A Community Based Collaborative Approach

Tourism engagement: co-creating well-being.
Proceedings of the 6th Advances in Tourism Marketing Conference
Juho Pesonen
Raija Komppula Editors
Tourism engagement: co-creating well-being

Proceedings of the 6th Advances in Tourism Marketing Conference, Joensuu,
Finland, 8.-10.9.2015
Tourism engagement: co-creating well-being. Proceedings of the 6th Advances in Tourism Marketing Conference
Editors
Juho Pesonen Raija Komppula
Centre for Tourism Studies Business School
University of Eastern Finland University of Eastern Finland
Kuninkaankartanonkatu 7, P.O. Box 86 Yliopistonkatu 2, P.O. Box 111
57101 Savonlinna, Finland 80101 Joensuu, Finland
Online publication
ISBN: 978-952-61-1861-1 (PDF)
2
Preface
The 6th Advances in Tourism Marketing Conference (ATMC) takes place in Joensuu,
Finland, on September 8-10, 2015. Hosted by University of Eastern Finland it features the
latest research on tourism marketing with special focus on engaging consumers in the co-
creation of well-being. ATMC aims to bring together researchers, PhD candidates, policy
makers and practitioners to provide a forum for the discussion and dissemination of
themes related to marketing travel and tourism, and to critically evaluate how they may
contribute to advancing knowledge and practices in the field.
The conference theme "Tourism engagement: co-creating well-being" is based on
two widely held convictions that have emerged as the practice of tourism matures in the
21st century. Firstly, the wellbeing of tourists, destinations, and operators is paramount.
The management of a destination’s competitive advantage must become sustainable,
while the tourist deserves the best memorable experiences possible.
Secondly, tourists are maturing and becoming more assertive. They create their
own experiences by activating their own networks and resources. They easily find their
way around to and from their destination, and have become savvy decision-makers.
Smart and Internet technology allow tourists to rebalance the traditional information
asymmetry between operator and tourist. Instead, they now turn up at destinations and
often know more than the operator, about opportunities, prices, facilities, and
competitors.
The first challenge therefore is, what is wellbeing, how is it constructed as a process
and a state, for tourist, destination and operator? How does it relate to quality,
satisfaction, recreation and happiness? And what does this mean for the development of
sustainable practices in the development and management of comparative and
competitive advantages?
The second challenge asks, what can tourism operators do to assist tourists in their
creation of experiences and how can they become co-creators of value? In other words,
how can operators and destination become a valuable and valued part of tourists’
experiences? What are the challenges beyond merely functional facilitation? Although
memorable experiences of recreation, self-consolidation, flow, learning and happiness
have been identified as the most important benefit of holiday tourism, what is the
operator’s role in their construction? For only with true engagement can value be created
and shared.
Besides co-creation of well-being, the conference will cover a wide range of topics
in tourism marketing from, innovation and service development, to tourist behavior and
experiences, from quality management, marketing and branding to e-commerce and ICT,
SMEs and community issues. The present proceedings provide a comprehensive
overview of current research conducted in the field of tourism marketing.
Altogether 119 submissions were received for the conference. The papers were
double-blind reviewed and 72 papers will be presented at the conference. We are grateful
for all the authors as well as all the members of the review board, scientific board, local
organizing committee and all the partners for helping us to make this conference happen.
Support from the Federation of Finnish Learned Societies, Cities of Lieksa and Joensuu,
PKO, the Foundation for Economic Education, Josek, and the Foundation of University of
Joensuu has helped tremendously in organizing ATMC 2015. This conference would not
have been possible without each piece of the puzzle. We hope that everyone enjoys the
conference and the visit to Joensuu.
Juho Pesonen & Raija Komppula, Juergen Gnoth & ATMC Scientific Board
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ATMC Scientific Board:

Juergen Gnoth University of Otago, NZ
Metin Kozak Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
Alan Fyall Bournemouth University, UK
Luisa Andreu University of Valencia, Spain
Sonja Sibila Lebe University of Maribor, Slovenia
Antónia Correia University of Algarve, Portugal
Raija Komppula University of Easter Finland, Finland
Local Organizing Committee

Raija Komppula Professor, UEF Business School, Head of the organizing
committee
Juho Pesonen UEF, Centre for Tourism Studies, Deputy Head of the
organizing committee
Helen Reijonen Dr., UEF Business School
Henna Konu Lic.Econ.& Business, UEF Centre for Tourism Studies
Anja Tuohino Lic.Phil., UEF Centre for Tourism Studies
Ulla Ritola-Pesonen Finnish University Network for Tourism Studies
Arja Hukkanen Karelia Expert Ltd
4
Reviewers
Anna Kuikka University of Eastern Finland
Saku Hirvonen University of Eastern Finland
Marina Zanfardini, Universidad Nacional del Comahue
Juulia Räikkönen Turku School of Economics
Hilkka Lassila Savonia UAS
Harald Pechlaner Catholic University of Eichstaett-Ingolstadt
Tamara Ratz Kodolányi János University of Applied Sciences
Szilvia Gyimothy Aalborg University
Borut Milfelner University of Maribor - Faculty of Economics and Business
Yasou Ohe Chiba University
Jarkko Saarinen University of Oulu
Arja Lemmetyinen Turku School of Economics at the University of Turku
Henna Konu University of Eastern Finland
Amparo Cervera University of Valencia
Frederic Dimanche SKEMA Business School
Sanna-Mari Renfors Satakunta University of Applied Sciences
Andreas Zins MODUL University Vienna
Gunjan Saxena The University of Hull
Antti Honkanen University of Eastern Finland
Jarno Suni University of Eastern Finland
Pietro Beritelli University of St. Gallen
Christian Laesser University of St. Gallen
Nina Prebensen Tromso University Business School
Anne-Mette Hjalager University of Southern Denmark
Mtjaz Irsic University of Maribor, Slovenia
5
Contents (in alpabetical order of the first author surnames) Page

Adventure Campers, Fairy Tale Glampers, and Authenticity.................................................. 13
Image analysis of a tourist destination: Malaga, Spain............................................................ 19
Profile of residents: Attitude towards tourism in Benalmádena (Costa del Sol, Spain) .......... 26
The Impact of Social Media Involvement on Intentions to Purchase of Travel Online .......... 32
Identifying criteria than exert an influence in the co-creation process between tourists and
hotel managers ................................................................................................................ 37
Can Rural Tourism Satisfy Portuguese Tourist's Needs? Examining Portuguese Tourist's
Preferences ..................................................................................................................... 38
The Package Tour Experiences and Tourist Satisfaction ........................................................ 44
The impact of the Spa Experience on Well-Being and Loyalty .............................................. 49
Wellbeing in Wildlife Experiences: Feeling Good for the Animals? ...................................... 54
Insights to Food Sourcing as a Means of Holiday Well-being ................................................ 59
Well-being of Locals, Tourist Experiences and Destination Competitiveness........................ 65
Consumer Animosity and Affective Country Image in a Tourism Context ............................ 70
The Influence of Information Sources on Tourist Image Fragmentation ................................ 75
'There is not a school in the entire world like it’: Pride and Privilege in the Historic Campus
tour.................................................................................................................................. 79
Impact of Tourism on the Quality of Life of Residents: The Role of Social Interaction ........ 82
Linking destination governance and tourists’ quality of service experience: a perspective
from Mediterranean Sea basin tourists. .......................................................................... 88
Self-pampering or health maintaining? A study of perceived food experiences, motivation,
and perceived well-being of tourists of hot spring resorts ............................................. 93
Genealogy Tourism Market Opportunities of Hakka Homeland in China .............................. 94
Whether or not The local is helping the tourists to visit the tourism destinations? ............... 100
The safe or unsafe tourism destination - the cross culture comparison study ....................... 105
Fulfilment of Destination Brand Promise - The Core of Customer-Based Brand Equity
Modelling for Tourism Destinations ............................................................................ 110
Governance as platform for value co-creation in Tourism Destinations: an analysis of Foz do
Iguaçu, Brazil ............................................................................................................... 115
From Emotions to Place Attachment. The Case of Domestic Tourists in Algarve ............... 121
Factors affecting international exhibitors’ repeated participation of a travel fair in China ... 127
Customer Value Amongst Wellness Tourists ........................................................................ 131
6
A Journey Inside Tourist Souvenirs ....................................................................................... 136

The importance of quality labels in consumers’ preferences: An application to the Walloon
tourism industry ............................................................................................................ 140
Driving first time spectators and repeat spectators to cultural events: "Sa Sartiglia" Carnival,
Sardinia (Italy) .............................................................................................................. 148
A community-based collaborative approach to policymaking in islands: a cluster analysis in
the context of Costa Smeralda ...................................................................................... 153
Traits in Tourists’ experiences: Senses, emotions and memories.......................................... 157
Host Perceptions of Tourism Development: The Case of Petra ............................................ 163
The Albergo Diffuso Business Model and the Creation of Community Wellbeing .............. 168
Three Types of Industrial Tourism In Japanese Manufacturing Companies based on
Marketing Strategies ..................................................................................................... 173
Non-wood forests products and the utilisation by the tourists in Training Forest Enterprise
Masaryk Forest Krtiny (Brno, Czech Republic)........................................................... 178
Digging deep into the experience – how can flow and immersion bring a finer understanding
of the tourist experience ............................................................................................... 184
Evaluating Effects of SNS on Tourism Recovery in a Rural Area Hit by the Great East Japan
Earthquake by Focusing on Volunteer Tourism ........................................................... 190
Economic Crisis and Residents' Perception of Tourism Impacts in Mass Tourism Destinations
...................................................................................................................................... 195
The challenge of rebranding a traditional manor hotel into a wellbeing hotel for people under
35 .................................................................................................................................. 201
The value chains and innovative potentials in rural wellbeing tourism................................. 205
Japanese Wellbeing Tourists: Motivation Factors and Segments .......................................... 210
Asserting the Significance of the Brand Elements in Destination Branding ......................... 216
Tourism Experience - Service Experience ............................................................................. 221
How Tourists Use Nature? The Case of Great Masurian Lakes, Poland ............................... 222
Consequences of Introducing Eco Labels- and Schemes to Tourism Accommodations: Is
Social Responsibility Inducing Value Co-creation?..................................................... 226
Engaging with nature: A Japanese approach to co-creating nature based tourism experiences
...................................................................................................................................... 232
Value Co-creation in Re-branding Tourism Destinations - A Case Study from Two Tourism
Business Networks ....................................................................................................... 234
7
The opportunities for cultural tourism development in Canada- case of St. Jacobs, Ontario,
Canada (co-creation experience with a local community) ........................................... 239
Sustainable Tourism and Marketing in Zambia: The Case of Nature as Driver of the Tourism
Sector ............................................................................................................................ 247
Re-examining the concept of value in tourism ...................................................................... 252
Hospitality and shared experiences as content co-creation: Developing a competitive
advantage for destinations ............................................................................................ 256
The Natural Environment as a Factor Increasing Attractiveness of a Tourism Product of a
City on an Example of Szczecin ................................................................................... 261
Using service design thinking and tools for designing tourism services for families with
children ......................................................................................................................... 265
The role of destination brand personality on golf tourists’ satisfaction and behavioural
intentions ...................................................................................................................... 270
Hotel Attributes: Comparing Business and Leisure Travelers' Preferences for Hotel
Accommodation ........................................................................................................... 276
Eye-Tracking-Based Model of Country Logotype Attractiveness ........................................ 277
From conflict to co-creation: Ski-touring on groomed slopes in Austria .............................. 282
Wellbeing Tourism Policy Implementation: a ‘new institutionalist’ Multi-country
Comparison................................................................................................................... 285
Consumer' Tactics for Savvy Decision-making..................................................................... 287
Lake-destination image assessment: the case of the Alqueva reservoir, Portugal ................. 291
Well-being tourism experiences – Products and services to current and future tourists ....... 295
Boost to the Rural Tourism Services in Eastern Finland ....................................................... 300
Conceptual Model of Customer-Company Interaction in Value Co-Creation ...................... 305
The role of commercial friendship in company versus customer initiation of value co-creation
for tourism brands......................................................................................................... 311
From a Conflicated to a Collaborative Destination: A Case Study of Marketing and
Management Challenges in Co-creating Wellbeing in Novalja, Croatia ..................... 316
Activity preferences of winter tourists: the case of Northern Norway .................................. 321
The business trip as a framework of time and its effects on the business traveler’s well-being
...................................................................................................................................... 322
Expressing Sustainability in Marketing of Local Food Products in Rural Tourism .............. 323
Eating out – a study of visitors’ value creating activities related to food and meals ............. 328
The Value of Cittaslow Network in Sustainable Tourism Development .............................. 330
8
Does the Market Link Thermal Tourism to Wellbeing Tourism? The Case of Copahue's Bath
Therapy Center (Argentina) ......................................................................................... 336
Loyal vs. first-time tourists – challenges for destination management ................................. 340
Postmodern Museum Visitor Experience as a Leisure Activity: The Case of Yilmaz
Buyukersen Wax Museum ........................................................................................... 344
9
Contents (Alphabetical order based on the title of the paper) Page

A community-based collaborative approach to policymaking in islands: a cluster
analysis in the context of Costa Smeralda 153
A Journey Inside Tourist Souvenirs 136
Activity preferences of winter tourists: the case of Northern Norway 321
Adventure Campers, Fairy Tale Glampers, and Authenticity 13
Asserting the Significance of the Brand Elements in Destination Branding 216
Boost to the Rural Tourism Services in Eastern Finland 300
Can Rural Tourism Satisfy Portuguese Tourist's Needs? Examining Portuguese
Tourist's Preferences 38
Conceptual Model of Customer-Company Interaction in Value Co-Creation 305
Consequences of Introducing Eco Labels- and Schemes to Tourism Accommodations:
Is Social Responsibility Inducing Value Co-creation? 226
Consumer Animosity and Affective Country Image in a Tourism Context 70
Consumer' Tactics for Savvy Decision-making 287
Customer Value Amongst Wellness Tourists 131
Digging deep into the experience – how can flow and immersion bring a finer
understanding of the tourist experience 184
Does the Market Link Thermal Tourism to Wellbeing Tourism? The Case of Copahue's
Bath Therapy Center (Argentina) 336
Driving first time spectators and repeat spectators to cultural events: "Sa Sartiglia"
Carnival, Sardinia (Italy) 148
Eating out – a study of visitors’ value creating activities related to food and meals 328
Economic Crisis and Residents' Perception of Tourism Impacts in Mass Tourism
Destinations 195
Engaging with nature: A Japanese approach to co-creating nature based tourism
experiences 232
Evaluating Effects of SNS on Tourism Recovery in a Rural Area Hit by the Great East
Japan Earthquake by Focusing on Volunteer Tourism 190
Expressing Sustainability in Marketing of Local Food Products in Rural Tourism 323
Eye-Tracking-Based Model of Country Logotype Attractiveness 277
Factors affecting international exhibitors’ repeated participation of a travel fair in
China 127
From a Conflicated to a Collaborative Destination: A Case Study of Marketing and
Management Challenges in Co-creating Wellbeing in Novalja, Croatia 316
From conflict to co-creation: Ski-touring on groomed slopes in Austria 282
From Emotions to Place Attachment. The Case of Domestic Tourists in Algarve 121
Fulfilment of Destination Brand Promise - The Core of Customer-Based Brand Equity
Modelling for Tourism Destinations 110
Genealogy Tourism Market Opportunities of Hakka Homeland in China 94
Governance as platform for value co-creation in Tourism Destinations: an analysis of
Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil 115
Hospitality and shared experiences as content co-creation: Developing a competitive
advantage for destinations 256
Host Perceptions of Tourism Development: The Case of Petra 163
Hotel Attributes: Comparing Business and Leisure Travelers' Preferences for Hotel
Accommodation 276
How Tourists Use Nature? The Case of Great Masurian Lakes, Poland 222
10
Identifying criteria than exert an influence in the co-creation process between

tourists and hotel managers 37
Image analysis of a tourist destination: Malaga, Spain 19
Impact of Tourism on the Quality of Life of Residents: The Role of Social Interaction 82
Insights to Food Sourcing as a Means of Holiday Well-being 59
Japanese Wellbeing Tourists: Motivation Factors and Segments 210
Lake-destination image assessment: the case of the Alqueva reservoir, Portugal 291
Linking destination governance and tourists’ quality of service experience: a
perspective from Mediterranean Sea basin tourists. 88
Loyal vs. first-time tourists – challenges for destination management 340
Non-wood forests products and the utilisation by the tourists in Training Forest
Enterprise Masaryk Forest Krtiny (Brno, Czech Republic) 178
Postmodern Museum Visitor Experience as a Leisure Activity: The Case of Yilmaz
Buyukersen Wax Museum 345
Profile of residents: Attitude towards tourism in Benalmádena (Costa del Sol, Spain) 26
Re-examining the concept of value in tourism 252
Self-pampering or health maintaining? A study of perceived food experiences,
motivation, and perceived well-being of tourists of hot spring resorts 93
Sustainable Tourism and Marketing in Zambia: The Case of Nature as Driver of the
Tourism Sector 247
The Albergo Diffuso Business Model and the Creation of Community Wellbeing 168
The business trip as a framework of time and its effects on the business traveler’s
well-being 322
The challenge of rebranding a traditional manor hotel into a wellbeing hotel for
people under 35 201
The Impact of Social Media Involvement on Intentions to Purchase of Travel Online 32
The impact of the Spa Experience on Well-Being and Loyalty 49
The importance of quality labels in consumers’ preferences: An application to the
Walloon tourism industry 140
The Influence of Information Sources on Tourist Image Fragmentation 75
The Natural Environment as a Factor Increasing Attractiveness of a Tourism Product
of a City on an Example of Szczecin 261
The opportunities for cultural tourism development in Canada- case of St. Jacobs,
Ontario, Canada (co-creation experience with a local community) 239
The Package Tour Experiences and Tourist Satisfaction 44
The role of commercial friendship in company versus customer initiation of value co-
creation for tourism brands 311
The role of destination brand personality on golf tourists’ satisfaction and
behavioural intentions 270
The safe or unsafe tourism destination - the cross culture comparison study 105
The value chains and innovative potentials in rural wellbeing tourism 205
The Value of Cittaslow Network in Sustainable Tourism Development 331
'There is not a school in the entire world like it’: Pride and Privilege in the Historic
Campus tour 79
Three Types of Industrial Tourism In Japanese Manufacturing Companies based on
Marketing Strategies 173
Tourism Experience - Service Experience 221
Traits in Tourists’ experiences: Senses, emotions and memories 157
11
Using service design thinking and tools for designing tourism services for families
with children 265
Value Co-creation in Re-branding Tourism Destinations - A Case Study from Two
Tourism Business Networks 235
Wellbeing in Wildlife Experiences: Feeling Good for the Animals? 54
Well-being of Locals, Tourist Experiences and Destination Competitiveness 65
Well-being tourism experiences – Products and services to current and future tourists 295
Wellbeing Tourism Policy Implementation: a ‘new institutionalist’ Multi-country
Comparison 285
Whether or not The local is helping the tourists to visit the tourism destinations? 100
12
Adventure Campers, Fairy Tale Glampers, and Authenticity
Christie S. Ahn
Michael S. W. Lee
The University of Auckland Business School, Department of Marketing
Auckland, New Zealand
msw.lee@auckland.ac.nz
Introduction
Tourism is a trillion dollar industry that produces substantial economic and
employment benefits, increasing the well-being of both host and tourists, in tourism
sectors, and related areas such as construction and telecommunications
(http://www2.unwto.org/content/why-tourism).
Camping, which involves living in a temporary shelter outdoors, is a popular tourist
activity. However, a recent trend, ‘glamping’ (glamorous camping), differs from
conventional camping and provokes mixed opinions. It is admired as the perfect
combination of nature and luxury, but also criticised as diminishing the authentic values
of traditional camping.
Glamping is interesting due to its juxtaposition of the natural and luxurious. In
discussing glamping, we also deal with the notion of authenticity since glamping
minimizes the rugged outdoorsy features of camping and therefore may be construed by
some camping enthusiasts as being ‘inauthentic’. As such, this study aims to understand
campers and glampers’ experience of authenticity.
Literature review
Authenticity is the degree to which one is true to one’s internal world (Beverland &
Farrelly, 2010). It is a multidimensional construct that can be applied in various contexts,
which makes it a contentious subject. What is consistent across the literature is that
authenticity can be broadly defined as something or someone being ‘real’, ‘genuine’ and
‘true’ (Ewing, Allen, & Ewing, 2012; Grayson & Martinec, 2004).
Consumer researchers have explored authenticity in different contexts, such as
wine (Beverland, 2005), biker’s community (Schouten & McAlexander, 1995), white-
water rafting (Arnould, Price, & Otnes, 1999), green consumption (Ewing et al., 2012),
tourism (Wang, 1999), and camping (Brooker & Joppe, 2013; Mannell & Iso-Ahola, 1987).
Consumers search for authenticity and enhance their personal well-being by resisting the
market through events like mountain man rendezvous (Belk and Costa 1998) and
Burning Man (Kozinets, 2002). Overall, consumers desire authenticity due to the
phoniness prevalent in marketing practices (Grayson & Martinec, 2004), and authenticity
is now regarded as a socially constructed concept which can be subjective to individual
consumers (Grayson & Martinec, 2004; Rose & Wood, 2005).
Since MacCannell (1973) explored tourist motivations and experiences,
authenticity has been a fundamental element in tourism studies (Wang, 1999).
Traditionally, authenticity was object-related, with strict and absolute standards
determining whether an experience was authentic or not. So, even when tourists believed
their experiences were authentic, their experiences could still be considered inauthentic
if the toured objects were not original (MacCannell, 1973). In contrast, socially
constructed authenticity argues that it is no longer important if a toured object is
“objectively” authentic or not; it is authentic when it corresponds to the tourist’s
13
constructed beliefs of what is authentic. In this view, authenticity is not evaluated by

objects, but by activities. Many researchers further explore and develop the concept of
existential authenticity (Wang, 1999), which is now accepted as the most significant
conceptualisation of authenticity in tourism literature (Lew, 2011; Olsen, 2002; Kim &
Jamal 2007; Steiner and Reisinger 2006)
Even though camping is a highly co-creative form of tourism that has the potential
to enhance the well-being of all those who partake in the activity, it has not yet been
studied in relation to authenticity.
Methods
Primary data was derived from semi-structured interviews conducted at an office
within a large metropolitan University. All interviews (lasting 90-120 minutes) were
recorded and transcribed. Fifteen interviews were conducted before reaching theoretical
saturation.
The interviews started with a general discussion of the participant’s camping (or
glamping) trip, and the interviewer probed to gain further information (Neimeyer,
Anderson, & Stockton, 2001). Visual props (photos or comments on websites) were used
to drive some conversations. Online data from 21 web pages, including various travel
review websites were used to compliment primary data.
Thematic analysis was conducted using NVivo 10. Generated themes were then
discussed with two qualitative researchers to ensure trustworthiness (Cavana, Delahaye,
& Sekeran, 2001).
Results
Figure 1 summarises our findings. First, campers and glampers are not two distinct
groups, but rather, consist of outdoorsy holiday makers occupying a continuum from
extreme bush craft enthusiasts to extravagant glampers. Second, nature and escapism are
two vital elements in campers’ and glampers’ experiences of authenticity. Third, their
differing relationships with nature lead to contrasting modes of escapism, and therefore
two pathways to authenticity. As figure 1 indicates, campers experience nature as
“interactors” and escape through an “adventure”, while glampers do so as “spectators”,
escaping through a “fairy tale”.
14
FIGURE 1.
SEARCH FOR AUTHENTICITY IN CAMPING AND GLAMPING
15
Discussion and Conclusions

Campers: Experiencing nature as an interactor
Campers experience nature as a co-creative participant; they are fully immersed in nature
and are not afraid to experience the good and bad aspects of nature. For them, even the rugged
side of nature adds to their experience.
“Adventure” Escapism
Being close to nature leads campers to two outcomes: Self-Development and Primitivity.
Through their experience, campers escape their everyday life in an “Adventure” like fashion.
They are fully immersed in nature and face challenging experiences in a co-creative quest for
authenticity.
Self-Development
Many interviewees spoke about self-development in camping. Campers are independent,
making decisions; from planning, getting to the destination, pitching the tent, preparing meals
and so on. Through these activities, campers attain a sense of autonomy. Compared to glamping
where the itinerary is often pre-determined.
Through decision making and organising, campers become self-reliant and independent.
Being away from the comforts of everyday life provides opportunities for challenging
experiences. Thus, by camping in a traditional way and ‘interacting’ with nature, campers
achieve a sense of self-development, resulting in an authentic experience.
Primitivity
Traditional camping is based on the quest for primitivity (Canniford and Shankar, 2013).
Being close to nature and pursuing primitivity allows respondents to enjoy a simpler and more
relaxed lifestyle. One of our interviewees (Beth) suggests that primitive nature forces her to
‘detach’ or escape from her hyper-connected everyday life, thus, allowing her to ‘be’ rather than
‘do’.
Beth: I think that’s one of the beautiful things about it, there’s no pressure to do
anything. You just kind of, be. .. When I am around the internet and I’m around my
phone, I’m attached to it and it is kind of nice to have that forced detachment…
Glampers: Experiencing nature as a spectator
One important difference between glamping and traditional camping is luxury. With
luxury added, glampers differ in the way they perceive and experience nature. Compared to
campers who are “interactors”, glampers are “spectators” of nature. Glampers appreciate
nature just as campers do; except glampers desire the spectacle of nature without the hardship.
This arrangement is only possible with the addition of luxury, as indicated by Figure 1. Such
luxury enables glampers to have “front row seats” as authentic “spectators” of nature.
“Fairy Tale” Escapism
Glampers experience authenticity by escaping everyday life and being pampered like
royalty. Glamping embodies a fantasy world; it is a perfect place with great scenery, delicious
food, discerning service, and comfort. They become VIPs who have access to the best viewpoint;
without exposure to the harsher elements of nature. Therefore, glampers experience nature
through a kind of “Fairy Tale” escapism.
Exclusivity
As a result, glampers achieve an authentic sense of exclusivity from a glamping trip, as
evidenced by the following quote where glampers were kept separate from ordinary tourists.
Liz: Everyone else gets picked up from the airport on the coach which takes them to the
hotel, but if you’re glamping, they pick you up in helicopter and they fly you
there…the people (staying at the resort) who go to the dinner got coach but people
who are glamping will ride the camel, so you are kept separate… you don’t mix with
the poor people (laughs).
16
Enchantment
In addition to exclusivity, another important aspect of glamping is enchantment.
Glamping revolves around a fantastical scenario where the raw spectacle of nature is magically
transformed, via luxury, into a more palatable and accessible experience. In this regard, those
seeking a glamping experience are both protected from the negative aspects of nature and
mainstream tourism, and also privy to an enchanted experience analogous to floating on
Aladdin’s magic carpet, being transported in a magical pumpkin coach, or residing in Princess
Elsa’s mystical ice castle. This Disneyesque sub theme situates glampers’ experiences within
the realm of mythic fairy tales, where the protagonist often encounters a sense of enchantment.
Escapism and Authenticity
Many interviewees suggest that their “escape” from everyday life gives them a meaningful
and “authentic” experience. Away from the mundane, they have time to relax and reflect about
their lives. In choosing a voluntary experience that is in line with their desires and ideals, both
campers and glampers have an authentic experience that is “true to self”. Furthermore, being
away from what they are accustomed to and experiencing the grandness of nature helps both
groups to see things in a “broader perspective”. This is also an authenticity experience as their
attention extends from a micro self-centred focus to a macro global one.
Overall, this research explores how campers and glampers find authenticity through their
experiences. First, nature is an important element for both campers and glampers, as it
distinguishes them from other type of tourists. Second, escaping into nature, and away from
everyday life, enables campers and glampers to have authentic experiences. However, despite
these similarities, campers and glampers experience two very different types of escapism.
Traditional campers escape their mundane life and embark on a quest for authenticity through
an adventure like interactive tale of self-development and primitivity; whereas glamper’s long
for an exclusive and enchanted fairy tale escape that is facilitated with the help of luxury.
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26(2), 349-370.
18
Image analysis of a tourist destination: Malaga, Spain
Fernando Almeida-García
Janire Domínguez-Azkue
University of Malaga, Spain
falmeida@uma.es
Introduction
The destination image is multidimensional in nature and the knowledge the individuals
have of the destination and also their personal traits and opinions play an important role in it.
Therefore, it is a complex construction in which the different information sources are decisive.
Thus, the destination image plays a key role in both marketing and tourism location.
The city of Malaga, located in Southern Spain, lies on the Costa del Sol (Coast of the Sun), a
tourist area largely identified with seaside tourism. In recent years Malaga city has been trying
to distance itself from the “sun and sand” tourism segment and it has chosen to position itself
as a cultural destination (Diario Sur, 2014; The New York Times, 2015). In this regard, the
effectiveness of the image of Malaga differentiated from a seaside destination image is analysed
in the present study.
The main objective of this research is to perform an analysis of the current image of the
city and of the target one. A detailed study of the obtained results will enable us to take a close
look at the tourists’ attitudes towards Malaga city and it will provide us with information to
improve or design new differentiation strategies. This is the first academic study on Malaga’s
destination image.
Malaga is a Spanish municipality in Andalusia and it is located, as already mentioned, in
the Costa del Sol, beside the Mediterranean Sea. The city had 566,913 inhabitants (2014) and
an accommodation supply of 9,598 bed places and nearly one million of tourists (2013). We
decided to focus the research on Malaga city, on the Costal del Sol, Spain, a traditionally touristic
place which in the recent years is trying to specialize in urban and cultural tourism.
Literature review
Since mid-1970s destination image has been studied but it still remains open to a further
study and debate. The assessment and analysis of the destination image has been studied in
academic literature and it has contributed to the understanding of tourist behaviour (Beerli &
Martin, 2004). The complexity of the destination image concept has been studied from diverse
scientific fields, such as psychology (Hanyu, 1993), anthropology, sociology, geography or
marketing (Gallarza, Gil&Calderón, 2002), besides tourism (Baloglu&McCleary, 1999). The
study of destination image has been a significant contribution to understanding the behavior of
tourists (Beerli&Martin, 2004), and Hunt (1975) was one of the first to demonstrate its
importance due to its ability to increase the number of tourists visiting a destination. According
to a recent literature review carried out by Zhang Fu, Cai and Lu (2014), most of the studies
on destination image have focused on the cognitive image, but at the same time, in recent years
the number of studies focused on the affective image is increasing. In addition, some authors
(Bosque&Martin, 2008; Morais&Lin, 2010) believe that both cognitive and affective
components are equally important and influential in creating a destination image, so they have
decided to focus their researches on a model that brings together both components, as it is
made in the present research.
19
The hypotheses proposed in the current research are the following:

H1: The preconceived image of the tourist destination is a multidimensional concept composed
of several dimensions, including cognitive and affective assessments.
H2: Individuals who have been to Malaga have a more positive image of the city compared to
those who have not travelled to Malaga.
H3: Rest and relaxation are the main reasons for travelling to Malaga city rather than cultural
or social motivations.
H4: Malaga does not have a distinguished image from the “sun and sand” tourism segment
associated with the Costa del Sol.
Methods and materials

In the current research a descriptive and inferential analysis of the results has been made,
as well as a comparative analysis between two groups –nationals and foreigners– in order to
enable a comparison of the different opinions among them. Moreover, a factor analysis of the
cognitive and affective components of the destination image has been conducted.
This study is based on the questionnaires on the destination image previously developed
by other authors (Baloglu&McCleary, 1999; San Martín, 2005). The survey is addressed to those
who have visited Malaga before and to those who have never been to the city and, as stated
previously, sample of foreign nationality has been collected: from America and from other
European countries. These respondents have not been randomly selected but by incidental
sampling. The surveys were undertaken over a short period of time –from 14 April to 28 April,
2014– and were distributed both on paper and online for those geographically dispersed. 301
valid responses were achieved.
The questions in the survey were divided into four categories: (i) questions on socio-
demographic variables, (ii) questions on the cognitive component of the destination image, (iii)
on the affective component and (iv) on the motivational component. A 61-item self-report
questionnaire has been designed and all items were measured by a five-point Likert-type scale.
We have used SPSS v.20 to process and analyse the data collected. First, a descriptive analysis
of the variables and the result has been contacted. After that, an inferential analysis has been
carried out using the non-parametric test of Mann-Whitney and finally, a factorial analysis with
VARIMAX rotation and Kaiser Normalization.
Results
According to data obtained these are the main results of the research:
Descriptive analysis
(i) The visit to the city. This question is important to create the profiles of the visitors and
tourists and we found out that 49.5% of respondents have travelled to Malaga. (ii) The sources
of information (graphic 1) from which respondents have obtained information about the city
or about tourist products related to the city. Most respondents claim to have no information
about the city of Malaga and those who do have some kind of information they obtain it from
family and friends and from the Internet in third place. This statement could respond to a weak
positioning of the destination, especially in America.
20
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure 1. Average rating for the sources of information
(iii) Tourism products associated with Malaga. Respondents associated the city of Malaga
with the “sun and sand” tourism, followed some way behind by gastronomic and wine tourism
and even further by cultural and heritage tourism. The comparative analysis (Mann-Whitney
Test) only points out a statistically significant difference between those who have travelled to
the city and those who have never been to Malaga, for the “sun and sand” segment: those who
have been to the city associate even more the city with this segment than those who have never
travelled to Malaga.
Analysis of the components of the image

The cognitive and affective components of the target image of the city of Malaga have been
analysed. To that end, we have followed the steps used before: a comprehensive descriptive
analysis and a comparative analysis (Mann-Whitney test).
(i) Cognitive component. The climate in Malaga is highly appreciated by
respondents, (graphic 2) as well as the nightlife and the hospitality of the residents.
The lowest scores are for the non-polluted environment and for seeing Malaga as a
city in fashion or a city which transmits modernity.
5
4
3
2
1
0
Personal_Safety
No_polluted_Environ
Life_Style
Good_Infrastructure
Variety_Events
Nearby_Attractions
Hospitality_Residents
Cultural_Activities
Proper_Cleaning
Local_Gastronomy
Cultural_interest
Nightlife
Fashion_Site
Quality_Price
meetings
Urban_Landscape
Favorable_Climate
Shopping
modernity
Accommodation
Figure 2. Average rating for the attributes of the cognitive component
After application of the Mann-Whitney test, statistically significant differences are

revealed. Travellers who have visited Malaga have a more positive assessment of almost all the
attributes of the city that those who have not travelled to the city before.
21
(ii) Regarding the affective component, measured by a semantic differential based on a

five-point Likert-type scale (graphic 3), the results show that all factors are evaluated more
positively than negatively. Malaga is considered, in the first place, as a pleasant destination and
the consideration of Malaga as an exciting city has obtained the lowest results. The Mann-
Whitney test has been applied again in order to verify the differences between the two groups
already mentioned. A significant difference has been found in the “boring-amusing” variable
and in the “unpleasant-pleasant” one. In both cases respondents who have already travelled to
Malaga have given a higher score compared to those who have never been to the city.
Unpleasant Pleasant
Boring Amusing
Relaxing
Stressful Streful
Exciting
Depresing
Depressing
Figure 3. Affective component
Then, a factor analysis of these components (cognitive and affective) has been conducted,
in order to identify possible underlying dimensions of perception in the set of attributes. This
factor analysis of the components is used to reduce the large amount of data, by grouping
together those attributes related to each other under the same dimension. For this purpose, the
VARIMAX method of rotation with Kaiser Normalization has been used. Once the rotation is
completed, the significant factors which explain at least one variable have been selected. Thus,
among the 24 displayed attributed (Table 1), we have obtained five different factors which
explain 53,42% of variance using factor analysis.
22
Table 1. Factor analysis of destination image

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5
C12 Malaga is a great place to go shopping 0,354
Malaga is the perfect place for hosting meetings or

C15 0,536
workshops
C16 Malaga is a place that transmits modernity 0,750
C17 Malaga has good accommodation infrastructures 0,594

C18 Malaga is a trendy place 0,640
Malaga has a good development of the general
C19 infrastructures (transport, access roads, connections, health, 0,676
security, etc.)
C20 Malaga has a wide variety of scheduled events and activities 0,595
C2 Malaga has an attractive local cuisine 0,737

C3 Malaga has a diversity of attractions close to the city 0,601
C4 Malaga has very interesting historical and cultural places 0,687
C6 Malaga has an unique tradition and way of life 0,478
C11 Malaga has an interesting urban landscape 0,515
C14 Malaga offers cultural activities of great interest 0,674
A1 Boring_amusing 0,561
A2 Stressful_relaxing 0,695
A3 Depressing_exciting 0,688
A4 Unpleasnat_Pleasent 0,677
C1 Residents in Malaga are hospitable and friendly 0,466
C9 Malaga has an attractive nightlife and entertainment 0,648
C10 Malaga has a good quality-to-price ratio 0,683
C13 Malaga has a good weather 0,690
C5 Malaga has an unpolluted / non-congested environment 0,686
C7 Malaga offers personal safety 0,548
C8 Malaga presents proper cleaning and general hygiene 0,646
% Variance 13,293 13,256 9,483 9,384 8,359
% Accumulated 13,293 26,549 36,032 45,416 53,416
α Cronbach 0,805 0,808 0,694 0,671 0,554
Number of items 7 6 4 4 3
Bartlett’s Sphericity Test χ (276) = 2405,393 (p=0,000)
2
KMO Index = 0,877

α Cronbach (24 items) = 0,832
One the analysis has been conducted, we observe that the indicators that demonstrate the
validity of the analysis (Bartlett test and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin coefficient) show satisfactory
results. Factor 1 groups the attributes associated with infrastructure and fashion, Factor 2
brings together the attributes related to the cultural environment and the particularity of the
destination, Factor 3 is the one which includes the 4 attributes that form the affective image,
Factor 4 includes attributes related to lifestyle and day to day aspects and the last one, Factor
5, refers to the atmosphere of the destination that the individuals perceive. This shows that the
destination image is multidimensional and that it is formed by a cognitive component, which
can be divided into different dimensions, including clearly a cognitive and an affective
component.
23
(iii) Motivational component. This component addressed the factors that would motivate
respondents to travel to Malaga. In this latest analysis (graphic 4) significant differences
between the two groups are shown. According to the results obtained, people who have already
visited Malaga would be more willing to return to the city than those who have never been
there. The main reasons which would make them go back to the city would be for relaxing, for
adventures or for social grounds. On the other hand, they would not be so willing to return due
to reasons related to knowledge, adventure nor to attend special events.
0
e
gs
n
e
g
ts
ur
dg
io
tig
xin
en
tin
nt
at
le
es
la
Ev
ee
li z
ow
ve
Pr
Re
l_
M
cia
Ad
kn
ia
So
ec
Sp
Figure 4. Motivational component

The four initial hypotheses are demonstrated.
Hypothesis 1: The factor analysis, as well as the other analysis carried out, highlights the
multidimensional character of the image of destination.
Hypothesis 2: The comparative analysis (Mann-Whitney Test) highlights the different
behaviour of the two groups surveyed: Travellers who have visited Malaga have a more positive
perception of the destination.
Hypothesis 3: The descriptive analysis shows that rest and relaxation is the main reason
for travelling to Malaga instead of cultural reasons.
Hypothesis 4: The descriptive analysis indicates that the city of Malaga is still identified
as a “sun and sand” destination, despite the significant investments made by the destination in
the cultural offer.
The results obtained in the current study show that the destination image is a
multidimensional phenomenon composed of several dimensions. These dimensions are of a
cognitive and affective nature, and even if it is the first one that contributes most to the
generation of the overall image of the destination, the affective component emerges clearly as
a primary factor in the formation of the image, and the cognitive component also plays an
important role when choosing a destination. Therefore, we can say that the perception of the
destination is made by the cognitive assessments of the individuals on the characteristics of the
destination and, at the same time, by their feelings and motivations for this place. These
dimensions of perception will be used by tourists to discriminate between tourist destinations
and to help them when choosing a place to visit. This statement is consistent with the opinion
of those authors who opt for something more than the cognitive component concerning the
destination image, since the perception of individuals plays a key role (Baloglu, 2000).
References
24
Baloglu, S. & McCleary, K. (1999). A Model of Destination Image Formation. Annals of Tourism
Research, 26(4), 868-897.
Beerli, A. & Martín, J. (2004). Tourists’ characteristics and the perceived image of tourist
destination: a quantitative analysis. A case study of Lanzarote, Spain. Tourism
Management, 25, 623-636.
Bosque, I. R., y San Martín, H. (2008). Tourist satisfaction: a cognitive-affective model. Annals of
Tourism Research, 35(2), 551-573.
Gallarza, M. G., Gil, I. & Calderón, H. (2002). Destination Image: Towards a Conceptual
Framework. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(1), 56-78.
Hanyu, K. (1993). The affective meaning of Tokyo: verbal and nonverbal approaches, Journal of
Environmental psychology, 13(2), 161-172.
Hunt, J.D. (1975). Images as a Factor in Tourism Development. Journal of Travel Research, 13(3), 1-
7.
Morais, D. B. y Lin, C. H. (2010). Why do first-time and repeat visitors patronize a destination?
Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 27(2), 193-210.
Zhang, H., Fu, X., Cai, L. y Lu, L. (2014). Destination image and tourist loyalty: A meta-analysis.
Tourism Management, 40, 213-223.
25
Profile of residents: Attitude towards tourism in Benalmádena (Costa del

Sol, Spain)
Fernando Almeida-García
Rafael Cortés-Macías
María Ángeles Peláez-Fernández
Antonia Balbuena-Vázquez
University of Málaga, Spain
falmeida@uma.es
Introduction
Tourism development and evolution along the time causes multiple impacts. Based on
characteristic profiles of resident, these impacts may be assessed differently. The attitude of
residents and the identification of profiles is a tool that allows to asses the status of destination
and propose future strategies for improving the destination. This study aims to analyse the role
of residents regarding the perception of tourism.
Benalmádena is a Spanish municipality in the province of Málaga, in Andalusia region. It
is located on the Costa del Sol, about 22 km southwest of the provincial capital. Benalmádena
belongs to the metropolitan area of Málaga and the Costa del Sol. Benalmádena had 66,939
inhabitants in 2014. It is the eighth largest city in the province.
26
Literature review
The term "impact of tourism" has gained importance in the tourist literature. The
assessment of these impacts can be done through the review of residents. In recent years
numerous studies have examined the attitudes and perceptions of residents of the impact of
tourism development in their community. The main reason for the growing interest in this type
of study has been to consider that tourism development has positive and negative effects in
local levels (Ko & Stewart, 2002; Lankford & Howard, 1994). Likewise, there are other reasons
for this growing interest in understanding the attitudes of residents to the impacts of tourism
(Akis, et al., 1996; Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Chen, 2000; Gutiérrz, 2010; Jurowski & Gursoy, 2004;
Landford, 1994; Liu & Var, 1986; Long et al., 1990; Nunkoo & Gursoy, 2012); some of these
reasons are: negative attitudes among residents which could be a handicap in the development
and sustainability in tourism destinations (Belisle & Hoy, 1980; Butler, 1980; Diedrich & Garcia,
2009; Harrill, 2004; Sirakaya et al., 2002). The success of this industry depends on the
attractions and hospitality of local residents (Gursoy, et al., 2002). This behaviour could be a
factor to restrain the tourism sector, through hostile behaviour towards tourists; or otherwise
a friendly attitude could support tourism development. Generally, tourists tend to be reluctant
to visit places where they do not feel welcome, that is, there is nothing more important for
travellers than the way how they are treated by residents; and if not accepted, they will avoid
visiting such places (Diedrich & García, 2009).
The study of the attitudes of residents in relation to the impacts of tourism development
has been investigated reaching some consensus that groups them: economic, socio-cultural and
environmental impacts (Andereck et al., 2005; Diaz, 2010; Gursoy et al, 2002; Gursoy &
Rutherford, 2004). Some research has focused on analysing these categories in relation to the
attitude of residents and other studies such as this one focus on the search for a set of variables
that help identify a profile of the resident.
To the best of knowledge, no studies have yet explored the profile of residents in
Benalmádena and their attitudes towards tourism and its impacts on economy, environment,
and culture using a large stratified and representative sample. Thus, the purpose of this study
was to explore the relationship between the characteristics of residents and their perception of
environmental, socio-cultural and economic impact of tourism Benalmádena.

