Engineering Plastics
Engineering Plastics
Engineering Plastics
Properties, Trends
Edward N. Peters
SABIC, Selkirk, NY, United States
under the trade name Trogamid TR. This amorphous 1.4 SemiAromatic Polyamides
polyamide exhibits a Tg of 148°C, high clarity, stiff-
ness, toughness, resistance to chemicals, and very Several semiaromatic polyamides are based on the
good resistance to UV damage. It is used in water reaction of HMDA and terephthalic acid. The structure
filter housings, flow meters, grease containers, and of poly (hexamethylene terephthalate), PA6T, appears
spectacles frames. in Fig. 1.5. However, pure PA6T exhibits a Tg of 180°C
Another amorphous nylon is based on aliphatic and a very high Tm of 370°C. The high Tm results in
amines, cycloaliphatic amines, and terephthalic acid. expensive polymerization processes and difficulty in
It is marketed under the Grilamid trade name by molding. Therefore, modified copolymers based on
EMS-Chemie. This amorphous nylon exhibits a Tg of PA6T have been examined extensively because of use
155°C, high transparency, stiffness, and resistance to of inexpensive monomers and enhanced properties over
chemicals. It is used in viewing glasses, transparent aliphatic polyamides. For example, terpolymers using
housings, and high-quality spectacle frames. an inexpensive, third monomer such as isophthalic
acid, adipic acid, caprolactam, or HMDA have led to
the commercialization of semiaromatic polyamides
1.3 Aromatic Polyamides, Aramids by Amoco, BASF, and DuPont under the trademarks
Amodel R, Ultramid T, and Zytel HTN, respectively.
Nylons prepared from aromatic diamines and aro- These terpolymers exhibit Tgs from 100 to 125°C and
matic dicarboxylic acids can lead to very high-heat Tms from 290 to 320°C and offer enhanced performance
aromatic nylons (aramids). Poly (m-phenyleneisoph- over PA66 or 6—such as, higher stiffness, increased
thalamide), MPIA, is made from the condensation strength, greater thermal, and dimensional stability.
polymerization of m-phenylenediamine and isoph- Polyamide 9T (PA9T) is a semiaromatic polyam-
thaloyl chloride and has a Tg of 280°C. Its structure is ide commercialized under the name of Genestar by
shown in Fig. 1.3. W. Sweeny, a scientist at DuPont Kuraray Co [6]. PA9T uses a long, flexible aliphatic
was responsible for discoveries leading to the com- diamine consisting of nine methylene groups in a se-
mercialization of MPIA and is available under the quence as part of the polyamide backbone. This melt
Nomex trade name. MPIA is used in fibers to make processible polyamide exhibits a Tg of 125°C and Tm
heat-resistant and flame-retardant apparel, electrical of 300°C. The structure of PA9T appears in Fig. 1.6.
insulation, and composites. Features include low water absorption, high heat
Poly (p-phenyleneterephthalamide), PPTA, was in- resistance, high chemical resistance, hydrolysis resis-
vented by S. Kwolek at DuPont in 1965 (first marketed tance, low friction coefficient, high impact strength
in 1971) [5]. It is made from p-phenylenediamine and good fuel barrier properties, and dimensional preci-
terephthaloyl chloride. It exhibits a Tg of 425°C and sion. It offers an alternative to materials such as PA612
Tm of >500°C. It was the first commercialized liquid and PA12. Its applications range from friction and wear
crystalline polymer. Fibers were spun from a lyotropic application, automotive parts to electronic/electrical.
sulfuric acid solution. Its structure is shown in Fig. 1.4
and is available under the Kevlar trade name. PPTA
is used to make highly oriented crystalline fibers de- 1.5 Polyacetals
rived from liquid-crystalline technology. PPTA fibers
exhibit a very high modulus and its uses include com- After nylon, the next engineering polymers to
posites for sporting goods, bullet resistant apparel, au- be commercially introduced were polyacetals [7,8].
tomotive transmission parts, and tires. Polyacetals are polymerized from formaldehyde and
are also referred to as polyoxymethylenes (POM). thread strength, creep resistance, and torque retention.
