Foundations of Software Engineering

Ashfaque Ahmed
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Foundations of
Software
Engineering
Foundations of
Software
Engineering

Ashfaque Ahmed
SCM Consulting, Bhilai, Chattisgarh, India

Bhanu Prasad
Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, USA
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Ahmed, Ashfaque, author. | Prasad, Bhanu, author.

Title: Foundations of software engineering / Ashfaque Ahmed and Bhanu Prasad.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2015. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015045650 | ISBN 9781498737593 (acid-free paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Software engineering.
Classification: LCC QA76.758 .A398 2015 | DDC 005.1--dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015045650

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Contents

P r e fa c e xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
Authors xxiii

Chapter 1 Introduction to S o f t wa r e E n g i n e e r i n g 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Components of a Computer 1
1.3 Building the Software Products 2
1.4 What Is Software Engineering? 4
1.5 Why Software Engineering? 4
1.5.1 Reduction of Development Costs 5
1.5.2 Reduction of Development Time 5
1.5.3 Increasing the Quality 6
1.6 Challenges in Software Engineering 6
1.7 Project Management and Software Engineering 7
1.8 Costs Involved in Software Development 7
1.9 Methodologies Used for Software Development 8
1.10 Some Careers in Software Engineering 8
1.11 Software Industry Size 9
1.12 Code of Ethics 9
1.13 Book Organization 9
1.14 Chapter Summary 11
Recommended Reading 11

C h a p t e r 2 S o f t wa r e E n g i n e e r i n g M e t h o d o l o g i e s 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Why a Methodology? 14
2.3 Agile Methodologies 14
2.4 Waterfall Model 15
2.4.1 Details of the Waterfall Model 15
2.4.2 Salient Features of the Waterfall Model 16

v
vi C o n t en t s

2.4.3 Drawbacks of the Waterfall Model 18

2.4.4 When to Use the Waterfall Model 19
2.5 Rational Unified Process 19
2.5.1 Salient Features of RUP 21
2.5.2 Drawbacks of RUP 21
2.5.3 When to Use RUP 21
2.6 Spiral Model 22
2.6.1 Comparison with Other Models 24
2.6.2 What Are Prototypes? 25
2.6.3 Salient Features of the Spiral Model 25
2.6.4 Drawbacks of the Spiral Model 25
2.6.5 When to Use the Spiral Model 26
2.7 Incremental Iteration Model 26
2.8 eXtreme Programming 28
2.8.1 XP Activities 29
2.8.1.1 Coding 29
2.8.1.2 Testing 29
2.8.1.3 Listening 29
2.8.1.4 Designing 29
2.8.2 XP Concepts 29
2.8.2.1 Customer 30
2.8.2.2 Pair Programming 30
2.8.2.3 Planning Game 30
2.8.2.4 Release Planning 30
2.8.2.5 Iteration Planning 30
2.8.2.6 Whole Team 31
2.8.2.7 Continuous Integration 31
2.8.2.8 Refactoring 31
2.8.2.9 Smaller Releases 31
2.8.3 Salient Features of XP 31
2.8.4 Drawbacks of XP 31
2.8.5 When to Use XP 32
2.9 Scrum 32
2.9.1 Scrum Roles 33
2.9.2 Scrum Events 33
2.9.2.1 Sprint 33
2.9.2.2 Meetings 34
2.9.2.3 Backlog Refinement 34
2.9.2.4 Scrum of Scrums 34
2.9.3 Scrum Artifacts 35
2.9.3.1 Product Backlog 35
2.9.3.2 Sprint Backlog 35
2.9.4 Salient Features of Scrum 35
2.9.5 Drawbacks of Scrum 35
2.9.6 Benefits with Scrum 36
2.10 Methodology for Implementing SaaS Products 36
2.10.1 What Is a Customer-Specific Version? 39
2.11 Methodology for Implementing COTS Products 40
2.12 Usage of Software Development Models 41
2.13 Popular Process Standards 42
2.14 Process Standards and Software Engineering Methodologies 43
 C o n t en t s vii

2.15 Software Process Activities 43

2.15.1 Feasibility Study Phase 44
2.15.2 Requirement Phase 45
2.15.3 Design Phase 45
2.15.4 Construction Phase 46
2.15.5 Testing Phase 46
2.15.6 Release Phase 47
2.15.7 Software Maintenance 47
2.15.8 Software Configuration Management 47
2.15.9 Project Management Processes 48
2.16 Chapter Summary 48
Recommended Reading 49