We have designed a 39-item self-report questionnaire. All items were measure on five-
point Likert-type scale. Prior to the main survey, a pilot survey was conducted with 50 residents
to avoid ambiguity and enhancing survey clarity. The questionnaire included socio-
demographic questions (e.g. age, gender, place of birth, marital status, years of residents, having
children, education level, social participation and type of work) and an attitude scale consisiting
of series of items that asses the economic, socio-cultural, and environmental impacts of tourism
(Table 1). The items of attitude scale were prepared based on the literature on resident’s
attitudes towards the impacts of tourism. We have used Pearce Correlation and SPSS, v.19.0 to
analyse questionnaire data. Pearson’s correlation and ANOVA tests were conducted.
We carried out a case study for the city of Benalmadena, Costa del Sol. This town is
representative of a mature tourist destination. The main data come from interviews and
statistical sources of national and regional tourism.
The sample consisted of 770 residents in Benalmádena. Participants were selected using
stratified random sampling. The Benalmádena population was stratified proportionally
according to: population composition (native or immigrant), gender, and age, on basis of a
population of 63,788 in 2011. After classification of population by strata, the sample was affixed
in each of them.
27
Table 1. Questionnaire items corresponding with measured impacts
Economic impacts
Positive aspects Negative aspects

Tourism is the main economic activity in Tourism increases the price of housing
Benalmádena
More roads and urbanizations are Tourism increases the cost of living
constructed
Tourism increases employment Tourism generates employment
opportunities instability
Socio-cultural impacts
Tourism improves the quality of life in Tourism increases drugs and alcohol
Benalmádena
There are more theaters, exhibitions with Tourism causes more crime
the tourism
Tourism improves public services (health Tourism produces more congestion,
centers, sports, etc.). accidents and parking problems
Tourism stimulates our festivals and Tourism generates loss or change of our
traditions (Easter, fairs, ...) festivals and traditions
I relate to people who speak Spanish
I relate to Spanish people who speaks my
language
Environmental impacts
There are more public gardens and parks Tourism increases pollution, noise,
due to tourism garbage, etc.
Tourism has improved and protected the Tourism deteriorate the natural
environment environment
There are too many people in
Benalmádena
Results
According to preliminary analysis these are the main results of research:
Descriptive statistics
Results showed acceptable alpha cronbach for all tourism attitude dimensions.
Environmental Impact: .618, Socio-cultural Impact: .615, Economic Impact: .614.
Correlations were computed between tourism attitude dimensions and socio-
demographic variables (Table 2).
Table 2. Correlations between characteristics of residents, and tourist impact variables

Environmental Impact Socio-cultural Impact Economic Impact
28
Age .13** .04 -.08*

Gender .04 .04 -.01
Civil status .10** -.01 -.06
Having children .13** .07† -.03
Level of studies .04 .18** .16**
Type of work .00 .04 -.06†
Social Participation .01 -.02 -.11**
Native condition -.14** -.17** -.10**
Years of residence -.19** -.16** -.06†
Note: † p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01
Effects of socio-demographic factors on attitude towards tourism ANOVA tests

showed a significant main effect of Age on Environmental Impact (F(3,770) = 4.21, p < .05).
Attitude towards the effect of tourism on local environment improves progressively with age,
with seniors (older than 65) having the best attitude, and youngest residents (under 20) having
the worst attitude. Also a significant main effect of Age on Economic Impact was found (F(3,770)
= -2.75; p < .05). Population under 20 was the age group with better attitude towards the
economic impact caused by tourism, whereas those between 45 and 64 showed the worse
attitude.
A main effect of Civil status on Socio-cultural Impact was found. Married residents (vs.
non-married) reported better perception on the effects of tourism on social life and culture
(F(1,770) = 3.98; p < .05).
It was found a significant main effect of having children on total attitude (F(3,770) = 4.52; p
< .05). Residents with children showed a better attitude towards tourism compared to those
with no kids.
It was found a significant main effect of Level of studies on Total attitude (F(3,770) = 8.18; p
< .01). Attitude towards all effects of tourism improves progressively with the level of studies.
ANOVA analysis showed significant differences of Type of work on Economic Impact
(F(3,770) = 3.07; p < .05). Residents working in induced employment of tourism had the best
perception of the impact of tourism on local economy. Those who work in jobs indirectly related
to tourism presented the worst perception. ANOVA analysis showed also significant differences
(F(3,770) = 3.16; p < .05) on Socio-cultural Impact. Post-hoc t test showed that residents working
in jobs indirectly related to tourism were the ones with better attitude regarding the tourism
impact on social life and culture, whereas those working in non-tourism-related employment
had the worst attitude.
Social participation had a significant main effect on Total attitude towards tourism (F(2,770)
= 3.78; p < .05), with residents participating occasionally in social associations having the best
attitude towards tourism and those participating regularly having the worst attitude.
29
Native condition had a significant main effect on Total attitude towards tourism (F(2,770) =
11.41; p < .01), with natives having the worst attitude towards tourism and foreigners having
the best attitude.
Years of residence had a significant main effect on Total attitude towards tourism (F(2,770)
= 14.73; p < .01), with those living for more than ten years in Benalmádena having the worst
attitude towards all effects of tourism and those living for less than five years having the best
attitude.
A significant interaction of Native condition X Years of residence on Total Attitude was
found (F(12,770) = 4.67; p < .01), with native residents living in Benalmádena for more than 10
years having the worst perception of all the effects caused by tourism, and foreigners living in
Benalmádena for less than five years having the best perception.

Natives and those who have been living more than 10 years in Benalmádena are the
residents perceiving more adversely the impact of tourism. Similar results were found in the
study by Davis et al. (1988). It is possible that residents in cities with high tourism development
with time come to perceive the negative impacts of tourism rather than positive impacts, as
they have lived with the problems created by tourism growth such as overcrowding, noise, and
environmental degradation (Yoon et al., 1999).
Attitudes towards tourism improve with educational level. Natives and non-native
residents who have spent more than ten years living in Benalmádena, and whose level of
education is low, show a more negative view of tourism. Therefore, this profile of residents is
the group that should receive more attention from planning and tourism policies, with the aim
of improving their relationship and attitude to tourism. It would be necessary to invest in
specific programs intended to educate residents on the benefits of tourism in mature touristic
areas, whose first income comes from tourism. Education on the effects of tourism with native
residents and residents living in the city for more than ten years would encourage a more
positive attitude toward tourism issues (Stylidis, 2014). For example, special events such as
‘Native Day’ might be helpful in promoting more favorable attitudes toward tourism (Davis et
al., 1988). In addition, it could be of great interest to involve residents in decisions related to
tourism development and management. The involvement of residents in these decisions would
help them understand the importance of tourism in their towns and, once they feel part of the
decision making, they would be more prompted to accept the inconveniences that come from
tourism.
Therefore, it is necessary to know the opinion of residents in the planning process
and governance of destinations. This fact must be taken into account from a technical point of
view during the implementation of tourism plans (Liu et al., 1987) and, from a political point of
view, during the development of local tourism policies (Manning, 1998). The tourist areas are
transformed over time, and therefore the perceptions of residents and their support for tourism
development are as well. Hence, the relationship between the attitudes of residents and
modification of the destinations should be analyzed periodically (Stylidis, 2014). If the
community does not support the tourism model and does not perceive its benefits, it could lead
to the development of a strong opposition to tourism (Gursoy et al., 2002). For this reason
residents’ participation in planning and destination management is crucial for the future of
destination (Dyer et al., 2007).
Acknowledgements
30
This research was sponsored by the National Programme of Basic Research 2012, Spain,
grant number CS2010-30840, ‘Geographies of crises: analysis of urban and tourist areas of the
Balearic Islands, Costa del Sol and major tourist destinations in the Caribbean’.
References
Ap, J. (1992). Residents’ perceptions research on the social impacts of tourism. Annals of
Diedrich, A., & García, E. (2009). Local perceptions of tourism as indicators of destination
decline. Tourism Management, 30, 512–521.
Gursoy, D., Jurowski, C., & Uysal, M. (2002). Resident attitudes. A structural modeling approach.
Annals of Tourism Research, 29(1), 79-105.
Ko, D.W., & Stewart, W.P. (2002). A structural equation model of residents’ attitudes for tourism
development. Tourism Management, 23, 521–530.
Nunkoo, R., & Gursoy, D. (2012). Residents’ support for tourism an identity perspective. Annals
of Tourism Research, 39(1), 243–268.
31
The Impact of Social Media Involvement on Intentions to Purchase of

Travel Online
Suzanne Amaro
Polytechnic Institute of Viseu
Center for Studies in Education, Technologies and Health
Viseu, Portugal
samaro@estgv.ipv.pt
Paulo Duarte
University of Beira Interior
NECE-Research Center in Business Sciences
Covilhã, Portugal
pduarte@ubi.pt
Introduction
Understanding travellers’ online behaviour is the core interest of online travel providers
aiming to stimulate online travel purchases. Travel has a competitive online market, where
travel retailers compete among themselves as well as against traditional travel agencies.
Knowing the driving forces that determine travellers’ intentions to purchase travel online is
paramount for the successful implementation of online marketing strategies (Lee, Qu, & Kim,
2007).
In a recent literature review on factors affecting online travel shopping, Amaro and Duarte
(2013) found that none of the studies had addressed recent developments such as the social
media phenomena. Nothing is known about the relationship between travellers’ use of social
media and the purchase of travel online. In order to be able to respond to social media
developments, travel marketers need to recognize if this relationship exists.
This study thereby contributes to the current literature by examining if social media
involvement affects intentions to purchase travel online. The model proposed is based on the
Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB).
Literature review
Although many studies have applied the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Fishbein and
Ajzen, 1975) to understand online travel shopping, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)
(Ajzen, 1991), an extension of the former theory, has been largely overlooked at. Indeed, few
studies have applied this theory to examine the determinants of online travel shopping.
The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) posits that peoples attitude,
subjective norms and perceived behavioural control will affect intentions to perform a
behaviour. In the travel context, several studies have evidenced that attitude towards online
shopping positively influences intentions to purchase travel online (Bigné, Sanz, Ruiz, & Aldás,
2010; Lee et al., 2007; Morosan & Jeong, 2008). Therefore, as intentions are determined by the
person’s positive or negative attitudes towards the decision it is expected that:
H1: Individuals’ attitude towards online travel shopping positively influences intentions to
purchase travel online.
Since subjective norms have not performed well in explaining intentions (San Martín &
Herrero, 2012) this study suggests employing communicability, a different form of social
32
influence. Communicability is related to the influence of family and friends, in the sense that
people are more likely to book online and to frequently book travel online if they know that
other people are doing likewise (Morrison, Jing, O’Leary, & Cai, 2001). Based on this finding, the
following hypothesis is formulated:
H2: Communicability positively influences intentions to purchase travel online.
Perceived behavioural control has clearly been underlooked at in the travel context,
which makes its role unclear. The only study that used this theory in the context of online travel
shopping (Bigné et al., 2010) found that perceived behavioural control did not affect intentions
to purchase travel online, contradicting the TPB. However, the current study takes the TPB view
that perceived behavioural control is held to contribute to intentions (Ajzen, 1991), formulating
the following hypothesis:
H3: Individual’s perceived behavioural control over purchasing travel online positively
influences intentions to purchase travel online.
Although no study has specifically examined the relationship between the search for
travel information on social media websites and intentions to purchase travel online, several
studies have found that there is a relationship between online travel information search and
online travel purchasing (Jensen, 2012; Susskind & Stefanone, 2010). Based on these evidences,
this study proposes that travellers with higher social media involvement will be more likely to
purchase travel online than those with lower levels of involvement. Therefore:
H4: Individuals’ social media involvement is positively related to intentions to purchase

travel online
Social media use was operationalized with a construct termed social media involvement
proposed by Amaro and Duarte (2015), conceptualized as a multidimensional construct based
on people’s usage of social media (consumption and creation), their level of interest in social
media and perceived enjoyment with the use of social media.
Methods and material

The data was collected with a questionnaire distributed online and was available in
Portuguese. A convenience sampling technique was employed to collect the data, by sending e-
mail invitations to colleagues, students, personal contacts, and other email contacts collected.
A total of 1,339 responses were considered valid. Partial Least Squares (PLS) were then used
to test the hypotheses proposed.
The evaluation of the research model using PLS analysis consisted of two distinct steps.
In the first step, the outer model was assessed and there was evidence to confirm its reliability
and validity. In the second step, the inner model estimates were examined to assess the
hypothesized relationships among the constructs in the conceptual model (Hair, Sarstedt,
Ringle, & Mena, 2012).
Results
The explained variance of intentions to purchase travel online was 67%, demonstrating a
substantial predictive power. The path coefficients and significance levels are illustrated in
Figure 1. The first hypothesis predicted that attitude would positively influence intentions to
purchase travel online. Consistent with intention based models and with other studies
33
conducted in the online travel context (e.g. Bigné, Sanz, Ruiz, & Aldás, 2010; Lee, Qu, & Kim,
2007; Morosan & Jeong, 2008), attitude was found to be significantly associated with intentions
to purchase travel online (β=0.71, p<0.001).
Figure 1 – PLS Results
The second hypothesis proposed that communicability influences intentions to purchase

travel online was not supported (β=-0.02, p=0.33). This result is not totally unexpected, since
the influence of others to perform behaviours in volunteering settings - such as the purchase of
travel online - has been found to be week or non-existent (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989;
San Martín & Herrero, 2012). It is possible that the influence of friends tends to diminish as the
purchase of travel online gets more widespread. Since online travel shopping is nowadays a
widespread practice, knowing that others purchase travel online does not seem to influence the
purchase of travel online.
The third hypothesis was concerned with the role of perceived behavioural control. The
hypothesis was supported by the data (β = 0.17, p<0.001), echoing the postulation of the TPB.
Indeed, individuals that assess they have the capabilities and resources to purchase travel
online will have higher intentions to carry out the purchase online. This conclusion is consistent
with the TPB and with Li and Buhalis’s (2006) study in the online travel context, which found
that Internet traveller's self-assessment of their capabilities to purchase travel online was
positively associated with the likelihood of purchasing travel online. However, a different study
regarding the purchase of travel online (Bigné et al., 2010) found that perceived behavioural
control did not affect intentions to purchase travel online. Therefore, the results of this study
help to better clarify these contradictory results, since few studies have examined the role of
perceived behavioural control in the context of online travel shopping.
The main aim of hypothesis four was to examine if individual’s level of involvement with
social media had an effect on intentions to purchase travel online. The hypothesis was not
statistically supported (β = 0.04, p=0.27). A possible explanation for this is that travellers that
purchase travel online do so mostly to save time and, therefore, even though they may use social
34
media websites and find them interesting, they do not spend much time using them, since this
can be a time consuming task. On the other hand, it may also indicate that many travellers
search for travel information on travel social media websites, but then book at a traditional
travel agency as Jun, Vogt, and MacKay (2007) found in their research.

At a time when Internet use and online travel shopping are more prevalent, factors such
as perceived behavioural control with online travel shopping plays a small role. What really
matters for Internet users to purchase travel online is having a favourable attitude towards
online travel shopping. Therefore, online travel marketers need to pay close attention to the
factors that contribute to a favourable attitude. Given attitude’s importance in explaining
intentions to purchase travel online, it is essential to examine the factors affecting attitude
formation. For example, prior experience with online travel purchases (e.g. Morosan & Jeong,
2006), perceived playfulness (e.g. Morosan & Jeong, 2008), enjoyment (e.g. Hassanein & Head,
2007) and personal innovativeness (e.g. Limayem, Khalifa, & Frini, 2000) have been found to
affect attitude towards online shopping.
From a theoretical perspective, it seemed reasonable to expect that a higher involvement
with social media would lead to higher intentions to purchase travel online. Yet, the data in this
study suggests that there is no relationship. It should be noted that hypotheses that are not
confirmed convey important findings. For example, online travel providers can look for more
profitable websites to advertise rather than social media websites.
One of limitations of this study was that a convenience sample with only the Portuguese
population was used. Therefore, generalisation of the results must be made with caution. In
spite of the study’s limitations, academic researchers, tourism practitioners and marketers can
take advantage of this study to better understand the adoption of online travel shopping and
consequently improve online travel distribution strategies.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, the Center for Studies
in Education, Technologies and Health (CI&DETS), the Research Center in Business Sciences
(NECE-UBI), the University of Beira Interior and the Portuguese Foundation for Science and
Technology (FCT).
References
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, 50(2), 179-211.
Amaro, S., & Duarte, P. (2013). Online travel purchasing: A literature review. Journal of Travel
& Tourism Marketing, 30(8), 755-785.
Amaro, S., & Duarte, P. (2015). Social Media Involvement: A Proposed Measure. In I. Tussyadiah
& A. Inversini (Eds.), Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2015 (pp.
213-226). Vienna, Austria: Springer-Verlag.
Bigné, E., Sanz, S., Ruiz, C., & Aldás, J. (2010). Why Some Internet Users Don’t Buy Air Tickets
Online. In U. Gretzel, R. Law & M. Fuchs (Eds.), Information and Communication
Technologies in Tourism 2010 (pp. 209-221). Vienna, Austria: Springer.
Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., & Warshaw, P. R. (1989). User acceptance of computer technology: a
comparison of two theoretical models. Management Science, 35(8), 982-1003.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behaviour: An introduction to
theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
35
Hair, J. F., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., & Mena, J. A. (2012). An assessment of the use of partial
least squares structural equation modeling in marketing research. Journal of the Academy
of Marketing Science, 40(3), 414-433.
Hassanein, K., & Head, M. (2007). Manipulating perceived social presence through the web
interface and its impact on attitude towards online shopping. International Journal of
Human-Computer Studies, 65(8), 689-708.
Jensen, J. M. (2012). Shopping Orientation and Online Travel Shopping: The Role of Travel
Experience. International Journal of Tourism Research, 14(1), 56-70.
Jun, S. H., Vogt, C. A., & MacKay, K. J. (2007). Relationships between Travel Information Search
and Travel Product Purchase in Pretrip Contexts. Journal of Travel Research, 45(3), 266-
274.
Lee, H. Y., Qu, H., & Kim, Y. S. (2007). A study of the impact of personal innovativeness on online
travel shopping behavior—A case study of Korean travelers. Tourism Management, 28(3),
886-897.
Limayem, M., Khalifa, M., & Frini, A. (2000). What Makes Consumers Buy from Internet? A
Longitudinal Study of Online Shopping. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and
Cybernetics - Part A: Systems and Humans, 30(4), 421-432.
Morosan, C., & Jeong, M. (2006). Understanding Travelers’ Adoption of Hotel Reservation Web
sites. In M. Hitz, M. Sigala & J. Murphy (Eds.), Information and Communication
Technologies in Tourism 2006 (pp. 394-405). Vienna, Austria: Springer.
Morosan, C., & Jeong, M. (2008). Users’ perceptions of two types of hotel reservation Web sites.
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 27(2), 284-292.
Morrison, A. M., Jing, S., O’Leary, J. T., & Cai, L. A. (2001). Predicting Usage of the Internet for
Travel Bookings: An Exploratory Study. Information Technology & Tourism, 4(1), 15-30.
San Martín, H., & Herrero, A. (2012). Influence of the user’s psychological factors on the online
purchase intention in rural tourism: Integrating innovativeness to the UTAUT framework.
Tourism Management, 33(2), 341-350.
Susskind, A. M., & Stefanone, M. A. (2010). Internet apprehensiveness: An examination of on-
line information seeking and purchasing behavior. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Technology, 1(1), 5-29.
36
Identifying criteria than exert an influence in the co-creation process

between tourists and hotel managers
Luisa Andreu
Amparo Cervera
Universitat de Valencia
luisa.andreu@uv.es
Susana Navarro
Norat Roig
Universidad Europea de Valencia
Abstract
The topic of our study deals with one of the challenges of the 2015 ATMC: what can
tourism operators do to assists in their creation of experiences and how can they become co-
creators of value? Specifically, our study focuses on hotel managers as value facilitators of
tourists with disabilities (TwD) and the main objective is to identify which criteria exert an
influence in the co-creation process between tourists and hotel managers. The research
methodology for this study is the adoption of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Three
stages in the value co-creation process constitute the main criteria: communication, use, and
service (Payne et al., 2008). Each of these three criteria gives rise to a number of subcriteria.
Both academic and managerial implications are provided. Our findings show that the service
encounters and usage encounters criterion are fundamental for the co-creation process. If we
compare these results with disabled customers’ point of view where the stay and booking stage
are the success factors for co-creation, we can conclude that for co-creation between clients and
hotel staff, we need critical factors for the co-creation process related with the interactions as
the relationship with the staff, the accessible environment and the collaboration with the staff.
37
Can Rural Tourism Satisfy Portuguese Tourist's Needs? Examining

Portuguese Tourist's Preferences
Joaquim Antunes
Cristina Barroco
Suzanne Amaro
Polytechnic Institute of Viseu
Center for Studies in Education, Technologies and Health
Viseu, Portugal
jantunes@estgv.ipv.pt
Introduction
Tourism is considered one of the fastest growing industries, assuming a central role in the
economy of many countries. Over the past years, new tourism products have been launched
and existent ones have been adapted, such as rural tourism. The motivations for the demand of
these services are aimed at revitalizing physical and psychic balance, under stress caused by
modern lifestyles.
The importance of rural tourism has been stressed in several studies. For instance,
according to Dong, Wang, Morais and Brooks (2013) rural tourism has been frequently
mentioned as an alternative form of economic development in rural areas. Other studies have
emphasized that it significantly contributes to the gross national product, wealth creation,
employment generation (Choong-Ki, Var & Blaine, 1996; Borooah, 1999) and to regional
development (Dredge, 1999). In a more recent study, rural tourism is considered as a
diversification strategy that serves as a catalyst for economic growth in remote communities
(Rid, Ezeuduji & Pröbst-Haider, 2014).
In the Portuguese case, there is a low profitability of rural tourism and, therefore, it is
crucial to identify market segments to create appropriate marketing strategies in order to
increase the profitability of rural tourism (Kastenholz, 2002). Despite the importance of better
understanding what motivates tourists to choose rural tourism, studies focusing on rural
tourism in Portugal have been limited (e.g. Kastenholz, Davis & Paul, 1999; Kastenholz, 2005;
Almeida, Correia & Pimpão, 2014). Thus, the main aim of this study is to examine Portuguese
tourists’ preferences when choosing rural tourism accommodation. The findings are crucial to
support marketing strategies and for rural tourism development in Portugal.
This study begins with a literature review of earlier studies concerning rural tourism,
followed by the research methodology. In the fourth part, the results are discussed and finally,
in the conclusions, some strategies are suggested as well as limitations of the study are
presented.
Literature review
According to Cai and Li (2009) tourist activity in rural areas had a large increase after
1970 in most developed countries and played a key role in the growth of rural areas
economically and socially depressed. According to Park and Yoon (2009), just as in many other
countries, rural tourism offered opportunities for generating and diversifying revenues for
Korean farmers. It is an effective strategy for revitalizing rural communities that have
experienced serious structural and economic problems.
Rural tourism activities may include low-impact outdoor sports such as hiking or horse-
riding, as well as farm tours or opportunities to assist with farming tasks, depending on the
season and type of farms. As it can really complement farmers’ income and contribute to local
economic development, rural tourism is increasingly being conceptualised as a business model
38
in terms of product diversification. In some regions, public sector tourism organisations are
actively promoting rural tourism, although farmers may not always have the time, the capital
and the necessary skills and knowledge to develop the tourism potential of their business (Page
& Getz, 1997).
Research focusing on rural tourists’ motivations has identified several motives on why
they search for this type of tourism. In a study applied in Finland, Pesonen (2012) concludes
that the most important motivations for rural tourists are to relax from the ordinary, getting
refreshed and sense of comfort. Beautiful landscape, calm and rush-free atmosphere are among
the most important destination attributes. A different study, applied in Korea, found that rural
tourists are more likely to be interested in the role of agriculture and its associated culture,
such as the agricultural experience and rural life (Park & Yoon, 2009). A study conducted by
Kastenholz et al. (1999) revealed that rural tourists tend to be attracted by a peaceful
atmosphere and nostalgia for old ways of life. Devesa, Laguna and Palacios (2010) segmented
rural tourists based on their motivations and identified four segments: 1) a visitor looking for
tranquillity, rest and contact with nature; 2) cultural visitors; 3) proximity-gastronomic and
nature visitor and 4) returning tourists.
These studies demonstrate that rural tourism offers tourists multi-faceted activities, and,
consequently, there are many motivations to engage in rural tourism. This conclusion is echoed
in a recent study that concludes that “Rural tourism is a diverse activity occurring in both
natural and built rural environments, it takes numerous forms and, as a consequence, the
reasons or motivations for participating in rural tourism are equally numerous (Jepson &
Sharpley 2014, p.1).
Methodology
To carry out this study a questionnaire was designed with a set of 19 items related to rural
tourism and the environment based on literature review. To assess the face validity of the items,
experts who had been conducting prominent research in marketing and tourism, were asked
to analyse the proposed instrument. They were requested to clarify the items, and comment
whether the items were likely to be appropriate for assessing tourists’ behaviour and
motivations. After their comments and suggestions were considered and incorporated into the
research design, a pre-test was conducted on customers to further refine the list of items.
The questionnaire was self-administered and applied in several Portuguese cities, where
Portuguese tourists were asked to classify the importance of the 18 items using a 5 point Likert
scale where 1 = “Not at all important” and 5 = “Extremely important”. A total of 138 respondents
completed the questionnaire (error ± 8,33% and 95% reliability). Data analysis was performed
using SPSS 19.0 software.
Results
The 138 respondents were from 12 districts throughout Portugal. The age group with
more number of responses was the age group 35-49, with 41% of the total of responses, while
25% are aged over 50 and 23% are between the age 20 and 24. In terms of gender, there is a
slight skew towards a higher proportion of female participants (62%). The sample seems to be
composed by highly educated individuals, with approximately 49% of the respondents holding
at least a college degree. Sixty eight per cent are married or in a common-law marriage and
43% and 37% have a monthly family income between 1.250€ and 2.499€ and over 2.500€,
respectively.
39
Figure 1 presents the mean values of the 18 items related to rural tourism and the
environment. Nature observation is the item with the highest score, followed by walking trails,
swimming pool and fireplace.
Recreation room
Traditional games
Fireplace
Sale of regional products
Tennis
Swimming pool
Picnics
Fishery
Walking trails
Horse-riding
Nature observation
Mini golf
Internet
Theme parties
Jeep tours
Hunting
Bike/mountain bike
Bar
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5
Figure 1 – Items’ mean values
A factor analysis was conducted using the principal component method and varimax
rotation procedure in order to extract the sub dimensions of the items. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
statistic (KMO) presented a value of 0.874 and the Bartlett test presented a level of significance
equal to 0.000, indicating that the correlation matrices were suitable for factor analysis.
A principal component extraction was used, after which the number of factors was
determined by the number of eigenvalues greater than one. In addition, all items with a factor
loading above 0.5 were included.
The Cronbach’s alpha values indicated that the reliability of each scale were good, since
the three factors presented a value above 0.80. The Principal Component Analysis produced a
three-factor solution explaining 59.024% of the variance, as shown in Table1.
Table 1 shows the weights of the variables on each factor. Factor 1, explaining 22.577%
of the total variance, is composed of variables related to the accommodations’ amenities. The
second factor, which explains 18.244% of the total variance, is related to outdoor sports and
factor 3, which explains 18.203% of the total variance, is related to outdoor activities.
40
Table 1 - Rotated Component Matrixa

Component
1 2 3
Bar ,715
Internet ,666
Theme parties ,656
Recreation room ,654
Fireplace ,627
Traditional games ,609
Sale of regional products ,572
Hunting ,818
Fishing ,751
Jeep Tours ,749
Mini Golf ,627
Horse Riding ,566 ,532
Tennis ,550
Walking Trails ,782
Nature Observation ,765
Bikes/Mountain Bikes ,612
Swimming Pool ,562
Picnics ,528
Eigenvalues 4.064 3.284 3.277
Variance (%) 22.577 18.244 18.203
Cumulative Variance (%) 22.577 40.821 59.024
Cronbach's Alpha 0.847 0.837 0.834
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a. Rotation converged in 8 iterations.
The three factors obtained can therefore serve as a support to strategic decisions makers.
The first factor is related to the accommodations’ amenities. Tourists value the basic amenities
such as recreation room, bar and a fireplace. However, it is regarding the other factors that rural
tourism providers can distinguish themselves among other types of accommodation. Indeed,
the second and third factors - outdoor sports and outdoor activities – are factors that are valued
by tourists. Rural Tourism has the ideal environment to provide tourists with nature and
outdoor related activities and sports and should not be neglected by rural tourism managers.

Rural tourism plays an important role in achieving not only economic and social
development but also rural regeneration (Sharpley, 2002). In order to achieve such
development, rural tourism providers need to increase occupancy rates. Understanding
tourists’ preferences is essential in tourism planning and marketing efforts.
This study has identified a number of factors that are considered important by tourists in
choosing a particular accommodation. Rural tourism providers should consider these factors
in order to adjust their supply to demand. The three factors identified can serve as a support to
making strategic decisions. Indeed, the preferences found in this study show that tourists
expect basic amenities, but also look for sport and nature related activities. Rural tourism can
easily compete with other types of accommodations, since it has the ideal environment to
41
satisfy the needs of potential tourists. Rural tourism marketing strategies should be focused on
showing tourists all they have to offer.
One limitation of this study is related to the small sample size and the fact that it was
conducted in one country. Therefore, generalizations should be made with caution. Future
work should extend the preferences of tourists from other countries in order to promote
Portuguese Rural Tourism in the International market. Another line of investigation could be
examining the viability of niche segments to increase profitability. For instance, given that
tourists choices are increasingly influenced by sustainability considerations (UNWTO, 2012)
and that eco-friendly tourists earn more money (Dolnicar, Crouch & Long, 2008), rural tourism
providers should adopt sustainable tourism practices in order to attract this segment. Given
that other factors are crucial in developing and promoting rural tourism and involve more than
just rural tourism managers competing by themselves (Wilson, Fesenmaier, Fesenmaier & Van
Es, 2001), future research could also examine best practices in Rural Tourism and involve other
stakeholders, such as local government and local businesses.
References
Almeida, A. M. M.; Correia, A. and Pimpão, A. (2014). Segmentation by benefits sought: the case
of rural tourism in Madeira. Current Issues in Tourism, 17(9), 813-831.
Borooah, V. (1999). The supply of hotel rooms in Queensland, Australia. Annals of Tourism
Research, 26 (4), 985-1003.
Cai, L. A. and Li, M. (2009). Distance segmented rural tourists. Journal of Travel & Tourism
Marketing, 26 (8), 751-761.
Choong-Ki, L.; T. Var andT. Blaine (1996). Determinants of inbound tourist expenditures.
Devesa, M., Laguna, M. and Palacios, A. (2010). The role of motivation in visitor satisfaction:
empirical evidence in Rural Tourism. Tourism Management, 31(4), 547-552.
Dolnicar, S., Crouch, G. I., & Long, P. (2008). Environment-friendly tourists: what do we really
know about them?. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(2), 197-210.
Dong, E.; Wang, Y.; Morais D. and Brooks, D. (2013). Segmentation the rural tourism market:
the case of Potter County, Pennsylvania, USA. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 19(2), 181-
193.
Dredge, D. (1999). Destination place planning and design. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4):
772-791.
Jepson D. & Sharpley, R. (2014). More than sense of place? Exploring the emotional dimension
of rural tourism experiences. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1-22.
Kastenholz, E. (2005), Analysing determinants of visitor spending for the rural tourist market
in North Portugal. Tourism Economics, 11(4), 555-569.
Kastenholz, E. (2002). The market for rural tourism in North and Central Portugal in Tourism
and Sustainable Community Development, London: Routledge.
Kastenholz, E., Davis D. and Paul G. (1999). Segmenting tourism in rural areas: the case of North
and Central Portugal. Journal of Travel Research, 37(4), 353-63.
Page, S. and D. Getz (1997). The business of rural tourism: international perspectives, London:
Thomson.
Park, D.B. and Yoon, Y.S. (2009). Segmentation by motivation in rural tourism: a Korean case
study. Tourism Management, 30(1), 99-108.
Pesonen, J. A. (2012). Segmentation of rural tourists: combining push and pull motivations.
Tourism and Hospitality Management, 18(1), 69-82.
Rid, W.; Ezeuduji, I. O. and Pröbst-Haider, U. (2014). Segmentation by motivation for rural
tourism activities in the Gambia. Tourism Management, 40(2014): 102-116.
42
Sharpley, R. (2002). Rural tourism and the challenge of tourism diversification: the case of
Cyprus. Tourism Management, 23 (3), 233-244.
UNWTO (2012). Tourism in the Green Economy Background Report. Madrid, Spain.
Wilson, S., Fesenmaier, D. R., Fesenmaier, J., & Van Es, J. C. (2001). Factors for success in rural
tourism development. Journal of Travel research, 40(2), 132-138.
43
The Package Tour Experiences and Tourist Satisfaction
Ahmet Aslan
A.Gozde Yasar
Gurel Cetin
Orhan Akova
Mehtap Balik
Tevfik Demirciftci
University of Istanbul
gurelc@istanbul.edu.tr
Introduction
Tourists seek experiences which are different from their regular environment and daily
routine life (Cohen, 1979; MacCannell, 1973). Various authors also argue that experiences
result in positive customer behaviors such as satisfaction. However since it is intangible,
measuring a vacation experience and its relationship with satisfaction are challenging tasks
(Cetin & Dincer, 2014; Guzel, 2014; Neal & Gursoy, 2008).Package tours are also significant part
of commercial tourism industry. However experiential characteristics of organized travel
services have so far been neglected in the literature. The aim of this study is to present the
relationships between experiential attributes of package tours and tourist satisfaction.
Therefore the study tries to explore the answers of two main questions. First, what are the
relationships between experiential factors and package tour satisfaction and second, how
strongly these factors affect tourist satisfaction.
Literature Review
A substantial number of studies attempted to establish items that influence tourist
experiences. According to Pine and Gilmore (1999) there are four dimensions of experiences:
entertainment,educational, aesthetic, and escapist experiences. Education experiences are
discussed as interactive engagement of body and mind on events, activities and perceptions
that are acquired from the destination (Oh, Fiore, & Jeoung, 2007). Esthetic experience
dimension refers to tourists’ tendency to take pleasure from beauty and harmonyin the
destination. The entertainment experience is related to events that amuse a customer. Escapist
sphere of experiences on the other hand include tourists’ strong desire for a change and to
attempt something new and different. In this study experience economy concepts (four realms
of experience) which are extended by Oh et al. (2007) were modified and applied on package
tourists.
The package tour is an assembly of different products and services arranged by a tour
organizer (e.g. tour operator) which includes services such as transportation, sight-seeing, food
and lodging services. Tour organizers usually charge these services at an inclusive price (Bowie
& Chang, 2005). Package tours particularly have become popular for specific tourism market
segments (Mancini, 1996) such as cultural and heritage tourism as well as other special interest
tours. A package tour is a reasonable and effective way for tourists to travel in a relatively safe
way to other destinations, to visit various places on a trip in a short period, to have reliable and
convenient services (Enoch, 1996).
Individual services that make up the package tour determine whether tourists feel
satisfied or dissatisfied at the end of their trip (Xu. & Chan, 2010). Poor service experiences
such as late transfers, small rooms, limited food services and other below par touristic services
could bring about an overall negative experiencefrom the destination. Bowie and Chang (2005)
also stated that package tourists’ service experiences of hedonism and enjoyment impact their
44
satisfaction. Satisfaction has also been thought as the balance between expectation and
experience and considered as an important antecedent of future patronage and
recommendation behavior (Pearce, 2005). However it is harder to define satisfaction solely
based on experiences (Cetin & Walls, 2015). Satisfaction can be considered as an outcome of
tourist experience but tourist do not travel just to be satisfied, there is a deep motivation for
memorable experiences. Therefore experiences can also be regarded as a factor influencing
satisfaction.
Various researchers have argued that the role of quality of tourist experience is related to
overall tourist satisfaction (Cole & Scott, 2004; Kao, Huang, & Wu, 2008). Satisfaction from
overall experiences is affected by satisfaction with individual services (Chan, 2004). Moreover
experiences also considered to create an additional value to the customer which is also referred
to as experiential value (Cetin, Akova & Kaya, 2014). Despite there seems to be a close
relationship between tourist experience and satisfaction, no previous study explored this
relationship in a package tour setting. This study aims to analyze the package tour experiences
and their impact tourist satisfaction.
Methodology
A questionnaire was developed based on a review of prior studies on tourist experiences.
Pine and Gilmore’s (1999) experience economy concepts (escape, education, entertainment
and aesthetics) were adopted to define experiential factors of a package tour. As experiences
are also discussed as memorable perceptions (Cetin & Bilgihan, 2015), activities and feelings,
memorability of experiences were also measured. The first part of the questionnaire comprised
package tour experience dimensions, the second part consisted of satisfaction ratings and third
section included demographic and tripographic information. Data was collected through a self-
administrated survey conducted on 120 respondents. Collection of data took three weeks
between November and December, 2014 in old city (Sultanahmet) district of Istanbul.
Results
Among the 120 subjects in the study, 113 (%94) valid questionnaireswere used during
data analysis. First descriptive statistics were obtained and frequencies were extracted. 60.2
percent of the respondents were male. The majority of the respondents (41%) were between
21 and 30 years of age. 43.4 percent had a household income between 10.000 and 50.000 USD
per year and 75.2 percent were university graduates. They were mainly from Europe (45%),
Fareast (24%), and North America (17%).
In order to measure reliability Cronbach's alpha was calculated for the variables
measuring experience (independent variable) and satisfaction (dependent variable)
dimensions. Both experience (α=0.92) and satisfaction (α=0.82) items reliability coefficients
were above acceptable level. Then Pearson’s Correlation was used to explore the relationship
between experiential attributes and satisfaction. Table 1 reflects the relationship between
package tour experience items and satisfaction. Considering satisfaction the most important
package tour experience items are as follows: “the package tour experience was highly
educational to me” (r=0.51),“the attractions were pretty exciting during the tour” (r=0.57),“the
settings were fun to stare and watch during the tour” (r=0.50),and “time flew by during the tour
(r=0.44). All three items reflecting memorability of experiences were also found to be
significantly related to satisfaction.
45
Table 1: Relationship between package tour experience and satisfaction