Staudinger explored the basic polyformaldehyde A deficiency of polyacetals is a tendency to thermally
structure rather thoroughly in the late 1920s and early unzip and an essentially unmodifiable flammability.
1930s, but he was unable to synthesize sufficiently
high molecular weight polymer with requisite thermal
stability to permit melt processing [9]. Pure formal- 1.6 Polycarbonates
dehyde could be readily polymerized, but the poly-
mer readily unzips (spontaneously depolymerizes). The aromatic polycarbonates, PC, were the next
In 1947, researchers at DuPont began a development engineering polymers to be introduced. In 1953,
program on the polymerization of formaldehyde D.W. Fox at General Electric Company and H.
and stabilization of the polymer. Twelve years later, Schnell at Bayer AG independently discovered the
DuPont brought the unzipping tendency under con- same unique super tough, heat-resistant, transpar-
trol with proprietary stabilization technology and ent, and amorphous polymer [7,10–13]. When the
commercially announced POM under the Delrin trade companies became aware of each other’s activities,
name. The key to the stabilization of POM was to cap agreements were reached that enabled both parties
the terminal hydroxyl groups that participate in, or to continue independent commercialization activi-
trigger unzipping reactions. Postetherification or es- ties without concern for possible subsequent adverse
terification capped or blocked the hydroxyl groups. patent findings. General Electric Company (now
This material has a Tg of –75°C and Tm of 181°C. The SABIC) introduced their PC into the United States
structure of capped POM is depicted in Fig. 1.7. under the Lexan trademark in 1959 at about the same
Celanese joined DuPont in the market with their time as the polyacetals, and a commercial plant was
proprietary polyacetal polymer under the Celcon brought on stream in 1960.
trademark within a year. Celanese managed to obtain PCs of numerous bisphenols have been exten-
basic patent coverage, despite DuPont’s prior filing. sively studied. However, most commercial PCs are
The Celanese POM was a copolymer that resulted in derived from bisphenol A (BPA) and is depicted in
stabilization against thermal depolymerization. POM Fig. 1.9. Both solution and solvent free, melt-trans-
copolymer has a Tm of 170°C. The structure of POM esterification processes are used to manufacturer
copolymer is depicted in Fig. 1.8. polycarbonates.
Both Celanese and DuPont aimed their products In the solvent processes, PC is produced by an
directly at metal replacement. Items such as plumbing interfacial polymerization process [14]. The BPA
hardware, pumps, gears, and bearings were immedi- and 1–3 m% monofunctional phenol, which controls
ate targets. In many respects, the acetals resemble molecular weight, are dissolved or slurried in aque-
nylons. POMs are highly crystalline, rigid, cold-flow ous sodium hydroxide; methylene chloride is added
resistant, solvent resistant, fatigue resistant, mechan- as a polymer solvent; a tertiary amine is added as a
ically tough and strong, and self-lubricating. They catalyst, and phosgene gas is dispersed in the rapidly
also tend to absorb less water and are not plasticized stirred mixture. Additional caustic solution is added
by water to the same degree as the polyamides. Rapid as needed to maintain basicity. The growing polymer
crystallization of acetals from the melt contributes to dissolves in the methylene chloride, and the BPA and
fast mold cycles. phenolic content of the aqueous phase diminishes.
Key areas of use for POMs are industrial and me- In the solvent free, melt-transesterification, diphe-
chanical products that include molded or machined nyl carbonate reacts with BPA to regenerate phenol
rollers, bearing, gear, conveyor chains, and housings. for recycle and molten, solvent-free polymer.