C h a p t e r 3 F e a s i b i l i t y S t u dy 51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Feasibility Study for Software Projects 52
3.3 Finding the Economic Feasibility of Requirements 53
3.3.1 Build/Buy Decision 54
3.3.2 Budget Instead of Cost Analysis 55
3.4 Finding the Technical Feasibility of Requirements 55
3.4.1 Difficult-to-Figure Scenarios 56
3.4.2 When Is Feasibility Study Not Required? 56
3.5 Prototyping 57
3.5.1 Throwaway Prototyping 58
3.5.2 Evolutionary Prototyping 59
3.5.3 Incorporating Prototyping in Software Development 60
3.6 Pilot Projects 61
3.7 Chapter Summary 62
Recommended Reading 63

C h a p t e r 4 S o f t wa r e R e q u i r e m e n t s S p e c i f i c at i o n s 65
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Software Engineering Methodologies and Requirements Management 66
4.2.1 Requirements Management in eXtreme Programming 66
4.2.2 Requirements Management in Scrum 67
4.2.3 Requirements Management in Waterfall 67
4.3 Implementation of the Requirements 68
4.4 Requirement Types 69
4.4.1 Functional Requirements 69
4.4.2 Nonfunctional Requirements 70
4.5 Sources of Requirements 72
4.6 Categories of Users 73
4.7 Software Requirement Life Cycle 74
4.8 Requirements Gathering (Elicitation) 76
4.8.1 Requirements Meetings 77
4.8.2 E-mail 77
4.9 Requirements Analysis 77
4.10 Requirements Specification 78
4.10.1 Use Cases 79
4.10.2 Relevance of Use Cases in Software Design 82
4.10.3 Use Case Example 82
4.11 Requirements Management 84
viii C o n t en t s

4.12 Case Study 84

4.12.1 Assumptions 85
4.12.2 Top-Level Requirements for OBAAS 1.1 85
4.12.3 Detailed Requirements for OBAAS 1.1 86
4.12.4 Use Cases for OBAAS 1.1 89
4.12.5 Requirements for OBAAS 1.2 90
4.12.6 Use Cases for OBAAS 1.2 92
4.12.7 Future Enhancements for OBAAS 93
4.13 Chapter Summary 93
Recommended Reading 95

C h a p t e r 5 S o f t wa r e H i g h - L e v e l D e s i g n and Modeling 97
5.1 Introduction 97
5.1.1 Modeling Languages 100
5.2 Methodology Used 100
5.2.1 Rational Unified Process 100
5.2.2 Incremental Iterative Methodologies 100
5.2.3 Waterfall Methodology 101
5.3 How to Reduce Complexity in Software Design 101
5.4 Logical Design for Software Architecture 103
5.5 Architecture Design Patterns 104
5.5.1 Two-Tier Architecture Pattern 105
5.5.2 Three-Tier Architecture Pattern 106
5.5.3 n-Tier Architecture Pattern 107
5.6 Client–Server Architecture 108
5.7 Web-Based Architecture 108
5.7.1 Web Browser 110
5.7.2 Web Server 110
5.7.3 Application Server 111
5.7.4 Benefits of Web-Based Architecture 112
5.8 Service-Oriented Architecture 112
5.9 Software Component Design Fundamentals 113
5.10 Component Diagrams 116
5.10.1 Component Example 117
5.11 Data Flow Diagram 119
5.11.1 Data Flow Example 121
5.12 Software Design Patterns 122
5.12.1 Difference between a Class and a Component 122
5.12.2 Software Design Pattern Types 123
5.12.3 Creational Design Patterns 123
5.12.3.1 Abstract Factory 123
5.12.3.2 Builder 125
5.12.3.3 Factory Method 125
5.12.4 Structural Design Patterns 125
5.12.4.1 Adapter 125
5.12.4.2 Proxy 126
5.12.5 Behavioral Design Patterns 126
5.12.5.1 Command 126
5.12.5.2 Iterator 126
5.13 Programming Language Considerations 127
5.13.1 Size of Software Product 127
5.13.2 Type of Software Product 128
 C o n t en t s ix