Experiential Factors Mean Satisfaction
Education Factors
Package tour experience has made me more knowledgeable 3.93 0.28**
I learned a lot during the tour 3.92 0.47**
The package tour stimulated my curiosity to learn new things 3.96 0.44**
The package tour experience was highly educational to me 3.73 0.51**
The package tour experience really enhanced my skills 3.44 0.45**
Esthetics Factors
I felt a real sense of harmony during the tour 3.65 0,52**
It was fun to meet and interact with others during the tour 3.88 0.36**
Just being here was very pleasant during the tour 4.12 0.47**
The attractions were pretty exciting during the tour 4.16 0.57**
The settings were very attractive during the tour 4.01 0.49**
The selection of sights, the hotels and restaurants really showed 3.69 0.47**
attention to detail
The settings provided pleasure to my senses 3.88 0.38**
Entertainment Factors
Activities of others and the guides were amusing to attend 3.66 0.35**
I really enjoyed watching the environment during the tour 4.20 0.27**
The settings were fun to stare and watch during the tour 3.96 0.50**
The physical settings was boring to watch during the tour 2.12 0.40**
Escapist Factors
I felt I played a different character during the tour 2.98 0.22**
I felt like I was living in a different time or place 3.45 0.30**
The experiencelet me imagine being someone else 3.03 0.29**
I completely escaped from reality during the tour 3.19 0.17**
I totally forgot about my daily routine during the tour 3.72 0.20**
Time flew by during the tour 3.92 0.43**
Memory
I will have wonderful memories after the tour 4.19 0.63**
I will remember many positive things after the tour 4.17 0.64**
I won’t forget my experiences after the tour 4.26 0.56**
*Correlation is significant at p < 0.05 level (two tailed); **correlation is significant at p < 0.01 level (two
tailed).
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to examine how the package tour experiences affect tourist
satisfaction. After analysis of data based on 113 responses, it was found that tourist experience
dimensionsare positively and significantly correlated with satisfaction from package tours. To
conclude this study strengthened the idea the hypothesis that package tour satisfaction is
related to the quality of experiences acquired during the trip at the destinationand
memorability of these perceptions are important.Thus, service providers and package tour
organizers could use the 4E’s of experiences to create memorable services which in turn would
satisfy their clients. For example aesthetic dimensions of the tour might be emphasized by
46
visiting natural and culturally unique places that offer esthetic beauty.Also, frontline employees
(e.g. guides) of tour operators should be trained for information dissemination and social
interaction which would edutain customers. Implying authentic details that represent locality
in the itinerary would also trigger escapist experiences. This study is a preliminary study of a
larger research that will involve a larger sample. The second stage of the study because it will
involve a larger sample is planned to involve multivariate analysis that would better define the
importance of factors that affect tourists, package tour experiences.
References
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package tour. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 4(11), 303–322.
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Industry. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150, 1040-1049.
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Current Issues in Tourism, Ahead of print. doi: 10.1080/13683500.2014.994595
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in hospitality operations. Anatolia, 25(2), 181-194.
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Guests and Hotel Managers: Empirical Findings from Luxury Hotels in Istanbul, Turkey.
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10.1080/19368623.2015.1034395
Chan, A. (2004). Towards an improved understanding of tour services and customer
satisfaction in package tours. Paper presented at the 2nd Asia Pacific CHRIC (APac-CHRIE)
Conference. Thailand.
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47
Oh, H., Fiore, A., & Jeoung, M. (2007). Measuring experience economy concepts: Tourism
applications. Journal of Travel Research(46), 119-132.
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Researches, 2(15), 177-194.
48
The impact of the Spa Experience on Well-Being and Loyalty
Seyhmus Baloglu
James Busser
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
seyhmus.baloglu@unlv.edu
Lisa Moll
UNLV
Introduction
The spa and wellness industry is a multi-trillion dollar global industry that has expanded
exponentially over the past decade and will continue to expand (Global Spa Summit, 2010).
Research has revealed that tourists are increasingly opting to incorporate spa and wellness
activities into their travel plans that directly aim to enhance their sense of well-being (Smith &
Puczkó, 2009). There is a need to understand tourists’ motivations and outcomes in order to
inform the industry how to better understand their clientele. Therefore, the purpose of this
study was to develop and test a theoretical model of spa experience. Based on a thorough
review of the literature the model included: (1) spa motivations as the independent variable;
(2) experience and well-being as both a mediating and dependent variable; and, (4) loyalty as
the ultimate dependent variable.
Literature Review
Motivations are the initial stimuli that incite decision-making processes (Crompton, &
McKay, 1997). While much work has been done to understand the motivations for tourism
destinations, very little work has focused on the spa and wellness industry. One exception is the
work by Voigt, Brown, & Howat (2011). In their study, they found that there were six benefits
factors for spa and wellness tourists, including transcendence, physical health and appearance,
escape and relaxation, important others, and novelty; re-establish, self-esteem, and indulgence.
Experience is conceptualized as the customers’ enjoyment of a series of memorable
events that are staged by the company providing them in order to engage the consumer in a
personal way (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). It is “the sum total of the functional and emotional
outcome dimensions of any kind of service” (Sandstrom, Edvardsson, Kristensson, &
Magnusson, 2008, p.118). Oh, Fiore and Jeoung (2007) adopted Pine and Gilmore’s experience
model and developed an experience measurement scale consisting of four categories:
education, entertainment, esthetic, and escapism. The researchers found a high positive
correlation between experience and the other key marketing outcome variables such as
satisfaction and loyalty (Oh et al., 2007).
Existing tourism literature has examined the relationship between motivation and
satisfaction from various perspectives (Dunn Ross, & Iso-Ahola, 1991; Oliver, 2010). Yoon and
Uysal (2005) maintain that motivation indirectly affects loyalty through satisfaction. Similarly,
other studies found a positive relationship between motivation and behavioral intention with
the mediating effect of other evaluative variables such as destination image and past experience
(Baloglu, 2000; Huang & Hsu, 2009). Experience, conceptualized as a post-consumption
evaluative construct was significantly correlated with satisfaction (Oh, et al., 2007). Given the
significant relationship between motivation and satisfaction, it is proposed that motivation
significantly affects loyalty through experience.
49
Subjective well-being is defined as those phenomena that comprise an individual’s

emotional responses, domain satisfactions, and holistic decisions about life satisfaction (Diener,
Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999). Tourism literature has shown that various types of well-being,
including physical, emotional and spiritual, can be enhanced by a tourist’s trip (Uysal, Sirgy, &
Perdue, 2012). The major psychological benefits of leisure and tourism activities are to allow
tourists to escape from their routine stressful environment and seek recreational opportunities
(Mannell & Iso-Ahola, 1987). It is reasonable to expect that the more positive the customer’s
spa experience, the greater their subjective well-being.
A model was developed based on literature review, which posits that spa motivations will
have an impact on spa experience which, in turn, influences subjective well-being and loyalty
towards the spa. Subjective well-being was also proposed to impact loyalty, as well.
Method
Sample
An online survey was administered in September, 2013. A panel sample was selected
using a database provided by Qualtrics. Qualtrics is an online survey building and distribution
platform that enables researchers to create and distribute surveys to targeted respondents.
Potential respondents are sent an email invitation informing them that the survey is for
research purposes only, how long the survey is expected to take, and what incentives are
available. Members may unsubscribe at any time. To avoid self-selection bias, the survey
invitation does not include specific details about the contents of the survey. For this study,
respondents were drawn from a national database. An email was sent to all the panel members
who were required to be adults over the age of 18 and used the services of a spa within the last
six months. The researchers did not distinguish between types of spa (e.g., day spa, resort spa)
as they were interested in profiling customer’s expectations of their motivations and
experiences along with subjective well-being and loyalty in the spa service setting as a whole.
Qualified participants were invited to take the survey via a link contained in the email. A total
of 400 participants completed the survey within two weeks of data collection.
Instrument
The survey was comprised of four measures (motivation, experience, subjective well-
being, loyalty) adapted from previous research, with acceptable Chronbachs’ alphas (.70-.90)
that used Likert scales. Motivation consisted of twenty-four items (Voigt, et al., 2011) that asked
respondents to indicate the importance of the reasons they chose to visit the spa (e.g.,“to be at
peace with myself,” and “to treat my body well.”) Ten experience items (Oh, et al., 2007) asked
respondents to rate their level of agreement with statements like, “the experience has made me
more knowledgeable,” and “I have wonderful memories about my spa visit.” The well-being
measure comprised three items representing emotional well-being (McCabe & Johnson, 2012)
where individuals were asked to rate the extent to which their spa visit contributed to
“happiness,” “my positive feelings about myself,” and “my emotional well-being.” Finally, three
loyalty items were used (Baloglu, 2002) such as “I would revisit the spa,” “I would buy
additional products or services from the spa,” and “I would recommend this spa to friends.”
Data analysis
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to define the underlying structure of the
motivations and spa experience measures. The procedures utilized were principal component
analysis with varimax rotation, both the latent root and Scree Test criteria to identify the
number of components (Hair et al., 2010). Structural equation modeling, using AMOS 20, was
conducted to test the proposed measurement and structural model. Composite reliabilities and
validity measures were obtained, and nomological, convergent, and discriminant validity of the
constructs were assessed.
50
Results
The motivations for spa benefits were factor analyzed using principal component analysis
with varimax rotation. Five motivation components emerged: self-improvement (SIM),
shared/new experience (SNE), de-stress (DES), solitude (SOL), and self-indulgence (SIN). The
same exploratory factor analysis (EFA) procedures were used to identify the components of spa
experience. Two components emerged and labeled as “Affective Memory” and “Learning
Enhancement.”
The initial run of the model showed adequate fit indices (normed χ2 = 2.95; CFI = 0.87;
RMSEA = 0.07) except for the CFI as it was slightly below the suggested threshold of 0.90. After
dropping one motivation item, “to overcome health problems” because of a low correlation with
the remaining items of the construct and allowing a couple of strong error covariances within
the same constructs as suggested by the modification indices and reasonably justified, the fit
indices were acceptable based on the suggested threshold values (normed χ2 = 2.74, CFI = 0.90;
RMSEA = 0.06). The study assessed convergent and discriminant validity based on the
guidelines provided by Joreskog and Sorbom (1996) and Hair et al. (2010). The average
variance extracted (AVEs) were above the 0.50 threshold except for emotional subjective well-
being (SWB) which was slightly below (0.48) the suggested value. However, all AVE estimates
exceeded the squared correlations between pairs of constructs, providing support for
convergent and discriminant validity.
All individual t values were significant with no offending estimates (Reisinger & Turner,
1999). In addition, no sign of multicollinearity was detected that would adversely affect the
accuracy of results (Grewal, Cote, & Baumgartner, 2004). The findings also showed strong
support for nomological validity (Malhotra, 1999) as most path coefficients were significant (p
< .05) and in the expected theoretical direction.
Spa experience was strongly related to motivations for spa visits. Self-Improvement
motivation had a significant impact on Affective Memory (0.37, p < .001) and Learning
Enhancement (0.39, p < .001) spa experiences. Shared/New experience and self-indulgence
motivations significantly influenced learning enhancement experience (p < .001). De-stress
motivation had a significant impact on affective memorable experience (0.28, p < .01). Affective
memorable experience positively influenced emotional subjective well-being (0.38, p < .001).
In return, both affective memorable experience (.54) and emotional SWB (.45) had a direct and
positive impact on spa loyalty at 0.001 probability level. The impact of affective memorable
experience on loyalty was found to be greater than that of emotional subjective well-being.
Discussion
This study contributes to the knowledge advancement in the tourism literature and
industry in two ways. First, it examines the motivations that drive individuals to purchase
spa/wellness services. Second, the study explores the interrelationship among motivation,
experience, subjective well-being and loyalty, providing a comprehensive look at consumers’
decision-making processes.
Perhaps the most important finding is that the memorable spa experience is a greater
predictor of loyalty than is the subjective well-being experienced by the spa patron.
Accordingly, spa managers should tailor their services to facilitate lasting memories for the
guest. Staff should be trained to ask questions regarding the expected spa experience and then
create a spa experience that meets or exceeds those communicated expectations. It was found
that motivations influence the spa experience. Spa operators should ask customers the reason
for their visit and the benefits sought. By understanding the relationship between motivation,
experience, subjective well-being and loyalty, spa managers will be able to better tailor the
51
goods and services provided in their businesses to meet and exceed the expectations of their
clientele. Moreover, the relationship between and among these concepts may allow spa
managers to create the type of experience necessary to enhance the subjective well-being of
their customers and ultimately result in customer loyalty.
References
Baloglu, S. (2002). Dimensions of customer loyalty: Separating friends from well wishers.
Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 43(1), 47–59.
Browne, M., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A.
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Byrne, B. (1998). Structural equation modeling with Lisrel, Prelis, and Simplis: Basic
concepts, applications, and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
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Research, 24, 425–439.
Diener, E., Suh, E.M., Lucas, R.E., & Smith, H.L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of
progress. Psychological Bulletin 125(2), 276-302.
Dunn Ross, E.L., & Iso-Ahola, S.E. (1991). Sightseeing tourists' motivation and satisfaction.
Global Spa Summit. (2010). Spas and the global wellness market: Synergies and opportunities.
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Grewal, R., Cote, J. A., & Baumgartner, H. (2004). Multicollinearity and measurement
error in structural equation models. Marketing Science, 23, 519-529.
Hair, J. F., Anderson, R., Tatham, R., & Black, W. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Evaluating model fit. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation
modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 76-99). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Malhotra, N. (1999). Marketing research: An applied orientation (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Huang, S., & Hsu, C.H.C. (2009). Effects of travel motivation, past experience, perceived
constraint, and attitude on revisit intention. Journal of Travel Research, 48; 29-44.
Mannell, R. C., & Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1987). Psychological nature of leisure and tourism experience.
Annals of tourism research, 14(3), 314-331.
McCabe, S., & Johnson, S. (2013). The happiness factor in tourism: Subjective well-being and
social tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 41, 42–65.
Oh, H., Fiore, A.M., & Jeoung, M. (2007). Measuring experience economy concepts: Tourism
applications. Journal of Travel Research, 46, 119-132.
Oliver, R.L. (2010). Satisfaction: A behavioral perspective on the consumer. New York: M.E.
Sharpe, 2nd Ed.
Pine, B.J.II., & Gilmore, H.J. (1999). The Experience Economy: Work is Theatre & Every Business a
Stage. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Reisinger, Y., & Turner, L. (1999). Structural equation modeling with Lisrel: Application in
tourism. Tourism Management, 20, 71–88.
Sandstrom, S., Edvardsson, B., Kristensson, P., & Magnusson, P. (2008). Value in use through
service experience. Managing Service Quality, 18(2), 112-126.
Smith, M.K & Puzko, L. (2009). Health and wellness tourism. Electronic reproduction.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Science & Technology.
Uysal, M., Sirgy, M.J., & Perdue, R.R. (2012). Handbook of Tourism and Quality of Life Research:
Enhancing the Lives of Tourists and Residents of Host Communities, 669-684.
52
Voigt, C., Graham, B., & Howat, G. (2011). Wellness tourists: In search of transformation.
Tourism Review, 66(1/2), 16-30.
Yoon, Y., & Uysal, M. (2005). An examination of the effects of motivation and satisfaction on
destination loyalty: A structural model. Tourism Management, 26, 45-56.
53
Wellbeing in Wildlife Experiences: Feeling Good for the Animals?
Giovanna Bertella
UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Tromsø, Norway
Giovanna.Bertella@uit.no
Introduction
This abstract presents the explorative phase of a future study concerning wellbeing in
wildlife experiences. The objective is to explore the concept of wellbeing linking the tourists’
wellbeing to the wellbeing of the involved animals.
The motivation for studying this topic is related to the potential relevance that such an
interconnected way of viewing wellbeing could have in terms of animal protection. The idea is
to move from the view of animal protection as an element that limits the tourism experience,
toward a more positive approach where animal protection is an enriching element.
Literature Review
The theoretical approach of this study is related to the view of the consumer experience
value as emerging from a complex process where both the consumer and the provider actively
participate (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004; Grönroos, 2012). Within such a view, the value is
created through a joint process that can be described as a “merged dialogical process”
(Grönroos & Voima, 2013: 141).
Such a perspective has been applied to tourism. Among other factors, the experience value
has been here described as emerging from the on-site interactions of the tourists/recreationist
with the physical and socio-cultural context, and depending on the tourist/recreationist’s set of
conditions antecedents the experience as well as his/her physical, mental and emotional
engagement (Mossberg, 2007; Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009; Prebensen et al., 2014). The
premise for facilitating this process is a good understanding of the value associated to a specific
experience.
This study focuses on the value of wellbeing in wildlife experiences from the perspective
of the tourists, and aims to gain a better understanding of this value in a direction that is here
qualified as empathic.
Experiencing wellbeing in natural environments

The concept of wellbeing can be described referring to a hedonic aspect, i.e. experiencing
pleasure and happiness, and a eudaimonic aspect, i.e. experiencing a sense of meaning and self-
realization (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Scholarly contributions from various fields have qualified
natural experiences as potential sources of wellbeing in both these senses (Kaplan, 1995;
McDonad et al., 2009; Fredman & Tyrvainen, 2010; Little, 2012; Keninger et al. 2013; Russel et
al. 2013). Some scholars have highlighted the existence of an innate human attraction towards
the nature, a sort of “ecological identity” that can lead to pro-environmental attitudes and
behaviours (Wilson, 1984; Nisbet et al., 2011).
The hedonic and eudaimonic aspects of wellbeing have been commented in some tourism
studies (Moscardo, 2009; Filep, 2013; Björk, 2014). Tourist wellbeing has been related also to
specific values, among which stewardship (Filep, 2012). In this sense, wellbeing in nature-
based experiences can be associated to the feeling of engaging in something meaningful and
having some responsibility towards the natural environment.
54
In line with these reflections, it can be said that experiencing the nature during wildlife
activities can promote wellbeing in a way that includes both hedonic and eudaimonic aspects.
But wildlife experiences are also about experiencing the animals: how can wellbeing be
conceptualized in relation to animal encounters?
Animal encounters
Human-animal studies is a growing discipline focused on the understanding of animals in
the context of the human society (DeMello, 2012). Although the interest in discussing the use
of animals is still scarce among tourism scholars, some studies have investigated animal
encounters and some of them have adopted an experiential approach (Fennel, 2012).
In the case of domesticated animals, the central role played by the animals has been
discussed. Particular relevance has been recognized to the tourist-animal interactions,
suggesting a conceptualization of the animals as active co-creators of tourism value (Mathinsen,
2013; Bertella, 2014; Eide & Mossberg, 2014).
Shifting the focus on wild animals, some scholars have observed that also in this case the
tourist-animal interactions can provoke profound emotions, including a sense of affinity and/or
connectedness with the animals (DeMares & Krycka, 1998; Schanzel & McIntosh, 2000;
Beardsworth & Bryman, 2001; Webb & Drummond, 2001; Curtin, 2009; Smith et al., 2011).
The empathic aspect of wellbeing in wildlife experiences

The hedonic and eudaimonic aspects of animal-encounters can be related to the ethic of
care tradition and the consideration of the animal-human relations within such tradition. The
ethic of care scholars emphasize the sense of connectedness between human and animals and
the moral obligations that humans have towards animals (Donovan & Adams, 2007). In this
perspective, the concept of empathy, i.e. the capacity to recognize and share the emotions felt
by others (in this case the animals), is central.
Applying these ideas to wildlife experiences, wellbeing can be experienced as a sense of
connectedness, caring attitudes and responsibility towards the animals. Such a view of
wellbeing can be qualified as empathic. The empathic aspect of wellbeing in the context of
wildlife experiences is about feeling happy when experiencing/witnessing the animals’
wellbeing and, at the same time, feeling that our behaviour contributes to such wellbeing.
The aim of this study is to better understand the empathic aspect of wellbeing in wildlife
experiences. The research question is: to which extent and how do wildlife tourists experience
empathic wellbeing?
Method
A case study concerning whale watching is conducted. Whale watching is selected based
on d the presumably high possibility to investigate the empathic dimension of wellbeing (Allen,
2014).
The data collection concerns whale watching in northern Norway and is based on the
content analysis of TripAdvisor reviews (124). The objective is to identify those reviews
containing elements that can be related to empathic wellbeing, in particular to the following
three themes already emerged in previous studies concerning cetaceans: the tourists’
attentiveness to the animal wellbeing, sense of connectedness and responsibility.
Research and Results
55
39 reviews were analysed. The findings show that the tourists are attentive to the whales’
condition and behaviour and tend to interpret them in a positive way. A few tourists describe
the whales’ active behaviour as a “show”.
Concerning the behaviour, the element of the animals’ intentionality is observed in those
reviews concerning the possibility of the animals to swim away from the boat. This aspect is
related to the distance between the boat and the whales and the tourists and companies’
responsibility. Several tourists comment on the whales not being present “on demand”, and also
on the importance to keep distance from them. On the other hand, the distance is often qualified
as short and related to a positive visual experience. This is clearly a dilemma.
Still in terms of responsibility within the tourism context, no tourist mentions the possible
problems deriving from the sound of the engine or the movements and speed of the boat.
Responsibility at the individual level was not mentioned neither. One review can be related to
a collective responsibility in terms of protecting the whales as an endangered species.
Only two reviews can be related to the theme of connectedness. One of these highlights a
non-anthropocentric worldview.

The results suggest that some aspects of the experience value concerning whale watching
can be related, at least to a certain degree, to empathic wellbeing. A future study will further
investigate this issue:
 through deep interviews,
 including the element of competence as a complementary aspect of attentiveness,
 exploring how and to which extent the whale-encounter is viewed as a “show”,
 exploring the possible connection between the whale encounter and the
individuals’ perceived responsibility,
 exploring the reflections around debates concerning the wellbeing of the whales.
References
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58
Insights to Food Sourcing as a Means of Holiday Well-being
Peter Björk
HANKEN, School of Economics
Vaasa, Finland
peter.bjork@hanken.fi
Hannele Kauppinen-Räisänen
International University of Monaco
Monaco
hkauppinen@monaco.edu
Introduction
This study deals with two food-related issues contributing to holiday well-being, namely
pre-trip food sourcing and the daily meals on-site. Indeed, food is an essential aspect of every
travellers’ holiday activity. Food is a multifarious phenomenon effecting travellers in various
ways. Accordingly, food and eating carry psycho-sensorial value, convey social and symbolic
meanings, trigger emotional responses and drive cognitive processing affecting food-related
behaviour on-site. Food is also a socio-cultural element being part of the destinations’ cultural
heritage mirroring the local culture, its traditions and the natural environment (Long, 2004),
but – above all – it is a basic human element affecting consumers’ physical and psychological
well-being. The physical well-being relates not only to nourishing like food healthiness and
nutrition, but also to food safety (Cohen & Avieli, 2004). Furthermore, psychological well-being
relates to safety, happiness and satisfaction, like the pleasure that food stimulates (Rozin,
Kurzer, & Cohen, 2002) and the lived experiences they contribute with (Haven-Tang & Jones,
2005). All in all – past research supports that destinations’ food and related experiences
contribute to overall holiday well-being (Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Mason & O'Mahony, 2007).
For the means of holiday well-being tourists’ engage in pre-trip information sourcing. An
extensive body of research prove that information sourcing serves as a means to decrease the
sense of risk (Quintal, Lee & Soutar, 2010). Hence, as the perception of quality and sense of
safety contribute to well-being, travellers search for such information like weather forecasts,
hotel standards and destination security. Indeed past research supports that also destinations’
food is searched for. Reviewed studies show how travellers collect information about
destinations’ food culture (Du Rand & Heath, 2006), still, that activity has remained rather
uncovered by past research. Hence, this study attempts to contribute to current food research
within tourism by investigating pre-trip information sourcing and in particular the information
sources travellers’ use as a means of ensuring food-related holiday well-being, the type of food-
related information search for and the reasons explaining such sourcing.
Another aspect of holiday, while on-site, is that food and acts of eating occur on regular
basis structuring daily activities (Marshall, 2005) as up to three meals are consumed daily. It is
well known that the underlying motivations for consuming food and having those meals vary
(Henderson, 2009; Tikkanen, 2007), yet there is a scant number of studies discussing the meals
tourists consume on vacation. Hence, this study also attempts to dig deeper into the role the
daily meals has for ensuring holiday well-being.
Based on the previous, three specific questions are set. In relation to food sourcing and
well-being,
1. What information sources are used?

2. What information is searched for and why?
59
3. What is the role of the daily meals for travellers’ holiday well-being?
Literature review
To begin with, this study is based on the foundation that food is one ingredient of
gastronomy; an upholder of culture (Hegarty & Mahony, 2001). Gastronomy is a holistic
concepts that relates to the act of food preparation, cooking and eating, and issues of advices,
rules and norms to what to eat and drink (Santich, 2004). Moreover, the study is based on past
research proving that people travel for various reasons; some travelers being lured by the
attraction to experience the ‘enjoyment of excellent food’ (Scarpato, 2002, p. 94). Further, the
study is grounded on past findings that show how information search precedes many decisions
as it serves as a means of risk reduction. Indeed, different information sources are consulted,
and previous research also proclaims a correlation between interest in food and the amount of
information sought (Björk & Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2014). Yet, many issues related to
information sourcing remains uncovered, some of which the current study deals with.

The population of interest for this study was Finnish people with an active interest in
travelling issues. Therefore, data for this study was collected by a means of a structured
questionnaire distributed to people visiting the biggest annual travel fair in Finland, MATKA.
For analysis, a sample of 243 is used. The findings reported are based on univariate analysis
and are mainly of descriptive nature (t-test, ANOVA, regression analysis). Collecting data at a
travel fair has its advantages and disadvantages. On the positive side, a fair offers convenience,
and, in this case when the fair attracts people from all over Finland, a possibility to generalize
the findings. The negative aspect may relate to the bias in the sample framework, which is to be
taken into consideration and controlled. Hence, the challenging issue may be, is people visiting
a travel fair different from non-goers? Notable is that the sample used compared to the statistics
of Finland, only varies in terms of gender distribution. Hence, the sample analyzed for this study
has an over-representation for women, which must be kept in mind interpreting the findings.
Results
Respondents’ demographic profile portray a sample of middle-age people (mean age 45
years) with a traveling history matching that of the Finnish population, i.e. two national and
two international vacation trip annually (Statistics Finland) (Table 1).
60
Table 1. The demographic characteristics of the sample
Sample characteristics (n = 243)

Gender Women 200 (82.3%)
Men 43 (17.7%)
Age Mean = 45.68 (s = 15.17)
Social status Unmarried 75 (31.5%)

Married 136 (57.1%)
Other 27 (11.3%)
Education Elementary school 21 (8.7%)
High School/Vocational 122 (50.4%
University 99 (40.9%)
Number of domestic leisure trips per 1 34 (14.0%)
annum
2 122 (50.2%)
3 52 (21.4%)
4 35 (14.4%)
Number of international leisure trips per 1 16 (6.6%)
annum
2 163 (67.1%)
3 52 (21.4%)
4 12 (4.9%)
First, the findings reveal that travellers’ pre-trip food sourcing relates to the internet,
travel magazines, brochures, and guidebook. Interestingly travellers rather use destinations’
official websites and tour agencies websites than turn to shared information as found on travel
blogs (mean = 2.15) and private blogs (mean = 1.95) (Table 2).
Table 2. Information sources used collecting food related information before travelling
Top 6 Information Mean (s) Frequency*

sources
1 2 3 4
Internet 2.89 11.3 22.5 32.4 33.8
(1.003)
Destinations official 2.62 16.8 27.6 32.7 22.9
websites (1.018)
Tour operators website 2.54 20.0 25.1 35.8 19.1
(1.017)
Travel guides 2.38 20.1 34.8 31.7 13.4
(0.954)
Travel brochures 2.36 21.1 33.6 33.2 12.1
(0.948)
Tourism magazines 2.35 18.7 37.4 34.1 9.8
(0.895)
* 1 = Never, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 =
Always
61
Second, the findings show that travellers search information related to food quality,
namely about the local cuisine and regional specialities. They also search information about
places - restaurants - potentially serving the specialities (Table 3).
Table 3. Destination food information sought by tourists
Food information about … Mean (s) Frequency

1* 2 3 4
Recommended food places 2.68 9.0 32.9 39.5 18.6
(0.880)
Local food specialties 2.52 12.3 35.8 39.6 12.3
(0.862)
Local eating habits 2.48 11.0 40.2 38.8 10.0
(0.862)
Food traditions 2.45 15.0 34.7 40.8 9.4
(0.860)
The safety of local food 2.44 13.6 41.6 32.2 12.6
(0.879)
Local restaurants 2.43 12.6 40.9 37.7 8.8
(0.822)
Local ingredients 2.43 15.1 36.8 37.7 10.4
(0.871)
Price level of local food 2.42 11.3 43.9 36.3 8.5
(0.802)
Local species 2.30 17.1 43.1 32.2 7.6
(0.841)
Third, the data demonstrate that such information sourcing behaviour is linked to
travellers’ genuine food interest. Yet, such behaviour is also explained by attempts to increase
safety as travellers search for food information in order to avoid surprises (Table 4).
Table 4. Reasons for collecting food information when travelling
Food information is sough because … Mean (s) Frequency

1* 2 3 4
I am interested in food 2.62 (0.869) 9.2 36.4 37.8 16.6
I want to avoid surprises 2.60 (0.913) 13.6 29.0 41.6 15.9
I want to know the price level 2.54 (0.903) 13.6 33.8 38.0 14.6
To save time 2.45 (0.938) 19.7 27.7 40.8 11.7
Health reasons 2.42 (0.932) 17.4 36.6 32.4 13.6
I want to know how to behave 2.38 (0.916) 17.8 39.0 31.0 12.2
I am allergic 1.70 (0.957) 58.3 19.4 15.7 6.5
My food preferences 1.67 (0.861) 54.2 28.3 13.2 4.2
I am vegetarian 1.48 (0.801) 66.7 23.1 5.6 4.6
My religion 1.27 (0.601) 79.2 15.6 3.8 1.4
* 1 = Never. 2 = Sometimes. 3 = Often. 4 = Always
62
Finally, the data indicate that the daily meals are part of holiday well-being. A more fine-
grain analysis of food and eating habits entour proves in particular the importance of breakfast
and dinner for well-being, and eventually also travel satisfaction. Interestingly, lunch has a
special value-adding effect for those Finnish travellers, who have a strong interest in food
(Table 5).
Table 5. Meals for well-being on destinations

Meals Mean (s) Frequency
1* 2 3 4
Breakfast 2.54 (0.804) 8.2 41.2 39.1 11.6
Lunch 2.39 (0.750) 8.5 51.3 32.6 7.6
Dinner 2.80 (=.817) 6.1 27.3 47.6 19.0
Supper 2.11 (0.782) 20.7 53.2 21.1 5.1

This study attempts to contribute to tourism research by providing insights to two food-
related issues contributing to holiday well-being, namely pre-trip food sourcing and the daily
meals on-site.
Pre-trip information sourcing is an essential behavioural act and, when acknowledged by
destinations’ stakeholders, can be used strategically to reach various types of travellers. The
role of food characteristics such as originality, locality, authenticity, uniqueness, newness,
healthiness and potential safety deserve promotional attention. In a similar vein, daily meals
deserve destination stakeholders’ attention as not only food in general, but the various meals
in particular serves various means and evidently contribute to holiday well-being. For theory
development, this study advocates a more fine-grained analysis on the food and tourism, in
particularly so if tourist insight is sought.
References
Björk, P. & Kauppinen-Räisänen, H. (2014). Culinary-gastronomic tourism – a search for local
food experiences. Nutrition & Food Science, 44(4), 294-309.
Cohen, E. & Avieli, N. (2004). Food in tourism, attraction and impediment. Annals of Tourism
Research, 31(4), 755-778.
Du Rand, G. & Heath, E. (2006). Towards a framework for food tourism as an element of
destination marketing. Current Issues in Tourism, 9(3), 206-234.
Hegarty, J. & O´Mahony, B. (2001). Gastronomy: a phenomenon of cultural expressionism and
an aesthetic for living. Hospitality Management, 20(1), 3-13
Haven-Tang, C. & Jones, E. (2005). Using local food and drink to differentiate tourism destinations
through a sense of place. A Story from wales-dining at Monmouthshire’s great table. Journal
of Culinary Science & Technology, 4(4), 69-86.
Henderson, J. (2009). Food Tourism Reviewed, British Food Journal, 11(4), 317-326.
Kivela, J. & Crotts, J. (2006). Tourism and gastronomy: Gastronomy’s influence on how tourists
experience a destination. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 30(3), 354-377.
Long, L. (2004). Culinary tourism: A folkloristic perspective on eating and otherness”, in Long,
L. (Ed.), Culinary Tourism, The University Press of Kentucky, KY.
Marshall, D.W. (2005). Food as ritual, routine or convention. Consumption, Markets and Culture,
8(1), 69–85.
Mason, R. & O'Mahony, B. (2007). On the trail of food and wine: The tourist search for
meaningful experience. Annals of Leisure Research, 10(3-4), 498-517.
63
Quintal, V., Lee, J. & Soutar, G. (2010). Tourists’ information search the differential impact of
risk and uncertainty avoidance. International Journal of Tourism Research, 12(4), 321-333.
Rozin, P., Kurzer, N., & Cohen, A. (2002). Free associations to "food": The effects of gender,
generation, and culture. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 419-441.
Santich, B. (2004). The study of gastronomy and its relevance to hospitality education and
training. Hospitality Management, 23(1), 15-24.
Scarpato, R. (2002). Gastronomy as a tourist product: the perspective of gastronomy studies.
In, Hjalager, A-M. & Richard, G. (eds.). Tourism and Gastronomy. Routledge, London, 93-
105.
Tikkanen, I. (2007). Maslow’s hierarchy and food tourism in Finland: Five cases. British Food
Journal, 109(3), 635-653.
64
Well-being of Locals, Tourist Experiences and Destination Competitiveness
Peter Björk
HANKEN School of Economics
Vaasa, Finland
peter.bjork@hanken.fi
Erose Sthapit
Martti Laaksonen
University of Vaasa
Vaasa, Finland
Introduction
The importance of host-guest interactions for customer satisfaction and loyalty is well
documented in service marketing (Seth et al., 2005) and tourism literature (Eraqi, 2006)
leaving activities and events in between service encounters on a destination most unexplored
in terms of both existence (which are they) and importance (on what do they effect). For
analyzing these blank spots, the mundane life of locals and their living environment, tourism
research has come as far as to examine regional culture as, endowed tourism resources
(MacDobald & Jolliffe, 2003), a branding dimension (O’Dell & Billing, 2010), and as an aspect to
be discussed in relation to destination management (Dwyer et al., 2004) and sustainable
tourism development (Istoc, 2012). There are some studies portraying a more complex picture
of the amalgamation of place generating tourist experiences. Long (2004), for example, who
analyzed the “Foodscape” of Asheville, NC, describes how visitors meet the Appalachian cuisine
and food habits in restaurants and festivals, special events, but also in local grocery stores,
alongside and in contact with the locals.
There is an abundance of research explaining the positive effects of friendly treatments
in service encounters on customer satisfaction, and the link there is between service oriented
organizations, well-being of the staff, and internal marketing (Kuskuvan et al., 2010). Less
studied is the influence of well-being of locals (residents) reflected in a welcoming attitude, on
tourist experiences although they, in terms of marketing, can be categorized as part-time
marketers (c.f. Grönroos, 1990). Hospitality, “the general feeling of welcome that tourists
receive while visiting the area”, is most often what is remembered after returning home (Mill,
1990, p. 28).
Tourist experiences, satisfaction and travel behavior are interlinked. On an aggregated,
destination level positive tourist experiences are a source for competitive advantage. To this
end, bringing the well-being and attitudes of locals, tourist experiences and destination
competitiveness together a positive relationship is assumed. Falling back on the notion that this
model has not been tested in previous research the aim of this study is to explain destination
competitiveness through the lens of tourist experiences and well-being and attitudes of local
residents. To accomplish this, four objectives are set:
1) To present a local society oriented model of destination competitiveness.
2) To develop instruments for measuring the selected key success factors in
determining destination competitiveness.
3) To empirically test and display findings arising from a first pilot study in Finland.
4) Benchmark the new insight generated to existing destination competitiveness
models and to explore issues for further research.
65
Literature Review
Departing from service and tourism marketing literature this study devolves into the
destination competitive literature emphasizing the role of locals for tourist experiences (Figure
1).
Figure 1. Local society based destination competitiveness model
The theoretical framework in use defines four key concepts, well-being, attitudes, tourist
experiences, and destination competitiveness, as follows:
Well-being, defined as ‘an individual’s sense that his\her life overall is going well’
(Moscardo 2009, p.162), is a state of mind. Well-being is a personal, holistic state of mind
including aspects of self-development in terms of life fulfillment (Gilbert & Abdullah, 2004). It
is an inner process, not ‘out there’, a personal experience to be lived throughout our daily life;
work, leisure time, social relationships, achievements, growth, freedom etc. (Björk, 2014).
Doxey’s (1975) irritation index explains the close link there is between the locals and the
tourists, and how residents’ well-being determines their attitude towards tourists (Ritchie &
Crouch, 2003; Brunt & Courtney, 1999; Diedrich & Garcia-Buades, 2008).
Locals’ attitudes towards tourists. Residents’ attitudes towards tourism development
are often explained from a social exchange theory perspective. Resident attitude toward
tourism development appears to depend on the perception of perceived benefits and costs
(Sirakaya et al., 2002), and affects destination hospitality (Heuman, 2005). However, it is
doubtful that such perceptions are accurate predictors of how people would feel once tourism
industry has arrived and a destination moves from one phase of development to another
(Kahneman et al., 1997). A recent study linked Quality of Life indictors of perceptions of tourism
among residents (Andereck & Nyaupane, 2011), but the well-being related items were
restricted to the ‘way of life’ of the respondents rather than how the respondents felt or how
satisfied they were with their lives, subjective well-being (SWB).
Tourist experiences are individual, subjective, and relative; they depart in some way
from everyday experiences (Uriely, 2005), and are made up of series of events or activities
(Smith, 2003). A tourist experience is “the subjective mental state felt by participants during a
service encounter” (Otto & Ritchie 1996, p.166). Insight in the tourist experience concept has
been sought analyzing service quality dimensions linked to accommodation and transportation
mainly (Quan & Wang, 2004). On the other hand, friendly interaction between host-guest in a
destination is an important variable in facilitating higher quality tourism experiences and
visitor satisfaction (Kusluvan, 2003).
Destination competitiveness refers to the ability of the destination to attract and satisfy
tourists (Enright & Newton, 2004) and to deliver goods and services that perform better than
those offered at other destinations (Dwyer & Kim, 2003). It is also associated with the long-
term economic prosperity of the residents of an area (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003), the ultimate goal
66
of competitiveness being to maintain and increase the real income of the inhabitants (Dwyer &
Kim, 2003). Tourism thrives on the pleasant attitudes of hosts, it is necessary to attempt to
sustain that congenial social ambience. Without, it, the goals of developing tourism will be
either not realized or will be accomplished at tremendous social costs. Indeed, friendly hosts
may command even higher popularity through the dissemination of positive image through
word of mouth (Sirgy & Samli, 1995). Nevertheless, clear friendliness and a spirit of hospitality
enhance a destination’s competitiveness (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003).

