Agriculture, Environment and Development: International Perspectives On Water, Land and Politics, 2nd 2nd Edition Antonio Augusto Rossotto Ioris
Agriculture, Environment and Development: International Perspectives On Water, Land and Politics, 2nd 2nd Edition Antonio Augusto Rossotto Ioris
Agriculture, Environment and Development: International Perspectives On Water, Land and Politics, 2nd 2nd Edition Antonio Augusto Rossotto Ioris
Development: International
Perspectives on Water, Land and
Politics, 2nd 2nd Edition Antonio
Augusto Rossotto Ioris
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Agriculture, Environment
and Development
International Perspectives on Water,
Land and Politics
Edited by
Antonio Augusto Rossotto Ioris
Bernardo Mançano Fernandes
Second Edition
Agriculture, Environment and Development
Antonio Augusto Rossotto Ioris ·
Bernardo Mançano Fernandes
Editors
Agriculture,
Environment
and Development
International Perspectives on Water,
Land and Politics
Second Edition
Editors
Antonio Augusto Rossotto Ioris Bernardo Mançano Fernandes
School of Geography and Planning São Paulo State University
Cardiff, UK São Paulo, Brazil
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2016, 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer
software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher
nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland
AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To the members of the Landless Workers Movement (MST), La Via
Campesina and the many indigenous organisations around the world, who
represent all those who know and practice true food production and life
giving agriculture.
Contents
vii
viii Contents
14 (De)institutionalising Agroecology:
A Historical-Relational-Interactive Perspective
on the Evolution of Brazil’s Agri-Environmental State 307
Dana James, Antonio Ademir Cazella, Evan Bowness,
Natal João Magnanti, and Hannah Wittman
15 Decolonial and Feminist Approaches to Critical
Food Systems Education 345
David Meek and Rebecca Tarlau
16 Territorial Resistance and Peasant Food Systems
in Brazil 371
Camila Ferracini Origuéla
17 The Difficult but Not Impossible Defeating
of Right-Wing Populism and the Exploration
of a Socialist Future 389
Saturnino M. Borras Jr.
Index 455
Contributors
xi
xii Contributors
xv
xvi List of Figures
Table 3.1 Wales’ agri-food sector: some key facts and flows 47
Table 4.1 Types of dismantling strategies and their characteristics 69
Table 6.1 Agrarian reform and democratic governments,
1985–2020 117
Table 6.2 Descriptive statistics of the Land Gini divided into 13
regions of the world 122
Table 6.3 Evolution of the Gini Index, by Brazilian federation
units—1985–2017 124
Table 6.4 Change in agricultural production in 1996 and 2015,
by main products 127
Table 6.5 Agrarian deaths by Brazilian state, 1985–2020 131
Table 10.1 National rural and agricultural policies 215
Table 10.2 Implications of REDD+ and CSA to rural livelihoods
and subsistence 220
Table 10.3 Land use in Mozambique 222
Table 11.1 Agricultural enterprises and financial capital
in the Brazilian agricultural frontier (year 2015) 243
Table 12.1 Harvested area of oil palm in Para and Bahia
(in thousand hectares), 2001–2018 273
xxi
xxii List of Tables
A. A. R. Ioris (B)
Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
e-mail: IorisA@cardiff.ac.uk
the single biggest health problem in the world: nearly one billion people
suffer from hunger and malnutrition, two billion suffer from diseases like
obesity and diabetes, and countless other suffer from diseases, including
cancer, caused by the poisons in our food’. The image of an intense, glob-
alised and money-making agriculture is commonly captured in language
of stock markets, commodity trade and hyper-processed food.
The uncomfortable transformation of food into money and chemistry,
instead of life and nutrition, is directly associated with hyper-modern
farming and the insertion into the cross-scale features of capitalist agri-
culture along the line of the so-called ‘long Green Revolution’ (Patel
2013). This route consolidated the current duality of corporate agribusi-
ness and subsistence farming in the country, a situation that was reflected
in duplicity of public policies adopted by the national government
(with much greater emphasis on agribusiness exports). In the frontiers
of global agribusiness expansion, as in the case of Amazon since the
1960s, export-oriented monocultural farming inevitably depended on
the supply of food and resources from small-scale family agricultural
units and, despite its high-tech equipment, on permanent or seasonal
labourers with multiple ethnic and identitary references (Ioris 2020a).