5.13.3 Technology Availability 128

5.13.3.1 Integrated Development Environment Infrastructure 129
5.13.3.2 Platform Independence 129
5.13.3.3 Library Infrastructure 129
5.13.4 Code Reuse 130
5.14 Types of Programming Languages: A Brief Review 131
5.14.1 Special Languages for Web-Based Systems 132
5.15 Security 132
5.15.1 Authorization 132
5.15.2 Role-Based Security 133
5.15.3 Security Based on the User Data 133
5.15.4 Data Encryption 133
5.16 Performance 134
5.17 Case Study 135
5.17.1 Three-Tier Architecture 135
5.17.2 User Interface 135
5.17.3 Middle Layer 135
5.17.4 Database 135
5.17.5 Component Diagram 136
5.17.6 Data Flow Diagram 138
5.17.7 Code Reuse 139
5.17.8 Maintainability 139
5.17.9 Security 140
5.17.10 Performance 140
5.17.11 Methodology 140
5.18 Chapter Summary 140
Recommended Reading 142

C h a p t e r 6 S o f t wa r e U s e r I n t e r fa c e D e s i g n and Construction 143

6.1 Introduction 143
6.2 Graphical User Interface 144
6.2.1 Rich Windows-Based GUIs 145
6.2.2 Web Browser 146
6.3 Graphic Control Elements 148
6.3.1 Containers 148
6.3.1.1 Window 149
6.3.1.2 Modal Window 149
6.3.1.3 Dialog Box 149
6.3.1.4 Frame 149
6.3.1.5 Canvas 150
6.3.1.6 Form 150
6.3.2 Selection and Display Elements 150
6.3.2.1 Button 150
6.3.2.2 Radio Button 151
6.3.2.3 Checkbox 151
6.3.2.4 Slider 151
6.3.2.5 List Box 151
6.3.2.6 Drop-Down List 152
6.3.2.7 Menu (Menu Item) 152
6.3.2.8 Context Menu 152
6.3.2.9 Menu Bar 152
x C o n t en t s

6.3.2.10 Toolbar 153

6.3.2.11 Icon 153
6.3.3 Navigation 153
6.3.3.1 Link 153
6.3.3.2 Tab 153
6.3.3.3 Scroll Bar 153
6.3.4 Value Input 154
6.3.4.1 Textbox 154
6.3.4.2 Combo Box 154
6.3.5 Output 155
6.3.5.1 Label 155
6.3.5.2 Tooltip 155
6.3.5.3 Status Bar 156
6.3.5.4 Progress Bar 156
6.4 Hyper Text Markup Language 156
6.5 Cascading Style Sheets 157
6.6 Client-Side Scripting 157
6.7 Asynchronous JavaScript and XML 159
6.7.1 AJAX Details 160
6.7.2 AJAX Implementation 161
6.8 Simple (Model–View) User Interface 162
6.8.1 When to Use 163
6.9 Model–View–Controller 163
6.9.1 MVC Description 164
6.9.2 MVC Implementation 165
6.10 Case Study 168
6.10.1 Client-Side Scripts 168
6.10.2 Hyper Text Markup Language 168
6.10.3 Mockup Screens for OBAAS 1.1 168
6.10.4 Mockup Screens for OBAAS 1.2 174
6.11 Chapter Summary 176
Recommended Reading 177

C h a p t e r 7 S o f t wa r e M i d d l e L ay e r D e s i g n and Construction 179

7.1 Introduction 179
7.2 Software Design and Implementation and Software Engineering
Methodology 181
7.3 Procedural Programming: A Brief Introduction 182
7.4 Object-Oriented Programming 183
7.5 Basics of Programming Languages 183
7.6 Variables and Variable Types 185
7.6.1 Variables in Object-Oriented Programming versus Procedural
Programming 187
7.7 Operators 188
7.8 Decision Trees and Loops 188
7.9 Methods 191
7.9.1 Method Definition 194
7.9.1.1 Modifier 194
7.9.1.2 Data Type 194
7.9.1.3 Method Name 194
7.9.1.4 Parameter List 194
7.9.1.5 Exception List 194
 C o n t en t s xi