Guided by the theoretical framework two instruments for data collection has been
constructed for piloting. The data will be collected in summer 2015 for analysis and
presentation at the ATMC conference in September 2015. We aim for a two pronged data-
sampling procedure, one directed at the locals in designated destinations and one to measure
tourist experiences and perceived destination competitiveness in the same area.
Taking inspiration from previous studies on human well-being, attitudes, tourist
experiences and perception of destination competitiveness four sets of questions will be
developed. Well-being of locals can be viewed in terms of SWB. SWB deals with residents’
overall sense of well-being that can be captured through a variety of concepts such as life
satisfaction, positive\negative affect, and overall happiness (Sirgy, 2010). Well-being is often
described in terms of happiness and is used in different meanings. In classical philosophy, it is
typically used as an umbrella term for various aspects of the good life. Social scientists used the
word happiness as a synonym for subjective enjoyment of life. Psychologists formally refer to
this construct as SWB while economists term it experienced utility (Kahneman et al., 1997).
Happiness has been recognized as an important goal of society, and there has been a
growing interest in understanding what makes people happy (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999).
Happiness is sometimes more broadly defined as SWB, since improvements in objective
circumstances have proven to yield limited increases in happiness (Layard, 2006). Happiness
is most commonly measured by a variant of Bradburn’s (1969) Affect Balance Scale, which
measures the extent of positive emotions and the absence of negative emotions to determine
levels of happiness. Happiness therefore can be considered to contribute to emotional
(affective) SWB, whereas cognitive SWB is largely measured through inventories of satisfaction
with life and positive functioning (McCabe & Johnson, 2013). Consequently, this study merges
these two types of scales (Bradburn’s scale of psychology well-being and Lyubomirsky
Subjective Happiness Scale for happiness, and Diener et al.’s Satisfaction with Life Scale) adapts
the scale items to be useful in a Finnish context. Destination competitiveness is in this study is
measured as a tourist perception.
Results
Preliminary findings will be presented at the conference.
References
Andereck, K.L., & Nyaupane, G.P. (2011). Exploring the Nature of Tourism and Quality of Life
Perceptions among Residents. Journal of Travel Research, 50(3), 248-60.
doi: 10.1177/0047287513478501
Björk, P. (2014). Tourist Experience Value: Tourist Experience and Life Satisfaction. In
Prebensen, N., Chen, J. & Uysal, M. (Eds). Creating Experience Value in Tourism. UK:
CABI Publishing.
Bradburn, N. (1969). The Structure of Psychological Well-being. Chicago: Aldine.
67
Brunt, P., &Courtney, P. (1999): Host perceptions of sociocultural impacts. Annals of Tourism
Research, 26(3), 493-515. doi: 10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00003-1
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Diedrich, A., & García-Buades, E. (2008). Locals Perceptions of Tourism as indicators of
destination decline. Tourism Management, 30, 1-10. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1839244
Doxey, G. (1975). A Causation Theory of Visitor-Resident Irritants: Methodology and Research
Inferences, in Proceedings of the 6th Annual Conference of the Travel Research Association.
Travel Research Association, San Diego, CA. pp. 195–198.
Dwyer, L., & Kim, C. (2003). Destination Competitiveness: Determinants and Indicators. Current
Issues in Tourism, 6(5), 369-414.doi: 10.1080/13683500308667962
Dwyer, L., Mellor, R., Liaic, Z., Edwards, D. & Kim, C. (2004): Attributes of destination
competitiveness: A factor analysis. Tourism Analysis, 9(1/2), 91-101.doi:
10.3727/1083542041437558
Enright, M.J. & Newton, J. (2004). Tourism destination competitiveness: a quantitative
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Consumer Animosity and Affective Country Image in a Tourism Context
Sara Campo
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Dpt. Financiación e Investigación Comercial
Madrid, Spain
sara.campo@uam.es
Maria D. Alvarez
Boğaziçi University, Dpt of Tourism Administration
Istanbul, Turkey
alvarezm@boun.edu.tr
Introduction
Consumer animosity, introduced by Klein, Ettenson and Morris in 1998, refers to “the
remnants of antipathy related to previous or ongoing military, political or economic events”
(Klein et al. 1998, p. 90) that influence the consumers’ purchase behaviour. Indeed, several
studies (Bahaee and Pisani, 2009; Ettenson and Klein, 2005; Huang et al., 2010; Nijssen and
Douglas, 2004) have established in different contexts the effect of animosity on buying
intentions of the products originating from the country towards which this hostility is directed.
Despite the increasing number of investigations dealing with this topic within the international
marketing literature, there is a lack of research concerning the influence of animosity on the
purchase of tourism products. While some studies (Alvarez and Campo, 2014; Moufakir, 2014;
Podoshen and Hunt, 2011) have suggested that animosity affects the decision to visit a
particular country, to date there is a lack of research that thoroughly investigates this impact.
The tourism literature has also investigated the effect of particular events on the image of
the country, distinguishing between the effects on cognitive versus affective perceptions
(Alvarez and Campo, 2014). According to previous research, specific events and incidents may
provide additional information that influences perceptions regarding a place (Heslop, Lu and
Cray, 2008), particularly in terms of affective image (Alvarez and Campo, 2014). Nes, Yelkur
and Silkoset (2012) also investigate the mediating influence of affect in the relationship
between country animosity and behavioural intentions in a non-tourism context. Therefore, the
current study attempts to fill in a gap in the tourism literature and examine the effect of
consumer animosity towards a particular country on the image of the place and on the intention
to visit it. In particular, the influence of animosity on the affective dimension of country image
is assessed.
Literature review
Existing studies in the international marketing literature have examined the
characteristics of the consumer animosity construct, providing various instruments to measure
it. In particular, the reasons behind this animosity are listed in the literature as including wars
and military conflicts (Klein et al., 1998; Nijssen and Douglas, 2004), political incidents
(Ettenson and Klein, 2005; Witowski, 2000), historical events (Nakos and Hajidimitriou, 2007),
economic disputes (Klein and Ettenson, 1999) and interaction with the people from the country
(Moufakkir, 2014; Nes et al., 2012). Jung et al. (2002) also distinguish between different types
of animosity based on two dimensions: stable – situational and personal – national. Thus,
country evaluations are based on personal or national experiences that may go back to the past
or may be rooted in the present. However, authors such as Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2009)
have criticized the one-size-fits-all manner in which measuring instruments of animosity have
been used. According to these authors, the construct is context-specific and requires an
70
understanding of the motives inspiring animosity, based on prior exploratory qualitative

research. In addition, Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2009) also suggest that the reasons
underlying animosity judgements need to be distinguished from the feelings per se. Thus, they
call for the inclusion of additional items that encompass a more general affective-based
evaluation of animosity in the scales used to measure this construct.
Studies in social psychology have determined that feelings and emotions have a
significant influence in the creation of stereotypes and attitudes (Macrae, Stangor and Hewston,
1996). In the tourism field, research has confirmed that the affective component of image is
more important than the cognitive one in determining the overall image of a place (Kim and
Yoon, 2003). Nes et al. (2012) also verify that affect plays a central role as a mediator between
country animosity and purchase intentions, although this relationship is assessed from a non-
tourism perspective.

Following this literature, the current study aims to apply the concept of consumer
animosity towards a country to the context of tourism. Studies that provide a greater
understanding concerning the formation of place perceptions and the influence that they have
on the behaviour of tourists are vital. In particular, the influence that animosity has on affective
image evaluations and on the decision to visit a country is a topic in need of research.
Furthermore, new measuring instruments of the animosity construct that address the issues
raised by Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2009) and are based on a greater understanding of the
underlying reasons for animosity judgements, are required.
The current research is part of an ongoing investigation to create and test a
comprehensive measure of consumer animosity in the tourism context, and to determine the
effect of the construct on the decision to visit a destination. First, an in-depth review of the
literature was used to generate items for the animosity scale. This phase was supplemented
with an initial survey to a convenience sample of Turkish respondents who were asked, through
open-ended questions, to list three countries towards which they feel a greater animosity and
the reasons behind it. Following this stage, an online preliminary survey to a convenience
sample of 163 Turkish consumers was used to quantitatively pre-test the animosity scale for
Israel, identified as one of the countries suffering from a greater animosity among the Turks.
The study also aimed to investigate the potential influence of the construct on the affective
image of Israel and on the intention to visit this country. The respondents were solicited by
posting an invitation to participate in the research via social media networks and discussion
forums on topics related to entertainment and leisure.
In this preliminary study the animosity construct was measured based on five dimensions
formed by the underlying causes of hostility – economic, people, political, religious, historical
and military – followed by a general animosity component based on feelings towards the
country. As explained above, this measure of animosity was created by generating items from
the literature (Klein, 2002; Klein et al., 1998; Maher and Mady, 2010; Nes et al., 2012), and from
the initial survey of open-ended questions, which shed information on additional causes of
animosity towards a particular country. Affective country image and intention to visit were
evaluated using the scales utilized in Alvarez and Campo’s (2014) research. The results
obtained from this survey are discussed in this paper and are used in order to support the
subsequent stage of the research, a larger-scale online questionnaire-based study, which is still
ongoing.
Results
71
According to the findings of descriptive statistics, the Turks exhibit a high level of
animosity towards Israel. Items related to political, military and religious animosity show
higher means, indicating a greater level of animosity in relation to these aspects. In addition,
the means for the affective country image and the intention to visit the destination are
extremely low (lower than 2.0 on a 5-point Likert scale for all items).
The results also provide a more in-depth understanding of the dimensionality of the
animosity scale and the relative weights of the various components on the overall construct.
According to the research, in the case of Israel a variety of underlying reasons determine the
high level of animosity that the Turks suffer against this country. In particular, people, political
and historical animosity have a greater weight in the overall animosity component. The model
of estimated relationships and the relative weights of the various animosity components on the
overall animosity construct are shown in Figure 1 below.
Economic
People 0.70*
0.91*
Political 0.92*
-0.71* Affective 0.61*
Animosity Country Intention to
0.83* Image Visit
Religious
0.91*
Historical 0.81*
Military * p<0.001
Figure 1. Model of estimated relationships
The findings also support the influencing role of animosity towards a country such as
Israel on the individual’s intention to visit the place, as seen in Figure 1. However, this effect is
indirect, mediated by the affective country image component. Thus, this study confirms in the
tourism context Nes et al.’s (2012) model of the influence of animosity on purchase intentions
through the mediating role of affective country evaluations.

The study confirms the multidimensionality of the animosity construct and provides a
greater understanding of its underlying components. While the results support the idea that
consumer animosity towards a country has a significant influence in the individual’s decision
to visit the place for tourism purposes, it determines that the effect of animosity on the intention
to visit is indirect, mediated by affective country image evaluations. Thus, the investigation
extends the application of existing animosity related findings to tourism, confirming the
importance of the construct for subsequent analyses in destination and place research.
72
The study thus contributes to a better grasp on how perceptions of places are constructed
by individuals based on individual or national experiences, and how these in turn affect
behavioural intentions. Within this context, the animosity construct needs to be better
understood as it may provide a useful basis for tourism segmentation. The important role of
affective country evaluations is also highlighted in this research, in support of previous tourism
studies on the topic (Alvarez and Campo, 2014; Kim and Yoon, 2003). However, since this is a
preliminary study based on a convenience sample and a relatively low sample size, the results
obtained need to be further assessed through further studies. These future investigations may
also examine the animosity construct and its different components for various countries.
Acknowledgement
This research was funded by a grant from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and
Competitiveness (ECO2012-31517).
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Nes, E. B., Yelkur, R., & Silkoset, R. (2012). Exploring the animosity domain and the role of affect
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Podoshen, J. S., & Hunt, J. M. (2009). Animosity, collective memory, rumor and equity
restoration: Consumer reactions to the Holocaust. Consumption Markets & Culture, 12(4),
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74
The Influence of Information Sources on Tourist Image Fragmentation
Raquel Camprubí, PhD.

Lluís Coromina, PhD.
University of Girona, Faculty of Tourism
Girona, Spain
raquel.camprubi@udg.edu
Introduction
Research has demonstrated the relevance of tourist image as a factor in understanding
tourist behaviour, particularly during the decision-making process (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993).
In this context, information sources (IS) have been postulated as one of the most
influential factors in tourist image formation during the decision-making process (Dey & Sarma,
2010). Therefore, the tourist image is extremely strategic for creating, maintaining or
increasing tourism demand for a destination. It is for this reason that Govers and Go (2004)
mention the need “to formulate a plan for projecting the ‘right’ image” as one of the essential
parts of a tourism development strategy. Dissonances or incongruities on emitted images can
have consequences on the image perceived by tourists (Camprubí et al., 2014; Govers & Go,
2004).
In this regard, several studies have contributed to understanding the extent to which each
type of IS influences tourist behaviour (Fodness & Murray, 1999), and their contribution to
image perception (Li et al., 2009). There are some insights into the analysis of image perception
gaps (Govers & Go, 2004) and the image fragmentation of urban destinations in tourism
brochures tourists (Camprubí et al., 2014). However, there are no studies that clearly relate the
tourist perceived image of a destination and IS used, with the aim of finding out incongruences
among the various IS used. When significant incongruences are detected, this is an indication
that projected tourist image in the various IS is different. This shows, therefore, that tourist
destination image is fragmented.
Literature review
A tourist image is conceived as a mental construction, where the visual component comes
in second place, in front of previous knowledge of tourists, their impressions and beliefs
(Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Kotler et al., 1993). However, “the tourist image is, at the same time,
a subjective construction (that varies from person to person) and a social construction, based
on the idea of collective imagination” (Galí & Donaire, 2005, p.778). Therefore, any individual
has images of tourism destinations in their mind, whether they have visited them or not (Gunn,
1988). The influential factors of these images are varied and several studies have tried to
explain the image formation process (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Tasci & Gartner, 2007). In
particular, Baloglu and McClearly (1999) identify three main issues: tourism motivations, socio-
demographics, and various IS.
Regarding IS, Gartner (1994) in his seminal contribution identify a continuum of agents
that contribute to image formation of a destination. Each one of these agents represents one or
more tourist IS which influence visitors’ perception of the destination. Tasci and Gartner (2007)
observe the controllable and uncontrollable nature of these IS in tourist image projections, and
how an image is perceived by tourists. We can see that some authors have tried to determine
the influence of IS on tourism image components (Alvarez & Campo, 2011; McDowall, 2010),
where word-of-mouth are one of the most influential IS (Fodness & Murray, 1997; Llodrà-Riera
et al., 2015). Other authors have analysed information searches (Gitelson & Crompton, 1983;
Schul & Crompton, 1983), including number and types of IS used.
75
Related to Information and Communication Technologies, Buhalis and Law (2008) assert
that Internet has revolutionised the search for information, and it is one of the significant
factors in the purchase decision-making process. It is also positioned as a relevant IS (Frías et
al., 2012; McCartney et al., 2008). Baloglu and McClearly (1999) concluded that offline IS
influence both cognitive and affective evaluations in the image formation process; and later, Li
et al., (2009, p.55) found that “active online information search may change participants’
destination image, particularly its affective aspects”. Nevertheless, knowledge about
differences between the use of online and offline information search is scarce (Ho et al., 2012).

A total of 594 tourists were interviewed in Palafrugell, Costa Brava (Spain), between April
and September 2014. Questions about sources of information and perceived image were
included in the survey.
Six different IS were included in a multiple-choice question in the questionnaire;
specifically, three online IS (official website, tourism blogs, search engines) and three offline
sources (brochures, mass media, and word-of-mouth).
A destination’s perceived image can be classified in three categories (Dilley, 1986; Santos,
1998): culture, heritage, and landscape. For each category, four pictures of the destination were
shown. Each respondent had to select the picture in each category they thought that was the
most representative.
The number of sources of information and their typology are analysed in order to identify
whether they are determinants for the image selection. Differentiation between online and
offline IS, as well their number, are considered. An Anova-test was carried out in order to detect
whether the number of IS varies according to the typology of the images. Additionally, since
more than two categories of images exist, post-hoc tests are also studied.
Results
Descriptive statistics on online IS show that 52% of tourists use search engines, such as
Google, 36% of tourists use the official website, and tourism blogs are used by 13% of tourists.
From the offline IS, 42% use word-of-mouth, 12% use tourism brochures and 10% use mass
media information.
Results suggest that the number of IS used influences picture selection. Therefore, this
means that IS have an effect on the perceived tourist image. In general, tourists who use less IS,
tend to select more pictures showing well-known destination attributes. For instance, in the
case of landscape, a picture of a beach was the image most selected, and this corresponds to the
lowest average for the number of IS used. On the contrary, tourists with the highest average of
IS used selected a botanical garden, which was globally the least selected image.
On one hand, considering the influence of online and offline IS on the decision-making
process, results show that the correlation between the number of online and offline IS used and
the number of pictures selected is negative, corroborating the fact that tourists using less online
or offline IS select pictures related to well-known destination attributes.
On the other hand, there is a positive correlation between the number of online and offline
IS used. However, the degree to which it correlates varies. These findings are related to the
concept of tourist image fragmentation (Camprubí et al., 2014), meaning that when online and
offline IS match, more similar are the images induced through these sources, and therefore
perceived by tourists. In the opposite situation, when differences exist between online and
offline sources, there is a higher dissonance or fragmentation in projected images. This means
that the images are differently perceived by tourists, depending on the IS used.
76
In this study, both online and offline IS are highest correlated in the landscape category,
while the correlation in culture is the lowest. Therefore, selected pictures in the landscape
category are similar whether using online or offline IS. However, in the case of culture, there
are notable differences between the two types of IS used.

Considering the relevance of IS in the image formation process, this study concludes that
the number of IS used during the decision-making process effects the perceived image.
Consequently, a higher number of IS imply that the tourist has a deeper knowledge of the
destination, and therefore he or she associates less well-known attributes to a destination, in
contrast to tourists who have used a smaller number of IS.
At the same time, we can see that tourists perceive different tourist images depending on
the IS they have used. Online and offline IS with various categories of pictures show different
behaviour, concluding that, in these cases, incongruence among various projected images exists
in the different IS.
For decision-makers in tourism destinations it is extremely useful to know, if
fragmentation of the tourism image exists. The reasons are twofold: firstly, to determine if the
attributes transmitted by specific IS are in accordance with the destination strategy; and
secondly, it helps determine the appropriate image strategy and define the “image mix”. This
refers to the continuum of factors that need to be taken into account to decide which agents will
intervene in the formation of the tourist image, as well as the amount of money budgeted for
image development, characteristics of target markets, demographic characteristics and timing
(Gartner, 1994).
For academic literature, this study deepens knowledge about tourism image
fragmentation and its possible influence on tourist image perception.
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78
'There is not a school in the entire world like it’: Pride and Privilege in the
Historic Campus tour
Dr Elizabeth Carnegie
Sheffield University Management School
Sheffield
UK
e.carnegie@sheffield.ac.uk
Dr Simon Woodward
School of Events, Tourism & Hospitality
Leeds Beckett University
UK
Introduction
Universities are becoming increasingly significant within the corpus of research on
tourism destination development and management, with research considering topics such as:
the local economic contribution of sports events and conferences held on campus; the
contribution of university events and activities to constructing place identity and
representations of universities in popular culture (See Woodward, 2013, for an overview of
recent research in these areas). Work has also been done on the role of university students in
place-making (Shaw & Fincher, 2011). What is evident from the research carried out to date is
that often the presence of students is part of the overall experience consumed by visitors,
whether these are encountered in an informal fashion (e.g. as fellow customers in a bar or café,
or more formally where students are acting as tour guides to a historic campus. Thus the
presence of tourists on a university campus where they are able to engage with both the built
environment but also the faculty and students who are present, represents an interesting but
so far little explored aspect of the co-creation of values in a destination, where these values
reflect not only what Smith (2006) might refer to as the Authorised Heritage Discourse (AHD)
of that institution but also more the personal perspectives and values of the different
stakeholders.
Despite many internationally renowned universities such as Harvard or UVa in the USA
or Oxford, Durham and Cambridge in the UK, running regular tours that attract tens of
thousands of tourists per annum onto campus, this topic of students as tour guide, presenter
and interpreter of university ceremonial practices, heritage and institutional ambition, remains
under-researched.
Nonetheless, there has of course been a considerable amount of published work in recent
years on the role of the tourism guide as mediator where ‘Local’ and national guides are
frequently seen as ambassadors, possessing unique local knowledge which they express within
the professional frame of an increasingly globalised discourse (Salazar, 2005, p. 631). As ‘live’
and unpredictable interpreters, guides offer varying narratives according to their relationship,
and the tour group’s relationship, with the site and locality. To summarise, therefore, the focus
of the research is on student guides as mediators and co-creators (with their audiences) of a
campus tourism experience. Our theoretical approach to the work reflects both Smith’s idea of
the Authorised Heritage Discourse as those stories that ‘must be told’ and also drawing on
Salazar above and Katz’ work on the way that guides can be deemed to de-objectivise or ‘de-
neutralise’ space (Katz, 1985) as well as personalizing the experience for themselves and
others.
79

This project forms part of a fuller study looking at how historically significant and
otherwise elite universities which are also WHS’, create a sense of pride and privilege in their
student body. In this paper we focus on an aspect of this study – the role of the historic tour.
Semi-structured interviews were held with 7 student guides working in two such elite and
historic universities; University of Virginia in the USA and the University of Durham in the UK,
in order to provide rich qualitative data (Long, 2007) (Veal, 2011).
One reason for selecting these two case study locations is that parts of both campuses
have been awarded World Heritage Site status by UNESCO, the former principally because of
its associations with Thomas Jefferson and the latter because of the political, religious and
educational significance of the key buildings within the WHS boundary. As a result, there is an
additional layer of value – that of Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) – that has to be negotiated
as well as those values associated with student life and tourist expectation. Only by
interviewing respondents at length were we able to understand the refined nature of personal
association with the establishments’ tangible and intangible heritage, and how this is shared
with visitors in the co-creation of the visitor experience.
Results
This research focuses on ‘historic tours’ given to tourists and local visitors by current
students and it is in these ‘community’ based tours that our enquiry is situated, rather than in
tours that target potential applicants.
Within such tours there is an element of ‘baton passing’ as new generations of students
perform this often prestigious role with individual students interpreting the site from their own
perspective within the parameters of approved topics. Thus mythologies of place, ceremonial
rites and superstitions are blended with historical detail as part of the student’s own journey
through the university.
The tour guides reflect the notion of a student community united in their pride of place.
Crucially, student-led historic tours are an interesting example of the co-creation of a tourist
experience as they combine both the experience of the guide him or herself, and the expectation
of the visitor.
Our results show that whilst student guides are expected to impart the OUV and indeed
AHD angle, as this is what is important from their University’s corporate perspective, they
report that at least as much interest is shown by tour participants in the more mundane, prosaic
areas of student life in these prestigious buildings. Thus the guides need to become expert in
mediating between the requirements of their employer – the host institution – and the
expectations of the guest. Since positions as campus tour guides are seen as prestigious, there
is an additional burden on the guides to perform well and meet the aspirations of both parties,
creating at times a tension in what they feel able to impart. Thus these guides appear quickly
to move away from the delivery of set scripts towards the presentation of a more personal story
that blends their own relationship with the university and its campus with the much longer
traditions and heritage of the institution.
We also found that student guides become very adept, very quickly, at recognizing the
types of anecdote that will appeal to different audience types – this too means that at times they
move away from the conventional narrative expected of them by the University.

Our findings demonstrate that student tour guides occupy a unique role within the
broader guiding community as they are interpreting and sharing their own experience within
80
an educational institution that expects them to present a particular world view on heritage that
presents the organization in the most favourable light possible. Moreover, because they are
generally only active as guides within the institution for a relatively short period of time –
generally 3 years – there is the potential for an almost continual reinvention of the visitor
experience as new cohorts of guide retain institutional memory in some areas, but build their
own ideas as well.
This thus leads to a dynamic and complex situation where tourist tours of a historic
university campus are almost continually reinvented since neither the audience nor the guide
remain the same for long. As such, this paper neatly encapsulates a key theme of the 6th
Advances in Tourism Marketing (ATMC) Conference, namely the co-creation of values around
a visitor experience in a heritage setting. It also fits with Marketing tourism places and spaces
and indeed the notion of sustainability in the tourist experience.
Bibliography
Katz, S. (1985). The Israeli Teacher-Guide - The Emergence and Perpetuation of a Role. Annals
of Tourism Research, 12(1), 49-72.
Long, J., (2007). Researching Leisure, Sport and Tourism. The Essential Guide. London: Sage Publications
Ltd.
Salazar, N. (2005). Tourism and glocalization “Local” Tour Guiding. Annals of Tourism
Research, 32(3), 628–46.
Salazar, N. (2006). Touristifying Tanzania: Local Guides, Global Discourse. Annals of Tourism
Research, 33(3), 833–52.
Salazar, N. (2012). Shifting Values and Meanings of Heritage: From Cultural Appropriation to
Tourism Interpretation and Back. In S. Lyon & E.C. Wells (Eds.), Global Tourism: Cultural
Heritage and Economic Transactions (pp. 21-42). Lanham Md.: AltaMira Press.
Shaw, K. & Fincher, R., (2011). University students and the 'Creative City'. Journal of Policy Research in
Tourism, Leisure and Events, 2(3), pp. 199-220.
Smith, L., (2006). Uses of Heritage. Abingdon: Routledge.
Veal, A. J., (2011). Research Methods for Leisure & Tourism. A Practical Guide. 4th ed. Harlow: Pearson
Education Ltd.
Woodward, S. C., (2013). Campus Tourism. In: M. Smith & G. Richards, eds. The Routledge Handbook of
Cultural Tourism. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 265-272.
81
Impact of Tourism on the Quality of Life of Residents: The Role of Social

Interaction
Maria João Carneiro

Celeste Eusébio
Ana Caldeira
Department of Economics, Management and Industrial Engineering, Full Researcher at
GOVCOPP – Research Unit in Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policies, University of
Aveiro, Portugal
mjcarneiro@ua.pt
Introduction and literature review

In the last decades, a growing interest on Quality of Life (QOL) can be noticed in the field
of tourism (e.g. Chancellor, Yu, & Cole, 2011; Kim, Uysal, & Sirgy, 2013; Nawijn & Mitas, 2012).
A high number of the studies undertaken focus on the effect of tourism on the QOL of tourists
(e.g. Dolnicar, Lazarevski, & Yanamandram, 2013; Eusébio & Carneiro, 2014). Nevertheless, one
of the main objectives of tourism development is to improve the QOL of the residents of tourism
destinations (Yu, Cole, & Chancellor, 2014). The analysis of the contributions of the tourism
activity to the residents’ QOL has been highly neglected. The research that investigates the QOL
of these residents has revealed that tourism may have negative impacts on some QOL domains
– e.g. congestion, some kinds of pollution - but is likely to have high positive impacts on several
other QOL domains, such as preservation of natural and cultural heritage, increase of recreation
opportunities, increase of job opportunities and income (Andereck & Nyaupane, 2011;
Andereck, Valentine, Vogt, & Knopf, 2007; Yu et al., 2014).
Few researches have analyzed the factors that influence the residents’ perceptions
concerning the tourism impact on their QOL. Some determinants of this impact already
investigated are socio-demographic factors (e.g. age, gender, education, marital status,
employment) (Khizindar, 2012), seasonal factors (Jeong, Kang, & Desmarais, 2014), place of
residence (Andereck et al., 2007; Chancellor et al., 2011) and quality of the tourism destinations
(Lipovčan, Brajša-Žganec, & Pljanec-Borié, 2014). The encounters between local residents and
tourists are considered an important component of the tourism activity. It is also recognized
that this contact may differ on several factors such as the place where it occurs, the type of
activities involved and the intensity of contact undertaken (Eusébio & Carneiro, 2012).
Encounters between tourists and hosts can take place when tourists purchase goods and
services, when tourists ask for information or, simply, when tourists and hosts go to the same
place (De Kadt, 1979). Nevertheless, the potential influence of host-tourist interactions on the
residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts on their QOL has been greatly ignored. The few
studies that examine the influence of host-tourist interaction (Andereck & Nyaupane, 2011;
Nawijn & Mitas, 2012) in this context suggest that this contact and the satisfaction with it are
likely to lead to perceptions of a more positive impact of tourism on QOL. The research of
Andereck and Nyaupane (2011) reveals that, in the case of the residents of Arizona, the amount
of contact that residents had with tourists had a positive impact on the perception of personal
benefits they obtained from tourism. Nawijn and Mitas’ (2012) study shows that, in Palma de
Mallorca, the residents who consider the host-tourist interaction positive, tend to perceive a
higher QOL in several domains - family, neighborhood, self, services and infrastructure.
However, the impact of both, specific types of contacts with tourists and of satisfaction with
these contacts, on the several domains of residents’ QOL has not been properly investigated yet.
This paper aims to fill these gaps by carrying out an empirical study, in two Portuguese coastal
82
communities, that assesses the impact of several types of host-tourist interactions, and of
satisfaction with these interactions, on several residents’ QOL domains (see Figure 1 and
Hypotheses).
Figure 1: Proposed model of social contact and impact of tourism on residents’ QOL
H1 – The social contact with visitors in several contexts has a positive effect on the residents’
perceptions of tourism impact on several domains of their QOL
H2 – The social contact with visitors in several contexts has a positive effect on the residents’
satisfaction with the social contact with visitors.
H3 – The residents’ satisfaction with social contact with visitors has a positive effect on the
residents’ perceptions of tourism impact on several domains of their QOL.
H4 – Residents’ satisfaction with social contact with visitors has a positive effect on the
residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts on their overall QOL.
H5 – Residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts on several domains of their QOL has a
positive effect on perceptions of tourism impacts on their overall QOL.

To accomplish the objectives of this paper a questionnaire was directed to residents of
two coastal communities - Barra and Costa Nova – located in the municipality of Ílhavo in the
Central Region of Portugal. The questionnaire addresses, apart from the residents’ profile, their
perceptions about impacts of tourism on their QOL, social interaction with visitors and their
level of satisfaction with that interaction. The residents were invited to indicate their level of
agreement, using a 7-point Likert-type scale from 1 “completely disagree” to 7 “completely
agree” with 22 statements related to the impact of tourism on several domains of residents’
QOL. The statements used derived from a literature review about the impacts of tourism on the
residents’ QOL (e.g. Andereck et al., 2007; Andereck & Nyaupane, 2011). To assess the
residents’ interaction with visitors, the residents were requested to report the frequency with
which they had some types of interaction (14 types) with visitors, identified based on a
literature review (e.g. De Kadt 1979; Eusébio & Carneiro, 2012; Reisinger & Turner, 1998),
using a 7-point Likert type scale from 1 “never” to 7 “very frequently”. Furthermore, residents
were also invited to mention their level of satisfaction with the contact with visitors in their
community, using also a 7-point Likert type scale, from 1 “very unsatisfied” to 7 “very satisfied”.
83
The survey was undertaken with personal administration of the questionnaire in the two
communities in May 2012, using a quota sampling approach, based on gender and age. In order
to analyse the validity and reliability of the questionnaire used, a pilot test was conducted in
the communities under analysis. A total of 308 responses were considered valid for further
analyses. Descriptive statistics were adopted to identify the socio-economic profile of
respondents. Two Principal Component Analyses (PCA) were carried out to identify dimensions
of social contact with visitors and residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts on several domains
of their QOL. Further, a Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS_SEM), using
the SmartPLS 3.0 programme, was adopted to test the research model proposed (Figure 1).
Results’ discussion and conclusions

The sample was composed by 55% of respondents who lived in Costa Nova and 45% in
Barra. The sample is balanced in terms of gender (48% female), there is a great diversity in
terms of level of education, a dominance of residents between 25 and 60 years old (66%) with
low incomes (60% have a household monthly net income lower than 1000€). About 27% of
respondents have a job related to tourism and about 64% lived in this community for more
than 5 years.
Three interaction dimensions emerged from the PCA of interaction items: (i) close
interaction; (ii) interaction at work; and (iii) interaction in attractions & facilities (Table 1). The
social contact was very low in all the contexts analysed (lower than 4 in a seven-point Likert
type scale), being especially low regarding close contacts (e.g. sharing meals with visitors and
exchanging gifts with visitors), corroborating other studies that also reveal a brief and
superficial social host-tourist interaction (Eusébio & Carneiro, 2012; Reisinger & Turner,
1998). However, residents reveal a high satisfaction with that interaction (5.81 in a seven-point
Likert type scale
Table 1: Measurement statistics of Host-tourist interaction construct

Average
Standard Indicator a
Composite Discriminant
Host-tourist interaction Mean t-value Variance
Deviation Loadings reliability validity
Extracted
Close interaction 0.91 0.68 Yes
Inviting visitors to one's home 2.03 1.70 0.84 32.43
Practising sports with visitors 1.98 1.49 0.74 14.08
Participating in parties with visitors 2.68 1.84 0.83 32.23
Sharing meals with visitors 2.11 1.64 0.86 37.10
Exchanging gifts with visitors 1.75 1.47 0.84 26.41
Interaction at work 0.85 0.65 Yes
Contacting with visitors in the workplace 3.52 2.44 0.81 27.76
Providing visitors information about the municipality 4.74 1.74 0.80 25.04
Interacting with visitors when providing them goods and services 3.45 2.23 0.82 28.09
Interaction in attractions & facilities 0.86 0.56 Yes
Contacting with visitors in the beach 4.16 1.96 0.77 32.43
Contacting with visitors in events 3.30 1.80 0.64 14.08
Contacting with visitors in food and beverage establishments 4.71 1.76 0.76 32.23
Contacting with visitors in other commercial establishments 4.09 1.80 0.80 37.10
Contacting with visitors in discos, clubs and bars 3.31 2.07 0.77 26.41
Residents' satisfaction with host-tourist interaction 5.34 1,382 1 – 1 – –
a
t-values were obtained with the bootstrapping procedure (5000 samples) and are significant at the 0.001 level (two-tailed test)
Four domains of QOL emerged from the PCA of items representing the residents’
perceptions of tourism impacts on their QOL: (i) economic and social relationship opportunities;
(ii) calm & safety; (iii) public facilities & services; and (iv) positive feelings (Table 2). Residents
84
perceive high tourism impacts on all of their QOL domains (higher than 4.8 in a seven-point
Likert scale) and on their overall QOL (5.26 in the same scale). The tourism impacts were
particularly high on the psychological domain (positive feelings) and on the improvement of the
environmental context (public facilities & services).
Table 2: Measurement statistics of tourism impacts on residents' QOL construct

Average
Standard Indicator Composite Discriminant
Residents´perceptions of tourism impacts on their QOL Mean t-value a Variance
Deviation Loadings reliability validity
Extracted
Economic & social relationship opportunities 0.92 0.63 Yes
Having opportunity to carry on recreational activities 5.30 1.46 0.82 29.48
Having more job opportunities 5.27 1.71 0.79 26.16
Having opportunities to get more financial resources 5.13 1.62 0.78 25.09
Having oppotunity to participate in cultural activities 5.21 1.50 0.83 32.06
Having opportunities for socialising 5.53 1.39 0.83 39.82
Having opportunities of contacting with people of different cultures 5.80 1.28 0.71 17.60
Having diversity of economic activities 5.49 1.43 0.81 30.10
Calm & safety 0.93 0.72 Yes
Having a healthy life 5.26 1.67 0.85 40.39
L iving in an unpolluted environment 4.98 1.78 0.88 53.06
Feeling safe 5.11 1.71 0.85 36.26
L iving without traffic jams and people 4.24 1.89 0.78 20.41
L iving in a quiet environment 4.64 1.84 0.87 48.50
Public facilities & services 0.91 0.62 Yes
Having facilities to promote mobility/accessibility 5.40 1.60 0.80 26.82
Having access to health services 5.20 1.83 0.79 23.72
Having access to good transport 5.52 1.59 0.84 32.15
Preserving natural environment 5.35 1.49 0.80 29.41
Preserving cultural heritage 5.31 1.54 0.82 33.81
Having restaurants and other commercial establishments 5.89 1.27 0.68 12.74
Positive feelings 0.78 0.64 Yes
Feeling proud to live in this place 5.72 3.36 0.62 3.62
Having positive feelings 5.19 1.71 0.95 58.02
Residents´perceptions of tourism impacts on their overall QOL 5.26 1,646 1 – 1 – –
a
t-values were obtained with the bootstrapping procedure (5000 samples) and are significant at the 0.001 level (two-tailed test)
Confirming the reliability and validity of the measures used to represent each construct,
assessment criteria such as composite reliability (> 0.7), outer loadings (> 0.6), average
variance extracted (0.5) and discriminant validity (heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations
<0.9), clearly satisfy the requirements (Tables 1 and 2). As for the inner model, the estimates
were examined to assess the hypothesised relationships among the constructs in the
conceptual model. The standardised path coefficients and significance levels provide evidence
of the inner model's quality, with t-values being obtained with the bootstrapping procedure
(5000 samples). The indirect and total effects of the independent constructs on the dependent
ones were also examined, since they provide useful information regarding cause-effect
relationships.
The social interaction has a significant impact on the resident’s perceptions of the tourism
impacts on their QOL (Table 3). However, this impact differs according to the type of
interaction, being interaction at work the type of interaction with highest influence. Moreover,
satisfaction with interaction influences positively all the domains of the QOL and is the
construct with the second greater total effect on the tourism impacts on overall QOL perceived
by residents. All the domains of the QOL have a significant positive influence on the overall QOL
perceived. The results highlight the relevance of stimulating social interaction between
residents and visitors in order to increase the impacts of tourism on the residents’ QOL.
85
Considering the important role of interaction with visitors in the perceived impact of tourism
on residents’ QOL and the valuable knowledge of residents regarding the local culture, activities
that promote encounters between residents and visitors should be encouraged. Moreover, a
high involvement of the local community in the supply of tourism services (e.g. as tour guides,
as story tellers, as handicraftsmen communicating with visitors) should be stimulated by those
responsible for tourism development.
Table 3: R2, direct, indirect and total effects on residents' overall QOL
Indirect effects Total effects
Effects
Construct R 2 significance significance
Direct Indirect Total t values ρ values t values ρ values
Host-tourist interaction
Close Interaction – 0.036 0.036 0.793 0.428 0.793 0.428
Interaction at work – 0.246 0.246 5.461*** 0.000 5.461*** 0.000
Interaction in attractions & facilities – 0.066 0.066 1.422 0.155 1.422 0.155
Satisfaction with host-tourist interaction 0.026 0.222 0.248 4.673*** 0.000 4.183*** 0.000
Tourism impacts on residents' QOL
Economic & social relationship opportunities 0.159 – 0.159 – – 1.803* 0.071
Calm & safety 0.130 – 0.130 – – 2.221** 0.026
Public facilities & services 0.271 – 0.271 – – 3.567*** 0.000
Positive feelings 0.285 – 0.285 – – 3.907*** 0.000
Residentsóverall QOL 0.50 – – – – – – –
***ρ <0.001 **ρ <0.05 *ρ <0.1 (two-tailed test)
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87
Linking destination governance and tourists’ quality of service experience:

a perspective from Mediterranean Sea basin tourists.1
Amparo Cervera
Carmen Peréz-Cabanero
Walesska Schlesinger
Gregorio García
University of Valencia
m.walesska.schlesinger@uv.es
Introduction
Higher competition and globalization in tourism has increased rivalry between
destinations (Go and Govers, 2000). Destinations are amalgams of tourism products which offer
an integrated experience to consumers (Buhalis, 2000). Tourism destinations include a cluster
of interrelated stakeholders embedded in a social network (Scott et al., 2008). These
destination stakeholders include private and public agents such as accommodation businesses,
tour companies, government agencies, representatives of the local community and residents,
among others.
Governance is a key concept in politics and public policy that is increasingly utilised in
tourism (Hall, 2011). Research has found governance as a key element in wellbeing with
differences according to the level of development (Helliwell & Huang, 2008), gender nor
economic level (Orviska et al. 2014). Governance policies should involve citizens in tourism
development to fulfill international tourists’ demands of an authentic experience (Teare et al.,
2013). Differences in the governance of tourism destinations may imply differences in the
effectiveness of joint stakeholder interactions and hence to diverse destination
competitiveness (Beamount and Dredge, 2010).
On the other hand, the study of tourists’ experience is pivotal according to academics and
policy makers (Murray et al., 2010; Kao et al., 2008). In tourism, the quality of service
experience relates to tourists’ affective responses (Chen and Chen, 2010). It is a holistic, multi-
dimensional measure that assesses personal reactions and feelings in response to a tourist
service (Otto and Ritchie, 1996).
Tourism literature has not studied governance from the tourists’ point of view despite it
is a key stakeholder for destination management. Qualitative techniques are usually employed
to interview tourism stakeholders from the supply side (Konstantinos, 2002; Kirby et al., 2011;
Aretano et al., 2013).
The main contribution of this paper is to analyze tourists’ perceptions of destination
governance and its link with tourists’ quality of the service experience using a big sample of
Mediterranean tourists.
The objective of this paper is twofold. First, we analyze the governance of Mediterranean
destinations according to the perception of a key stakeholder: tourists. We posit that there may
be differences between North Mediterranean and South Mediterranean destinations. Second,
we explore the link between destination governance and tourists’ quality of service experience.
As far as we know, destination governance has not been assessed by tourists in previous
research nor its influence on tourists’ quality of service experience. Therefore, these are the
two main contributions of the current paper.
1
This reseach is funded by the EU, Project No. IB/1.3/561 Newcimed: New Cities of the Mediterranean Sea Basin. The
UE is not responsible of the content of this paper.
88
Literature review
The concept of governance applied to tourist destinations consists of setting and
developing rules, mechanisms and also business strategies by involving all private and public
institutions and individuals related to that destination (Beritelli et al., 2007). This is an inclusive
process, as each stakeholder incorporates qualities, skills and significant resources to the
system. In this process, are important building and maintaining trust, commitment and
negotiation (Bovaird and Löffler, 2003).
In this sense, tourism, being a product of the territory and not just of the business, needs
the joint governance of all tourism supply stakeholders, with the aim of ensuring the effective
implementation of the processes that must be carried out: reception, establishment of an
integrated, sustainable, accessible and profitable territorial offer; and the creation of the
environmental and infrastructure conditions needed for the provision of a quality service. The
objective is, therefore, to establish a series of innovative tools in order to improve tourism
development, sustainability and participation in decision-making. Tourism demand is high and
increasing, so the problems that may arise in tourism management need to be systematically
tackled by all parties concerned (Yüksel et al., 2005; Pulido et al., 2013).
Previous research has found that destination governance reflects specific local and
country conditions (D’Angella et al., 2010). Thus we propose our first research question:
RQ1: There are different governance structures in North and South Mediterranean
destinations.
One of the first sound works on the quality of service experience in tourism is by Otto and
Ritchie (1996). Quality of service experience holistically and subjectively assesses tourists’
personal experiences and reflects their affective responses. Although some authors suggest that
governance impacts on tourists’ experience, they do not survey this issue (Kirby et al., 2011;
Teare et al., 2013). Thus, we propose our second research question:
RQ2: There is a positive effect of destination governance on tourists’ quality of service
experience.
Methods & materials