Rapidly spreading agribusiness production of soybean and sugarcane
entailed a combined process of socio-spatial transformation and socio-
ecological regulation required to bring nature and society to the realm
of market transactions. The conversion of nature and society into the
sphere of exploitation and capital accumulation was based on the prior
disruption of socionatural relationships and the gradual configuration of
a new socionatural order. Production for the market gradually under-
pins the social and individual life in the agribusiness frontier. However,
as already consolidated in the politico-economic centres, the market is
not simply the space for the exchange of goods, services and money,
but the comprehensive translation of everything into a world in which
everything has price and can be traded by those who are apparently
equal, but in effect highly asymmetric (especially in terms of the labour
market). Instead of organising production tasks to supply food needs and
nutritional demands, the division of labour ends up mirroring equalising
market priorities and, at the same time, following the structurally uneven
balance of politico-economic power.
4 A. A. R. Ioris
scientists who never heard the name of the region where the agribusi-
ness farms are located. Agribusiness is fundamentally predicated upon
the estrangement and subsequent indifference for the unjust differences
created in the course of agrarian development. As observed by Manuel
and Posluns (2019: 188), ‘it is not necessary to travel all the way to
the Artic to see the traditional colonial system operating with the full
assistance of modern technology’.
Large agribusiness farms, enthusiastically celebrated by politicians,
economists, urban elites and the dominant mass media, are ceno-
taphs of indifference for the socio-ecological differences that ultimately
make them work and that were viciously appropriated to satisfy exoge-
nous demands. It is easy to confirm that paradox in the agribusiness-
dominated regions in the USA’s Mid-West, California, Southern Spain,
Argentina, South Africa or where Brazilian monoculture plantations
continue to expand. On 13 June 2012, the conservative Brazilian maga-
zine Veja published an article with the title ‘Guess Which the Land of the
Indians Is’ to compare the supposed progress of agribusiness against the
backwardness of indigenous lands in the State of Mato Grosso do Sul.
The key message of the piece is that indigenous families and commu-
nities in the region are desolately poor because they have not accepted
the ‘rational’ solution of agribusiness production (and the few excep-
tions, indigenous individuals who take part in commercial agriculture,
are treated as the example to be followed). According to the magazine,
poverty is consequence of their primitive way of life and in the rare cases
when the land was returned to the ancestral inhabitants, the result was
a total waste of land and opportunities. Replicating elements of the old
ideologies brought by the Iberian conquerors after Columbus, the mate-
rial misery of the native population is basically their fault (in the history
of the American continent, the victims are always guilty of their fate).
The only viable alternative would be to submit their domestic and profes-
sional life to market-based relations, as championed by businesspeople
and large-scale landowners. The journalist made no mention to the fact
that this alleged solution only benefits a small minority of the non-
indigenous population and is based on increasing social and ecological
degradation.
8 A. A. R. Ioris
changing global and national trends, but also about fostering alterna-
tive solutions and creative strategies at the local and individual levels. In
any case, it is becoming clear that business-as-usual (or agribusiness-as-
usual, to make an unavoidable pun) is a risky and hopeless option that is
not serving the needs and expectations of farmers, consumers and wider
society.
This is because mainstream agri-food approaches remain firmly within
the established paradigm of market solutions and mitigatory, end-of-
the-pipe measures. For example, the aforementioned report by the FAO
and partners makes clear that investment in agriculture remains the
single most effective way to provide opportunities to generate income
and improve nutrition, especially for women and young people in rural
areas, but very little is said about the underlying causes of rural depriva-
tion (such as the unequal distribution of land or public policy support).
Ultimately, documents such as these can obscure the prevailing forces
of dispossession and displacement promoted by market globalisation
and enacted by national governments and their allies. The influence
of state policies, including environmental regulation, produces results
that can either benefit wider society or, in other cases, concentrate
gains in the hands of corporations or powerful landowners (for instance,
in the United Kingdom, the payment of farm subsidies to billionaire
Saudi princes, dukes and even to Queen Elizabeth II, who received
£557,706.52 in 2015 (BBC post, 29 September 2016). Likewise, the
prominence of global commodity markets and top-down rural devel-
opment masks the agro-industrial and financial priorities that pervade
the production, distribution and consumption of food. An emblematic
example of this controversy can be found in the World Bank’s attempts
to improve the productivity of small farmers to integrate them into
commercial chains controlled by powerful, normally foreign, players. It
is also the case that, despite any progress, the vast majority of those
suffering from hunger live in the Global South, where more than six
decades of international development promises have not resolved the
matter.