POMs are widely used in plumbing and irrigation be- BPA based PC is an amorphous polymer with a Tg
cause they resist scale build up, and have excellent of 150°C. It offers outstanding impact strength, glass-
like transparency, heat resistance, excellent electrical
properties, intrinsic flame retardancy, and high dimen-
sional stability up to just below its Tg. This outstanding
1.8 Polysulfones
Polyarylsulfones are a class of high-use tempera-
ture thermoplastics that characteristically exhibit
excellent thermal-oxidative resistance, good solvent Figure 1.14 Structure of polyphenylsulfone.
resistance, hydrolytic stability, and creep resistance
[23,24]. Routes to polysulfones were discovered in- In 1972 ICI started market development of poly-
dependently and almost simultaneously in the labo- ethersulfone, PES. This amorphous polymer has a Tg
ratories of Union Carbide Corporation, ICI, and 3M of 225°C. Compared to PSU, it exhibits higher ther-
Corporation. mal stability, better chemical and solvent resistance,
In 1965 A.G. Farnham and R.N. Johnson of Union and improved toughness [27]. The structure appears
Carbide (this business was acquired by Amoco in Fig. 1.13.
Polymers in 1986 and is currently part of Solvay In 1976 Union Carbide introduced a second-
Advanced Polymers) announced the preparation generation polysulfone resin under the Radel R
of thermoplastic polysulfones, PSU [25]. The first polyphenylsulfone, PPSU, trade name. This higher
commercially available polysulfone was prepared performing PPSU was prepared from 4,4’-biphe-
by the nucleophilic aromatic displacement of the nol and DCDPS [28]. PPSU has a Tg of 225°C. Its
chlorides on 4,4’-dichlorodiphenyl sulfone, DCDPS, structure is shown in Fig. 1.14. The biphenyl moiety
by the anhydrous di-sodium salt of BPA. The reac- imparts enhanced chemical/solvent resistance, out-
tion is conducted in a dipolar aprotic solvent, such standing toughness, greater resistance to combustion,
as dimethyl sulfoxide. This polysulfone, PSU, was and enhanced thermo-oxidative stability.
commercialized in 1966 under the Udel trademark. In general, aromatic polysulfones are somewhat
This amorphous polymer exhibits a Tg of 186°C. The polar, aromatic ethers that offer outstanding oxida-
structure of PSU is shown in Fig. 1.11. tion resistance, hydrolytic stability and very high
In 1967 3M introduced polybiphenyldisulfones thermal endurance in conjunction with a good bal-
under the Astrel 360 trade name. This polymer was ance of mechanical properties which are suitable for
made by the Friedel-Crafts reaction of biphenyl-4,4’- hot water and food handling equipment, range com-
disulfonyl chloride with diphenyl ether and exhibited ponents, TV applications, alkaline battery cases, and
a very high Tg of 277°C [26]. The structure is shown film for hot transparencies. The unmodified prod-
in Fig. 1.12. The price was very high, it was diffi- ucts are transparent with a slightly yellow tint. Low
cult to melt process, and had limited availability. This flammability and low smoke suit it for aircraft and
resin is no longer commercially available. transportation applications. In addition, it can with-
stand rigorous handling and repeated steam steriliza-
tion cycles and is used in medical application. Thus,
polyarylsulfones are used in surgical equipment, lab-
oratory equipment, life support parts, and autoclav-
able tray systems. Blow molding polyarylsulfones
produces suction bottles, tissue culture bottles and
Figure 1.11 Structure of polysulfone. surgical hollow shapes.
1: Engineering Thermoplastics—Materials, Properties, Trends 9
Figure 1.24 Structure of naphthalene based LCPs. Figure 1.25 Structure of polyphenylene sulfide.