In order to achieve our objectives, we follow a quantitative approach on the basis of a
structured questionnaire including questions regarding destination governance, tourists’
quality of service experience and other classification items such as gender, country of origin,
education and other demographical data.
The context of our research is based on subjective data obtained through surveys of
tourists in seven cities of the Mediterranean basin: Tafilah (Jordan), Tyre (Lebanon), Maamoura
(Tunisia), Oristano (Italy), Latina (Italy), Sicily (Italy) and Cullera (Spain). The first three cities
belong to the Southern Mediterranean arch, and the remaining four to the northern arch.
Respondents were tourists who had just finished their visit to a tourist site. The survey yielded
1362 valid responses.
Previous research on destination governance has employed qualitative techniques such
as case studies. Further, they usually interview internal stakeholders like residents (Andriotis,
2002; Aretano et al., 2013), owners of lodges (Kirby et al., 2011), state managers, local
managers, community leaders and consultants (Ariza et al., 2014, DÁngela et al., 2010; Baggio
et al., 2010; Beritelli et al., 2007). In our research, we assess destination governance according
to tourists’ perceptions of issues regarding public and private agents. All items were measured
on a 5-point Likert-type scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).
In order to gather information about the quality of service experience, we used the scale
by Otto and Ritchie (1996). They propose six original dimensions integrating the service
experience, however, after an empirical field work, the scale is reduced to 23 items grouped in
89
four dimensions: hedonics, peace of mind, involvement and recognition. In our research, all
items were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree
(5). Data analysis includes multivariate analysis.
Table 1. Characteristics of the sample

Universe Tourists at seven cities in the Mediterranean Sea basin
Tafilah Tyre Maamoura Oristano Latina Sicily Cullera
(Jordan) (Lebanon) (Tunisia) (Italy) (Italy) (Italy) (Spain)
SAMPLE
155 202 200 208 200 201 199
Total southern Mediterranean Total northern Mediterranean

n = 557 n = 808
Total sample 1362 tourists
Geographical Mediterranean Sea basin
scope
Data Self-report questionnaire
collection
method
Sampling Non-probabilistic method: convenience sampling
procedure
Research and results

We expect to confirm the two research questions proposed in this paper. Consequently,
we expect to find different governance perceptions by tourists in North and South
Mediterranean destinations. Additionally, we expect a positive relationship between tourism
governance and tourists’ quality of the service experience.
Discussion and conclusions

The Mediterranean welcomes huge numbers of tourists each year, which greatly affects
surrounding countries. Planning and managing Mediterranean tourism is therefore important
to minimize tourism negative effects and enhance its positive impacts. Destination governance
can be a strategic mechanism for adapting tourist agents and policies to changing demands
while maintaining integrity and functionality (Baggio et al., 2010).
Faced with growing competition, it has become imperative for destination marketers to
understand the symbolic value and experiential qualities of tourism destinations. Successful
tourism marketing strategies should rest on an appreciation of the distinguishing and unique
characteristics of tourists’ experiences (Hosany and Gilbert, 2010) in order to improve tourists’
quality of service experience at destinations.
The current research expects to make two significant contributions. First, it makes a
comparison of governance issues in North and South Mediterranean destinations according to
tourists’ perceptions. Second, it explores the link between governance and tourists’ quality of
service experience. To our knowledge, there is lack of research regarding these issues using
quantitative data from tourists at Mediterranean destinations.
Our findings regarding governance differences in North and South Mediterranean
destinations suggest which aspects should be improved in each area according to tourists’
perceptions of the role of different tourist agents: local authorities, employees, residents, and
some policies on the destination promotion and the protection of natural resources, among
others. Thus destination governance can be improved following tourists guidelines.
Findings regarding the positive link between governance and tourists’ quality of service
experience would underline the relevance of a good planning and coordination between the
agents involved in destination management. As suggested by Beritelli et al. (2015), governance
90
structures and networks should be actively managed in order to create better conditions to
success and enhance the tourist’s experience.
There are additional managerial implications. A better understanding of the overall
tourist experience can help companies enhance their delivery of current services and also
inspire innovation. Tourist services should emphasize elements regarding the emotional side
of the overall experience. In fact, many tourist organizations are increasingly boosting the
participation of the public in their policies and programs (Gilmore and Rentschler, 2002) in line
with recent co-creation policies. Successful tourist innovation should consider aspects from
those dimensions of tourists’ quality of service experience which are valued by tourists.
Qualitative market research would be very helpful for this task.
Further research in the field of destination governance must address the integration of
theories, for example, the agency theory, political economy, the dyadic and the network
perspectives, as well as the validation of the findings for other countries and cultural settings.
Further implications of governance and tourists’ quality of service experience can also be
studied.
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63–73. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.12.010
Ariza, E., Lindeman, K., Mozumder, P., & Suman, D. (2014). Beach management in Florida:
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92
Self-pampering or health maintaining? A study of perceived food

experiences, motivation, and perceived well-being of tourists of hot spring
resorts
Janet Chang
National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourismand
jc.chang1001@gmail.com
Chih-Hung Wang
National Taichung University of Education
Abstract
To date, experiencing hot spring and food have become a vital part of travel and leisure
marketing. By using the WOW bear as the travel endorser, ROC Tourism Bureau is trying to
protect tourists’ protection of the experience by undertaking a promotional campaign including
presenting featuring a map that authenticates of various hot spring spots throughout the island
as well as the good hot spring and food carnival in Taiwan from the beginning of October 2014
to January of 2015. The grand prize of the lucky draw is two round-trip airline tickets in
between Taipei and Osaka, Japan. Experiencing the hot spring is one type of health tourism,
involving the pursuit of both wellness and holiday enjoyment. Tourism and hospitality
industries, are well-known for creating happiness for human beings, and, as such, an integral
part of well-being/wellness industries. Therefore, and in this way, the patronage of hot spring
resort has become a way of obtaining well-being as a core component of tourist experiences.
The combination of food and travel can not only improve both residents and tourists’
quality of life but further increase the well-being. In fact, food is an essential attraction of hot
spring tourism, while well-being is identified as a psychological indicator of health and quality
of life. However, the relevant studies are scant, in particular those using integrated approaches
in exploring the relation among food experiences, motivations of experiencing hot spring and
perceived well-being. Hotels enjoy the reputation of being seen as the mother of the tourism
industry. As such, this research aims to examine perceived well-being, tourist motivation, food
perception and experiences of hot spring resorts.
This research intends to use the mixed method to collect data, conducting analysis,
explaining and integrating findings of qualitative and quantitative data. To illustrate further,
the progress of the research for the first part aims to collect secondary data, conducting
literature reviews, administering qualitative approaches including free-listing and in-depth
interview methods by using both the qualitative software package of statistics: Anthropac and
the content analysis so as to meet the requirements of triangulation. As for the progress of the
second part, a quantitative approach will be used in an attempt to understand and to examine
the model of the perceived well-being, tourist motivation, and food experiences in using hot
spring hotels.
The expected academic contributions include the adoption of integrated theories of
tourist motivation, tourist food experiences i.e., neophobic and neophylic, perceived well-being
so as to obtain and develop a concrete understanding of the profiles and perceptions of tourists
of hot spring resorts. In turn, a gap between theoretical and practical fields could be filled. As
for the practical contributions, the findings of this research expect to provide references for
both industries and governmental departments in enacting relevant policies and
implementation of management “best practices”. By doing so, a better blue-ocean strategy and
a competitive model can be created for hot spring resorts and related hot spring recreation
districts.
93
Genealogy Tourism Market Opportunities of Hakka Homeland in China
Chen-Chi Chang
Department of Culture Creativity and Digital Marketing, National United University
No.2, Lienda, Miaoli 36003, Taiwan, R.O.C.
kiwi@nuu.edu.tw
Introduction
The modern tourism market seems increasingly characterized by a multiplicity of demand
for alternative cultures, entertainments and attractions, and stimulating new tourism segments
(Novelli, 2007). It has long been recognized that cultural tourism develops rapidly within global
movement societies and countries. Researchers recently have started to focus explicitly on
tourism and cultural heritage management (Du Cros, 2001; Silberberg, 1995; Zeppel & Hall,
1991). Cultural tourism business opportunities have been a pathway in bringing minority
communities into mainstream tourism development (Sofield & Li, 1998). One of the important
forms of cultural tourism may be classified as “ethnic tourism”. Ethnic tourism is defined as that
form of tourism where the cultural exoticism of natives is the main tourist attractant (Van den
Berghe, 1992). In advance, according to the previous study, there are two types of ethnic
tourism. One of them is genealogy tourism (also refer to root tourism) and the other is tourism
with the purpose of getting to know other people’s differing cultural background from an
authentic approach (Csapó, 2012). The genealogy tourism market opportunities presented in
this study confirm that niche tourism can be defined in relation to its multitude of factors
interacting and responding to a changing tourism demand and market trends. In Chinese,
Hakka is a special ethnic group. The Hakka people are one branch of the Han Chinese who lives
predominantly in the provinces of Taiwan, Guangdong, Jiangxi, and Fujian in China. The whole
Hakka history is the Hakka migration history. While certain niche segments, such as cultural
heritage, sport and adventure tourism, are widely known and easily recognizable, there are
others listed under newly born micro-niches, such as photographic, genealogy and research
tourism. Genealogy (Zupu in Chinese) is the history of Chinese families. Genealogy has been
widely used for the tracing of their lineages and history (Chang, Chao, & Wu, 2013). Since Hakka
is one of the Chinese ethnic minority groups. Tracing of their lineages and family history is a
powerful emotion for Hakka people.
Genealogy Tourism
Family history can be a very interesting and as a research field has not yet been much
explored. The Genealogy is one kind of family history record. In previous study, Liaw (2003)
provides extensive discussions of genealogy, overview of genealogical documents
reorganization, antiquarianism, as well as the genealogy of the contribution. As more and more
people become interested in researching their family roots, this study presents new and
exciting commercial opportunities. In the past, genealogy is the record of basic information
about births, marriages and deaths is linked together to form a family tree. Writing the
genealogy is a journey of discovery – if you haven’t started researching your family tree yet, you
are missing out on what must be the world’s fastest growing hobby (Taylor, 2002). Researching
your family history is a journey of discovery that isn’t over until you have actually visited your
ancestral homeland (Novelli, 2007). Recently, the tracing of our ancestors has become a major
preoccupation – genealogy as one of the most popular subjects on the internet(Gilchrist, 2000).
Genealogy tourism, also called personal heritage tourism (Timothy, 1997), roots tourism,
ancestral tourism or Diaspora tourism, refers to “restless or halfway” populations who sojourn
94
back to their homeland to engage in the re-making and de-making of their identities (Ross,
2010).
Hakka Genealogy Development

The Hakka people are one branch of the Han Chinese who lives predominantly in the
provinces of Taiwan, Guangdong, Jiangxi, and Fujian in China (Xie, 2007). Hakka is one of the
oldest Chinese ethnic groups. Hakka people have a strong preservation of the culture, heritage,
particularly in the dialect. Instead of living in the same region, the history of the Hakka is one
migration and conflicts with the people they lived around and competed with for land. There
were many difficulties in migration of Hakkas. Hakkas have been consciousness that not afraid
of predicaments and courageous spirit. The reason for Hakkas special attention to the
genealogy records is that they leave hometown frequently. Hakka genealogy contents include
migration process of the family, genetically related, marital status, Family Instructions, and so
on. The nature of Hakkas owe to ancestors. It will affect the emphasis on their genealogy. Hakka
genealogy is an important part of Hakka culture. The family rules and regulations in the
genealogy, which are the crystallization of their ancestors' philosophies and experiences of life,
represent the values of the Hakkas (Li, 2006). Liaw (2003) also noted that there are important
historical value of genealogy include economic, demographic, educational, ethnic and religious,
etc (Liaw, 2003). Nowadays, several studies indicated that genealogy as the critical reference
because of their potential to disentangle complex population histories (Kuhner, 2009; Meskill,
1970; Zatloukal & Harvey, 2004). In the past, genealogy often consists of a family or a clan as a
unit and writing in the paper. Various social and environmental factors, such as war, natural
disasters and migration lead genealogies has been damaged or disappeared. Several sites offer
the services that genealogy writer and provide offspring to find their ancestors. Such as
Ancestry.com (Ancestry, 2012), and Taiwan Genealogy Online (National Central Library, 2012).
Business Opportunities of Shibi Hakka Homeland

New niche marketing strategy, like developing business opportunities of genealogy
tourism services or taking advantage of ancestral resources produced by Hakka homeland,
could with creative thinking arise over the traditional services of tourism industry. Genealogy
is an important resource of ancestral tourism, as well as ancestral tourism is beneficial to
develop genealogy. Hakka culture has high experience value, enjoying value, educational value
and scientific values in genealogy development, which was not only preserving ancient Hakka
culture, but also integrating local cultural industry. Genealogy tourism in this study defines as
a visit to Hakka homeland partly or wholly motivated by the need to reconnect with family’s
ancestors or roots. Hakka homeland in China is the town of Shibi of Ninghua. Ninghua is a
county of Sanming, in western Fujian province, People's Republic of China, bordering Jiangxi to
the west. The town of Shibi of Ninghua is well known as the cradle of the Hakka. Shibi bills itself
as the cradle of the Hakkas for its place in Hakka history. Shibi Village of Ninghua County, Fujian
Province, which is acclaimed as the homeland of Hakkas, the cradle of Hakkas and the
pilgrimage center of the Hakkas all over the world, possesses a world-class standing and its
Hakka culture has had a great influence upon the world (Luo, 2008). Shibi, Ninghua is the cradle
and originating area of Hakka and is the common home of Hakka in the world. As the ancient
field of Hakka, Shibi has rich Hakka culture resources, which are important resources of tourism
developing (Huang, 2011). Ancestral tourism is a growing and important niche market for
Hakka homeland. With over 100 million people across the globe able to lay claim to Hakkas
ancestry, the scope and potential of this market for Hakkas tourism is huge, and the good news
is that there are real opportunities for businesses right across the country to benefit (Zhan,
2014). Hakka Cultural tourist area is an important tourism area of Fujian province. Hakka
95
homeland culture is an important part of the tourist line in Northwest of Fujian province. It has
an important position and role of the cultural tourism development in Fujian province (Yu,
2011). Since 1995, the leaders of overseas Hakka, all friends of the enthusiastic support and
active participation of the World Hakka ancestral homeland ancestor worship ceremony has
been successfully held 20 years, attracting more than millions Hakkas around the world.
The Ancestral Tourist Segments

Tourist segmentation is a very popular and broadly accepted way of increasing market
profitability (Dolnicar & Leisch, 2003). Understanding the attractiveness of ancestral heritage
to different tourist segments is a prerequisite to effective marketing strategy implementation.
According to the genealogy curious and return intention to homeland, there are four kinds of
ancestral tourists, see Figure 1. First, these tourists were fully supportive of the ancestral
tourism experience and were known as return visitors. Secondly, there were tourists who were
mildly curious about their ancestral heritage and were described as supplementary ancestral
tourists. Supplementary ancestral tourists would research their family history while visiting
homeland for other reasons. Thirdly, there were tourists who were highly curious about their
ancestral heritage, however, had never been to homeland for low return intention. These
tourists were known as potential ancestral tourists. Fourth, there were tourists who had been
to homeland for other reasons but would consider participating in some ancestral research if it
was of a very general nature such as a clan tour. These tourists were known as incidental
ancestral tourists.
Potential
Ancestral Tourists Return Visitors
Return Intention
Incidental Supplementary
Ancestral Tourists Ancestral Tourists
Genealogy Curious
Figure 1. Ancestral Tourist Segments
The Genealogy Tourism Marketing Matrix

The Strategic Marketing Matrix for Genealogy Tourism makes travel agents and senior
managers to think about the intersection of genealogical connection and tourism attraction. The
Genealogy Tourism Marketing Matrix has four alternatives of marketing strategies: well-
developed genealogy tourism, enhance ancestral connection, improve tourism infrastructure
and potential genealogy tourism. Responding to this, this study proposed four key enablers can
be identified that have facilitated the development of genealogy tourism, included information
96
communication technology, resources, search for identity, and postmodern forms of tourism
(Novelli, 2007).
Information Communication Technology (Potential Genealogy Tourism)
The role of the Internet has enhanced the growth in family history research and
information technology can be credited for simplifying writing genealogy (Clifford, 2001;
Howells, 2001). It is easy to find the genealogy on the Internet (Christian, 2002), the recognition
of the role of technology and the increasing use of the internet for genealogy development, has
offered new opportunities to sell accommodation and other tourism related products.
Resources (Improve Tourism Infrastructure)
The growth in family history has been accelerated by the increasing provision of various
key online resources. The substantial development aid, mainly used to improve tourism
infrastructure and to provide job opportunities, shaped the fundamental incentive structure
and had profound effects on the behavior of community members (Tai, 2007).
Search for Identity (Enhance Ancestral Connection)
Search for identity is a form of heritage tourism and a cultural component which can be
used to make ethnic identity. In a sense the internet has enabled vicarious journeys to
homelands and has provided a virtual sense of identity for the researcher. This virtual
homecoming may provide a virtual reality experience but as such ‘is more likely to provide a
spur for the real thing (Brown, 2000).
Postmodern Forms of Tourism (Well-Developed Genealogy Tourism)
The role of heritage in postmodern tourism is examined, particularly built heritage, which
is at the heart of cultural tourism (Nuryanti, 1996). Well-developed genealogy tourism is the
completely postmodern forms of tourism. The complex relationships between tourism and
genealogy are revealed in the tensions between tradition and modernity. Despite globalization
and the global diffusion of consumer capitalism, individuals continue to exercise strategies of
personal identification (Hughes, 1995).
Genealogy
Improve Well-Developed
Tourism Genealogy
Infrastructure Tourism
Recreation Tourism
Potential Enhance
Genealogy Ancestral
Tourism Connection
Cultural
Figure 2. Genealogy Tourism Marketing Matrix

Considering then that the ancestral tourist is going back both spatially and emotionally to
their roots, i.e. the starting place, the term ‘ancestral tourist’ can at least be applied in academic
97
discussion. The Scottish Executive (2000) identified four key elements in the development of
genealogy tourism (Scottish, 2000): included (1)Linking genealogy websites, (2)Developing the
promotional potential of genealogy tourism overseas, (3)Introducing tactical direct marketing
campaigns, (4) Promotion in specialist ex-pat publications. There are several challenging issues
in linking genealogy and tourism are discussed: interpretation, marketing built genealogy,
planning for genealogy, and the interdependencies between genealogy tourism and the Hakka
cultural industry.
Acknowledgements
This paper was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan under
Grant MOST 103-2410-H-239 -004 -MY2.
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Whether or not The local is helping the tourists to visit the tourism
destinations?
Hsuan Hsuan Chang

Ming Chuan University, School of tourism, Department of Leisure and Recreation
administration,
Taipei, Taiwan
changtzu@mail.mcu.edu.tw
Introduction
When people travel to new places they can easily feel lost in the strange surroundings and
unfamiliar environments, requiring them to ask for directions to find their way around. This
does not only happen to local residents traveling within their own country but also to
international travelers who are visiting a country for the first time or on repeated visits. Due to
language barriers and the unfamiliar environment, international travelers may encounter
certain challenges and difficulties when wayfinding in another country. Tourists sometimes
seek the wayfinding information they need from the local people to reduce the possibility of
getting lost.
Often people rely on verbal directions to facilitate wayfinding, particularly when
searching for unfamiliar destinations such as tourist sites. What sort of descriptive language do
people use when giving directions? In what ways might these features vary across cultures? Do
they depend on the characteristics of the receivers of information? The aim of this study is to
investigate what international tourists need when they ask local people for directions to
unfamiliar destinations. This study will also investigate whether the tourists’ gender, cultural
background and wayfinding strategy preferences affect their preference for direction
descriptors.
Literature Review
Wayfinding is a purposeful, directed and motivated means of moving from the point of
origin to a given destination (Xia et al., 2008). Allen (1999) identified three types of wayfinding
tasks: commute, explore and quest. The quest wayfinding task involves traveling from the
familiar place of origin to an unfamiliar destination. The traveler has not previously visited
that destination. Without stored knowledge, the traveler might need a map, visual references
or a verbal description to find their way to their destination.
Sometimes, directions are helpful because there are enough details to effectively guide a
person from place to place. At other times, directions that may have actually misleading or
have too many details to remember, especially for tourists experiencing language barriers.
According to previous studies, everyone has different ways of using spatial information and
also have different preferences for how information is given; they may like to be given
landmarks, distances, directions, left or right turns, cues, walking distance, etc. (Golding,
Graesser & Hauselt, 1996; Wright, Lickorish, Hull & Ummelen, 1995; Denis, Pazzaglia, Cornoldi
& Bertolo, 1999). In giving directions, some people provide only the most basic instructions,
such as "Right at the last section", whereas others provide more information, such as distances,
landmarks, or clear street names. Directions could be different for different communicators as
a function of frames of reference (Levinson,. Kita & Rasch, 2002).
There are marked individual differences in the frequency with which each cue is given
(Denis et al., 1999). Previous research has found that there are striking cultural differences in
frames of reference and associated spatial terms used to describe geographical locations. Until
100
now, the subject of cultural differences in describing spatial factors has been ignored (Hund,
Haney & Seanor, 2008; Pazzaglia, Meneghetti, DeBeni & Gyselinck, 2010). Previous studies
have also confirmed that the quality of directions given and received would be affected by the
receiver's culture, wayfinding strategy, sense of direction, familiarity with the local
environment, gender and age, etc.(Saucier et al., 2002).
This study examined two hypotheses: 1)Significant differences in preferences for how
directions are given (such as orientation, left/right turns, distance, landmark, etc.) exist
between tourists and local people; 2) tourists who have different wayfinding strategies
(route/orientation strategy), gender and cultural background would have different preferences
for how directions are given.
Methods and Materials

The data was collect in major attractions, Taiwan. The 287 study participants included 154
international tourists; and 133 local residents who had experience helping international
tourists find the way to the attraction sites. Of the participants, 57.5% were female and 42.5%
were male. Further, 53.7% were international tourists and 46.3% were local Taiwanese people.
The average age was 32 years. In terms of cultural background, 52% claimed to have been
brought up in an Eastern culture and 48% had a Western background. Being able to speak the
same language is essential for interaction to take place between tourists and locals. English is
considered to be the most widely used foreign language in Taiwan. The average score for
English proficiency is 8.49 out of ten for international tourists; 5.13 for local Taiwanese people.
The questionnaire collected information about socio-economic and cultural backgrounds,
nationality, English and Chinese proficiency, and preferred methods for receiving directions.
The possible direction descriptors were landmarks, cardinal points; left/right turns, time taken
to walk the distance, actual distance, or various methods combined. The ten questions were
designed to identify wayfinding strategy preferences according to the suggestion in Lawton's
study in 2002 by using Likert scale.
Results
Three most widely used types of information are: cardinal points and distance (40%),
landmarks (36%), and cardinal points only (24%). The study results confirm the findings of
many previous studies that most common reference frames involve cardinal point directions
and precise distances/names of streets (Taylor & Tversky, 1996). Landmarks are the second
most favorable descriptors tourists would like to be used in wayfinding directions. Landmarks
are very useful because they provide environmental features as points of reference and keep
people connected to the point of origin and the destination along the route (Allen, 2000). They
also provide a visual model of the environment (Tom & Denis, 2004). According to the results
of the cross-tab analysis (χ2=12.978, p=0.002), the local Taiwanese people preferred the
direction descriptors together with cardinal points and distances when they require the help
from others. The international tourists in Taiwan actually prefer the information to include
landmarks when they need the assistance of local people (Table 1). From the perspective of the
international tourist, consideration should be given to the fact that directions including
information about landmarks would be easier to follow than cardinal points. For example, in
Taiwan most street name still do not give information about cardinal points. It would be very
challenging for people to identify cardinal points if they were not familiar with the local road
planning system. However some studies mentioned the possible risk of using landmark
information to give directions to destinations. It was claimed that the people who performed
well using landmarks for wayfinding had a better memory, especially for remembering details
given for the end of the routes.
101
Table 1. The cross-tab result for direction descriptors preferred by locals and tourists
Direction
Local people Tourists Total
descriptors
Cardinal+Distance 51% 31% 40%
Cardinal only 17% 30% 24%
Landmarks 32% 39% 36%
Total 100% 100% 100%
The result of H 2 is shown in Table 2. The tourists with different wayfinding-strategy,

gender and cultural backgrounds showed significant preference for wayfinding direction
descriptors provided by local people. The tourists who used a route strategy showed a strong
preference for receiving information about landmarks from local people but tourists who used
a survey strategy more often liked information that included cardinal points and distances. A
route wayfinding-strategy perspective normally involves using a first-person spatial
perspective as the frame of reference and includes left and right turns and also landmark
descriptions to navigate the environment (Hund et al., 2012). On the other hand, a survey
perspective involves adapting a third-person spatial perspective to identify the entire
environment. The person using this strategy prefers to know the whole layout of wayfinding
environment, likes to know the cardinal points and also precise distances. My study results
were consistent with previous studies.
The results indicate that males prefer to be given both cardinal points and exact distances;
females show a strong preference for landmark information. Previous studies have found
gender differences in wayfinding strategies (e.g., Honda & Nihei, 2004; Lawton & Kallai, 2002;
Saucier et al., 2002). More men than women prefer survey strategies that provide more cardinal
descriptions; more women than men prefer route strategies that provide more landmark
information (Honda & Nihei, 2004; Hund et al., 2008; Lawton & Kallai, 2002).
Tourists from Eastern background prefer cardinal points and distance information;
tourists from Western background like to be given information that includes landmarks. This
study found major difference between Eastern and Western tourists in the use of spatial terms.
Again, some studies explained this difference by addressing a person's wayfinding perspective
but other studies focused on people’s experiences in their daily environment, such as the street
layout. For example, people from the USA Midwest/West provided cardinal directions more
frequently. This is because, due to the grid system, the property boundaries and road systems
are very regular. This could explain the results in this study. Most of the major cities in Asia use
a grid system for their street design. In many parts of Europe and in certain areas of the USA,
the property boundaries and roads have less regular patterns (Hund, et al., 2012). This explains
why tourists with Western cultural background would be more comfortable with landmark
direction descriptors.
Table 2. The cross table result of direction descriptors by different variables

Wayfinding
Gender Culture
strategy
Route Survey Male Female Eastern Western
Cardinal+Distance 29% 42% 40% 25% 48% 29%
Cardinal only 23% 30% 21% 27% 20% 33%
Landmark 48% 28% 39% 48% 32% 38%
χ2 6.781 6.916 13.500
102
Discussion and Conclusion

Firstly, due to the unfamiliar environment and foreign language, tourists might have a
greater need for assistance from the local people. The information about what descriptors are
most effective for wayfinding can be used to develop more effective GPS navigation systems,
paper-based travel maps, internet-based map/rout-planning services and also the local signage
system. Secondly, some tourists prefer local people to use landmarks as direction descriptors.
However the local people should pay attention to the number of landmarks used when they
give directions because tourists may not be able to remember too many landmark descriptors,
especially those given for the end of the wayfinding routes. It would be better for the locals to
write down the landmark information for the international tourists in order to decrease the
need to memorize too many landmarks. Thirdly, the local people should be educated to be more
flexible when providing help to others. For example, Hund et al. (2012) found that US
participants provided more cardinal descriptors when addressing listeners adopting a survey
perspective rather than a route perspective. However, they gave more landmark and left-right
descriptors when addressing listeners who adopted a route perspective rather than a survey
perspective. Hund et al.’s study revealed remarkable flexibility in people's spatial descriptors.
In summary, the present findings reveal that tourists with different cultural backgrounds,
wayfinding perspectives and gender have different preferences for descriptive features of the
wayfinding route. Again, giving and receiving directions are dynamic processes that are
dependent on complex interactions between the local people and tourists.
Reference
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Cognitive mapping and other spatial processes, 46-80.
Allen, G. L. (2000). Principles and practices for communicating route knowledge. Applied
cognitive psychology,14(4), 333-359.
Denis, M., Pazzaglia, F., Cornoldi, C., & Bertolo, L. (1999). Spatial discourse and navigation: An
analysis of route directions in the city of Venice. Applied cognitive psychology,13(2), 145-
174.
Golding, J. M., Graesser, A. C., & Hauselt, J. (1996). The process of answering direction‐giving
questions when someone is lost on a university campus: The role of pragmatics. Applied
Cognitive Psychology,10(1), 23-39.
Hund, A. M., Schmettow, M., & Noordzij, M. L. (2012). The impact of culture and recipient
perspective on direction giving in the service of wayfinding. Journal of environmental
psychology,32(4), 327-336.
Hund, A. M., Haney, K. H., & Seanor, B. D. (2008). The role of recipient perspective in giving and
following wayfinding directions. Applied cognitive psychology, 22(7), 896-916.
Lawton, C. A., & Kallai, J. (2002). Gender differences in wayfinding strategies and anxiety about
wayfinding: A cross-cultural comparison. Sex Roles,47(9-10), 389-401.
Levinson, S. C., Kita, S., Haun, D. B., & Rasch, B. H. (2002). Returning the tables: Language affects
spatial reasoning.Cognition,84(2), 155-188.
Pazzaglia, F., Meneghetti, C., De Beni, R., & Gyselinck, V. (2010). Working memory components
in survey and route spatial text processing. Cognitive processing,11(4), 359-369.
Saucier, D. M., Green, S. M., Leason, J., MacFadden, A., Bell, S., & Elias, L. J. (2002). Are sex
differences in navigation caused by sexually dimorphic strategies or by differences in the
ability to use the strategies?.Behavioral neuroscience,116(3), 403.
Taylor, H. A., & Tversky, B. (1996). Perspective in spatial descriptions. Journal of memory and
language, 35(3), 371-391.
103
Tom, A., & Denis, M. (2004). Language and spatial cognition: Comparing the roles of landmarks
and street names in route instructions. Applied cognitive psychology,18(9), 1213-1230.
Wright, P., Lickorish, A., Hull, A., & Ummelen, N. (1995). Graphics in written directions:
Appreciated by readers but not writers. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 9(1), 41-59.
Xia, J. C., Arrowsmith, C., Jackson, M., & Cartwright, W. (2008). The wayfinding process
relationships between decision-making and landmark utility. Tourism Management,29(3),
445-457.
104
The safe or unsafe tourism destination - the cross culture comparison

study
Hsuan Hsuan Chang

Ming Chuan University, School of tourism, Department of Leisure and Recreation
administration,
Taipei, Taiwan
changtzu@mail.mcu.edu.tw
Introduction
Tourism image is the way people feel about something or impression can describe the
impact people have on others. Therefore, if people travel with positive impressions, this will
contain high possibility for them repeatedly travel back to the destination. Several studies have
illustrated that destination images do, indeed, influence tourist behavior (Hunt, 1975; Pearce,
1982). Travelling exposes people to varying degree and types of risk and security issues
(Bentley & Page, 2006; Page, Bentley & Meyer, 2003; Page & Meyer, 1996). The personal
perceived travelling risk is an influence factor to affect how an individual perceives one
country's destination image and towards its traveling decision-making process.
Perceived risk plays an important role in a traveler’s expectation and choice of destination
for international tourism market. The perceived risk of travelling has an intuitive appeal, and it
is persuasive in explaining consumer’s behavior (Hales & Shams, 1991). Majority of tourists
would avoid negative travelling experience and prefer going to a destination with positive
perceptions or tourism image. So what the tourists want is to maximize their travelling
satisfaction by minimizing the perceived travelling risk during the same time. To increase
inbound tourists’ traveling satisfactions, Taiwan’s government has the obligation and
responsibility to provide accurate and sufficient information about travelling risks. So
understanding how international youth travelers perceive risk of traveling in Taiwan can
improve travel policies and the travel environment.
This study has two research goals: 1) To investigate the safety awareness and traveling
risk awareness from the perspectives of international tourists; and 2) To identify any
significant difference existing between tourists with Eastern and Western cultural background.
Through this study, I could examine how international tourists perceive Taiwan and whether
or not Taiwan creates a positive image intern of a safe destination to travel to.
Literature Review
The perceived risk is an individual’s subjective assessment of the real risk present at any
time (Haddock, 1993). Looking at an individual’s perception of risk or risk taking propensity
insights can be gained from psychology (Gilchrist, Povey, Dickinson, & Povey, 1995) or
decision-making sciences (Jia, Dyer, & Butler, 1999). Each individual perceives as a risk may
vary greatly because individual’s perception could be influenced by the society such as wealth,
demographics, technology and the media (Slovic, 1990). In travel industry, a traveler or tourist
might have overall perception of any tourism destination based on his or her previous
travelling experience, information from relatives or friends, advertisement, and different
information sources. Attempts to integrate perceived risk concepts into destination
management are important because perceived risks that potential travelers associate with
specific destinations, not actual risks, directly affect their purchasing and purchase intentions.
In the attempt to investigate the relationship between the risk perceptions of tourist and
pleasure travel, Roehl and Fesenmaier (1992) have categorized tourist risk into seven items:
105
equipment risk, financial risk, physical risk, psychological risk, satisfaction risk, social risk, and
time risk. In the earliest studies of travel and risk, Moutinho (1987) reviewed marketing
literature and classified tourists’ perceived risks as functional, physical, financial, social, and
psychological risk. One research (Tsaur, Tzeng & Wang, 1997) categorizes traveling risks into
seven aspects which are Transportation, Law and Order, Hygiene, Accommodation, Weather,
Sightseeing Spot and Medical Support. These seven traveling risk aspects would affect people’s
willingness while deciding to travel or not.
Researchers on discussing how different culture or nationalities influence tourist’s
behavior have developed in the past and provided solid suggestions toward different marketing
strategies on customers with different culture or nationality background. Pizam and Sussmann
(1995) investigated how nationality affects tourist behavior and suggested that many more
differences than similarities in the behavior of the four tourist nationalities were perceived by
tour guides. Again Pizam and Jeong (1996)’s study also confirmed that tourist’s behavior is
perceived to be different by nationality and suggested that using cultural approach to design
tours can enhance tourist’s travelling satisfaction. Due to that, the study proposed one Study
Hypothesis: People with different culture background have significant difference on their
perceived travel risk evaluations.

The data were collected from July to October in 2013 in two locations, Taoyan
international airport of Taiwan and Nova Scotia, Canada. There are two versions of
questionnaire, one is in Chinese and the other is in English. The study sample size consisted of
300 participants; among of whom, 149 people (49%) are from Asia countries such as Korea,
Japan, China, Indonesia, and the rest 151 people (51%) are from other countries including,
Africa, France, German, Luxemburg and Canada. All of them never visited Taiwan before or just
arrived in Taiwan International Airport. Of them, 47% of participants considered them grew up
with Western cultural background and 51% grew up with Eastern cultural background.
However, there are 2% of people either in Western nor Eastern cultural background; thus, this
2% study samples are excluded from this research. In gender aspect, there are 156 female
(52%) participants and 144 male (48%) participants. And age of under 30 (including 30)
occupies more than half (87%) of all the participants which also have influence on their
traveling behavior.
A questionnaire was used to collect data such as their socio-economic background,
personal traveling characteristics, trip characteristics, traveling motivation (Ballantyne, Packer
& Beckmann, 1988; Gnoth, 1997), and perceived traveling risks (Chao, 2008; Tsaur, Tzeng, and
Wang, 1997). There were 23 items used to measure their perceived travelling risks by using
five-point Likert scale to measure their agreement level towards those items from 1 (Strongly
disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree).
Results
In total, the data from 300 study participants were used for data analysis such as
frequencies, Independent sample T test and Cross Tab analysis. Over 81% of the 243
participants have overseas traveling experience and majority of participants’ traveling purpose
is taking a vacation (71%) while other purposes (29%) are such as business, visit friend and
relatives, study, working holiday and some are simply either to experience different lifestyle or
to broaden the horizon. Over 75% of participants have traveled to overseas more than one time
(including one time). Study participants with Eastern cultural background (39%) havet higher
percentage on traveling overseas every year than study participants with Western cultural
106
background (37%). However, there is no significant difference in traveling frequency regarding

to cultural background (P > .05).
This paper attempts to examine any significant difference existing on tourist's
perceptions towards traveling risk among tourists with different cultural background. The
study listed 22 items to measure their perceived travelling risk in Taiwan by using five-point
Likert scale. The "1" refers to strongly disagree with the statement; and the "5" refers to
strongly agree with the statement. The bigger the number is; the higher level of agreement, the
participants have towards the statement. Of 22 items, nine items have mean score above four;
11 items have average score between 3.5 and 4; and two items have mean value less than 3.5.
No item has a score higher than 4.2. Overall, study participants perceived Taiwan’s dining, food
and beverage industry have high quality in hygiene and very clean. Besides majority considered
that the local people is very friendly, which matched the image Taiwan Tourism Bureau office
would like to build up for Taiwan tourism industry. There are four items related weather and
natural disasters such as earthquake, tsunamis and volcanoes, which were considered as
travelling risks in Taiwan. In fact, Tsunamis and volcanoes never happen in Taiwan. Again the
perceived traveling risks are not real or absolute risk. Some risks are developed based on
incorrect or insufficient information.
Then the independent sample T test was used to measure any difference on perceived
traveling risk existing between Western and Eastern tourists. According to table 1, seven items
of 22 items showed significant differences between two parties. Tourists with Eastern cultural
background scored higher on feeling safe about “Drivers obey the traffic safety regulations”,
“General hygiene practices”, “The dinning environment is clean”, “Food hygiene is good”, “There
are no contagious diseases”, “When accidents happen; the government and residents are willing
to provide assistance”, “The interpreters in scenic spots are professional”, “The weather is
stable”, and “There are rare earthquakes and tsunami” compared to study participants with
Western cultural background. Study participants with Eastern cultural background are the
people from Asia region and share similar geographical and weather condition. Besides Taiwan
is also located in Asia, closer to other Asian countries. This might help participants coming from
other Asia countries have better understanding about Taiwan travelling environment than
participants coming from USA and Europe areas, very far away from Asia.
107
Table 1. Traveling risk perceptions by cultural background.