7.9.1.6 Method Body 194

7.9.1.7 Method Signature 195
7.9.2 Scope of Methods 195
7.9.3 Accessor Methods 196
7.9.4 Constructor 196
7.10 Classes 198
7.10.1 Class Variables 201
7.10.2 Inheritance 202
7.10.3 Interfaces 203
7.10.4 Encapsulation 203
7.10.5 Method Overriding 205
7.10.6 Import Statement 206
7.10.7 Class Diagram 206
7.10.7.1 How to Create a Class Diagram 207
7.10.7.2 Class Diagram Example 208
7.11 Objects and Object-Oriented Programming 210
7.11.1 Objects and Data Structures 212
7.11.2 Object State and Behavior 214
7.11.3 Object State Management in Web Applications 214
7.11.3.1 Scenario in Client–Server Application 214
7.11.3.2 Scenario in Web Applications 215
7.11.3.3 Session Management 216
7.11.4 Object Diagram 217
7.11.5 Sequence Diagrams 218
7.11.6 Statechart Diagrams 219
7.12 Packages 220
7.13 Database Programming 221
7.14 Model–View–Controller Revisited 223
7.15 Refactoring 224
7.15.1 Refactoring Scenarios 225
7.15.1.1 Rename Classes and Methods 225
7.15.1.2 Move Class to Another Package 225
7.15.1.3 Divide and Extract Method 225
7.15.1.4 Introduce Super Class 226
7.15.2 When Should You Consider Refactoring? 227
7.15.2.1 Automation Tools for Refactoring 228
7.16 Client-Side and Server-Side Scripts 229
7.16.1 Client-Side Scripts 230
7.16.1.1 User Input Validation 230
7.16.1.2 User Session and User Preferences Management 230
7.16.2 Server-Side Scripting 231
7.17 Debugging 232
7.17.1 Debugging Error Messages 233
7.18 Case Study 233
7.18.1 Methodology 233
7.18.2 Detailed Design for OBAAS 1.1 234
7.18.2.1 Class Diagram 234
7.18.2.2 Object Diagram 235
7.18.2.3 Sequence Diagram 236
7.18.2.4 Statechart Diagram 237
x ii C o n t en t s

7.18.3 Detailed Design for OBAAS 1.2 238

7.18.3.1 Class Diagram 238
7.18.3.2 Object Diagram 238
7.18.4 Implementation Considerations 238
7.18.4.1 User Validation 240
7.19 Chapter Summary 241
Recommended Reading 243

C h a p t e r 8 D ata b a s e D e s i g n and Construction 245

8.1 Introduction 245
8.2 Databases and Software Engineering Methodologies 247
8.3 Database Types 248
8.3.1 NoSQL Databases 248
8.3.2 Relational Databases 249
8.4 Database Languages 249
8.4.1 Data Dictionary Language 250
8.4.2 Data Manipulation Language 251
8.5 Database Entities 252
8.5.1 Schema 253
8.5.2 Tables 253
8.5.3 Primary Keys 254
8.5.4 Foreign Keys 256
8.5.5 Indexes 258
8.5.6 Sequences 259
8.5.7 Stored Procedures 259
8.5.8 Triggers 261
8.6 Database Design 261
8.6.1 ER Diagram 261
8.6.2 Normalization 264
8.6.3 Relationship among Tables 267
8.6.3.1 One-to-Many 267
8.6.3.2 Many-to-Many 268
8.6.3.3 One-to-One 268
8.6.4 Integrity Rules 269
8.6.4.1 Entity Integrity Rule 269
8.6.4.2 Referential Integrity Rule 269
8.6.5 Master and Transaction Data 270
8.7 Database Management Systems 272
8.8 Object Relational Databases 272
8.9 Case Study 273
8.9.1 ER Diagram 273
8.9.2 Schema 274
8.9.3 Database Transactions 276
8.9.4 Future Enhancements 276
8.10 Chapter Summary 276
Recommended Reading 278

C h a p t e r 9 S o f t wa r e Te s t i n g ( V e r i f i c at i o n and Va l i d at i o n ) 279
9.1 Introduction 279
9.2 Software Testing and Software Engineering Methodologies 281
9.3 Introduction to Different Types of Software Testing 282
9.4 Introduction to Verification and Validation 282
 C o n t en t s x iii