1: Engineering Thermoplastics—Materials, Properties, Trends 13
The highly aromatic polymer is inherently flame the monomeric vapor has the ability to cover every
resistant. The high surface hardness results in excel- nook and cranny and can successfully coat even the
lent scratch and wear resistance. Coefficient of fric- most complex structures. Even component configu-
tion is very low and has high compressive strength. rations with sharp edges, points, flat surfaces, crevic-
Mechanical performance is maintained across a es or exposed internal surfaces are coated uniformly
wide range of temperatures. For example, mechani- without voids. An advantage of the CVD process is
cal properties are retained all the way down to liquid that there are no by-products from the polymeriza-
Helium temperatures (4°K). Other characteristics in- tion. Union Carbide commercialized a PPX coating
clude broad chemical resistance. system in 1965.
SRP can be processed by using standard melt pro- There are various modified PPXs available. Three
cessing techniques. The polymer is soluble in com- common variations are PPX-N, PPX-C, and PPX-
mon solvents and can be cast into films and coat- D, which have zero, one, and two chloro groups at-
ings. In addition, machinable stock plastic shapes are tached to the phenyl ring and exhibit Tms of 420, 290,
available. In 2003 Mississippi Polymer Technolo- and 380°C, respectively. PPX-N offers high dielec-
gies (MPT) introduced modified poly(p-phenylene) tric strength and a stable dielectric properties over
under the Parmax trade name [62]. In 2006 Solvay a wide frequency range. PPX-C is the most widely
Advanced Polymers acquired MPT and offers amor- used an exhibited very low permeability to moisture,
phous para-phenylene copolymers under the Primo- chemicals, and corrosive gases. PPX-D maintains its
Spire trademark. physical strength and electrical properties at higher
SRP is suitable for applications that have histori- temperatures.
cally relied on ceramic, composites, and metals for Features of PPX include light weight stress-free
superior mechanical performance. Market potential coatings, low coefficient of friction, transparent, no
includes: aerospace/defense (inherent flame resis- out-gassing, biocompatible, very low permeability
tance, lightweight, superior ablation properties, high to moisture and gases, excellent fungus and bacteria
compressive strength), health care (strength without resistance, high tensile and yield strength, insoluble
fibers, autoclavability, X-ray transparency, chemi- in common solvents, acid and base resistance, and
cal resistance), semiconductor/electronic (chemical extremely high dielectric strength.
resistance, low moisture absorption, high purity, di- Because of its precision application and enduring
mensional stability, low CTE). features, PPX films have been used in various appli-
cations, including hydrophobic coatings (moisture
barriers, e.g., for biomedical hoses), barrier layers
1.21 Poly(p-xylylene) (e.g., for filter, diaphragms, valves), microwave elec-
tronics, implanted medical devices, sensors in hostile
Poly(p-xylylene), PPX, was first prepared via environments (automotive fuel/air sensors), electron-
the reactive intermediate p-xylylene by Szwarc in ics for aerospace and military, corrosion protection
the 1940s. In the 1960s Union Carbide developed for metallic surfaces, reinforcement of microstruc-
a synthetic route based on the dimer di-p-xylylene tures, friction reduction (e.g., for guiding catheters,
([2.2]paracyclophane). These PPXs are commonly acupuncture needles and microelectromechanical
referred to as parylene and are available under the systems) and protection of plastics and rubbers from
GALXYL trade name from Specialty Coating Sys- harmful environmental conditions.
tems, Inc [63,64]. A general structure of PPX is de-
picted in Fig. 1.38.