Cultural background
Total
I feel safe because ..........in Taiwan Western Eastern T value
Public transportation system is safe 4.04 4.07 4.01 0.729
Drivers obey the traffic safety 3.92 3.64 4.16 -4.750*
regulations
Public telephones can be accessed 3.76 3.70 3.83 -1.223
easily
Fire escape gear is available in hotels 4.09 4.18 4.03 1.839
Rescue equipment is available in hotels 4.11 4.19 4.05 1.637
Hygiene practices are well developed 4.14 4.07 4.22 -1.589
Dinning environment is clean 4.15 4.07 4.25 -2.102*
Food hygiene in Taiwan is good. 4.09 4.00 4.20 -2.202*
No contagious diseases 3.85 3.79 3.91 -1.174
Local government will provide 3.94 3.93 3.97 -0.362
assistance for any accidents
Local people are friendly 4.12 4.14 4.08 0.591
Crime rates are low 3.78 3.68 3.86 -1.856
Quality of medical facilities is good 3.95 3.88 4.01 -1.234
Medical facilities are easily accessible 3.92 3.86 3.98 -1.411
Location of emergency medical 3.77 3.85 3.69 1.243
treatment is convenient
Recreational facilities in scenic spots 4.08 4.09 4.07 0.247
are well controlled
Interpreters in attractions are 4.05 4.02 4.10 -0.823
professional
Interpreters in scenic spots are enough 3.99 4.03 3.97 0.630
The weather is stable. 3.53 3.17 3.91 -6.688*
Earthquakes rarely happens 3.32 2.61 3.97 -
10.580*
Tsunamis rarely happens 3.44 2.73 4.07 -
10.927*
Volcanoes rarely happens 3.52 2.94 4.03 -9.136*

The findings of present study have shown that culture differences in various traveling
safety and risk do exist, especially in weather and nature disasters, medical support system and
also traffic aspects. Based on the study result, some suggestions for tourism industry are
provided. Apparently, tourists with Western cultural background have more concerns
regarding nature disasters especially they might not have any experience of earthquakes. This
incorrect image towards destination could be shaped by the elements of an individual’s
accumulated experiences, information reorganizing, and affections. The destination image
could be changed with continuing and proper marketing promotion activities (Gunn, 1988)
because tourism promotion is the process of communication between suppliers of a tourism
product or their intermediaries through distribution channels to potential tourists (Mill &
Morrison, 1985). With more understanding of the perceived traveling risks from tourists,
Taiwan Tourism Bureau would be able to adjust marketing strategies to cope with the
perceived traveling risk of international tourists.
108
Reference
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., & Beckmann, E. (1998). Targeted interpretation: exploring relationships
among visitors' motivations, activities, attitudes, information needs and preferences. Journal of
Tourism Studies, 9(2), 14-25.
Gilchrist, H., Povey, R., Dickinson, A., & Povey, R. (1995). The sensation seeking scale: Its use in a
study of the characteristics of people choosing ‘Adventure holidays’. Personality and
Individual Differences,19(4), 513-516.
Gnoth, J. (1997). Tourism motivation and expectation formation. Annals of Tourism research, 24(2),
283-304.
Hales, C., & Shams, H. (1991). Cautious incremental consumption: A neglected consumer risk
reduction strategy. European Journal of Marketing, 25(7), 7-21.
Hunt, J. D. (1975). Image as a factor in tourism development. Journal of Travel research, 13(3), 1-7.
Jia, J., Dyer, J. S., & Butler, J. C. (1999). Measures of perceived risk. Management Science, 45(4),
519-532.
Moutinho, L. (1987). Consumer behaviour in tourism. European Journal of marketing, 21(10), 5-44.
Page, S. J., & Meyer, D. (1996). Tourist accidents: an exploratory analysis. Annals of Tourism
Research, 23(3), 666-690.
Page, S. J., Bentley, T., & Meyer, D. (2003). Evaluating the nature, scope and extent of tourist
accidents: the New Zealand experience. Managing tourist health and safety in the new
millennium, 35-52.
Pearce, P. L. (1982). Perceived changes in holiday destinations. Annals of tourism research, 9(2),
145-164.
Pizam, A., & Jeong, G. H. (1996). Cross-cultural tourist behavior: Perceptions of Korean tour-guides.
Pizam, A., & Sussmann, S. (1995). Does nationality affect tourist behavior? Annals of Tourism
Research, 22(4), 901-917.
Roehl, W. S., & Fesenmaier, D. R. (1992). Risk perceptions and pleasure travel: An exploratory
analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 30(4), 17-26.
Slovic, P. (1993). Perceived risk, trust, and democracy. Risk analysis, 13(6), 675-682.
Tsaur, S. H., Tzeng, G. H., & Wang, G. C. (1997). The application of AHP and fuzzy MCDM on the
evaluation study of tourist risk. Annals of Tourism Research, 24(4), 796-812.
109
Fulfilment of Destination Brand Promise - The Core of Customer-Based

Brand Equity Modelling for Tourism Destinations
Tatiana Chekalina
Matthias Fuchs
Maria Lexhagen
European Tourism Research Institute (ETOUR), Mid Sweden University
Östersund, Sweden
name.surname@miun.se
Introduction
Since tourism destination branding was introduced in the early 2000s, destination brand
equity measurement and tracking has become one of the main research streams in the field of
destination marketing (Pike, 2009). However, from a theoretical point of view, the concept of
brand equity, which is a measure of the power of the brand and the link between marketing
efforts and future destination performance, remains insufficiently elaborated, especially for the
tourism destination context (Gartner, 2009).
More specifically, tourism destination brand equity studies mainly attempt to directly
transfer conceptualization and measurement approaches, which have been developed and
tested for product brands, especially consumer packaged goods (Christodoulides and de
Chernatony, 2010). Particularly, the majority of tourism destination brand equity studies (e.g.,
Boo et al., 2009; Konecnik and Gartner, 2007; Pike et al., 2010) adopt Aaker’s (1991) and
Keller’s (1993) conceptualization of customer-based brand equity (CBBE), which derives from
the field of cognitive psychology and focuses on multi-dimensional memory structures, such as
awareness, image, quality, value and loyalty (Christodoulides and de Chernatony, 2010).
The positive aspect of this effort exerted by previous research is in adoption of brand
equity measurement approaches, which, particularly, employ a holistic view of the brand, focus
on the development of reliable, valid, parsimonious and theoretically sound measurement
constructs. Hence, the adopted approaches can easily be implemented with simple “pen and
paper” instruments, and demonstrate high managerial usefulness as a diagnostic tool capable
of identifying the areas for improvement of how the brand is perceived by customers
(Christodoulides and de Chernatony, 2010).
Nevertheless, tourism literature has not yet developed a broad theoretical discussion on
how the characteristics of tourism defined as a service industry are shaping the dimensionality
of the tourism destination CBBE model and causal relationships between the model constructs.
Consequently, in the absence of a customer-based brand equity theory adapted specifically to
the peculiarities of tourism destinations, the tourism literature exhibits a lack of agreement on
the composition of the CBBE model dimensions, model structure and utilised scales,
respectively. Therefore, by directly transferring the product-based CBBE model without
conceptual refinements and further development according to destination-specific dimensions,
there is a risk for tourism destination management research to draw the focus away from the
core essence of destination branding and its value and, as a result, lose the managerial relevancy
of the model. Furthermore, as suggested by Christodoulides and de Chernatony (2010), in order
to enhance the diagnostic capacity of the model as a tool for successful brand development, the
selection of CBBE model constructs should align with the brand category (i.e., product type)
and incorporate industry-specific dimensions that drive brand value.
Hence, the research study at hand aims at contributing to further development of the
CBBE concept in a tourism destination context. More precisely, it is proposed that the core
110
component of the revised CBBE model for tourism destinations (CBDBE) is about customers’
evaluation of the destination promise in terms of the transformation of destination resources
into value-in-use for the tourist, which discloses the purpose and benefits of consumption
(Grönroos, 2009; Vargo & Lusch, 2008).
Literature review
This paper adopts the approach towards CBDBE modelling, which is particularly
consistent with Gnoth’s (2007) conceptualization of the destination brand viewed as a
representation of the functional, emotional and symbolic values of the destination, as well as
the benefits, which tourists are promised to receive as a result of visiting the destination.
Therefore, components of the proposed model (Fig. 1), which follows Keller’ (2009) brand
relationship framework, consist of the customers’ evaluation of the destination promise in
terms of transforming functional, intangible and social destination resources into tourists’
value-in-use (Vargo & Lusch, 2008; Palmer, 2010; Zabkar et al., 2010; Moeller, 2010).
Furthermore, the positive relationship between visitors’ perception of the destination and
value-for-money reveals the input of tourists’ own resources into the co-created service
delivery process (Boo et al., 2009). In addition, destination brand awareness affects the
evaluation of the destination promise (e.g., Pike et al., 2010; Kladou and Kehagias, 2014), which,
in turn, determines tourists’ behavioural intentions towards the destination (Boo et al., 2009;
Kim et al., 2009; Pike et al., 2010).
Moreover, as suggested by de Chernatony et al. (2004), in a service context satisfaction is
hypothesized to be a relevant CBBE model dimension. Particularly, satisfaction is an important
outcome of destination visitation, which, according to Cracolici and Nijkamp (2009) is linked to
the tourist’s feeling of well-being in relation to the holiday destination and is, thus, an important
measure of destination attractiveness.
Destination
Brand
LOYALTY
Destination Brand Promise
Satisfaction
VALUE- VALUE-
in-use for-money
Destination Resources
Destination Brand AWARENESS
Figure 1. Customer-based brand equity model for tourism destination (CBDBE)
111
A number of previous tourism studies confirmed that customers’ evaluation of

destination attributes positively influences satisfaction, which Oliver (1999), particularly,
defines as pleasurable fulfilment of needs, desires, goals, etc. (Chi & Qu, 2008; Chen & Tsai,
2007). Moreover, a vast body of tourism research (e.g., Yoon and Uysal, 2005; Chen and Tsai,
2007; Chi and Qu, 2008) confirm that overall satisfaction directly influences tourists’ loyalty
behaviour. Finally, Kim et al. (2009) and Chen and Myagmarsuren (2010) emphasize the
relationship between brand equity and tourist satisfaction. Therefore, the study proposes
satisfaction to be a CBDBE model construct, which is positively influenced by customers’
perception of destination resources, value-in-use and value-for-money, and, in turn, is a direct
antecedent of destination loyalty.

By implementing a web survey and using a linear structural equation modelling approach,
the proposed model is empirically validated for the leading Swedish mountain destination of
Åre in the summer season. First, the operationalization of the destination resources and the
value-in-use dimensions pertaining to the CBDBE model reflects a destination-specific means-
end hierarchy between destination recourses and value-in-use deduced from 40 semi-
structured interviews conducted in Åre in July 2012 (Gutman, 1982). Accordingly, the list of
functional, intangible and social destination resources related to summer season vacation in
Åre served as input for the attribute satisfaction scale reflecting the destination resources
construct (Likert-scale 1-5). Furthermore, in order to measure the value-in-use, the
destination-specific benefits have been formulated based on scales used in prior tourism
studies (e.g., Williams and Soutar, 2009; Skår et al., 2008; Pan and Ryan, 2007). Finally, the list
of measurement items (1-5 agreement Likert scale) describing destination awareness, value-
for-money, satisfaction and loyalty is derived from prior brand equity studies (Chen and Tsai,
2007; Konecnik & Gartner, 2007; Lehman, Keller and Farley, 2008; Boo et al., 2009).
The questionnaire was available in English and Swedish. In December 2012 data was
collected by using a web-based Email survey. 3,957 e-mails of tourists who visited Åre during
the summer season 2012 were provided by key destination stakeholders. In total, 522
respondents completed the questionnaire. The underlying sub-dimensionality of the model
constructs destination resources and value-in-use has been examined using exploratory Factor
Analysis (VariMax). Missing values were substituted by means (Field, 2005). After completion
of the data preparation processes, the proposed CBDBE model was empirically tested by a
linear structural equation model (SEM).
Results
Most hypothesised relationships between the CBDBE model constructs behave as
expected and are significant. The only exception is the direct relationship between destination
resources and tourist satisfaction, which has not been confirmed. Nevertheless, the results
demonstrate that value-in-use and value-for-money mediate the relationship between
destination resources (i.e., nature, mountain village setting, intangible attributes and
interaction with other tourists) and satisfaction. Furthermore, satisfaction mediates the
relationships between value-in-use, value-for money and destination loyalty. Finally, the
transformation of destination resources into value-in-use representing the promised
destination-specific benefits of tourists’ stay (i.e., “relaxation and escape”, “summer experience”
and “exercise”) has the strongest effect on the formation of attitudinal loyalty towards the
destination.
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Therefore, the model empowers destination managers to combine and inter-relate

various silos of knowledge referring to the fulfilment of the destination promise to tourists.
This, in turn, is directly linked to destination loyalty as the major target of destination
marketing. Moreover, the link between destination resources and value-in-use can be clearly
identified and communicated through the brand (Gnoth, 2007; Vargo & Lusch, 2004). For
instance, based on the present study, the destination management of Åre can identify the
attributive dimensions behind the value-in-use of destination visitation and destination loyalty
for the summer tourism product. Finally, and probably most importantly, also the crucial
dimensions for co-creating destination value-in-use can now be reliably identified by
destination management.
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Governance as platform for value co-creation in Tourism Destinations: an

analysis of Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil
Adriana Fumi Chim-Miki ª

Rosa Maria Batista-Caninoᵇ
José Manoel Gonçalves Gandaraᶜ
ª Capes Foundation, Ministry of Education, Brazil

e-mail: adriana.chimmiki@gmail.com
ᵇ Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
ᶜ Universidade Federal do Paraná, Brazil
Introduction
The Tourism sector has the challenge of redesign their products and restructure its
strategic management for adapt in a market that the competitiveness can be given by co-
creation (Prahalad & Ramaswamy 2004; Binkhorst, 2005). This redesign requires a great effort
of coordination between all involved in the tourism sector in order to create a network that
creates value (Mariotti 2002). The tourist understand the destination like integral product
(Timón, 2004), thus the co-creation should not be understood only as the relationship between
one company and its customers, but as the relationships between all stakeholders of the
destination.
Shared management of a tourism destination can act positively on the value co-creation.
This way, can represent the aggregation factor for the co-creation of a tourism destination as
an integral product. The way as the value is co-created within a set of relationships between
stakeholders is an unexplored topic (Jaakkola & Hakanen, 2013), although it is noted as the
"new frontier" of knowledge about co-creation. The companies represent the linkages in
platforms collective commitment, being the new paradigm of co-creation (Ramaswamy &
Ozcan, 2014).
This paper conducts an analysis of governance mechanisms and their results on the co-
creation of the destination "City of Foz do Iguaçu", located at south of Brazil in a tri-border
region between Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay. Note that this is one of the main tourism
destinations in the three countries, where the Iguaçu waterfalls are located.
This analysis was based primarily on technical work developed in 2011, entitled “Ways of
the Future: Developing the destination we want", resulting from a participatory planning process
in that destination. The results of this technical work are reviewed on a perspective of value co-
creation endogenous, focusing on the stakeholder’s experiences (Ramaswamy & Ozcan, 2014).
Theoretical Foundation
Traditionally, the value co-creation has been understood as process involving interactions
between the company and its customers. It is a corporate process for the creation of goods,
services and experiences in close cooperation with the experience and creativity of consumers
(Romero & Molina, 2011; Ramaswamy & Ozcan, 2014).
Binkhorst (2005) considers that the concept of co-creation is very adequate for
application in tourism, because it adds value for both, visitors and visited, contributing to the
destination's uniqueness. In this regard, note that a destination is a systemic relationship
between a multitude of components (Timóm, 2004; Buhalis, 2000), where the territory
becomes in part of the product by the tourism process that occurs in the same (Smith, 1994).
When a system considers legitimate the integrated management, the governance arises.
“[…]a new style of government, different of the hierarchical control model, characterized by a
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greater degree of cooperation and interaction between state and non-state actors embedded in a
joint decision network public-private ” (Mayntz, 2000).
The destination tourism is very suited for governance's dynamic. In this regard, WTO,
established the concept as follows: "Tourist Governance is a practical measurement of
susceptible government, aimed at efficiently direct the tourism sector at various levels of
government, through forms of coordination and collaboration between them to achieve the
goals shared by networks of actors involved in the sector, in order to achieve solutions and
opportunities, based on sustained in the relationship of interdependence and shared
responsibility agreements”.
Meanwhile, Buhalis (2000) argues that the governance and the participatory planning
contribute to that tourism benefits are equally distributed among stakeholders, minimizing
situations that could be detrimental to the achievement of common goals. Romero & Molina
(2011) add that in collaborative networks there is a high potential for value co-creation, giving
companies access to new knowledge, resources and shared risks, as well as a complement the
skills/abilities and technologies. Additionally, the joint venture induces the innovation, which
is a source for the value co-creation (Borys & Jemison 1989).
Jaakkola & Hakanen (2013), suggest that the value arises when the actors are integrated
using resources jointly (Gummesson & Mele, 2010; Vargo & Lusch, 2011), and that this value is
determined on the basis of the benefits and sacrifices perceived in the process or the results of
the interaction (Ravald & Grönroos, 1996).
In base of this theoretical background, the main proposition of this work was to verify
how the concept of value co-creation is immersed in the participatory process for the
development of a tourism destination, promoted by a system of local governance planning. This
analysis aims to contribute to theoretical development about the value co-creation inside the
networking of tourism organizations, because it is an area of knowledge still incipient.

This work is exploratory, developed through of a documentary research, where the
analysis and validation of results is conducted through the pairing with previous studies and
theoretical frameworks related. The use of pairing is justified when the objective is find
understanding of the phenomenon studied on a theoretical perspective, checking the
association between theory and reality (Krippendorff, 1980).
The technical report, used in this work, collects the set of prioritized and validated
proposals by local stakeholders of tourism destination. Thus, the present research analyzed the
technical document, which was result from this process of strategic-participatory assessment
with objective to find in him the use of concept of value co-creation. The diagnostic process
analyzed occurred in two phases: (1) situational analysis; (2) proposition, validate and
prioritization of actions. The validation of proposals was conducted through a strategic seminar
with stakeholders. This process required to collect important information about the destination
through, among others:
 97 documents related to tourism planning in the region;
 05 in-depth interviews with local stakeholders;
 Secondary data collected for the period 2006-2011;
 The conclusions of the Focus Group developed by 37 local experts.
Between the results of the intervention, the participants created a total of 21 proposals
divided in three strategic areas: Planning, management and control; Marketing and innovation;
Quality and Competitiveness. This study analyzes and classifies these proposals using as
criteria the ability to co-create of value according to the principles contained in this concept, in
which highlighted the ability to add value from a customer perspective.
116

The analysis executed allows us to state that this destination has an organizational level
in terms of legitimized governance in tourism. The figure 1 shows the actors involved in the
planning and management of the sector according to those intervening in the process.
Source: Gandara et al (2011) [Adapted from Buhalis, 2000]
The participants establishing proposals to redirect the destination strategy, in order to

generate benefits and responsibilities to all involved. Of these proposals, 19% are directly
related with value co-creation; 28% are related indirectly; and 53% not related at all with this
paradigm.
The figure 2, extracted from the analyzed report shows how this platform congregate the
elements, in a feedback process from the perspective of creating value for the producer towards
a perspective of creating value to the customer showing that the value co-creation is present in
their proposals.
117
Source: Gandara et al (2011)
The first strategic line contains 8 proposals, in which 2 act directly to generate the value
co-creation, namely: (1) to create a core of knowledge of tourism in order to develop research
and socialize information on demand, supply and impacts; (2) to implement a system of
information management in the governance structure to articulate all stakeholders. The second
strategic area resulted in 6 proposals, which 2 also contribute directly to value co-creation for
the destination: (1) to develop a consumer research at the destination; (2) to expand the use of
new ICT tools for marketing and interaction with the clients. Finally, the third area presented 6
proposals related with a redesign of the destination, so they need of the information obtained
from the proposals presented in the other two areas, specifically the information generated on
proposals focused in co-creation of value, thus they were considered indirectly related.

The use of governance as a platform for value co-creation for destination occurred in an
emerging way rather than intentional, because the technical work was not developed based on
value co-creation concept, but in the governance and strategic planning. The reformulation of
the tourism product and suggestions received were based on the tourism experience observed
from the market and from interactions informal between companies of this destination and
your customers. This mean that no based on tools developed with the aim of promote the value
co-creation.
The expertise of the participants in the network, which by virtue of their experience in the
sector, made possible understand better the destination from the point of view of the consumer.
While this contributes more to the planning process, that the value co-creation. On the other
hand, Ramaswamy & Ozcan (2014) indicate co-creation of value from the perspective of the
actors’s network, however with focus in consumer participation.
The technical report noted that governance facilitates public-private coordination,
however, requires better definition of the role of the actors to a co-creation approach. This
approach would coincide better with the theory, which indicates that the value creation is not
a linear function, but a co-evolutionary collaboration between allied actors and their customers.
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To get a "value constellation" is fundamental the reconfiguration of role of the players

(Normann Ramirez 1993; Ramaswamy & Ozcan, 2014).
These plans were developed in 2011, but in the following years, we observed by the
national monitor that fate has improved its rankings of competitiveness. Tourism governance
in this destination shows a degree of advanced consolidation, with wide participation of the
public, private and including participants of the three countries bordering. These facts are
important, because Foz do Iguacu city is one of the "Mercociudades", a term given to cities
belonging to the network created in 1995, covering municipalities in the Mercosur that
contribute the exchange and cooperation between the economic bloc countries.
We conclude that governance in Foz do Iguaçu is propelling the value networking,
contributing to innovation and the strategic positioning of the destination, therefore, acts as a
facilitator for the value co-creation. However, their competitiveness can grow more with
planning from the perspective of co-creation.
Acknowledgement: This research had support of CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education

of Brazil, Brasilia, DF, through of a scholarship for Student Phd.
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120
From Emotions to Place Attachment. The Case of Domestic Tourists in

Algarve
Antónia Correia
Cristiana Oliveira
Universidade Europeia, School of Tourism, Sports & Hospitality
Lisbon, Portugal
antonia.correia@europeia.pt
cristiana.oliveira@europeia.pt
Introduction
Theory on place attachment helps us to understand the nature of the relationships
between individuals and place. Place attachment is a result of a combination of emotional,
cognitive, social, cultural and behavioral factors (Pruneau et al., 1999), putting the discussion
on a multidisciplinary field. This is particularly relevant in domestic tourism, as it represents a
form of valuing a destination that incorporates both functional and emotional meanings.
Caldwell (2002); De Ruyter et al.(1997); Harrison & Shaw (2004), among others present
sounded research about place attachment, correlating this with satisfaction and quality of
service, but not with emotions. Gretzel, Fesenmaier, Formica, & O’Leary (2006) launched this,
arguing that understanding the emotions that arouse from tourism experiences is an important
challenge for tourism planners, researchers and practitioners.
It is under the acknowledge need for further research in place attachment (Gu & Ryan,
2008) and the role of emotions in relation with the place that this research arouses.
Grounded on pleasure Russell (2005, p.13). “Distinguishes pleasure as sensation from
pleasure as emotion, where the latter is a content-full intentional state. Pleasures as emotions
entail attitudes, priorities, and values; and so the pleasures we have reveal the persons we are”.
Hence this study aims to assess how emotions are related to and influence the attachment with
a destination. The empirical study took place in the Algarve region, one of the most important
tourist destinations in Portugal representing 22% of the national guests (3147.2 million in
2013), both nationals and foreigners, since it attracts every year an increasing number of
tourists (Turismo de Portugal, 2014). This research focus on domestic tourists more prone to
be engrained with the holiday destination, as demonstrated by Stedman (2002, p.318)
“individuals who have resided longer in a place are more likely to have developed significant
relationships with other residents as well as with physical attributes of the place”.
The survey was applied in the summer of 2011 in August, considered to be the high season
in Portugal and the highest rates of domestic tourism demand therefore it increases the
questionnaire response rate. The sample is representative as it comprises 1538 data, make
feasible generalizations. An order probit model were estimated to depict the role of 12
emotional states in the relation with the Algarve. Positive emotions rely in the level of
outstanding influencing positively the relation with the Algarve, whereas negative emotions
influence negatively, being all of these states superlative. The most prominent emotions
contributing to prolong this relation with the south of Portugal are delight, fascination and
surprise. These results also suggest that the outstanding value of holidays in the south challenge
the tourists’ players to keep on overwhelming tourists expectations.
The contributions of this research rely on theoretical, methodological and empirical level.
At theoretical level this is one of the first studies to introduce emotions to explain place
attachment, Further this research explain place attachment from an observed variable instead
of introducing declared statements about place attachment, with all the withdraws that
revealed preference may has. One of the most common is the unconformity between what
121
individuals say and what they do (Correia and Tão, 2014). In this research the duration of the
relation with the Algarve are assumed as a proxy of place attachment.
At the methodological level this is one of the first researchers to estimate the moderator
role of intangible variables with an order probit model more robust in its fits. At the empirical
level this drove the discussion of the policy strategies of the destination to the immaterial side
of the tourism experiences.
Literature review
Place attachment can be defined as “the environmental settings to which people are
emotionally and culturally attached” (Altman & Low, 1992, p. 5). It often refers to the link that
people create with places (Raymond et al., 2010; Scannell & Gifford, 2010) and it frequently
arises from the idea that people will value a place as they get to know it. Different dimensions
of place attachment are outlined: place identity (Proshansky, 1978; Proshansky et al., 1983),
place attachment (Altman and Low, 1992) and dependence (Stokols and Shumaker, 1981).
Research about this topic has not been consensual with some authors stating that these
different dimensions of place are included in the concept of “sense of Place” (Shamai, 1991) and
other arguing that these dimensions are actually part of place attachment. This lack of
consensus were put forward by Hernandez, Martin, Ruiz and Hidalgo (2010) that attributes
this to the imprecise definitions and measurement of this construct. Accordingly Stdeman &
Jorgensen (2006, p.318) states that “factors that affect emotional ties to a place (i.e. Place
attachment) are also likely to have implications for cognitive and behavioral relationships (i.e.
place identity and place dependence, respectively)”. Place identity is considered as the set of
beliefs, perceptions or thoughts that an individual draws about a spatial environment and their
symbolic connections (Prohansky, Fabian, & Kaminoff, 1983, Williams, et al., 1992). Whereas
place dependence refers to the dynamic connections related to a physical setting as a result of
the conditions provided to a specific purpose (Schreyer, Jacob, &White, 1981, Williams, et al.,
1992). Whether it would be place attachment measurement model adopted the most important
issue is the level of attachment tourists demonstrate with the place (Scannell & Gifford, 2010),
and this may be measured by a quantitative variable – the duration of the relation with a certain
place, as it is the case of this research Stdeman & Jorgensen (2006).
Place attachment is also explained by emotional traits (Altman and Low 1992). Emotions
are frequently conceptualized as the consequence of the appraisal of events or objects
concerning the individual or groups’ goal (Niedenthal & Brauer, 2012), and are often marked
by a behavioral reaction as an expression of, positive or negative, feelings (Hosany & Prayag,
2013). Kleinginna Jr and Kleinginna (1981) posits that the definition of emotion isn’t
consentaneous, most of the produced research validate that emotions are divided in: subjective
experience, expressive component and physiological arousal.
In tourism research, emotions appears as an antecedent or consequent of affect and mood,
(Bagozzi, Gopinath, & Nyer, 1999; Cohen, Pham, & Andrade, 2008). Mood is associated to deep
affective feeling as opposed to emotions that are provoked by events, objects or persons (Cohen
et al., 2008; Hosany & Prayag, 2013). Positive and negative expressions of feelings may occur
for example when a tourist visits a destroyed heritage site or when he experience a warm
welcome by the residents of a specific destination.
The dimensional approach of emotions is an instinctive and simple way to distinguish
emotions (Huang, 2001; Larsen & Diener, 1992). It outlines a group of affect dimensions to be
used in order to distinguish from one another particular emotions. Affective valence and
arousal are the two primal dimensions used within this approach. Arousal symbolizes an
internal state that is activated with either periods of “excitement” and “quietness”. Moreover
valence is described as the “pleasant” and “unpleasant” experience undertaken. This approach
122
grounds in Pleasure Arousal Dominance (P-A-D) (Russel, 1980) being this model one of the
utmost common model used in consumer behavior research, and in tourism.
In line with the above mention model the consumption emotion scale, Pearce & Coghlan
(2010) have developed 60 emotional items (e.g., happy, pleased, irritated, worried, depressed,
sad and lonely etc.) based on this model in order to their application on the analysis of tourist’
emotions and its relation to travel motivation, activities emotions and satisfaction levels. Some
other models were developed including variables such as tourists' emotional experiences
toward destinations - ‘Destination Emotion Scale (DES) - (Hosany, 2012), or the Pleasure-
Arousal-Dominance (P-A-D) model Literature which outline 12 emotional states, within 3
dimensions such as, Pleasure (Happy/Unhappy; Melancholic/Contented; Annoyed/Pleased;
Unsatisfied/Satisfied), Arousal (Sluggish/Frenzied; Calm/Excited; Unaroused/Aroused) and
Dominance (Controlled/Controlling; Guided/Autonomous; Influenced/Influentional;
Submissive/Dominant), considered in this research.

This research intends to analyze how the emotions of domestic tourists arise from their
relationship with the place influencing their attachment with a destination like the Algarve. The
Self-report tourist emotion model assesses tourists’ emotional reactions, based on subjective
feelings. Positive and negative emotions were included in the questionnaire throughout a
dichotomous scale, derived from the literature. The ordinal scale comprises 12 emotional states
from: Happy/Unhappy; Melancholic/Contented; Annoyed/Pleased; Unsatisfied/Satisfied;
Sluggish/Frenzied; Calm/Excited; Unaroused/Aroused; Controlled/Controlling;
Guided/Autonomous; Influenced/Influentional; Submissive/Dominant. This emotional states
were converted in dummy variables and incorporated in an order probit model to explain the
duration of the relation with the Algarve together with socio-demographic variables.
The hypothesis were defined as follows:
H1: The positive emotional states influence positively the duration of the relation with the
Algarve
H2: The negative emotional states influence negatively the duration of the relation with
the Algarve
H3: Socio-demographic characteristics of the tourists influence the duration of the
relation with the Algarve.
This study uses a quantitative approach with non-experimental design for which a
questionnaire-based approach was considered adequate. The instrument consists of 60 items,
using precoded factual, likert scales, and numerical uncoded questions. The following variables
were considered: gender, age, income, employment status. The questionnaire was pilot tested
by a panel of 50 domestic tourists visiting the Algarve Region, in order to ascertain its validity
and coherence. Results showed that the respondents deemed the items included in the final
survey relevant. The final version of the survey was applied to a total of 1500 domestic tourists
spending their vacation in the Algarve during the summer of 2014, from which 1358 were
considered valid. The data collection was obtained with the support of the principal
municipalities of this region linked to the major tourism areas and with no stratification
arranged. Tourists were invited to answer voluntarily in the course of their stay both on the
beach and in the city centre. The selection criteria was a minimum of two prior visits with the
purpose to engage in leisure activities.
Results
According to the results all of the hypotheses were considered show significant beta
weights (p < .05). Nevertheless, it seems relevant to refer that age has obtained a high value
123
(0.044) showing that this value is not quite as significant. The Likelihood Ratio (LR) test of the
13 independent variables for a sample of 1538 is 185.65 (p < .05) due the X2 sensitive to sample
size.
Table 1: Results of order probit regression through the established seven variables of 12
emotional states defined in the PAD model.
Destination attachment Coef. Std. Err. z P>z [95%
Conf. Interval]
Unhappy -0.43742 .401744 -3.58 0.000
Satisfied -.3255305 .0795479 -4.09 0.000
Disapointed -0.595102 .4052356 -3.94 0.000
Unsatisfied -0.071035 .1970085 -5.44 0.000
Amazed .2096627 .0860829 2.44 0.015
Fascinated .7038663 .1418197 4.96 0.000
Melancolic -.5050722 .2096777 -2.41 0.016
Awkward .7168316 .2701571 2.65 0.008
Delighted .2721321 .0865741 3.14 0.002
Suprised .5372502 .1126299 4.77 0.000
Employment Status .0058347 .0019078 3.06 0.002
Household monthly income -.0036328 .0013183 -2.76 0.006
Age .0081193 .0040384 2.01 0.044
The positive or negative beta weights estimated demonstrates how the variable influence
the relation with the destination.
H1 has a mixed effect since some the emotional states satisfaction did not register a
positive score, Satisfied (-0.325), whereas Delighted (0.209), Fascinated (0.704), Amazed
(0.272), Surprised (0.537), present a positive effect in the duration of the relation with the
destination. The results seem to indicate that average services are not enough to influence
positively, services must be superlative.
The set of emotions that by far contribute to an increased relation with the region are
Delight, Fascination and Surprise, suggesting that tourism stakeholders face a challenge: In
order to retain tourists in the destinations they need to develop strategies to overwhelm
tourists’ expectations.
H2 has mixed effects since the majority of the negative emotions: Unhappy was -0.44 (p <
.05), Disappointed -0.595 (p < .05), Unsatisfied -0.071 (p < .05), Melancholic -0.505 (p < .05),
present negative values, which shows that negative emotional felling have a direct effect in
diminishing the relation with the Algarve. On the other hand Awkward is positive (0.717, p <
.05) suggesting that tourists are hostages of the destination.
Finally, the results support H3, suggesting tourists with an inferior Household monthly
income will express a lower level of relation. In addition the older the tourists are the more
likely they are to increase their relation with the Algarve. This positive direct effect reflects also
on Professional or Employment Status. This reveals that socio demographics have also a mixed
effect on the relation with the south of Portugal.
Summing up, whereas the superlative emotions such as Delight, Fascination, and Amaze
exert a positive influence in retaining tourists, Disappointed, Melancholic, Awkward provoke a
negative influence on the tourists’ retention.
124
Having sustained these proposed hypotheses, this paper aims to provide some evidence
of the relation between people and places through the emotions evoked by their experiences.
Results suggest that as long as the Algarve keeps to exerting superlative positive feelings
such as Delightedness, Fascination, Amazing on tourists these feelings are more likely to
exercise a positive influence in retaining tourists. However, feelings like Disappointment or
Melancholy may have an opposite influence on the tourists’ retention.
These results put a great pressure in tourism authorities, since retain tourists’ is directed
related to overwhelming their expectations.
From a practical perspective these results highlight the need for a new approach when
discussing policy strategies of the destination since the immaterial side of the tourism
experiences can no longer be ignored.
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126
Factors affecting international exhibitors’ repeated participation of a

travel fair in China
Liu Dake
Beijing International Studies University
liudake@bisu.edu.cn
Zhou(Joe) Yong
Macau University of Science & Technology
Shan Xiao
Zhang Lili
Beijing International Studies University
Background
Functioning as an efficient trading platform, exhibition has become one of the most
effective marketing tools in corporate marketing since the 1980s (Tanner, 1996). Specific to the
tourism industry, Travel Fairs have increasingly played its significance in boosting tourism-
related trade, promoting destinations and attractions. As a result, international travel fairs and
exhibitions have emerged in different parts of the world. The most well-known ITB Berlin and
the World Travel Market in London represent the largest-scale travel fair in the global market,
while in the newly-emerged market, there are several travel fairs growing fast. The vigorous
tourism development in China has advanced the rapid growth of travel trade in the country,
which breeds the travel fair business and a few of the travel fairs /exhibitions have started to
draw attention both form the industry and academic aspects.
Given the increasing scales of business initiated from travel fairs /exhibitions, the
effectiveness and sustainable development of a fair have been particularly significant not only
for exhibition organizers, but for local, or even regional development. To some extent, the key
for such an effective and sustainable development lies on the satisfactory outputs of
participation of a fair for various exhibitors and attendees including hotels, travel agencies, tour
operators and DMOs (Destination Management Organizations). A better understanding of
factors affecting these fair stakeholders participate in travel fairs would help fair organizers
and local authorities to better plan, promote and operate the fairs, to maximize their clients’
exhibition outcome. On the other hand, modern marketing theories have generally recognized
that repeat customers own fundamental importance in business by providing a major and
stable customer sources, more effective marketing input-output results. However, systematic
research on repeat exhibitors’ needs and expectations were rare, and their decisions of
participation a particular exhibition repeatedly was unknown. Therefore, this paper will
examine the factors which affecting international exhibitors repeatedly participated in a travel
fair in China. It is expected that based on the first-hand data collected form the repeated
international exhibitors of the fair, specific determinant factors that affect international
companies decisions of repeated participation of an exhibition be identified and categorized.
The results would not only benefit fair organizers, but also be useful for international exhibitors
in terms of a better preparation for the exhibition activities during the fair period and beyond.
The data of the study collected from Beijing International Travel Expo (BITE), which held in
China’s capital city annually since 2004. It has been a major travel fair with growing popularity
in China and the Far East /Asia Pacific market.
127
Methods and Data Sources

The study started from a comprehensive review on existing literature about exhibitors’
decision-making process. For example, Dickinson and Faria (1985) confirmed the factors
affecting potential exhibitors to attend an exhibition or not included audience size; proportion
of professional audiences from the target markets; booth location; number of booth visitors;
and organizers’ marketing ranges. The study conducted by Kijieski, Yoon and Young (1993)
indicated that the actual performance of the exhibition, the marketing mix, the exhibition
environment, and participation cost were the major concerns affecting exhibitors decisions.
Similarly, Yuksel and Voola (2010) summarized that exhibitors have emphasized great
importance to the reputation/image of the fair; professional audience availability; fitness to
target market; past experience of exhibition attendance, exhibition costs; number of exhibitors,
the quality of service provided during the exhibition.
To enrich the study’s academic basis, the authors also reviewed literature related to
traditional marketing research theory on customers repeat purchase behavior. For example,
Dodds’ (1991) study demonstrated that the pre-evaluation on products, and comparison with
substitute products would be key factors affecting the final decision making of a purchase. By
online questionnaire surveying with 616 exhibition clients, Thomas, Gruena and Andrew
(2006) held that communications about the perceived values of exhibition and
recommendations among peer customers significantly influence their first decision of
attending an exhibition, but they do not contribute much in their decision for repeating
attendances.
The questionnaire include 6 items, exhibitors’ perceived value, satisfaction, loyal, brand
preference,cost to change and diversity need. Some items come from above literature, others
come from our observation and the advice of the exhibition industry expert. In order to get the
accurate answer from the interviewers, we refined the 6 items into 29 questions according to
the feature of the tourism fair.
This study adopted a descriptive research design. The data for the study was collected
through questionnaire surveys with international exhibitors for Beijing International Tourism
Expo (BITE) during 2008 to 2013 in Beijing. As reported above, BITE has been developed as an
annual travel exhibition for travel and tourism industry with the increasing influences in China
and the nearby areas. As the research consultant invited by BITE organizer, the first author of
the paper has led a research group and traced the exhibition since its early stage. The research
group has worked for the BITE consistently in measuring and monitoring exhibitors’ needs and
satisfactions of participating exhibition for years. Two members of the project who involved in
the early years’ research work have joined the BITE organizing company (after graduation from
their postgraduate study, where the research project undertaken) and continued their
supporting roles for this research project, which benefit the project more from providing
enriched information about exhibitors’ background information. This also assisted the research
group’s accessibility of internal statistic data and effective communication with the exhibitors.
Specifically for this research, with the assistance the BITE organizing body (Beijing
Tourism Development Committee), questionnaires were distributed to international exhibitors
who had attended BITE more than two times in the past 5 years via their registration email
addresses. A total of 200 questionnaires were sent in April 2013and 188 completed copies
returned, which represented a relatively high (94%) response rate. The data was then input
into SPSS software package for next stage analysis usage.
128
Research Process and Results

The respondents for this study were the exhibitors at 2008-2013 BITE travel exhibitions.
Regards to the distribution of the respondents, tour operators and travel agencies proportioned
the major sector (60.1%), while the governmental organizations (e.g. NTOs and local embassies
in Beijing) followed (19.2%). About 16.0% respondents were from hotels and resorts, theme
parks, or attractions. Airline companies counted for 4.7% of all respondents in the data.
Exploratory Factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to summarize the major factors affecting
respondents’ decision on repeating attendance of the exhibition, the EFA result released six
factors that contributed to their decision of repeat participation of the exhibition, namely:
perceived value of the exhibition; satisfaction on exhibition services; loyalty; cost for shift;
(exhibition) brand preferences; and needs for diversification. The results reported that the
former four factors contributed more on their decisions of repeating participation while the
latter two contributed slightly less. To better understand the factors affecting exhibitors’
decision-making, and to present the result in a more clear way, this paper proposed a model (in
Figure 1) to represent the possible relationships. It was based on existing literature research
on exhibition and the results released from the current study.
Essentials Moderating
factors
Perceived value Brand preference
Decision on
Satisfaction Exhibition Shift cost

repeating
participation
Loyalty Need for

Diversification
Figure 1: Model of Exhibition Repeat Participation
Another result released was that the different types of exhibitors viewed differently on
the affecting factors. Governmental organizations ((e.g. NTOs and local embassies in Beijing)
valued more on the perceived benefits of participation, while tour operators and travel agencies
pay more attention to the real outcomes of attending the exhibition (sales and contracts
generated during the event). Hotels, resorts, and attractions held that loyalty to the exhibition
was important when considering of repeatedly participation in the exhibition. It was also found
that independent exhibitors put more importance on satisfactions of related services and the
perceived values of attending the exhibition, while group exhibitors concerned more about the
possible cost of shift from one exhibition to another.
Discussion and Implementation
129
As an early attempt of study on the repeated exhibitors, authors of the study wish the work
can bring more academic attention to this filed. In practice, the results of this study would be
useful for travel fair/exhibition organizers in term of better knowing potential exhibitors’
needs and expectations, particularly, it may benefit organizers comprehend the reasons why
exhibitors choose to participate the same exhibition repeatedly. Strategies that can capture and
meet these needs and expectations would be formulated and promoted accordingly to attract
exhibitors be loyal. Measures to maintain loyal exhibitors would be also proposed.To achieve a
long-term sustainable relationship with exhibitors, organizers need to put specific efforts on
understanding and enhancing the real benefits brought to exhibitors.
According to the research findings, the following measures should be token by the
organizers. 1) For different types of exhibitors, should supply different type of product and
service according to their preference; 2) the organizers should enhance the development of
credibility and improve the value of the exhibition brand, bring up fidelity of their customers;
3)Invite more quality trade visitors, improve the perceived value of the exhibitors and make
more business opportunities for all the participants; 4) Build up the professional and accurate
clients service system, bring different experiences to different customers.5)Frequent
communication with these clients during off-fair period would be one of the strategies
organizers can follow.
Results of the study also could be significant for international travel operators who are to
expand new business in China or the Far East market. It is suggested that well-prepared
exhibition strategies which highlighting long-term, consistent development are necessary
when foreign travel businesses tend to explore the China market.
This Study focused on factors affecting repeating attendance of travel exhibition in China.
Previous research on this aspect was rare, which leads to a limited source of literature for the
current study. Meanwhile, the study only took samples from one travel exhibition in China, the
results therefore may not reflect situations other exhibitions have.
Reference:
Dickinson, J. R., & Faria, A. J. (1985). Firms with large market shares, product lines rate shows
highly. Marketing News, 14.
Dodds, W.B., Mornoe, K.B. & Grewal D. (1991). Effects of price, brand and store information on
buyer’s product evaluations. Journey of Marketing Research，28(3), 307-319
Kijewski V., Yoon E., Young G..(1993). How exhibitors select trade shows. Industrial Marketing
Management, 22: 287-298.
Tanner, J. (1996). Exhibit marketing: a book review. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales
Management, 6(1):1.
Thomas, W., Gruena, T.O. & Andrew, J.C. (2006). WOM: The impact of customer-to-customer
online know-how exchange on customer value and loyalty [J]. Journal of Business Research,
59:449-456
Yuksel, U., & Voola, R. (2010). Travel trade shows: exploratory study of exhibitors' perceptions.
Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 25(4), 293-300.
Note:
The research project reported in this study was funded by Beijing Social Science Research
Foundation (Code No: 14GJA010)
130
Customer Value Amongst Wellness Tourists
Ana Težak Damijanić

Ninoslav Luk
Institute of Agriculture and Tourism
Poreč, Croatia
tezak@iptpo.hr
Mirjana Kovačić
University of Rijeka, Faculty of Maritime Studies Rijeka.
Rijeka, Croatia
Introduction
Customer value presents an excellent concept for marketing in tourism. Wellness tourism
is focused on achieving well-being, so by examining the relationship between the customer
value and motivational factors or attributes of wellness hotels this research achieves a
contribution to the overall conference theme. This research focuses on guests’ perspective of
customer value in wellness hotels, so results highlight important issues in this relationship
which may enable improvements in host-guest interactions.
Literature review
There are two main approaches in research concerning customer value in tourism. The
first approach defined customer value from utilitarian point of view and focuses on relationship
among customer value and other variables e.g. satisfaction, behavioural intentions (Hutchinson
et al., 2009). The second approach focuses on dimensions of customer value (Jamal et al., 2011;
Nasution and Mavondo, 2008; Petrick, 2002; Sánchez et al., 2006) taking into account
characteristics of services and tourism.
Works on dimensions of customer value can be divided into five categories based on
initial theoretical approach: consumption value (Sánchez et al., 2006; Sheth et al., 1991;
Sweeney and Soutar, 2001; Williams and Soutar, 2009), transaction and acquisition value (Al-
Sabbahy et al., 2004; Petrick and Backman, 2002), multi-dimensional scale for measuring the
perceived value of a service (Nasution and Mavondo, 2008; Petrick, 2002), consumption
experience (Gallarza and Saura, 2008; Gallarza and Gil, 2008; Holbrook, 2006) and combination
of various theoretical approaches (Gallarza and Saura, 2006; Jamal et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2007).
Woodruff (1997) links customer value to product attributes by defining customer value
as a customer’s perceived preference for and evaluation of those products attributes, attribute
performances and consequences arising from use that facilitate achieving the customer’s goals
and purposes in use situations (Woodruff, 1997, 142). Product attributes in the context of
tourism may be treated as motivation factors (Lubbe, 2003). Lubbe (2003) links tangible and
intangible attributes of tourist product to push and pull motivation factors.
The theory of push and pull motivations is the most widely applied motivation theory in
tourism. It distinguishes between push factors, which refer to internal forces that motivate or
create a desire to satisfy a need to travel, and pull factors, which are recognized as destination
attributes (Kozak, 2002; Lubbe, 2003). It is also applied in analysis of wellness tourists’ travel
motives (Bennett et al., 2004; Hallab, 2006; Konu and Laukkanen, 2009; Mak et al., 2009;
Mueller and Lanz Kaufmann, 2001).
The goal of this paper is to determine the relationship between dimensions of customer
value and attributes of wellness tourist product presented as pull motivation factors.
131

A study focused on tourists’ healthy lifestyle and customer value was conducted from May
through June in 2013 in 15 wellness hotels situated in Republic of Croatia. Data was collected
through self-complete questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of 15 questions which were
divided into four sections: 1) attitudes regarding healthy lifestyle, 2) perceived customer value,
3) travel motives and 4) respondents’ characteristics. Questionnaire was originally designed in
Croatian and then back translated into English, German, Italian, Russian and Slovenian.
For measuring the travel motives and perceived customer value a five-point Likert scale
was used. For the purpose of this paper only pull motivational factors were taken into account
(Andrijašević and Bartoluci, 2004; Bennett et al., 2004; Mak et al., 2009; Mueller and Lanz
Kaufmann, 2001; Pesonen et al., 2011). Items measuring customer value were based on theory
of consumption value (Sánchez et al., 2006; Sheth et al., 1991; Sweeney and Soutar, 2001) but
other approaches were also taken into account.
Regression analysis was used for testing the relationship between travel motives
(explanatory variables) and dimensions of customer value (dependant variables). Prior to the
regression analysis, factor analysis (principal axis factor analysis and direct oblimin rotation
with an eigenvalue of 1.00 or more), internal reliability computation (Cronbach's alpha) and
appropriate regression diagnostics were done. The models were corrected using robust
standard errors.
Results
A total of 548 responders were taken into analysis. The proportion of female responders
(56%) was slightly higher than that of male (44%) The majority of responders were between
35 and 54 years of age (48%). Most of the responders obtained higher education (68%).
Generaly the responders were employees (45%), 16% were self-employed and about 14%
were managers. Most of them were from Austria (23%) and Germany (23%), almost 11% were
from UK and about 10 % from Italy. The most frequent monthly net income was between
€1,000 and €2,000 (38%).
To examine multidimensionality and internal reliability of the perceived value and travel
motivation factor analyses were done. Three factors representing travel motivation formed
clear factors structures. They jointly accounted for 58.85% of accumulated variance and were
labelled as basic wellness, intangible wellness and extra wellness (Cronbach's alpha coefficients
were 0.91, 0.80 and 0.88 respectively). Four factors representing customer value formed clear
factors structures. Jointly they accounted for 64.43% of accumulated variance. They were
labelled as personnel, prestige, value for money and hotel quality (Cronbach's alpha coefficients
were 0.92, 0.86, 0.92 and 0.91 respectively). Composite variables were calculated as a mean
value for each respondent.
132
Table 1: Results of regression analysis

Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
Constant 2,763*** 2,085*** 2,185*** 3,064***
Basic wellness -0,031 0,053 0,055 0,015
Extra wellness 0,053 0,278*** -0,013 -0,019
Intangible wellness 0,335*** -0,031 0,377*** 0,287***
F statistics 18,45*** 22,98*** 30,027*** 11,51***
R2 0,126 0,118 0,142 0,113
RESET test 2,45 3,19* 2,00 5,19**
Breusch–Pagan test 20,58*** 5,08* 3,18 23,44***
Note: *significant at α = 0.05. **significant at α = 0.01. ***significant at α = 0.001
Source: Data processed by authors
The relationships between motivation factors and dimensions of customer value was
tested using regression analysis (Table 1). A total of four models were analysed. The first model
analysed the relationship between motivation factors and personnel, the second model
considered the relationship between motivation factors and prestige, the relationship between
motivation factors and value for money was analysed in the third model while in the fourth
model the relationship between motivation factors and hotel quality was examined. Intangible
wellness was significant in relation to personnel, value for money and hotel quality, while extra
wellness was significant in the context of prestige. The heteroscedasticity was present in the
first, the second and the third model so they were corrected. RESET test was statistically
significant for the second and the fourth model indicating that important variables were
omitted. The overall regression models had low adjusted R square varying from 0.11 to 0.14,
but f statistics was significant.

