will be perceived as whole
-simplicity= the simplest shape in perceived even when it is made up of several different
shapes
21. Describe the various forms of perceptual constancy, and the role of “unconscious
inference” in supporting constancy
-perceptual constancy= we can perceive properties of objects and know they are not
changing even when the environment and sensory info around the object changes
-brightness constancy= level of light on an object does not change our perception of an
object’s brightness (ex: a blue object even in dark lighting is the same shade of blue)
-size constancy= an object stays the same size when we are different distances away
from it
-shape constancy= we correctly perceive objects shape even when the shape changes in
our retinal image when we look from a different angle
-unconscious inference *Helmholtz= human perception is supported by unconscious
inference which means we automatically reconstruct the world not just on visual cues
but also our own experiences
22. Discuss the various cues we use to perceive depth
-binocular cues= perception of distance depends on various distance cues-features of
the stimulus that indicate an object’s position
-binocular disparity= difference between 2 eyes’ view which provides important
info about distance and relationship in the world
-monocular cues= only depend on what one eye sees by itself so the adjustment that
one eye must make in order to see the world clearly
-pictorial cues= depth within a picture
-interposition cue= blocking of view of one object by another object
23. Describe the differences between early and late selections theories of attention and
the evidence to support each
Early selection theory:
-we are able to perceive info we want to and ignore the info we don’t because attended
input is privileged so unattended info receives little to no analysis (sees selective
attention as the result of a limit of perception)
-evidence: studies of the brain’s electrical activity in response to the presentations of
attended and unattended stimuli (as early as 80ms afer the presentation of a stimulus
differences are observed)
Late selection theory:
-all inputs are analyzed/perceived, and it is only afer analysis has been completed that
the distinction occurs
-only attended input enters into conscious awareness and is remembered (seen as the
result of limit of memory)
-evidence: found in the observation that unattended stimuli can influence the conscious
perception/interpretation of attended stimuli despite going seemingly unnoticed ex:
study participants were asked to judge which lines were longer (Muller-Lyer illusion)
24. Discuss what inattentional blindness tells us about the interplay between perception
and attention
-inattentional blindness- failure to see prominent stimulus even if you are staring right at
it
-seems to be caused when you are not attending to the stimulus but instead were
attending to something else ex: invisible gorilla video
25. Describe how expectation-based priming is distinct from stimulus-based priming
-expectation-based priming= effortless and deliberate and requires some our limited
mental resources (a person is not able to listen to 2 audio messages at the same time)
-stimulus-based priming= does not require any extra effort like hearing your name on an
unattended channel
26. Describe how spatial attention is comparable to a spotlight and how it is different in its
functioning from a spotlight
-spatial attention aka “searchlight”
-we can move this searchlight in space and adjust the “scope” of its beam like changing
focus of a photo
-movement of attention not movement of the eyes
27. Explain what patient with unilateral neglect teach us about attention
-unilateral neglect syndrome= damage to right parietal cortex resulting in the neglect to
the lef side of space
-attention can be both spatially based and object-based
-unilateral neglect syndrome represents a strong spatial bias toward the right side but
once the target object is being attended to, the object takes over in defining the
patient’s focus of attention
-supported by tasks involving different circuits in the brain (the dorsal attention system
concerned with spatial tasks and the ventral attention system concerned with nonspatial
tasks)
28. How does the nature of the resources (specific, general, executive) influence
someone’s ability to multitask
-dividing attention between resources is easier if the tasks are different from each other
-if the nature of one task is audio/listening related and the other uses visual cues, the
individual will have a much easier time multi-tasking and performing both compared to
if they were doing two listening tasks
-ex: driving a car while talking on the phone
29. How does practice influence attentional abilities and thus performance?
-practiced skills require fewer resources which leads to a decrease of interference
between tasks
-practice increases automaticity which means the tasks well-practiced now require little
to no executive control and can be completed most efficiently
30. Describe advantages and disadvantages associated with automaticity
Advantages:
-tasks that are well-practiced and require little to no executive control
-allows us to perform tasks with ease and allows us to divide our attention to other
activities
Disadvantages:
-when tasks go against our practiced habits (Stroop interference task) it can hinder or
slow down ability to complete task
31. Describe the attributes that distinguish working memory from long-term memory
Working memory:
-related to temporary activation of neurons in brain
-fragile
-limited capacity with small amounts of info being remembered
-easy for us to access and retrieve info
Long term memory:
-physical changes in neurons and their connections
-info retained much longer
-large amounts of info stored
-durable
32. Explain how the serial position curve supports the notion that working memory and
long-term memory are separate storage systems
-a 30 second delay in the experiment bumped out all serial positions at the end of the
recall test (recency) while the primacy effect was not affected
-slower presentation allowed for more rehearsal and increased the primacy effect but
had no effect on recency
-demonstrates different mechanisms causing different outcome for primacy/recency
33. Describe the procedures for the commonly used tests of working-memory capacity
-the Digit Span test= series of numbers read, and they must immediately be recalled
back, and the list will increase until failure
-the number of digits a person can echo back without error is referred to as their digit
span
-an average working memory capacity is 7 plus or minus items
34. Explain what it means to describe working memory as a “status” rather than as a
“storage container”
-modal model suggests working memory is like a box where info is stored or location
where info can be displayed, we ask how much space is in the box/container (capacity)
-however, working memory is more dynamic like a status being currently activated
rather than a place so they created the operation span that measures working memories
active operation
35. Describe the components and organization of Baddeley and Hitch’s working-memory
system, including the central executive
The Rehearsal Loop
-central executive- needed for the “work” if you have to plan a response or make a
decision
-articulatory rehearsal loop- using subvocalization to launch rehearsal loop (silent
speech) and phonological buffer as a passive storage system used for holding a
representation (internal echo) of recently heard sounds
-proposed episodic buffer to assist central executive order info chronologically
36. Compare and contrast maintenance and elaborative rehearsal including their effects
on subsequent memory
-maintenance rehearsal= very little impact on subsequent recall in the long-term
memory, keeps info in working memory by repeating material through cycles
-elaborative rehearsal= having relations or connections to idea which guides memory
searches and allows for memory pathways to be reached through a better
understanding of material (maximizes chance of recall in the long-term memory and is
more effective than maintenance rehearsal)
37. Define the difference between incidental and intentional learning
-incidental learning- takes place in the absence of intention to learn or later recall info
-intentional learning- deliberate with expectation of remembering (ex: studying)
38. Describe the impact that level of processing has on memory
-shallow processing= superficial engagement of material leading to poorer memory
-deep processing= thinking about the meaning which leads to better memory
39. Explain why it is beneficial to have multiple connections in memory and how
connections can serve as retrieval paths
-memory connections between to-be-remembered items, memories, and contexts
facilitate retrieval
-connections allow one memory to trigger another
-connections could link some aspect of the context-of-learning to the target info so you
will be led to other ideas (triggering will happen only if relevant connections are in
place)
40. Describe the advantages and disadvantage of memorizing via some mnemonic
Advantages:
-helps address the organization of memory
-helps condense large amounts of info into memorable and easily accessible info (ROY G
BIV)
-helps with memorization
Disadvantages:
-don’t help with the understanding and deep processing of the info so the info is
irrelevant
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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY SHORT ANSWER PREP

1. Describe the scope and goals of cognitive psychology

“what colours where”

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