Most PPX polymers are prepared by a unique
chemical vapor deposition (CVD) polymerization 1.22 Polybenzimidazole
method that was developed for coating components. Aliphatic polybenzimidazoles were first synthe-
In the CVD process the paracyclophane dimer is va- sized by scientists in the 1950s. However, it was
porized and the coating forms from a gaseous mono- not until the 1960s that H. Vogel and C.S. Marvel
mer without an intermediate liquid stage. As a result, first synthesized aromatic polybenzimidazoles and
discovered that these unique, highly stable linear
heterocyclic rigid-rod polymers exhibited excep-
tional thermal and oxidative stability [65]. Poly[2,2’-
(m-phenylene)-5,5’-bibenzimidazole], PBI, was
Figure 1.38 Structure of poly(p-xylylene). prepared by the condensation polymerization of
18 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Table 1.1 Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers: HDPE, PP, POM, and Polyesters
Properties of various amorphous polymers appear are summarized in Table 1.5. The amorphous ETPs
in Tables 1.4 and 1.5. For comparison, the properties exhibit very broad performance enhancements over
of two commodity amorphous polymers, high-im- HIPS and ABS with higher HDT, tensile proper-
pact polystyrene (HIPS) and acrylonitrile/butadiene/ ties and enhanced resistance to burning. Moreover,
styrene (ABS), are included in Table 1.4. Since HIPS PEI, PES, and the high-performance thermoplastics
and ABS are multicomponent resins, their average exhibit enhanced chemical resistance. Among
property values are shown. Properties of the highly the ETPs and AETP there are very wide ranges in
aromatic high-performance amorphous polymers performance.
20 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
PEI, and polyester copolymers, mentioned earlier On the other hand, alloy refers to a nonsoluble mix-
in the chapter, offer a combination of higher HDT, ture, which is mixed together in such a way to give a
increased flow, and better resistance to burning unique combination of properties.
[15–17]. Also as previously mentioned, semicrystal- A polymer blend or alloy can have a single phase
line polymers like polyphenylene, PA6T, and PHBA or multiple phases. The number of phases of the
have been polymerized with comonomers to lower blend depends on the miscibility or solubility of the
their extremely high crystalline melting points i to individual polymers with each other. In a single-
facilitate melt processing. phase blend the polymers dissolve in each other when
A special class of copolymers are functional- mixed together, creating a single, continuous phase.
ized thermoplastics (FTPs) that contain functional Thus, the two different polymer chains are uniformly
groups. FTPs typically have linear backbones, and interdispersed with one another. In general, this is an
functionalization is introduced at the chain-ends or uncommon occurrence.
on the polymer chain via block and graft copolymer- The best known example of miscible blends are PPE
izations. The functional groups allow the polymer to with polystyrene (PS) and high impact polystyrene
be more interactive and have the ability to form inter- (HIPS). These were mentioned earlier in this chapter
molecular and intramolecular bonds [69,70]. [19,20]. A truly unique feature of PPE/PS blends is
Functionalization can result in intrinsic, electrical- that the PPE and PS forms a miscible, single-phased
ly conductive thermoplastics that also possesses op- blends over the entire compositional range. Properties
tical properties. These electrically conductive FTPs of PPE/PS blends are shown in Table 1.6. The Tgs,
have advantages over conventional plastics made HDTs, and impact strengths increase with increasing
conductive via the addition of conductive fillers and levels of PPE. The tensile strength and density exhibit
can offer controlled electrical conductivity. In addi- positive nonlinear behavior. The use of HIPS can give
tion, FTPs can offer enhanced phase compatibility in more significant increases impact strength.
polymer blends. Multiphase alloys have two or more discrete phas-
Functionalized ETPs such as PC, LCP, PSU, es. Multiphase systems can have some interfacial
PEEK, PPS, PI, and polyaramids are reported to have attraction between phases, have partial miscibility
utility in high-temperature applications in the aero- between phases, or have no significant attraction be-
space, automotive, under-the-hood, electronic, and tween the phases.
optic-magnetic storage devices. In two-phase systems, the polymers can be co-
continuous, or one phase can be continuous phase or
matrix while the other is the discrete phase, which is
1.24.2 Blends and Alloys dispersed in the continuous phase. The morphology
depends on the amount of each polymer, the chemical
Polymer blends and alloys are another method to nature of the polymers, and processing conditions.
modify and tailor the performance of thermoplastics Properties of alloys are dependent on the nature of
[71,72]. Thus, two or more different polymers are the polymers, interfacial attraction between the phas-
blended together to give a new product. The goal is es and the morphology. Properties can be additive
to leverage key properties of each material to get a (linear behavior) and based on the linear contribution
unique combination of performance that neither of from each polymer fraction. Properties can exhibit a
the individual polymers offers. synergistic combination of properties (positive non-
Blends and alloys can be economically more at- linear behavior) where the properties are better than
tractive than preparing copolymers or developing a those predicted by linear behavior.