9.5 Introduction to Levels of Software Testing (Validation) 284

9.5.1 V Model 284
9.6 Verification 286
9.6.1 Requirement Reviews 286
9.6.2 Design Reviews 287
9.6.3 Code Walkthroughs 287
9.6.4 Code Inspection/Code Review 288
9.7 Unit Testing 288
9.7.1 Database Unit Testing 292
9.8 Integration Testing 294
9.9 System Testing 298
9.9.1 Functional Testing 298
9.9.2 Nonfunctional Tests 299
9.9.3 Regression Tests 300
9.10 User Acceptance Testing 300
9.11 Other Important Tests 301
9.11.1 Sanity Tests 301
9.11.2 Smoke Testing 302
9.11.3 Cyclomatic Test 303
9.11.4 Incremental Testing 303
9.11.5 Exploratory Testing 303
9.11.6 Coverage-Based Testing 304
9.11.7 Alpha Testing 304
9.11.8 Beta Testing 305
9.12 Test Case Design 305
9.12.1 White Box (Unit and Integration) Test Case Design 307
9.12.1.1 Test Coverage 308
9.12.1.2 Types of Coverage 308
9.12.1.3 Statement Tests 309
9.12.1.4 Decision Tree Tests 309
9.12.2 Black Box (System and User Acceptance) Test Case Design 310
9.12.2.1 Test Case Workflow 310
9.12.2.2 Equivalence Partitioning 310
9.12.2.3 Boundary Value Analysis 310
9.12.2.4 Decision Table Testing 311
9.12.2.5 State Transition Testing 312
9.12.2.6 Use Case Testing 312
9.12.2.7 Experience-Based Testing 313
9.12.2.8 Choosing the Right Testing Techniques 313
9.12.3 Test Case Design for New Technologies 313
9.13 Test Preparation 314
9.13.1 Test Environment (Test Bed) Preparation 315
9.13.2 Test Data Preparation 315
9.13.3 Configuration Management Preparation 315
9.14 Test Life Cycle 316
9.14.1 Test Planning 316
9.14.2 Test Case Design and Creation 317
9.14.3 Test Case Execution 318
9.14.4 Defect Life Cycle/Tracking 318
9.14.5 Test Reporting 319
9.14.6 Exit Criteria and Test Closure 319
xiv C o n t en t s

9.15 Case Study 320

9.15.1 System Parts 320
9.15.2 Test Strategy 320
9.15.3 User Interface Testing 320
9.15.4 Client-Side User Input Validation 320
9.15.5 Unit Testing 321
9.15.6 Integration Testing 322
9.15.7 System Testing 322
9.16 Chapter Summary 323
Recommended Reading 325

C h a p t e r 10 S o f t wa r e R e l e a s e 327
10.1 Introduction 327
10.2 Software Release and Software Engineering Methodology 328
10.3 Integration 328
10.4 Documentation 329
10.4.1 User Manual 329
10.4.2 Technical Manual 330
10.5 Release Cycles 330
10.5.1 Release Cycle for Waterfall Projects 330
10.5.2 Release Cycles for Incremental Building of Products 331
10.5.3 Difference between Alpha–Beta–Final Release and Incremental
Release 332
10.6 User Training 333
10.7 Deployment 333
10.8 Software Migration Strategies 334
10.9 Software Product Release Checklist 335
10.10 Chapter Summary 336
Recommended Reading 336

C h a p t e r 11 S o f t wa r e M a i n t e n a n c e 337
11.1 Introduction 337
11.2 Software Maintenance and Software Engineering Methodology 338
11.3 Production Environment Maintenance 338
11.4 Production Environment Monitoring 339
11.5 Maintenance Process 339
11.6 Types of Software Maintenance 341
11.7 Software Maintenance Strategies 342
11.8 Reverse Engineering 343
11.9 Chapter Summary 344
Recommended Reading 345

C h a p t e r 12 C o n f i g u r at i o n and Ve r s i o n M a n a g e m e n t 347
12.1 Introduction 347
12.2 Configuration Management and Version Control Concepts 349
12.2.1 Artifact Versions and Many Copies 350
12.2.2 Limitations of the File System of an Operating System 352
12.2.3 Software Build 353
12.2.4 File Locking 353
12.3 CVS Systems 353
12.3.1 Software Build on CVS Systems 354
12.3.2 Branching in CVS Systems 355
12.3.3 Branches and Different Product Releases 358
 C o n t en t s xv

12.3.4 File Synchronization in a CVS System 358

12.3.5 Roles in CVS Systems 360
12.3.6 Continuous Integration of Source Code 360
12.3.7 Why Continuous Integration of Source Code? 362
12.4 Chapter Summary 363
Recommended Reading 364