Three groups of pull travel motives (basic, intangible and extra wellness) and three
factors of functional value (personnel, value for money and hotel quality) and one factor of
social value (prestige) were determined. Basic wellness included aspects like massage, sauna;
intangible wellness encompassed various items that correspond to intangible aspects of tourist
product e.g. atmosphere, interactions; while extra wellness included attributes like
detoxification, Tai Chi, ect. Personnel included various items related to interaction of hotel staff
with guests and their knowledge about various services; value for money covered items like
appropriateness of prices compared to the services; factor hotel quality focused on consistency
and quality level of hotel, while prestige included items like status symbol, opinion regarding
how other people perceive the guest.
Intangible wellness was significant variable in relation to personnel, “value for money”
feeling and hotel quality, suggesting that those intangible aspects like atmosphere, host-guest
interaction etc. increase positive perception of value. Extra wellness was important in relation
to prestige. These findings confirm importance of experience in the context of tourism (Gallarza
and Saura, 2008; Holbrook, 2006).
Customer value literature usually examines various dimensions of customer or
relationships among variables like satisfaction, quality, repurchase intention, loyalty, price etc.,
but relationship between product attributes and customer value is usually theorized. This
research examines the latter relationship and determines influence of attributes on dimensions
of perceived customer value confirming the relationship between motivation and value
(Komppula and Gartner, 2013).
133
References
Al-Sabbahy, H. Z., Ekinci, Y. & Riley, M. (2004). An Investigation of Perceived Value Dimension:
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A Journey Inside Tourist Souvenirs
Alain Decrop
Julie Masset
University of Namur
Belgium
julie.masset@unamur.be
Introduction
A question frequently obsesses consumers when they travel or are on vacation: what will
I bring from my trip back home? Shopping is entirely part of the tourist experience and one of
the predominant contemporary tourist rituals (Belk, 1997). It is also a major business for
tourist destinations nowadays. According to the American Office of Travel and Tourism
Industries (OTTI), 91% of all international leisure travellers are concerned with shopping
(OTTI, 2011). However, significant cultural differences exist in shopping behavior. Asian
tourists spend up to 61% of their budget to shopping including tourist souvenirs, whereas
Western tourists devote between 30 and 37% of their total travel budget on this (Timothy,
2005). Such a difference may emanate from traditions or cultural imperatives. For example, in
Japan, buying an “omiyage” for family members, friends, and colleagues is highly valued when
travelling. Actually, gifts and souvenirs constitute a significant part of these tourist
expenditures (Lehto et al., 2004; Littrell et al., 1994). To bring back souvenirs is as old as
travelling itself when upper-class European young men collected art pieces in order to
immortalize their Grand Tour.
Our videography invites to travel around the world of tourist souvenirs, considering more
specifically material souvenirs, i.e., all the objects that are bought, picked-up in the natural
environment, or received from a significant person (e.g., a local) during the vacation experience.
We excluded specialty goods (e.g., clothing, perfumes, or jewelry) bought by tourists from the
scope of this research because our informants do not consider them as tourist souvenirs. Our
research goal is to understand better and more deeply the motives and meanings associated
with the purchase and consumption of souvenirs.
Literature Review
Consumers may feel a strong attachment towards their souvenirs and consider them as
special possessions (McCracken, 1988; Wallendorf & Arnould, 1988; Wallendorf, Belk &
Heisley, 1988). According to Belk (1988) and McCracken (1988), consumers attribute
importance to their possessions because they encompass a part of themselves, they belong to
their self, and reveal their identity. Possessions contribute to define who consumers are: “men
and women make order in their selves (i.e., retrieve their identity) by first creating and then
interacting with the material world. The nature of such a transaction will determine, to a great
extent, the kind of person that emerges. Thus the things that surround us are inseparable from
who we are” (Csikszentmihalyi & Rochberg-Halton, 1981: 16). Such a strong attachment may
also stem from the sacred status of these special possessions as opposed to the profane status
of other objects: “sacred objects are seen as mystical, powerful, and deserving of reverential
behaviour, as opposed to the ordinary, common, and mundane behaviour accorded to profane
commodities” (Wallendorf et al., 1988: 529). However, despite its importance for self-identity
development, the field of tourist special possessions has been under-studied in consumer
research. In addition, extant studies on tourist souvenirs lack depth (Swanson & Timothy,
2012) and fail to explore both their functional and symbolic dimensions. They traditionally
focus on the types, uses, and functionalities of souvenirs (Gordon 1986), rather than on the
136
meanings given to them (Love & Sheldon, 1998). The current research aims at filling such gaps.
Specifically, the following research questions are addressed through the film: What are the
motives for buying and consuming souvenirs? Which meanings are associated with souvenirs?
Which functions do souvenirs fulfil in terms of consumer identity construction?

To address these questions, we chose a naturalistic interpretive approach. The goal of
such approach is to understand the occurrence of natural phenomena in situ (Lincoln & Guba,
1985). To get such an idiosyncratic understanding, immersing oneself in the field is needed to
achieve thick descriptions (Geertz, 1973). In total, thirty-nine Belgian tourists were interviewed.
Specifically, we interviewed nineteen informants at home and we observed their souvenirs in
the home context. Furthermore, we participated in a one-week package tour in Portugal during
which we observed forty-two Belgian tourists and their souvenir buying behavior and we
interviewed 20 of them in depth. Non-participant observations were also conducted in other
tourist sites such as New York, Turkey and Egypt. The collected data included interview
transcripts, field notes, and visual materials (i.e., pictures and videos). They were analyzed and
interpreted through Grounded Theory, which is an inductive and systematic way to generate
theoretical insights from empirical data through different layers of coding (Glaser & Strauss
1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990).
Results
The core of our film is constituted of our emerging findings. These are supported with
quotes, interview excerpts, pictures, and videos and are divided in three sections. Firstly, the
motives for buying and consuming souvenirs are considered. Two major motives, i.e.,
remembrance and enduring involvement, as well as more specific motivations (i.e., utility,
hedonism, improvement of a collection, bargain hunting, gift, or need to reciprocate a favor or
a gift) are developed.
Second, a typology of four types of symbolic souvenirs, including tourist trinkets,
destination stereotypes, paper mementoes, and picked-up objects is presented. Tourist trinkets
involve small trinkets or gadgets (e.g., mugs, key rings, and tee-shirts) that are bought for a
cheap price in souvenir shops anywhere in the world. The second type, destination stereotypes,
entails tourist objects depicted as “the specialty of the place” (e.g., Egyptian papyrus, Eiffel
Towers, and Russian dolls). Although tourists are aware that such mass-produced objects are
not unique, they continue to buy them because they stand for the destination. In addition,
before and during the vacation experience, tourists collect and keep all types of paper
mementoes (e.g., city maps, entrance tickets, books, and leaflets). Finally, picked-up objects
such as stones, sand, seeds, and coral are the type of souvenirs mentioned by tourists with the
greatest enthusiasm. Tourists often bring back something for free from the natural
environment in order to escape the market or simply to have something more typical and
unique in their eyes. Rather than a monetary or intrinsic value, a strong affective or symbolic
value is conferred to these objects.
Thirdly, our film examines the meanings given to souvenirs. In addition to the
private/individual or public/cultural meanings attached to souvenirs, this final section
emphasizes five functions souvenirs may fulfil in terms of consumer identity construction:
connection, integration, socialization, self-expression, and sacralization. When purchasing and
consuming souvenirs, tourists can be connected with a person, a particular destination, a
memorable vacation event, or a significant anecdote. They can also tend to affirm their
integration within a group of travellers or within the broader tourist sub-culture. Moreover,
souvenirs may be a way to communicate and socialize with other people. In addition to the
137
social functions, souvenirs may help consumers to express their personal taste and to affirm
their status as tourists. In other words, they may fulfil self-expression and ego-enhancement
functions. Finally, souvenirs may become sacralized. Proofs of the sacred are found in collection
rituals, commitment, objectification, symbolic contamination, and shrines made of souvenirs.

Tourist souvenirs are a typical example of special possessions that may convey deep
meanings to tourists’ lives. This film provides a deep understanding of the motives and
meanings for buying and consuming such souvenirs. Therefore, it contributes to consumer
research and tourism marketing. In contrast with previous research on souvenirs, our study
explores the functional and symbolic dimensions of souvenirs through a naturalistic
interpretive approach. It also underlines the power of souvenirs as messengers of deep
meanings. It shows that these meanings can be individual or cultural, private or public (Richins,
1994). The significant role of tourist special possessions in consumer identity construction is
emphasized as well. Finally, tourist souvenirs seem to be the perfect illustration of a hierophany
(Belk, Wallendorf, & Sherry, 1991) as the souvenir’s sacredness is intrinsically related to the
story of the object for his/her owner.
As material agents or messengers of meaning, tourist souvenirs can ease the transition
from the tourist experience, which is often related to something extraordinary, sacred, and
unique, to everyday life, often described as ordinary, profane, and mundane. Our videography
concludes on the significance of souvenirs in the tourist experience and their ubiquity in every
corner of the world. “Souvenirs have existed for thousands of years, and as long as people
continue to travel, they will continue to be an important element of the experience” (Swanson
& Timothy, 2012: 497).
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139
The importance of quality labels in consumers’ preferences:

An application to the Walloon tourism industry
Alain Decrop
Dean, Faculty of economics, social sciences and business administration
University of Namur
CeRCLe (Center for Research on Consumption and Leisure)
alain.decrop@unamur.be
Valérie Boembeke
Master student
University of Namur
valerie_1304@hotmail.com
Introduction
Service quality is defined as “the consumer’s judgment about a product’s overall excellence
or superiority” (Zeithaml, 1988, p 3). It is characterized by both a technical and a functional
dimension (Grönroos and Shostack, 1983). Technical quality refers to the result of what is
delivered to the consumer, while functional quality refers to the way in which the service is
delivered. In recent decades, the functional dimension has become an issue of increasing
importance, especially in a context of technological advance, growing competition and
behavioral changes (Decrop, 2010; Milea, 2012; Ryglová, Vajčnerová and Sacha, 2013; Talib and
Rahman, 2012; Tarí Heras-Saizarbitoria and Dick, 2012).
Quality is a determining attribute when consumers evaluate a tourism activity
(Weiermair, 2000; Wong and Kwong, 2004). Due to its intangible nature, a service is difficult to
observe and evaluate, leading to uncertainty in consumers’ mind (Parasuraman, Zeithaml and
Berry, 1985). Therefore, quality signals, such as labels, are used to improve the perceived
service quality (Akerlof, 1970; Armstrong, Nagard-Assayag, Kotler and Lardinoit, 2010;
Marcotte, Bourdeau and Leroux, 2012; Merasli, 2004; Prim-Allaz, Ricard, Courvoisier, Dreyer-
Khadir and Poggi, 2008). Over the past decade, a multiplication of quality labels has been
observed across Europe, such as Wallonie Destination Qualité in Belgium.
This paper’s main objective is to study the importance of quality labels in consumers’
preferences. More specifically, we attempt to measure consumers’ sensitivity to a quality label
when they choose an accommodation or a tourist attraction. In order to reach these objectives,
a literature review of theories around consumer preferences and quality labels will be
developed. Next, the methodology of the empirical research and the main results will be
presented. Finally, we will discuss results and present the study’s managerial implications,
limitations and suggestions for future research.
Literature review
Consumer preferences
During a decision-making process, consumers evaluate a series of choice alternatives,
which are part of their consideration set (Engel, Blackwell and Kollat, 1968). The evaluation
can be performed according to a categorization process or follow a more analytical process
attribute by attribute and/or alternative by alternative. The evaluation can be internal or
external. An internal evaluation is based on pre-existing evaluations resulting from direct or
indirect past experiences with the product/service, whereas an external evaluation involves
the construction of new evaluations resulting from information stored in memory or gathered
from commercial and non-commercial sources. Once the evaluation process is over, consumers
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should be able to identify their preferred alternative and to make a decision. So, preference is
usually defined as the predisposition of choosing one product alternative over the other. It
implies taking a position that is the result of a comparative process. Comparison may be explicit
(ranking objects) or implicit (rating objects). Preference is a special case of a broader construct,
i.e. attitudes, which has been one of the most popular topic in the consumer behavior literature
so far (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).
Quality labels
A quality label is defined as “a sign which informs about specific quality dimensions, in any
form whatsoever, of a product or a service and emanating from an organization different from
the company that produces products and services” (Chameroy and Chandon, 2010, p 5). It is
essential to make a distinction between a label and neighbour concepts such as brand,
certification and classification. First, the brand emanates from the company itself, whereas the
label emanates from an independent third party. The brand is specific to the company, while
more brands may be under the umbrella of one and the same label. Second, the certification is
governed by more strict regulatory measures than the label. Most of the time certifications are
mandatory, while labels are voluntary. Finally, the classification aims at categorizing a tourism
activity in a series of groups or classes (i.e., stars or suns) according to criteria related to its
importance, value or quality. It pertains to the technical dimension of service quality, whereas
the label relates to its functional dimension.
Importance of quality labels in consumers’ preferences
The major objective of this study is to compare the relative importance of three attributes
that may be used as quality signals in tourism choices, i.e., label, brand and classification. Quality
labels facilitate the decision-making process when consumers choose a tourism activity
(Marcotte, Bourdeau et al., 2012). An empirical study has shown that classification is valued
above the brand and the label when consumers choose a tourism activity (Prim-Allaz, Ricard et
al., 2008), which leads to our first hypothesis:
H 1: The relative importance of the Classification attribute is higher than the Label
attribute when consumers choose a tourism activity.
Of course, the brand is also a major quality signal involved in consumers’ decision-making
process, infering ideas of quality and consistency (Armstrong, Nagard-Assayag et al., 2010).
However, the classification and the label are generally valued by consumers stronger than
commercial information issued by the company, as they appear to be more neutral and credible
because they emanate from an independent third party (Chameroy and Chandon, 2010).
Therefore, we suggest that:
H 2: The relative importance of the Label attribute is higher than the Brand attribute when
consumers choose a tourism activity.
In addition to comparing the relative importance of a quality label versus brand and
classification, we also wanted to investigate how consumers’ perception and attitude towards
a quality label may influence its relative importance in a choice task. On the one hand, a specific
quality label should be perceived as credible if it is to influence consumers’ decision-making
process (Courvoisier and Courvoisier, 2005; CRIOC 2004; Larceneux, 2004). A few studies
demonstrated that the perceived credibility of a quality label has a positive influence on the
perceived quality and the purchase intention of a labeled product/service (Moussa and
Touzani, 2008), which leads to formulate the following:
H 3: The relative importance of the Label attribute is higher when the quality label is
perceived as more credible by consumers.
On the other hand, the literature suggests that consumers have a positive attitude towards
labels in general (Chameroy and Chandon, 2010), which leads them spontaneously to limit their
141
consideration of choice alternatives to labeled products/services (Blackwell, Miniard and

Engel, 2006; Decrop, 2010). Therefore, we assume that:
H 4: The relative importance of the Label attribute is higher when consumers have a
positive attitude towards labels in general.
Finally, the relative importance of quality labels may be influenced by moderating
variables including the type of tourism activity, consumers’ level of risk aversion, level of
involvement and the purchase frequency of tourism services. Quality signals in the
accommodation sector are used for a longer time than they are in the tourist attraction sector.
Morever, accomodation choices are assumed to involve consumers more strongly than
attraction choices due to a higher cost and the higher complexity of the purchase process
(Blackwell, Miniard et al., 2006; Sirakaya and Woodside, 2005). This leads to these two
hypotheses:
H 5: The relative importance of the Label attribute is higher in the accommodation sector
than in the tourist attraction sector.
H 6: The relative importance of the Label attribute is higher when consumers are involved
more strongly in the purchase decision of a tourism activity.
A consumer who shows a strong risk aversion tends to reduce the perceived risk and to
be more sensitive to quality labels in his/her choice (Larceneux, 2004). A stronger risk aversion
when purchasing a product/service leads to a stronger involvement, which may increase
consumers’ sensitivity to the quality label in the purchase decision (Rothschild, 1984;
Zaichkowsky, 1985; Zaichkowsky, 1986). Similarly, the unusual purchase of a product/service
(low purchase frequency) increases consumers’ perceived risk and level of involvement.
According to these arguments, we assume that:
H 7: The relative importance of the Label attribute is higher when consumers show a
stronger risk aversion when purchasing a tourism service.
H 8: The relative importance of the Label attribute is higher when consumers have a lower
purchase frequency.
Figure 1 presents our full research model, including the eight hypotheses formulated
above.
Figure 1. Research model
142
Method
Two data collection techniques were used in a survey: a conjoint analysis task and a
questionnaire. Conjoint analysis measures consumer preferences (Luce and Tukey, 1964)
through the estimation of partial utilities that helps to compute the relative importance of a
product/service’s attributes (Kemperman, 2000). We designed prototypical hotel and tourist
attraction deals based on combinations of determining attribute levels (Table 1). Conjoint
Designer helped us generate two sets of 16 deals and we asked respondents to rank one of these
two sets in decreasing order of preference. In addition to the estimation of consumer
preferences through the conjoint task, we designed a short survey in order to measure the
independent and moderating variables of our research model.
The survey was administered electronically or in face-to-face to French-speaking Belgians
living in the Walloon Region, who did stay or go for a recreational excursion. The non-random
quota sampling technique was used in order to build up a sample representative of the target
population as to accompaniment, province of residence and occupation. After cleaning the data,
the final sample included 193 respondents, i.e., 96 in the accommodation sector and 97 in the
tourist attraction sector. Data were analyzed with Conjoint Linmap and SPSS 16.0.
Results
Conjoint analysis results
In the accommodation sector, hotel classification results to be the attribute to which
respondents give the highest importance, followed by price, convenience and label (Table 1).
In contrast, brand is the attribute with the lowest relative weight. In the tourist attraction
sector, classification also appears to be the most important attribute, followed by price, label
and the type of attraction. Again, brand is the least important attribute.
Based on paired samples t-tests, the difference between Label and Classification (t = -
5.936, df = 192, p = 0.000) and between Label and Brand (t = 2.255, df = 192, p = 0.025) are
significant. The relative importance of the label attribute is lower than the classification
attribute and higher than the brand attribute, confirming our hypotheses 1 and 2.
143
Table 1. Utility function of choosing a hotel and a tourist attraction

HOTELS
Label 13.08%
« Wallonie Destination Qualité » 3.760
No label -3.760
Classification 32.07%
2 stars -10.349
3 stars 2.256
4 stars 8.093
Brand 8.03%
Independent hotel 2.362
Member of a hotel chain -2.362
Price 31.32%
Linear 0.173
Quadratic -0.003
Convenience 15.50%
Close to a transport infrastructure -5.262
Close to the area visited 3.648
Close to the downtown 1.614
TOURIST ATTRACTIONS
Label 26.61%
« Wallonie Destination Qualité » 4.551
No label -4.551
Classification 32.82%
2 suns -6.183
3 suns 1.139
4 suns 5.044
Brand 3.84%
Independent tourist attraction 0.657
Member of a tourist attraction chain -0.657
Price 31.92%
Linear 3.037
Quadratic -0.137
Type of attraction 4.81%
Natural -0.031
Recreational -0.807
Cultural 0.838
Based on a t-test on independent samples, the difference between Hotels and Attractions
(t = 0.684, df = 191, p = 0.495) does not appear to be significant at the 0.05 level. The relative
weight of the label attribute does not vary with the type of tourism activity, which does not
support hypothesis 5.
Survey results
First, a Principal Component Analysis was conducted to group items from the scales
developed for measuring the two independent variables of our research model (i.e., credibility
of the specific label and attitude towards labels in general). Second, a multiple linear regression
144
was generated to estimate the effects of independent and moderating variables on the relative
importance of the label attribute (dependent variable).
Bêta coefficients of the perceived credibility of a specific quality label and the attitude
towards labels in general are positive and significant (Table 2). In the accommodation sector,
only the attitude coefficient is positive and significant. In the tourist attraction sector,
coefficients of the credibility, the attitude and the purchase frequency are positive and
significant. These results confirm our hypotheses 3 and 4 but do not bring support to
hypotheses 7 and 8.
According to the correlation matrix, a significant relationship exists between the relative
importance of the Label attribute and purchase decision involvement. A simple regression (due
to a collinearity problem) shows that the involvement coefficient is positive and significant (n
= 193, β = 0.229, p = 0.001). However, in the tourist attraction sector, the involvement level
appears to positively influence the weight of the label (n = 96, β = 0.305, p = 0.002), whereas
this is not such the case for the accommodation sector. So, hypothesis 6 is partially validated.
Table 2. Linear regression of independent and moderating variables on the relative importance
of the Label attribute
Total Accommodation Tourist attraction
N 193 97 96
R-squared 0.375 0.451 0.373
Adjusted R-squared 0.358 0.420 0.339
β=0.126 β=-0.015 β=0.256
Credibility_Label
p=0.083 p=0.878 p=0.020
β=0.540 β=0.654 β=0.410
Attitude_Label
p=0.000 p=0.000 p=0.001
β=0.027 β=0.050 β=0.070
Risk_Aversion
p=0.644 p=0.539 p=0.429
β=-0.034 β=0.051 β=-0.061
Involvement_Decision
p=0.611 p=0.543 p=0.545
β=0.013 β=-0.097 β=0.153
Frequency_Purchase
p=0.830 p=0.239 p=0.090
Discussion and conclusion

Quality label is a determining attribute when consumers choose a hotel and a tourist
attraction. Whatever the sector, the relative importance of this attribute is higher than the
weight given to the brand and is lower than the importance of classification. Such a result may
be specific to tourism products for which novelty seeking is higher and loyalty is lower than for
other products or services. As most of the time, tourists lack knowledge about the brands on
the market, they are likely to trust labels to a larger extent. Moreover, consumers’ attitude
towards labels in general and their perceived credibility of a specific quality label, such as
Wallonie Destination Qualité, have a positive impact on the relative importance of the label
attribute. Consumers’ purchase decision involvement is a moderator that may also have a
positive impact. However, quality labels are not so well known by consumers, regardless of the
sector, and are confused with other similar notions, such as the classification.
These results lead to a few managerial and theoretical implications. On the one hand, the
proven importance of labels may encourage labeled tourist operators to increase using this
145
attribute in their positionning and marketing campaigns and encourage unlabeled tourist
operators to enroll in such a quality approach. Tourist organizations should be educated to
promote quality labels and to develop new attractive tourist deals. On the other hand, our
results highlight the importance of labels in consumers’ decision-making process. Classification
and labeling seem to reassure consumers about the quality of a tourism product and to help
them make a choice through a reduction of cognitive effort and emotional disruption, which are
increasing in the current context of hyperchoice. Moreover, conjoint analysis proves to be a
useful method for comparing the importance of different choice attributes related to quality.
Of course, our study shows limitations that lead to a few suggestions for future research.
It would be interesting to increase sample size in order to ensure a better representation of the
Belgian population. Next, it would be interesting to extend the target population to
international tourists. Finally in this study, the brand attribute reflects the legal status of a
tourism activity (independent/franchisee) rather than the signature of a company (e.g., Ibis,
Novotel, etc.), which may explain why brand is not that important in tourists’ preferences.
Therefore, it would be interesting to test the influence of concrete brand names on consumer
choices.
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147
Driving first time spectators and repeat spectators to cultural events: "Sa
Sartiglia" Carnival, Sardinia (Italy)
Giacomo Del Chiappa

Department of Economics and Business (DiSEA) & CRENoS
University of Sassari, Italy
E-mail: gdelchiappa@uniss.it
Giuseppe Melis
Department of Economics and Business
University of Cagliari, Italy
E-mail: gemelis@unica.it
Marcello Atzeni
E-mail: marcelloatzeni@unica.it
Introduction
Events are an important motivator of tourism (Getz, 2008) and play a highly relevant role
especially for rural and peripheral destinations (Lee, Kyle, & Scott, 2012). So far, a vast amount
of literature has been devoted to the analysis of impacts generated by events; these are usually
categorized in economic, socio-cultural, environmental, physical, political, as well as touristic
(e.g: Bowdin, Allen, O’Toole, Harris & McDonnel, 2006). This research examines the differences
in expenditure and satisfaction level between first-time and repeat spectators to a cultural
event, as well as in their intention to return and to recommend the host destination.
Literature review
To date, exiting studies (e.g. Getz, 2008), have taken into consideration several types of
events: cultural (festivals, carnivals, etc), political and state (summits, political events, etc.),
arts and entertainment (concerts, award ceremonies), business and trade (meetings,
conventions, etc.) educational and scientific (conferences, seminars, etc.), sport competitions
(amateur/professional, spectator/participant), recreational (sport or games for fun), private
events (weddings, parties, etc.). In the context of cultural events, carnivals provide
opportunities to (re)interpret the symbols and rituals that shape and define the social existence
of the hosting community and to let visitors actively experience the local identity and
authenticity; this in turn, contributes to visitors feeling attached and psychologically committed
toward the hosting destination, thus ultimately favouring their positive behavioural intentions
(Lee et al., 2012). Tourism literature states that a deep understanding of the differences
between first-time and repeat visitors, particularly in their pre-travel and post-trip
characteristics (Oppermann, 1997), is relevant in developing effective tourism marketing
strategies (e.g: Del Chiappa, Tinaz & Turco, 2014; Lau & McKercher, 2004), in applying market
segmentation, and in building travel motivation and decision-making theories. Further, prior
research offers a mixed picture of similarities and differences between the first time and repeat
cultural tourits, with findings that are sometimes contradictory. For example, several scholars
have concluded that first-timers stay longer, spend more money per night per capita, and are
more satisfied than repeaters (e.g: Anwar and Sohail, 2004). However, other research shows
the opposite (e.g: Li et al., 2008). There remains a lack of consensus about first-time and repeat
148
spectator spending behaviours, and which group is more receptive to satisfaction. Relatively
few studies have been explicitly devoted to study this topic in the context of cultural events (e.g.
Richards, 2002).
This study was therefore carried out to assess and compare the consumer behaviours of
first-time and repeat visitors to "Sa Sartiglia" with the aim of investigating whether any
significant differences exist between first-timers and repeat spectators in their spending
behaviour, satisfaction towards selected event features, and their intentions to return and to
recommend visitation.
Methods & materials

"Sa Sartiglia" is the main carnival event in the Region of Sardinia. It occurs every year in
the city of Oristano, before Lent and attracts several regional, national and international
visitors. For the purposes of this study, an ad-hoc survey was developed based on prior
literature. First, respondents were asked to give some general socio-demographic information
(gender, age, level of education, etc.) and to indicate whether they were first-time spectators or
repeaters. Second, respondents were asked to assess their level of agreement (1=strongly
disagree; 5=strongly agree) with a list of items used to investigate their overall satisfaction,
intention to return and to recommend the event, intention to post photos, videos or comments
online (UGC), and the intention to revisit the destination for reasons other than taking part in
the event again ("show casing effect"). The third section of the survey asked respondents to
provide information about their average daily expenditure for accommodation and other
services used during their stay (food and beverage, souvenirs, handcrafts, etc.). The
questionnaire was originally developed in Italian and then translated into English, French,
Spanish and German by professional translators, using back-translation for quality assurance.
Data were collected on-site during the days of the event (3-5 February 2014) with
questionnaires administered face-to-face by 17 interviewers; at the end of the event a
convenience sample of 262 complete responses was obtained.

The sample was well-balanced in terms of age of respondents; a slight majority (38.56%)
of middle-aged people (36-56 years old) was found. On average, the respondents were
48.7years old, mainly women (63.33%), with a high school degree (42%) or bachelor degree
(40%) and an annual income lower than € 28,000 (41.4%) or falling in the € 28,000 to € 55,000
bracket / range(28.45%). Respondents were mostly national (66.06%) or international visitors
(17.94%) (mainly from France, Germany and Spain), whereas 16% were regional tourists; they
were mostly travelling with a partner (39.6%), with friends (32.21%) or their family (18.8%),
whereas a relatively small percentage were reported travelling alone (4%) or in organized
group (3.69%).
Table 1 shows that respondents perceived the event as highly unique (M=4.72), were
highly satisfied with their experience (M=4.72), were willing to recommend both the event
(M=4.51) and the tourism destination in which it takes place (M=4.25); further, they seem
relatively willing to share their experience over the web by uploading comments, reviews,
photos and videos (M=3.53).
149
Table 1 - First time spectators and repeaters' satisfaction, perceived uniqueness and future
intentions
Total First-timers Repeaters
Mea Mea
Mean SD SD t p-value
n n
Overall, I’m very satisfied with the event 4.72 4.7 0.53 4.74 0.49 - 0.537
This event is unique 4.72 4.69 0.642 4.76 0.57
2 -0.618 0.454
5
I will participate in the next edition of 3.67 8
3.27 1.36 9
4.07 1.163 -0.749 0.001
Ithe event
will recommend this event to friends 4.51 4.55 0.79 1 4.48 0.98 0.624 4.569 0.533
Iand relatives
will 5
recommend this destination to 4.25 4.1 8
1.13 1
4.41 0.905 - 0.036
friends and relatives
I would like to come back to this 4.07 5 5
1.40 2.106
-
3.82 4.33 1.38 0.005
destination just for a holiday 5 1 2.856
I will share my experience using social 3.53 3.54 1.62 3.53 1.66 0.044 0.965
media 5 3 3
Probing deeper, repeaters ranked higher mean values in all but one (intention to
recommend the event) of the statements used to investigate the aforementioned variables.
However, based on independent t-tests, first time visitors and repeaters differ significantly just
in terms of their intention to return to the event (p = 0.001) and in terms of intention to return
to the destination (p = 0.005) and to recommend it to others (p = 0.036). The fact that first-
timers and repeaters were not found to have a significantly different level of satisfaction seems
to partially contradict prior studies reporting the former as being more receptive to satisfaction
than repeaters (e.g. Anwar e Sohail, 2004).
To investigate which variables are likely to influence the visitors’ total expenditure, a
regression model was run with prior visitation, age, gender, level of education, professional
status, family income and geographical status (Sardinian spectators vs. national and
international spectators) being the independent variables, and the total expenditure the
dependent one (Table 2).
Table 2 - Spectators spending behavior: a regression analysis

Std Beta t Sig.
Constant -0.807 0.421
Gender -0.036 -0.564 0.573
Age 0.16 2.219 0.027
Level of education 0.038 0.563 0.574
Professional status 0.064 0.961 0.37
Geographical status 0.046 0.703 0.483
Monthly income 0.158 2.156 0.032
Prior visitation -0.064 -0.978 0.329
R-square 0.274
Adj R-square 0.047
F-test 2.670 0.01
Results indicated that the model is significant (F=2.466; p<0.01) and summarized a total
variance of 27.4%.
150
Table 3 - Comparison of daily expenditure by first-time and repeat spectators: mean score (in
euros) and t-test
First-time Repeaters
Expenditure Type Mean SD Mean SD t sig
Hotel 64.47 41.112 70.3 64.812 -0.448 0.656
B&B 55.38 49.572 33.76 19.387 1.255 0.22
Food and beverage 43.33 42.99 47.07 67.03 -0.483 0.629
Souvenirs 39.81 56.74 41.8 55.37 -0.173 0.863
Books 11.33 7.361 18.44 27.678 -0.959 0.346
Museums 10.0 7.476 10.86 7.485 -0.38 0.706
Local trasport 10.37 8.296 15.83 12.332 -0.906 0.384
Other 48.88 51.175 56.75 32.898 -0.289 0.776
Total expenditure 129.8 154.75 135.49 183.482 -0.265 0.792
Findings reveal that age (ß=0.160; p=0.027) and annual family income (ß=0.158;
p=0.032) exert a significant influence on the visitors' total expenditure (p<0.05). Contrariwise,
the total expenditure is not significantly influenced by gender (ß=-0.036; p=0.421), level of
education (ß=0.0038; p=0.574), professional status (ß=0.064; p=0.337), geographical status
(ß=0.046 p=0.483) or prior visitation (ß=-0.064; p=0.333). To obtain a deeper knowledge
about the visitors’ spending behaviors, the mean value of total expenditure by product category
was calculated for first-timers and repeaters, and then a series of t-tests was conducted to
analyze whether any significant differences exist (Table 3). Repeaters were reported to have a
higher average expenditure (M=135.49) when compared to first-time spectators (M=129.8)
and they appear to spend more for all but one product category (B&B). However, when
independent t-tests were run, the spending behaviors of first-time and repeaters did not differ
significantly. This result seems to confirm the idea that prior travel experience (i.e. repeaters)
does not necessarily generate significant differences in visitors/spectators’ preferences and
consumption levels (Chang et al., 2013; Del Chiappa et al., 2014).