However, the negative environmental impacts and growing socio-
political tensions derived from the expansion of agribusiness to many
new corners of the planet are systematically played down by those who
12 A. A. R. Ioris
control its symbolic and material dimensions. That includes the disrup-
tion of traditional food, utilisation of mechanised deforestation and
fast concentration of landed property. Consequently, there is a pending
demand for interdisciplinary critical analyses able to explain the false
claims of the sector amid a sustained mystification of the contribution
of agribusiness to local, national and international economies. Further-
more, the controversial features of agribusiness are also relevant to help
to understand the challenging risks and responsibilities of agriculture
in the contemporary, increasingly urbanised world. An obvious conse-
quence of rapidly changing production and consumption patterns is
that any investigation into agri-food issues needs to consider the mate-
rial, subjective and discursive dimensions of market globalisation and
the multiple contradictions, as well as achievements, of contemporary
capitalist agriculture. A central question of this debate is the fact that
the technological and managerial practices of commercial agriculture are
largely determined by the activity of mega-corporations selling agro-
chemical inputs, machinery and equipment, and by the complementary
activity of agri-food companies controlling the purchase and distribu-
tion of goods. As observed by Clapp and Fuchs, large corporations
and their commercial allies hold different and interrelated forms of
power, including instrumental power (the ability to lobby governments
and influence social actors), structural power (influence over the public
agenda and rule setting) and discursive power (shaping the public debate
and the choices presented to wider society). The power of agri-food
corporations, including lobbying and pressure on governments, is never
far away from the household or the dinner table. While agro-industries
pursue high field productivity, and large supermarkets operate extensive
delivery networks, the great majority of the population is dangerously
reliant on a small number of supply chains and the narrow menu of
fast-food restaurants. The colourful shelves of most shops seem to offer
a range of food options and a variety of choices, but are in fact domi-
nated by a small list of plant species and animal breeds. Mass selling
of convenient, ready-to-eat options is achieved at the expense of food’s
nutritional value, traceability and contribution to local economies. The
influence of corporate interests is particularly significant among urban
populations and on the periphery of large cities, where there is a growing
1 Agriculture, Environment and Development … 13
evident, at least among critical academic and activist circles, that the
technologies inherited from the Green Revolution (and its more recent
version, the ‘Gene Revolution’, associated with genetic engineering and
genetically modified organism [GMOs], and closely related to digital
technologies and precision agriculture) were limited in terms of their
impact in reducing food supply and distribution problems; the main
challenge continues to be a search for politico-ecologically viable and
socio-culturally acceptable options.
The departure point of the new book is the need for critical and
innovative studies to investigate the basis and consequences of the
agriculture dualisms and risks unfolding at different scales and with
complex repercussions for consumers, communities, ecosystems and
national economies. The contributors will develop new theoretical points
on agrarian and agro-ecological transformations that consider different
stakeholder sectors and propose governance pathways and public policy
reforms that can be constructed for facilitating sustainable, inclusive and
fair processes of change. Political, economic and sociological critiques
of agri-food dynamics have identified the intensification, specialisa-
tion, distancing, homogenisation and concentration of power as the key
processes resulting in food insecurity and unsustainable outcomes. These
trends have configured a placeless foodscape disconnected from diverse
social demands and the ecological basis of distinct locations and coun-
tries. Moreover, transition studies have failed to effectively address the
transformative potential of different types and combinations of biophys-
ical, socio-technical and social practices that cut across multiple regimes
and scales of agri-food activities. Harnessing this potential requires a new
co-produced and scientific integration of markets and business models,
governance dynamics and capacity-building perspectives. The new book
will address those dilemmas by recognising social and ecological rela-
tionships between places at local and regional scales. One of the key
contributions of the publication is to demonstrate that a more founda-
tional socio-spatial approach is required for contested sustainability and
for agro-food transformations. There are currently more hard questions
than convincing answers, in particular, how to achieve transformations
in the food system and promote a holistic and sustainable approach to
food production based on local, place-based food interactions?
1 Agriculture, Environment and Development … 17
and to a lesser extent across Europe. The chapter proposes that a new
Disruptive Governance is now visible in politics, not just for food
policy. It explores what this disruptive food governance means. Agri-food
policy frameworks created after World War II are now being significantly
shaken and uncertainty is being normalised, replacing the incremental
development of a European financial, market and regulatory infrastruc-
ture which has underpinned food supply and management for decades.
Taking a particular look at Wales as well as UK-wide territorial relations,
the chapter proposes that a paradox lies at the core of the current variant
of Disruptive Governance in the United Kingdom. On the one hand,
there is an influential political narrative about ‘taking back control’, often
without explanation about who will have the new control or why. In
this, new powerful forces mostly off the land compete for dominance.