totally new polymer. New products can be developed A multiphase alloy where there is good interfacial
more rapidly by combining available polymers to attraction between phases is exemplified by alloys of
produce desirable and novel polymers. The avail- PC and ABS (terpolymers of acrylonitrile, butadiene,
able degrees of freedom provide almost infinite pos- and styrene). PC/ABS alloys offer a balance of prop-
sibilities and make the opportunity challenging. In erties that combines the most desirable properties of
general, blends and alloys of thermoplastics have an both resins [2]. The ABS improves the melt process-
annual growth rate of 8–10% and constitute greater ing of PC, which facilitates filling large, thin-walled
than 50% of the sales of plastics. Alloys and blends parts. In addition, the ABS enhances the toughness of
of ETPs are of major importance. PC—especially at low temperatures, while maintain-
In this chapter the term blend is used to denote a ing the high strength and rigidity of the PC. The PC
simple mixture of two mutually soluble components. increases the HDT of the alloy. Moreover, PC/ABS
22 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
offers good UV stability, high dimensional stability resistance. The PPE is the dispersed phase and con-
at ambient and elevated temperatures, and the abil- tributes special properties such as reduced moisture
ity for chlorine/bromine-free flame retardance [2,10]. uptake, increase toughness, and higher properties at
PC/ABS alloys were first introduced by Borg-Warner elevated temperatures.
(now SABIC) under the Cycoloy trade name in 1971. Properties of PA66, uncompatibilized PA66/PPE,
In 1977 Bayer (née Mobay) with a license from Borg- and compatibilized PA66/PPE appear in Table 1.8.
Warner launched PC/ABS resins under the Bayblend Compatibilization results in major increases in
trade name. PC/ABS is used in interior and exterior notched Izod toughness and multiaxial impact
automotive applications, lap- and desk-top comput- strength. The alloy features increase heat resistance
ers, copiers, printers, telecommunications, electrical, and better retention of properties at elevated temper-
and appliances. Typical properties of PC/ABS alloys atures and in humid environments.
appear in Table 1.7. PA66/PPE alloys were developed for use in ex-
In immiscible system with very little to no inter- terior automotive parts. It was the first injection
facial adhesion between phases, the properties can moldable thermoplastic with both the strength and
be unpredictable and sometimes can exhibit an an- rigidity needed for large vertical body panels, along
tagonistic effect (negative nonlinear behavior) and with the high heat resistance for inline or online
be worse than those predicted by linear behavior. In painting. PA/PPE alloys can provide a 50% weight
addition to having poor and unpredictable proper- savings over traditional materials. Blends were in-
ties, the morphology or microstructure of immiscible troduced in 1984 under the Noryl GTX trade name
mixture is unstable. The discrete phases can coalesce (SABIC) [20,75].
into larger domains in the molten state. Moreover,
there could be delamination in the solid state when a
stress is applied to the material. 1.24.3 Additives
Compatibilization technology is used to circum-
vent these adverse characteristics of immiscible al- When properly formulated, ETPs may be modified
loys [73,74]. One method of compatibilization is the to tailor performance for mechanically functional,
use of a graft or block copolymer, which contains semiprecision parts or structural components. Clearly
segments of each of the individual polymers to im- property enhancing additives are a key part of ex-
prove the interfacial adhesion between the two phas- panding the performance windows of ETPs through
es and lead to enhanced properties. judicious blending.
A prime example of an immiscible system a mix- Additives include processing aids, stabilizers, per-
ture of the polar, aliphatic PA66 and the nonpolar, formance enhancing additives, aesthetic additives,
aromatic PPE [74–76]. There is no significant inter- and many other. Processing aids facilitate the melt
facial attraction between PA66 and PPE. processing of plastics and fabrication of plastic parts.