C h a p t e r 13 S o f t wa r e P r o j e c t M a n a g e m e n t 365
13.1 Introduction 365
13.2 Project Management and Software Engineering Methodologies 366
13.2.1 Project Management for Waterfall Projects 366
13.2.2 Project Management for Agile Projects 366
13.3 Project Planning 367
13.3.1 Project Planning for Waterfall Projects 367
13.3.1.1 Define the Scope of the Project 367
13.3.1.2 Create a WBS of the Tasks 368
13.3.1.3 Estimate the Effort for the Tasks 369
13.3.1.4 Calculate the Needed Resources 369
13.3.1.5 Map the Logical Dependencies between the Tasks
and Identify the Critical Path 370
13.3.1.6 Plot the Tasks on a Project Schedule 370
13.3.1.7 Calculate the Total Cost 371
13.3.1.8 Find Out Ways to Trade Off between Resource Usage
and Cost 372
13.3.1.9 Baseline the Project Plan 372
13.3.2 Project Planning for Agile Projects 373
13.4 Project Monitoring and Controlling 375
13.4.1 Project Monitoring and Control for Waterfall Projects 375
13.4.1.1 Gantt Chart 375
13.4.1.2 CPM/PERT 376
13.4.1.3 Critical Chain Method 377
13.4.1.4 Earned Value Management 378
13.4.1.5 Resource Control for Project Schedule Management 381
13.4.2 Project Monitoring and Control for Agile Projects 381
13.5 Project Team Management 384
13.6 Project Customer Management 384
13.7 Supplier Management 385
13.8 Chapter Summary 386
Recommended Reading 387
A pp e n d i x : A n s w e r s to Questions 389
Index 429
4 F o un dati o ns o f S o f t wa re En gineerin g

a programming language such as C++). Once the product is ready and tested, it is
shipped to the market. The software project manager oversees all these activities to
ensure that the things on the project go as per the project plan.
Similar to the measures (such as earthquake resistance, fire alarms, and fire exits)
taken while constructing the apartment, some considerations are needed to build a
software product. These considerations include security, performance, and reliability
of the product. These considerations will be addressed when the software product is
developed.

1.4 What Is Software Engineering?

Software engineering can be defined as the study and application of engineering to

the design, development, and maintenance of software products. The keyword here
is engineering. Engineering always connotes two things: designing a product in detail
and a methodical approach to carrying out the design and production so that the
product is produced with the desired qualities and a large number of people can use
it. Software engineering thus annotates building a software product with a detailed
design, and at the same time, the tasks of designing and building will involve a
methodical approach at each and every step. The software product thus built can be
used by a large number of people.
Nowadays, a modular design is more popular for designing new products. What
this means is that the complete product is divided into parts that can be easily assem-
bled into a complete and working product once they are developed.
As a note, software engineering is not only limited to creating new products.
Existing software products need maintenance. Maintenance includes activities such
as correcting the errors in a product, enhancing the capabilities of a product, and
removing the outdated features from a product. As a comparison, consider, again,
the apartment example. An apartment needs maintenance such as fixing water leaks
and installation of a security system. Software maintenance is also a part of software
engineering.

1.5 Why Software Engineering?

In the preceding paragraphs, it is explained that building a large software product

involves similar kinds of activities as required in constructing an apartment building.
If you need to build a small cabin instead of an apartment complex, then you do not
need a design, manpower, machinery, or civil engineer. You can build the cabin your-
self with a handful of materials. There is not much engineering involved in construct-
ing the cabin. Similarly, small programs such as a program for converting temperature
from Celsius to Fahrenheit or an individual programming assignment given in a typi-
cal classroom do not need any software engineering. However, building large software
products does require software engineering.
Another random document with
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 NOTES

Nous renvoyons le lecteur à la livraison du 15 septembre

[1]
1866, qui renferme une étude où sont racontés tous les
événemens de la campagne jusqu’après la bataille de Tuyuti.
[2]Le mot de tuyuti signifie en langue guarani le pays des
marais.
[3]Le manque de soldats est tel que, d’après un discours
prononcé par M. Frias en plein sénat de Buenos-Ayres, le
gouvernement viderait maintenant les prisons pour envoyer les
détenus à la bataille.
 Aux lecteurs

Ce texte a été publié dans la Revue des

Deux Mondes, le 15 octobre 1866.
Cette version numérisée reproduit dans
son intégralité la version originale. Les
erreurs manifestes de typographie ont été
corrigées.
La ponctuation a pu faire l'objet de
quelques corrections mineures.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LES
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