At the same time, UK institutions that were already weakened by finan-
cial cuts and centralisation, are now shrouded by short-termism and
political uncertainty. Despite the weaknesses and unstable fluidity in
these food politics, there are also new possibilities for radical change to
address long-term criticisms about the UK food system’s unsustainability,
food insecurity and impact on public health. While these opportu-
nities were initially recognised mostly by environmental civil society
interests, from 2018 ideas began to emerge from Whitehall too. This
possible new strategic direction is itself subject to uncertainties, not least
within the Government grappling with Brexit, but also by threats from
and to Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The paper concludes that, as the
policy paradox is fought over, the normalisation of disruptive governance
continues and growing food insecurity is a casualty.
In Chapter 4, Borsatto and collaborators make use of the concept
of ‘Disruptive Governance’ to explain the attacks made by the neo-
fascist government of lieutenant Jair Bolsonaro against policies aimed
at Brazilian family farming. Since taking power in 2018, in a turbu-
lent and anti-democratic context, the new government has implemented
a series of actions aimed at dismantling policies that benefited family
farming, actions that have been supported by a populist discourse that
this rupture is desirable and good for everyone. It is argued in the chapter
that the Bolsonaro administration, through a disruptive governance
regime, represents an intensified dismantling of public policies aimed
1 Agriculture, Environment and Development … 19
people who dispute the same land and the relatively scarce social oppor-
tunities of an agribusiness-based economy. Only the focus in recent years
may have shifted from assimilation and confinement to abandonment
and confrontation, but the intent to destabilise and eliminate the orig-
inal inhabitants of the land through the asphyxiation of their religion,
identity and, ultimately, geography seems to rage unabated.
Chapter 10, authored by Bruna and Abbas, is about access to land
and food in the challenging context of climate change and in relation to
rural development in Mozambique. The work was intended to further
understand disturbing trends and their role in shaping rural develop-
ment in the southern section of the African continent. The research’s
main question was related to the environmental crisis and the best poli-
cies to address it (mitigation and adaptation) to shape access to food and
land rights. By answering that question, it was possible to grasp how rural
development might be shaped by both trends of impacts, direct and indi-
rect, of climate change. The investigation involved documental analysis,
which was conducted including the review of the legal framework related
to climate, agriculture and land topics. This chapter was also based on
the doctoral research of both young academics, which basically relied on
primary and secondary data about rural Mozambique, rural livelihoods
and agricultural data sets. In Chapter 11, Fernandes and collaborators
rely on the theory of the rent of land to analyse the forms of appropri-
ation of different types of rent by companies controlled by the financial
capital in areas of expansion of the modern agricultural frontier in
Brazil, which engender territorial conflicts with peasant, quilombola and
indigenous communities. Several companies establish relations with the
financial capital in the modern agricultural frontier, called MATOPIBA,
aimed at territorialisation of agribusiness. This region shows large proper-
ties with capital and technology-intensive agriculture primarily directed
to exports, thus territorialising agrarian extractivist policies since the
1970s. High economic productivity also generates territorial conflicts
over the ownership of land, water, labour and produce. Such conflicts
constitute the ‘conflictivity’ that unveils the class struggle in disputes over
territories and development models.
Chapter 12, by Oliveira Neto, examines and reinterprets dispossession
caused by the expansion of agribusiness in the Amazon Region. Agrarian
22 A. A. R. Ioris
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2
Prolegomenon: Money and Territory
Milton Santos
Geography has reached its golden age at the end of this century, because
‘geographicity’ imposes itself as a historical condition, insofar as nothing
considered essential today is done in the world that can avoid the
knowledge of what the Territory is. The Territory is the place where all
actions, all passions, all powers, all strengths, all weaknesses merge, that
is, where the history of man is fully realised from the manifestations of
his existence. Geography becomes that discipline that is more capable of
showing the dramas of the world, of the nation, of the place.
What I bring here is an essay. It is much more an experiment of
method than something finished. As a matter of fact, why should a
M. Santos (B)
University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
“This writer does have the instinct for action and, once you accept
his people as figures in a picaresque novel, you have something to tie
to, as you never do with Mr George. The ‘trouble’ here, indeed, is that
Mr Mackenzie, not being aware of his true job, deviates into sense,
that is, into interpretation, just often enough to queer his real pitch.”