Compatibilization technology is essential for en- Stabilizers and antioxidants extend service life and
hancing interfacial adhesion and the development of increase the stability during melt processing. Perfor-
useful properties. PA66/PPE alloys are examples of mance enhancing additives increase key physical and
a multiphase alloy. The morphology of PA66/PPE al- mechanical properties of plastics. Reinforcing ma-
loys shows the PA66 as the continuous phase, which terials—such as glass fiber, carbon fiber, mica, talc,
gives the alloy easy of processing and chemical and clays—are inert solids that increase the stiffness
1: Engineering Thermoplastics—Materials, Properties, Trends 23
PA66/PPE PA66/PPE
Property PA66 No Compatibilization Compatibilized
Notched Izod (J/m) 55 10 570
Multiaxial impact:
Total energy (J) — 2.3 55
Maximum load (N) — 734 5093
HDT @ 1.84 MPa (°C) 70 190 190
Flexural modulus:
25°C (MPa) 96 92 92
150°C (MPa) 50 11 140
100% relative humidity (MPa) 26 60 60
H2O uptake at equilibrium (%) 8.5 3.0 3.0
and strength of the plastics. Aesthetics additives are ETPs can be formulated to provide electromag-
colorants that impart hue (shade), brightness (value), netic and radio frequency interference (EMI/RFI) at-
and intensity (color strength) to plastics. tenuation in applications from electronics to material
Some specific examples of performance enhance- handling. The EMI/RFI shielding results from con-
ment from additives include increased thermal con- ductive fibers which form the conductive network.
ductivity, EMI/RFI shielding, decreased coefficient Various internal lubricants can be used in ETPs to
of linear thermal expansion, improved wear resis- improved wear resistance and lower friction. These
tance, and increased strength and rigidity materials can help extend product life and reduce or
Thermally conductive materials can conduct heat eliminate squeaks and other noise from moving parts.
away from devices into a heat sink or the surround- Fiber reinforcement is a standard way to greatly
ing air and extend product life. Thermal conductive increase strength and stiffness. Both glass and car-
ETP can increase the electrical efficiency of encapsu- bon fibers are used extensively. Performance increas-
lated motors by lowering the operating temperature, es with fiber length. Long fiber ETPs are available,
resulting in more power and torque and longer device which offer exceptional mechanical performance,
life than hotter-running devices. combining rigidity with outstanding strength and re-
ETPs can be formulated to give coefficient of lin- sistance to impact failure.
ear thermal expansion (CLTE) of comparable to many A comparison between chopped glass and long
metals. The lower CLTE would decrease stresses glass fiber in PA66/PPE alloys is shown in Table 1.9
from differences in thermal expansion and potentially [76]. At 40 wt.% glass fiber, the strength and rigidity
reduce product failure and extend product life. are significantly higher for the long glass. In addition,
Table 1.9 Comparison of Chopped Glass and Long Glass Fiber in PA66/PPE
there is a substantial increase in impact strength. health-care industry. The commercialization of any
Strengths and moduli continue to increase as the long new engineering polymers based on a new mono-
glass content increases. mer, although not impossible, is unlikely. Rather,
Thermoplastic nanocomposites (TPNCs) are the major thrust will take place in molecular shuf-
based on the use of nanoparticle fillers. Nanoparti- fling with existing monomers, alloying activity, fur-
cles have greatly increased surface area and hence ther advanced is performance enhancing additives,
can have increase interaction with the matrix resin. and innovative processing techniques. Competition
Nanoparticles can revolutionize the plastics indus- between end users, resin providers, and formulators
try. With careful processing, low levels (≤5 wt.%) will raise ETP to new heights.
of nanofillers can increase the mechanical and other
properties of thermoplastics to yield a new group of
materials referred to as TPNCs [77,78]. TPNCs fea- References
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