H. W. Boynton
“As his art approaches its maturity, he adds to his native wit and
cleverness a sure mastery of technique which puts him unmistakably
in the forefront of the English novelists of the day. So clever and
interesting is Mr Mackenzie’s new novel that one regrets the more to
find, if anything, an increase in the smart nastiness that occasionally
blemishes his writing.” Stanley Went
“For the reader, unless he likes flippancy and fireworks for their
own sakes, the end of it all is not much better than vanity. Mr
Mackenzie, at least, is a story-teller of a sort. However encumbered
with facts, his narrative always has the charm of an adventure which,
if it never quite gets anywhere, is at least always amusingly on its
way.” H. W. Boynton
“That this plebeian girl should step into her exalted social station
and so speedily absorb the new life and arouse love and veneration
for the Clarehaven tradition and inheritance is little short of a
miracle. But Mr Mackenzie makes it seem natural.”
20–2360
Reviewed by W. W. Willoughby
Reviewed by W. R. Wheeler
20–20628
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give an idea of the man’s mind and how it works.” A. P. Kellogg
26–26322
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admiration for this great and honest physician. All the same, one
cannot help feeling that the disadvantages of the present system of
teaching in the medical schools is exaggerated by the writer, and
that, were the attempt made so to alter it as to meet the demands of a
man of so keen an intellect as Sir James Mackenzie, a few giants
might be reared, but that the work of the average man would suffer.”
[2]
MACKENZIE, JEAN KENYON. Story of a
fortunate youth. $1.25 (7c) Atlantic monthly press
Agr20–243
20–4028
20–21213
The author calls his study “an inquiry into thought and motive,”
and this he considers imperative in these post-war times of
restlessness and impatience, of fads and crazes, of hasty formulation
of rights and noisy demand for their concession. Although much in
this mad onward rush may be of lasting value and help towards a
rejuvenation of the race, the latter, he holds, can only be
accomplished through careful patient thought and a study of the
limitations and frailties of our own individual natures. The book
deals largely with human psychology and the findings of psycho-
pathology. Contents: Introduction; Social influences; The individual
mind; The knowing function; The feeling function; Conclusion;
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19–18839
Jock had a keen relish for other people’s affairs, especially those of
Scotchmen. At the military hospital he ferreted out all such and
became their father confessor, their lawyer and general confidant.
The book is a collection of such confessions, of wrongs committed, of
secret sins, of weighted consciences. And every story had its
complement. The other man always turned up and in his turn made a
confession, and, thanks to Jock’s discretion, quick wit and sense of
humor, there was always a righting and a smoothing over. Some of
the titles are: Jock’s neebors; How Jock healed his comrade’s worst
wound; The barbed wires of misunderstanding; A prank o’ the post;
A maitter o’ conscience.
20–17187
Billy Wilson was one of the boys in a small settlement on the north
coast of Lake Erie. He was full of fun, always ready for some boyish
deviltry and the leader among his chums. The other side of his
character was love of nature and animals, undaunted courage and
love of fair dealing. He was afraid only of ghosts and even against
those he felt secure with his rabbit’s-foot charm. His exploits are
many and exasperating but he wins the heart of his stepmother and
of the prettiest girl in the settlement and becomes instrumental in
solving several mysteries and discovering a treasure.
[2]
MCKOWAN, EVAH. Graydon of the
Windermere. *$1.90 (2½c) Doran
20–21188
Kent Graydon of the Windermere is a young Canadian engineer
who has gone West and made good. Since his schoolboy days he has
cherished the memory of Alleyne Milburne as his ideal of
womanhood. Then one summer he meets her again in his own
western country. He woos her ardently and it is not until he loses out
to his rival of earlier days that he realizes that it is not she who
embodies his ideals, but her cousin Claire, who is “honourable and
generous, sportsmanlike and fair, sympathetic and womanly.”
20–14133
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learn much, whether he is among the conservatives or the
revolutionaries in textual criticism.”
[2]
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copyright dates go back to 1899. Others belong to the present year.
The titles are: The lord mayor o’ Buffalo; The Widow Meehan’s
Cassimeer shawl; The cadger-boy’s last journey; The minister’s
racehorse; The case of Kitty Kildea: Billy Baxter’s holiday; Wee
Paidin; When Barney’s trunk comes home; Five minutes a
millionaire; Mrs Carney’s sealskin; The capture of Nelly Carribin;
The bellman of Carrick; Barney Brian’s monument; All on the brown
knowe; The heartbreak of Norah O’Hara.
“Splendid for reading aloud and full of fun and good Irish wit.”
Reviewed by H. W. Boynton
20–12608