Findings reported repeaters expressing higher satisfaction, more positive behavioral
intentions and higher average economic expenditure than first-time spectators. However,
repeaters scored significantly higher just when intention to return to the event, intention to
return to the destination and intention to recommend it to others were considered. The fact
that first-timers and repeaters were not found to have a significantly different level of
satisfaction seems to partially contradict prior studies reporting the former as being more
receptive to satisfaction than repeaters (e.g. Anwar & Sohail, 2004); on the other hand, results
highlighting no significant differences in spending behavior confirm prior studies suggesting
that previous travel experience does not necessarily affect visitors' preferences and
expenditure (Del Chiappa et al., 2014). Finally, age and annual family income were found to
exert a significant influence on the visitors' total expenditure; no significant differences were
found based on gender, level of education, professional status, geographical status or prior
visitation. Findings provide useful information to support the most effective communication
and cross-selling strategy to be used to attract a balanced mix of visitors and to satisfy their
needs. For example, one could argue that the lower average expenditure of first-time spectators
is due to their relatively poor knowledge about the destination; hence, destination marketers
should target these spectators with messages (e.g using the official web-site of the event or any
151
social media) aimed at providing as much information as possible about attractions and places
to go shopping and buy souvenirs.
References
Anwar, S. A., & Sohail, M. S. (2004). Festival tourism in the United Arab Emirates: first-time
versus repeat visitor perceptions. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 10(2), 161-170.
Anwar, S. A., & Sohail, M. S. (2004). Festival tourism in the United Arab Emirates: First-time
versus repeat visitor perceptions. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 10(2), 161–170.
Bowdin, G., Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R., & McDonnel, I. (2006). Events Management (2nd
ed.). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Chang, K. L., Chen, C .M. and Meyer, T. J. (2013). A comparison study of travel expenditure and
consumption choices between first-time and repeat visitors. Tourism Management, 35, pp.
275-277.
Del Chiappa, G., Tinaz, C., & Michele Turco, D. (2014). Driving first-time and repeat spectators
to a motor sport event. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research,
8(4), 388-400.
Getz, D. (2008). Event tourism: Definition, evolution, and research. Tourism management, 29(3),
403-428.
Grappi, S., & Montanari, F. (2011). The role of social identification and hedonism in affecting
tourist re-patronizing behaviours: The case of an Italian festival. Tourism
Management, 32(5), 1128-1140.
Lau, A. L., & McKercher, B. (2004). Exploration versus acquisition: A comparison of first-time
and repeat visitors. Journal of Travel Research, 42(3), 279-285.
Lee, J., Kyle, G., & Scott. D. (2012). The Mediating Effect of Place Attachment on the Relationship
between Festival Satisfaction and Loyalty to the Festival Hosting Destination. Journal of
Travel Research, 51(6), 754-767.
Li, X., Cheng, C. K., Kim, H., & Petrick, J. F. (2008). A systematic comparison of first- time and
repeat visitors via a two-phase online survey. Tourism Management, 29(2), 278-293.
Oppermann, M. (1997). First-time and repeat visitors to New Zealand. Tourism Management,
18(3), 177-181.
Richards, G. (2002). Tourism attraction systems: Exploring cultural behavior. Annals of Tourism
Research, 29(4), 1048-1064.
152
A community-based collaborative approach to policymaking in islands: a

cluster analysis in the context of Costa Smeralda
Giacomo Del Chiappa

Department of Economics and Business (DiSEA) & CRENoS
University of Sassari, Italy
E-mail: gdelchiappa@uniss.it
Vahid Ghasemi
E-mail: Va.ghasemi1@studenti.unica.it
Marcello Atzeni
E-mail: marcelloatzeni@unica.it
Introduction
It is widely recognized that residents play a relevant dual role in tourism development.
On the one hand, the local community represents one of the main stakeholders as it is the one
most closely affected by the positive and negative economic, environmental, and sociocultural
impacts; hence, a deep understanding of residents' perception and attitudes towards tourism
development is pivotal to obtaining their support for tourism projects (Ap, 1992), to foster their
sense of belonging to the place and to plan a future course of action that being sensitive to their
needs and desirers (Sirakaya-Turk, Ekinci, & Kaya, 2008) is able to guarantee the well being of
the local community. On the other hand host community that is positively disposed, friendly
and hospitable will enhance tourists' experience (Fredline & Faulkner, 2000); further, the local
community with its traditions, culture, and authenticity, is one of the main ‘‘attractions’’ for
people whose travel reason is to experience and connect with the culture of their destinations
(Murphy, 1985), thus meaning that the cohabitation and interaction host-guest is pivotal in
shaping and co-creating the tourist experience.
Literature review
Researchers agree that a sustainable tourism development is possible when there is
collaborative policymaking among local authorities, government agencies, businesses and host
communities (Vernon, Essex, Pinder, & Curry, 2005). The local community will be more likely
to support the tourism planning when it has been done taking into account their desires and
expectations; hence, will be also more likely disposal to welcome tourists and will be also more
inclined to spread by word-of-mouth a positive image about their destination, thus acting as
brand ambassadors (Chen, Dwyer, & Firth, 2014).
Factors affecting residents' perceptions and attitudes can be categorised into extrinsic
and intrinsic factors. According to Faulkner and Tideswell (1997), the former refers to the
characteristics of the location with respect to its role as a destination, while the latter refers to
the characteristics of the host community members. Among the extrinsic factors, researchers
considered, for example, the degree or stage of tourism development, and the degree of tourism
seasonality. Among the intrinsic factors, we could consider the perceived balance between
positive and negative impacts, community attachment and concern (Besculides, Lee, &
McCormick, 2002), involvement in tourism planning, geographical proximity to concentrations
153
of activity (Fredline & Faulkner, 2000), length of residency, level of contact with tourists,
economic reliance and dependence on industry (Ap, 1992). Finally, among the intrinsic factors
affecting residents' attitudes, the literature includes sociodemographic characteristics such as
gender, age and level of education (Belisle & Hoy, 1980). Further, another factor moderating
the residents’ attitudes towards tourism development is the so-called heritage proximity,
which can be defined as "the perceptual distance between residents and heritage promotion in
a particular location" (Uriely, Israeli, & Reichel, 2009, p. 859).
Few studies focus on analysing residents’ perceptions and/or attitudes towards tourism
development can be found in the field of island tourism destinations. This paper aims at
presenting and discussing the results of a cluster analysis applied to a convenience sample of
890 residents living in Arzachena, the municipality whose administrative boundaries include
the greater part (90%) of Costa Smeralda, one of the most well-established tourism
destinations worldwide.
Methods & materials

Based on prior studies on residents' attitude to tourism, a survey was developed; it was
composed of two parts. The first asked respondents about their general sociodemographic
characteristics (gender, age, education, etc). The second invited participants to indicate their
level of agreement with 31 statements related to: (i) tourism impacts (ii) the implementation
of tourism policies and the consequences on local welfare; and (iii) the sense of community
belonging. To this end, a 7-point Likert scale was used (1= strongly agree, 7 = strongly disagree).
Data were collected in 2011 through face-to-face interviews conducted by two trained
interviewer. A convenience sample of 890 complete questionnaires were collected and used for
statistics.

Overall, the findings reveal that residents think that the positive effects of tourism
development outweigh, even slightly, the negative impacts (M=4.86) and are willing to support
a further tourism development (M=5.76), especially if it is sensitive to local tradition and able
to guarantee heritage proximity (residents are currently concerned about this ability: M=3.99).
Further they were reported not being extensively willing to support this growth by financially
supporting promotion operations (M=3.03) or investing in tourism activities; rather they do
this encouraging their children to undertake tourism-related training/education and to enter
into a tourism profession (M=4.77). Further, they felt poorly involved in tourism planning
(M=2.86), and that institutions should financially support locals, more than others, so that an
endogenous tourism development can occur (M=5.86).
For the purposes of the study a factor-cluster analysis was adopted (Madrigal, 1995).
Hence, an explorative factor analysis, Principal Component Analysis and Varimax rotation, was
used to reveal the underlying factors in the data. Hence, five factors were identified (52,42% of
total variance). The KMO-index (Kaiser-Myer-Olkin = 0.926) and the Bartlett's test of sphericity
(chi-square = 10603.820; p-value <0.0001) confirm that the results are appropriate to explain
the data. Cronbach's alpha was then calculated to test the reliability of the extracted factors; all
values are 0.7 or higher, thus suggesting that the factors are reliable. Specifically the four factors
were named as follow: “Sense of belonging” (28.58% of total variance), “Ability of involvement
of local authorities” (8.5% of the total variance), “Attitude towards tourism development”
(6.33% of total variance), “Support to local entrepreneurship” (4.74% of total variance)
“Propensity to invest in tourism" (4.26% of total variance).
The scores of the five principal components were entered into a cluster analysis. A
hierarchical cluster (Ward method – Manhattan distances) was performed and four groups
154
emerged. Then, a non-hierarchical method (k-means) was applied to factor scores defining the
four different groups of residents (namely: “Indifferents”, “Critics”, “Moderate Supporters”,
“Enthusiastics”).
"Indifferents" (N=163) are mostly females (55.2%), married or cohabitating (71.2%),
administrative workers (25.3%), with a high school degree (52.5%). They have been living for
more than 20 years in Arzachena (57.1%), reside close to the tourism area (65.9%). They
express a relatively neutral position as regard to tourism impacts. Further, they think that it is
important to maintain the traditions of the community (M=4.66) and ask for institutions
supporting financially the locals, rather then others, so that they can invest in tourism
businesses (M=4.18). "Critics" (N=165) are mostly females (59.1%), belonging to the age
bracket 36-45 (44.2%), married or cohabiting (67.5%), with middle school (31.5%) or high
school (49.4%). They have been residing in Arzachena for less than 5 years (19.4% between 5
and 10 years and only 53.9% from more than 21 years), reside close to tourism area (57.4%)
and interact frequently with tourists (60.5%). They think that the positive effects of tourism
development outweigh, even slightly, the negative impacts; in particular this happen for all
aspects: economic (M=4.24), sociocultural (M=4.23), and environmental effects (M=4.81).
Despite this they are very critic toward the way in witch local authorities manage the tourism
development in the area. Despite this, they would experience a further tourism development
(M=6.5) and for this they would also be willing to encourage their children to undertake
training and a profession in the tourism sector (M=5.16).
"Moderate Supporters" (N=273) residents in Arzachena from long time (35.2% from
more than 20 years) and near to the tourists areas (60% under 10 Km), 71% married or
cohabitating, 52.2% whit high school degree, mostly retired (37.7%) or working as a
administrative workers (24%). 58.1% declare to enter in contact with tourist in everyday life.
People of this cluster have a positive attitude toward the tourism development in the area
(M=4.91), but they are critics toward the managerial capabilities of local authorities (i.e.
“Overall I feel involved and listened in the process of tourism programming for the destination”
– M=2.32; “Local authorities are able to strike a fair balance between protecting the needs and
interests of the residents with the need to increase tourist visitation” – M=2.51). This cluster is
characterized for the very high sense of belonging to his community (M=6.28) and for the
feeling of attachment to the community (M=5.68), declaring also that “It is important to
maintain the tradition of the community” (M=6.62). "Enthusiastics" is the largest group (N=
289) and include mostly females (60.2%), married or cohabiting (72.6%) and with high school
degree (47.6%); they have been residing in Arzachena for more than 20 years (68.5%), closed
to tourism areas (66.9% under 10 Km). They express a very positive attitude toward the
tourism development of the area (M=5.66) and think positively about the future economic
health of the area (M=4.47). However, they are not willing to support the tourism development
neither with a financial contribution to support tourism promotion (M=3.29) or personally
investing in tourism activities (M=3.39). They are very satisfied for their living in the area
(M=5.44), feel very attached to his community (M=5.82) and trust the ability of local authorities
in running promotion operations that are able to exploit the destination identity and
authenticity (M=5.13).
Tests associated with the chi-square (χ2) statistic show that significant differences exist
between the segments based on length of residence (X2 = 48.093 p=0.000). No differences were
found based on gender (X2 = 4.087, p=0.18), age (X2 = 14.971, p= 0,243), employment status
(X2 = 10.811, p= 0.545), employment reliance on tourism (X2 = 1.21, p=0.25), marital status
(X2 = 9.687, p=0.376), contact with tourists in everyday life (X2 = 25.99 p=0.1), level of
education (X2 = 14.85, p=0.25), and geographical proximity to tourist area (X2 = 12.573,
p=0.401).
155

Findings reveal that residents think that the positive effects of tourism development
outweigh the negative impacts and are willing to support a further tourism development,
especially if it is able to guarantee heritage proximity, especially encouraging their children to
undertake tourism-related training/education and to enter into a tourism profession. However,
respondents feel themselves poorly involved in tourism planning and do not think that
institutions are currently doing enough to provide them, rather than others, financial support
to invest in tourism businesses. According with the social exchange theory, findings confirm
that residents benefiting from tourism are likely to perceive the industry as positive and are
ready to support its further development. Further, they suggest that residents' perceptions and
attitudes are not homogenous but, contrariwise to prior studies, significant differences do exist
based just on length of residence; this could be explained by referring to the different settings
where studies have been conducted, which are obviously highly site-specific and, therefore,
hardly generalisable. Findings suggest policy makers and destination marketers should
improve residents’ involvement in tourism planning through various participation
mechanisms, such as meetings, focus groups and surveys and should try to run marketing and
promotion operations with the aim of achieving a higher degree of heritage proximity and
tailoring internal communication just based on length of residence.
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665-690.
Belisle, F. J., & Hoy, D. R. (1980). The perceived impact of tourism by residents: A case study in
Santa Maria, Columbia. Annals of Tourism Research, 12(1), 83-101
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benefits of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2), 303-319.
Chen, N., Dwyer, L., & Firth, T. (2014). Effect of dimensions of place attachment on residents’
word-of-mouth behavior. Tourism Geographies (in print), 16(5), 1-18.
Faulkner, B., & Tideswell, C. (1997). A framework for monitoring community impacts of
tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5(1), 1-26.
Fredline, E., & Faulkner, B. (2000). Host community reactions: A cluster Analysis. Annals of
Madrigal, R. (1995). Residents' perceptions and the role of government. Annals of tourism
research, 22(1), 86-102.
Murphy, P.E. (1985). Tourism: A community approach. New York: Methuen.
Sirakaya-Turk, E., Ekinci, Y., & Kaya, A. G. (2007). An examination of the validity of SUS-TAS in
cross-cultures. Journal of Travel Research, 46(4), 414-421.
Uriely, N., Israeli, A. A., & Reichel, A. (2009). Heritage proximity and resident attitudes toward
tourism development. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(3), 859-862.
Vernon, J., Essex, S, Pinder, D., & Curry, K. (2005). Collaborative policymaking. Local sustainable
projects. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(2), 325-345.
156
Traits in Tourists’ experiences: Senses, emotions and memories
Joana Afonso Dias

INUAF, Portugal
joanadia@gmail.com
Teresa Cascais
Antónia Correia
Universidade Europeia, Portugal
Introduction
Technological advancement and increased international competition affect the way in
which places are imagined, perceived and consumed (Govers & Go, 2009). Interaction in
material space (place), information space (online representations), mental space (perceived
place image) and social space (sharing place experiences with or through social relations) are
as complex as they are challenging to accomplish for a semiotic overview of the touristic
destinations (Go & Van Fenema, 2006). As Castells (1996, p. 476) argues, in the network society
“image-making is power making”. The purpose of this research is to analyse blog entries
(narratives and photos) relating to Algarve experiences posted on the Algarve tourism board
blog (http://blog.turismodoalgarve.pt/search/). Consumption experiences share the
characteristics of other services, in the way that production and consumption take place
simultaneously. Therefore, consumers, as well as other visitors and residents are also actively
engaged in the process of creating and attaching meaning to place image. The attachment of
meaning to life, to self in relation to events, people, and place is a continuous reweaving process.
The formation of emotional and sentimental bonds between people and a place brings together
the material formations on a geographic site and the meanings we invest in them (Altman &
Low, 1992; Grupta & Ferguson, 1997). Social life now moves through nodes in one network or
another, through points of power, convergence or translation but not necessarily anchored to
any place. The places we build appear as clones of places elsewhere. Place attachment results
from accumulated biographical experiences (Gieryn, 2000). Place attachment facilitates a sense
of security and well-being, defines group boundaries and stabilizes memories (Halbwachs,
1980) against the passage of time. Place persists as a constituent element of social life and
historical change (Friedland & Boden, 1994), revealing the richness of a place. Following this
stream this paper aims to answer the following questions:
How is place sensed, perceived, recorded (what attributes are selected to experience and
remember?
Which senses do photos of the destination activate?
How do narratives mirror emotions and memories?
Considering the complex potential conflict between continuity and change - a common
problem that most countries and corporations are facing, this research also aims to clarify and
strengthen the identity of places as an issue crucial to its continuity.
Literature Review
The tourist experience is a socially constructed term whereby the meaning of the tourist
experience is associated with multiple interpretation from social, environmental, and activity
components of the overall experience. Csikszentmihalyi (1991), in his theory of flow
experience, argues that enjoyment or pleasure is the driver of optimal experience, which is
made possible by high concentration and involvement, clarity of goals and feedback, and
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intrinsic motivation. Experiences have been reflected in an increasing body of literature

(MacCannell, 1973; Csikszentmihalyi, 1975; Cohen, 1979; Mannell & Iso-Ahola, 1987; Ryan,
1997), which established the theoretical context of the experience concept. Traditionally,
experience has been defined as a personal occurrence with highly emotional significance
obtained from the consumption of products and services (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982), and
emotions are translated into senses.
It has to be acknowledged that we make sense of the world not just through language, not
just by talking about it, but through all our senses, and their extensions in the form of diverse
media (Taylor 1994; Seremetakis 1994; Finnegan 2002; MacDougall 2006). Furthermore, there
are some places and some issues that the senses and sense-based media can reach that words
cannot, giving to the experience a meaning that outstrips the limits of perceived destination
image. Echtner and Ritchie(1991, 1993) postulated the existence of a functional-to-
psychological continuum in destination image, on which the different attributes were located.
Analysis of destination image then moves from a traditional attribute-based measurement to a
broader approach, capable of capturing its gestalt nature (Rodrigues, Correia, Kozak and
Tuohino, 2015). So alternative methods of destination image measurement based on qualitative
techniques have been recognized as critical to capture the holistic impressions associated with
a destination. That gives rise to the formation of destination memory. In this era of globalisation
it is consensual that we need a notion of ‘place’ which is stable, secure, and unique. According
to Relph (1976), if places are “sources of security and identity for individuals and for groups of
people, then it is important that the means of experiencing, creating and maintaining significant
places are not lost” (1976, p.115). What emerges, therefore, is the issue that links place, self-
identity, shared stories and collective memory in the context of the modern European city
where dynamics overwhelm the stability which destinations need in order to position
themselves.
Under this quest to give meaning to destinations, an emerging research strand shows the
use of mixed-methods, both qualitative and quantitative (e.g. Baloglu & McCleary, 1999;
MacKay & Fesenmaier, 1997; Pike & Ryan, 2004). As a consequence, innumerable qualitative
techniques have been used for destination image measurement, mostly covering techniques
such as free elicitation, focus group, open-ended questions, in-depth interviews, and content-
analysis (Gallarza et al. 2002). In line with this new approach, pictorial materials were used
progressively in qualitative studies. The “pictorial turn” was underpinned by MacInnis & Price’s
(1987) work and the relationship between imagery processing and consumer behaviour was
examined. Their primary purpose was to demonstrate that both imagery and discursive
information were used in evaluating a product (Rodrigues, Correia, Kozak and Tuohino, 2015).
This research follows this stream and assesses Algarve meanings through a content analysis of
narratives and photo elicitation.
Methodology
Bloggers create an account which allows them to post their individual journeys or invite
others to post photos, histories or comments. The users who participate in our epistemological
blog were Portuguese and non-Portuguese who sought to answer the question What does the
Algarve have? Name and email were the only personal data requested from participants.
Photographs were posted to illustrate the content. Overall there are 54 blog entries between
May 2011 and August 2014. For this analysis the sample was restricted to blogs written in
English and Portuguese, to avoid the bias of translations, and as such residents and non-
residents were included in the sample. Furthermore the analysis comprises photos aiming to
illustrate their sensorial experiences via a semiotic approach.
158
The blog narratives were examined and findings presented, aiming to capture the senses
that are evident in their discourse and complemented by their photos. The suggestion of
qualitative methods emerged from the principal approach of this research to obtain in-depth
understanding of how users perceive, interpret and communicate the social reality of the
Algarve destination where these perceptions evolve. An inductive approach was adopted to
address the research aims that are subjective in nature and addressed through an
interpretative paradigm (Oliveira and Panyik, 2015). According to Decrop (1999),
interpretivism in tourism related studies is better approached by qualitative methods. The
qualitative approach used in this exploratory research is in line with the methodology of
various studies that focus on the meaning and understanding of destination image (Echtner and
Ritchie, 2003; Govers et al., 2007; Pike, 2002 and Tasci and Kozak, 2006).
As the objective is to interpret the content of narratives and pictures from our
epistemological blog where the Algarve is the reference, a content analysis is the most feasible
tool. Similar studies on destination image apply the same methodology (Volo, 2010; Wenger,
2007). Tourist destinations are not ontologically pre-given but, instead, socially constructed
(Saarinen, 2004 cited in Morgan et al., 2011). According to McDougall and Fry (1974), the use
of unstructured instruments, followed by content analysis and coding, is more appropriate in
image research.
The 54 images included in the analysis were content analysed in terms of sense
experiences evoked as applied in other studies of tourism photography (Fullwood et al, 2009;
Garrod, (2008); Larsen, (2008); Lo et al, 2011; Markwell, 1997; Sternberg, 1997). Our
methodology was performed at different levels: first, identification of which senses the photos
of the destination activated; second, photos were aligned with discourse to ensure that what
they (the photos) represent is what they bloggers say.
Measuring the content of imagery processing, mainly the visual imagery, implies the
identification of the representations that tourists formed about the destination. Hunter (2008)
suggests that representations offer a more direct way to understand the image, in terms of the
tourist and in terms of the destination. This is due to the fact that representations are described
as “true descriptions” (Brown, 1995 cited by Hunter, 2008). Therefore, the evaluations and
analyses of destination image that use studies of representations have a significant value that
cannot be ignored. The main question is to know how these representations can be identified.
As Hunter states “representations in the form of photographs have become fundamental to the
very reality of tourism” (2008, p.357). The mental picturing includes senses like smell, taste,
sight, sound and touch. This much more holistic approach is in opposition to the “discursive
processing” characterized by a partial view of individual features or attributes, as pointed out
by MacInnis and Price (1987). As such, a complementary dual approach with pictorial image
and discursive interpretation was adopted.
Results
The analysis of the 54 photos suggests that 87% correspond to the sense of sight, 30%
correspond to taste, hearing and smell are matched at 37% and the touch with 43%.
Furthermore, results show that sensorial experience arose in the combination of up to three
senses with sight as the one that is combined with most others.
Text analysis showed that in the 54 posts of the tourists, 59% refer to the sense of sight,
46% correspond to the sense of touch, 18% to hearing, 31% correspond to the sense of smell
and 31% to the sense of touch. Once more the senses are combined suggesting a semiotic
approach to experiences.
The analysis also included the relative frequencies of the five senses present in the
pictures and also in tourists’ transcripts. The sense of sight is present in the majority of the
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pictures and the sense of taste is that most referred to in the narratives of the tourists.
Furthermore smell is clearly the most exploited sense both in texts and in photographs.
In order to align the narratives of the tourists with the images to highlight the experiences
memorized, we used a codebook that links verbs with statements to depict the most mentioned
words when the topic is one of each sense. The tourists share their feelings as well as their
sensorial experiences in order to emphasize their narratives giving a humanized perspective to
this. Statements like this:
“I set out to experience you. I read a lot about your and listened to your music. Now that
I'm here, I'm invaded by strange sensations that had not experienced before” suggest that
hearing is the way to learn and memorize an experience tourists are willing to have. “... The
Algarve is a place that welcomes immigrants as well as tourists! A place where you have a tasty
and unmistakable food! A place with perfect beaches for all tastes! Words to describe what the
Algarve has? No ...just visiting to find out.” This statement placed the emphasis of the experience
on taste. Whereas this one puts the focus on touch: “The sand, the sea, the waves embrace my
body” Further“The smell that is present all around us” is a sign that the sense of smell drove
their decisions. Finally, the visual sense is in almost of the transcripts: 33 out of 54 transcripts
refer to the visual signs of the destination. “Many say the Algarve is synonymous with crowds
... it is, but most of the time these crowds are so nice to see ...”.
Overall, the transcripts focus mostly on three topical issues when it comes to perceiving
a destination: the place, the sea and the people. 53 out of 100 transcripts refer to between one
and three of the topics recurrently, and these words account for 622 references among the 54
transcripts. Related to the above mentioned topical categories are other words which appear
with relevant frequency, as such as beach, sun and summer, which account for 4.66%, 4.18%
and 1.45% of word frequencies in a total of references of 3555 words (after removing stop
words )
Referring to the five senses, sight is the most mentioned (224 occurrences) and smell has
the least references with only 59 occurrences. On the other hand, the Algarve appears to be
related to the sense of sight with 62 references, followed by taste (48) and touch (47) and 21
and 12 references for the senses of hearing and smell. The word sea is related to all senses
except hearing. The word people is also related to the senses with a special focus on sight: 20
out of 50.
Conclusions
Such a research approach has the advantage of recognizing the significance of destination
memory not just at an individual level, but also at a social level. It is clear from the results
analysed that residents/tourists with their sense of themselves could be ambassadors and
simultaneously bound up in the people’s sense of the Algarve as a destination. Place attachment,
as the destination place is dynamic has as much of the dweller´s imagination as it does
repertoire of tourist experiences.
The tourist destination must evoke novelty, but continuity must be at the same level in
the imagery of those who experience it. Emotions indeed play an important role in the tailoring
of quality of life in relation to place attachment and belongings. The identity construction
process is related to the lived experiences and the experience as a means body, the great
mediator of this relationship (Mearlau-Ponty, 1971). This process of internalization, where the
body incorporates the place that remains in memory and establishes ties and sense of place,
arises related to a place whose social, cultural and spatial organization are not at all unknown.
The most evident manifestation of emotions are the transcripts humanized by the verbalization
of their sensorial experiences. These emotional states are also evident in photos that
complement them and are totally aligned with what they declare, which confirms that a photo
160
is worth more than 1000 words. This research is exploratory in its essence and biased by the
nature of the blog. It is a step forward towards introducing pictures and emotions into tourism
destination image research.
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162
Host Perceptions of Tourism Development: The Case of Petra
Prof. Dr. Mithat Zeki Dinçer

Istanbul University, Faculty of Economics, Economic Policy
mzdincer@istanbul.edu.tr
Prof. Dr. Füsun İstanbullu Dinçer

Istanbul University, Faculty of Economics, Tourism Management
istanbul@istanbul.edu.tr
Zaid Alrawadieh
Istanbul University, Institute of Social Science, Tourism Management Department
zaid_rawadieh@yahoo.com
Introduction
The nature of tourism sector requires “consumer” to move to where the service is
provided. Consumer’s movement to a different place leads to a direct encounter with those who
offer services and those who live where they are offered. This encounter results in a set of
changes in the host community’s life. While tourism development may result in positive
economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts such as creating jobs, improving life
conditions and preserving natural environment, evidence of several negative impacts cannot
be overlooked (e.g. traffic congestion and inflation).
Jordan is a young tourist destination in the Middle East where tourism plays a pivotal role
in the national economy. Although located in a tumultuous region, Jordan appears to enjoy a
satisfactory level of growth in its tourism competitiveness in the Middle East market. Tourism
receipts in Jordan increased from about 1461 million JD in 2006 (MoTA, 2007) to 2923 million
JD in 2013 (MoTA, 2013). By choosing Jordan’s main tourist destination, Petra, as a case for this
study, this paper aims at examining the impacts of tourism development as perceived by the
host community.
Literature review
Host perceptions of tourism development have been the focus of several studies in
different geographical contexts. Earlier research tended to highlight the economic benefits
brought about by tourism (Pizam, 1978). The negative impacts caused by mass tourism shifted
the attention to both positive and negative consequences of the tourism industry. Since then,
numerous studies examined resident’s perceptions of socio-cultural, economic and
environmental impacts of tourism development (Brunt & Courtney, 1999; King, Pizam &
Milman, 1993).
While tourism increases personal income and creates job opportunities, it often increases
prices of goods and services (Pizam, 1978; Var, Kendall & Tarakcioglu, 1985). Often,
landowners and businessmen benefit most from tourism, whereas local people suffer from
increasing costs of living. The sociocultural impacts of tourism have also received much
attention by a number of scholars. Tourism is considered to be an opportunity for communities
to get to know other people and different cultures. Yet, tourism led to commoditization of
culture, religion and social values.
Nature is often considered the basic element of tourism. The deterioration of nature
results in the deterioration of tourism. The preservation of natural environment is one of the
positive environmental impacts brought about by tourism. However, unplanned and
uncontrolled development can result in disturbing the ecological system, causing pollution and
deterioration of wildlife.
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Several studies suggested that residents who depend on tourism for their livelihood had
more positive attitudes compared to those who were not dependent on it (Haralambopulos &
Pizam 1996). Tourism proved to be useful in providing several economic, sociocultural and
environmental benefits. Yet, costs of tourism development on local community not cannot be
overlooked.
Host-tourist interaction in Jordan has received little attention. In an earlier study on
Jordan’s most important tourist destination, Petra, Shoup (1985) found that tourism
development in the city had led to major changes in the community’s way of life. Although local
community used to consider Westerns as addicted to alcohol and sex, yet, demonstration effect
was evident through imitating Western tourists in dress and manners. Shoup also noted that
people in Petra were more affected by Arab tourists, particularly those coming from Saudi
Arabia than Western ones.
Some scholars noted that little research has been conducted on residents’ attitudes
toward tourism in the developing countries (Nunkoo & Ramkissoon 2010). The significance of
this paper, therefore, lies in its contribution to the existing literature on the perceptions of host
residents toward tourism in a developing country.
Methodology
This paper aims at examining the resident’s attitudes toward tourism development in
Jordan’s main tourist destination, Petra. For the purpose of this study, a self-administrated
questionnaire was designed. The questionnaire consisted of two parts, the first section includes
questions concerning demographic characteristics, while the second part aimed at measuring
the impacts of tourism as perceived by host community using a 35-item scale developed by Ap
and Crompton (1998). Ap and Crompton’s scale was developed to measure both the belief and
evaluation components regarding perceived tourism impacts. To measure the belief
component, respondents were asked to rate the level of change related to each item on a five
point Likert scale (1= large decrease, 2= moderate decrease, 3= no change, 4= moderate increase,
and 5= large increase) .To measure the evaluation component, respondents were asked to rate
their level of like or dislike with each item on a 5 point Likert scale where (1= dislike, 2=
somewhat dislike, 3= neither like or dislike, 4= somewhat like, and 5= like). Thus, a respondent
who believed that tourism had led to “positive attitudes of local residents toward tourists” may
have indicated a score of 5 for this item. If the respondent’s evaluation of this change was
something he or she liked, a score of 5 would be assigned. The multiplied score for this item
would be a maximum of 25, which indicates a strong and favorable perception with the
attitudes of local residents changed by tourism. In this paper, the same methodology was
adopted. The factor analysis of the 35-scale resulted in excluding 6 items. Therefore, the new
scale consisted of 29 items.
Two close-ended and two 5 point Likert scale-based questions were adopted from Milman
and Pizam (1988) to examine residents’ overall attitude toward tourism. The questionnaire
was first written in English, then translated into Arabic by professional bilingual who is
specialized in tourism management. Two Arabic-native speaker academicians specialized in
tourism management were asked to revise the translation, and in the light of their comments
and critics, the final version of the questionnaire was designed. By using a stratified sampling
technique, 220 questionnaires were equally distributed to industry-involved and non-involved
respondents in Petra. Two local interviewers working in tourism industry were trusted to
distribute the questionnaires. In addition to the interviewers being part of the local community,
Petra is one of the author’s own community, which resulted in easy access to the local people
and residents’ willingness to participate in the survey (Sherlock, 1999). Data was collected in
the first half of January 2015 which is considered a low season in the city. Of the 220
164
questionnaires 208 were returned. Twelve questionnaires were excluded from the final
analysis for the massive amount of missing data. Therefore, 196 questionnaires were usable
(112 questionnaires completed by tourism-non-involved respondents and 84 questionnaires
completed by tourism-involved respondents).
Results
Demographic profile of respondents:
The overwhelming majority of respondents were male (79 %) who were married (64 %),
holding a bachelor degree (57 %) and living in Petra for more than 15 years (75 %). The median
age of most respondents (41 %) was between 25 and 34 years. About 57 percent of respondents
who were involved in tourism industry reported to be working in hotels and 8 percent were
working in travel agencies, while most of those who are not involved in tourism industry were
civil servants (70 %).
Overall attitude toward tourism
Results suggested that host community in Petra generally favored tourism development.
About 76 percent of the sample favored somewhat or strongly favored the presence of tourism
in the city. The majority (57 %) said that tourism activities improved somewhat or significantly
improved the image of Petra. More than half of the respondents (about 52 %) reported that
they would willingly take jobs in the tourism industry. Fifty four percent said they would
suggest to their friends or relatives to take jobs in the tourism industry.
Perceived impacts of tourism
Principle component factor analysis with varimax rotation was used to determine the
underlying factors. Only items with factor loadings and commonalities greater 0.4 were
included in the final factor structure. Therefore, 6 items of the original scale were excluded. The
factor analysis generated 7 factors with relatively high internal consistency ranging from .77 to
.91. The coefficient of internal consistency of the total scale reliability was calculated as 92
indicting a high reliability of the instrument (Nunnally, 1978).
As it is illustrated in table 1, items related to the cultural impacts of tourism received the
highest mean scores. In addition to that, local community in Petra seems to acknowledge
tourism for it is contribution to the development of the local services.
165
Table 1: Host’s Perceptions of Tourism Development in Petra

Impacts of Tourism Means SD Rank
Social and Cultural (Eigenvalue=10.69; Variance=34.49; Alpha=.88)
Demand for historical activities and programs 9.94 6.89 23
Demand for cultural activities and programs 10.53 6.34 18
Variety of cultural facilities and activities in the community 10.46 6.26 21
Opportunity to learn about other people and cultures 14.22 6.79 2
Awareness/ recognition of the local culture and heritage 12.86 6.37 8
Variety of entertainment in the area 10.47 5.82 20
Opportunities to meet interesting people 14.27 6.49 1
Economic (Eigenvalue=3.21; Variance=10.38; Alpha=.88)
Personal income of local residents 11.49 6.39 13
Amount of income going to local businesses 11.50 6.56 12
Revenue generated in the local community 12.30 6.33 9
Investment and development spending in the area 11.08 5.64 17
Variety of shopping facilities in the area 11.48 5.74 14
Crowding and Congestion (Eigenvalue=2.41; Variance=7.78;
Alpha=.91)
Size of crowds that restrict what activities you do in public areas 9.48 5.91 24
Size of crowds that affect your enjoyment of activities in public areas 9.21 5.89 25
Level of traffic congestion in the area 10.14 6.54 22
Noise level in the community 8.53 6.05 27
Community attitude (Eigenvalue=1.98; Variance=6.40; Alpha=.88)
Community spirit among local residents 12.17 7.00 10
Pride of local residents 13.54 7.49 6
Positive attitudes of local residents toward tourists 11.62 6.94 11
Local Services (Eigenvalue=1.51; Variance=4.87; Alpha=.77)
Physical ability of local services (e.g. police, fire, medical, and utilities) 13.93 6.69 4
Quality of local services (e.g. police, fire, medical, and utilities) 13.87 6.60 5
Financial resources of local services (e.g. police, fire, medical, and 14.11 11.7 3
utilities) 5
Level of urbanization (city-type development) in the area 13.36 6.94 7
Costs and Taxes (Eigenvalue=1.32; Variance=4.26; Alpha=.89)
Amount of local property taxes collected 8.24 5.84 29
Amount of local sales taxes collected 8.47 5.90 28
Amount of local taxes collected 8.64 5.89 26
Environmental (Eigenvalue=1.21; Variance=3.91; Alpha= .82)
Wildlife (plants, birds, and animals) in the local area 11.10 5.80 16
Quality of natural environment 11.27 5.69 15
Natural environment 10.49 5.53 19
The independent Samples T-test was conducted to determine whether there is a

significant mean difference between respondents based on their involvement in the tourism
sector. Interestingly, the results suggested that respondents depending on tourism as their
main resource of income showed more concern about “crowding and congestion” caused by
tourism activities in their city (P-value=.039).
166
This paper showed that the host community in Petra has positive attitudes toward
tourism development. It also suggested that social and cultural impacts of tourism such as
“opportunities to meet interesting people” were most favored by surveyed sample. Host
community is also assumed to favor tourism development in the city for the role of tourism in
bringing about better local services.
This paper examined resident’s perceptions of tourism in Petra, which mainly caters
cultural tourists. It would difficult therefore, to generalize the findings without conducting
similar research in different destinations in the country. Another major limitation of this paper
is that respondents may be biased as they were approached by interviewers known to them
and were asked to give information for researchers also partially known to them. Future
research may approach the topic from a cross-sectional perspective within the tourism
industry.
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Brunt, P & Courtney, P. (1999). Host perceptions of sociocultural impacts. Annals of Tourism
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167
The Albergo Diffuso Business Model and the Creation of Community

Wellbeing
Giovanna Bertella
UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
Giovanna.Bertella@uit.no
Maurizio Droli
University of Udine, Udine, Italy
Introduction
This study focuses on the creation of community wellbeing through the application of the
Albergo Diffuso business model. Albergo Diffuso (AD) is translatable as ‘scattered hotel’ and is
‘a particular type of hotel conceived to provide to the guests the experience of living in a rural
village or a historical centre of a small town’ (UNDP-EBN, 2008: 3). The aim is to develop a
conceptual framework for the purpose to further investigate the AD as a best-practice (Dall’Ara,
2010; UNDP-EBN, 2008).
The specific objective of this paper is twofold: integrate the service-dominant lodig (SD-
logic) and the resource-basedtheory (RBT), discuss the concept of business model as a tool
adoptable by hotels in relation to value co-creation and community wellbeing.
Literature review
The hotel sector and the co-creation of wellbeing
This study views hotels as service providers belonging to groups of providers on which
the value-creation depends (Saraniemi & Kylänen, 2011). Within this perspective and
following the SD-logic, different terms are used, e.g. service system, value network and
experience supply chain (Vargo & Lusch, 2004; Spohrer & Maglio, 2008; Lusch et al., 2009;
Gottfridsson, 2012; Tax et al., 2013).
In the tourism context, the Tourism Experience Network and the Experience Supply Chain
models are used to frame the creation of tourism value focusing on the touirsts’ active role as
value-creators (Sfandla & Björk, 2012). This aspect has been investigated in the hotel sector,
with emphasis on the employees-guests interactions (Shaw et al., 2011; Chathoth et al., 2013).
The focus of this study is different: we base our theoretical framework on those studies
concerning mainly the supply side, its relation with the specific context and wellbeing creation.
According to Vargo et al. (2008), the concept of service systems indicates the arrangement
of resources done by organizations with the aim to improve the circumstances of all the
participants (p. 149). The SD-logic classifies resources in ‘operand’, i.e. resources on which an
operation is produced, and ‘operant’, i.e. resources that are employed to act on operand
resources to produce an effect (Vargo & Lusch, 2004). Moreover, operant resources, including
the human, organizational, informational and relational ones, are identified as the building
blocks of value creation (Madhavaram & Hunt, 2008; Vargo et al., 2008).
This logic is coherent with the RBT, following which not all of existing resources can
become sources of both competitive surviving and ‘sustained’ (defensible) competitive
advantage (Penrose, 1959; Barney, 1991; Peteraf, 1993). Productive resources to be developed
in order to produce competitive surviving are only those which are ‘Valuable’ (above the
average performances) (Barney, 1991). Furthermore, Valuable resources should be Rare
(concentrated), Inimitable (difficult to duplicable), Non-substitutable (without strategically-
equivalent substitutive resources) (VRIN).
168
In line with both the SD-logic and RBT, value emerges through a co-creation process
where VRIN resources are dynamically integrated within constellations of service systems.
Applying this perspective to the hotel sector has two implications. Firstly, hotels are
service systems embedded in the context where they operate in, both through the reciprocal
relations they have with other actors and on the basis of their dependence on the resources
strictly linked to the context, i.e. the natural and cultural environment. This element is outlined
in the SD-logic withconcept of “value-in-context” (Vargo, 2008; Vargo & Lusch, 2008;
Edvardsson et al., 2011).
Secondly, value–creation can be described as the processes through which hotels
contribute to the wellbeing of the community in order to fit the environment (Vargo et al.,
2008). Such an understanding of wellbeing at the community level can be qualified as a form of
adaptability and survivability in relation to the specific environment. Hotels access, adapt and
integrate resources to survive, adapt and evolve together with other organizations within the
community.
Our study of wellbeing in the hotel sector focuses on the advantages that local
communities gain from the participation to the co-creation processes supported by the AD.
Such benefits are understood as contributions to local development in the four directions of the
so-called 4-Es model: equity, effectiveness, efficiency and eco-sustainability (Droli, 2010).
Business models and the co-creation of community wellbeing

Business model is a concept indicating a relatively new field of research and several
definitions can be found in the literature (Zott et al., 2011; Nenonen & Storbacka, 2010).
A business model can be described as ‘the way in which an organization operates in order
to ensure its sustainability’ (Demil & Lecoq, 2010: 231) or ‘a profit model, a business delivery
system and a learning system’ (Itami & Nishino, 2010: 364-365). For the specific purpose of
this study, we adopt the following definition: ‘a business model describes the rationale and
infrastructure of how an organization creates, delivers and captures value’ (Osterwalder &
Pigneur, 2010: 17).
Focusing on the hotel sector and wellbeing, a business model can be understood as the
rationale and infrastructure of how hotels make business. In other words, how they are
profitable, and how they manage to develop products that are authentic, in response to the
expectations of post-modern tourists (Fabris, 2003), and ethically acceptable (UN, 2002;
Gössling et al., 2010).
A hotel business model presented as potentially relevant to the wellbeing of the host
community is the one described by Bohdanowicz & Zientara (2008). This model is centered on
the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility and is exemplified using an international hotel
chain. Differently from this model, the AD model has a horizontal structure and is particularly
embedded in the local environment (Dall’Ara, 2010). Because of such characteristics, the AD
business model can be regarded as having great potentials in term of wellbeing. Our research
question is:
How does the AD business model contribute to the host community wellbeing?
To investigate this question we focus on the 9 elements of the business model as outlined
by Osterwalder et al. (2005): key-customer segments, value proposition, key-channels revenue
streams, key-resources, customers relationships, key-activities, key-partnerships and cost
structure. Differently from a traditional approach in business models studies that focuses on
external customers, this research focuses on describing these nine key-elements in relation to
the internal clients within the community.
169
Methods & materials

We adopt a case study strategy. The geographical context is the inland town of Alberobello
in the Italian region of Puglia. Our research focuses on two local ADs and their contribution to
the community wellbeing. The latter aspect is operationalised using the indicators that are
suggested in the literature in relation to the 4-Es model. The business models adopted by the
ADs are investigated focusing on the 9 descriptive key-elements identified in the literature.
The cases are investigated through the collection of secondary data concerning the
context and the specific ADs. Semi-structured interviews with the AD management, executive
staff and the business partners within the community are performed by telephone and face-to-
face.

Alberello is a small town known also as the capital of the “trulli” (traditional drystone
dwellings) and is included in the Unesco World Heritage List. The two ADs located in
Alberobello and object of study are: Trullidea and Trulli Holiday.
The preliminary results concern Trullidea AD. Here, the hotel services are sold exclusively
to external customers, while the interactions with the residents happen in the form of supplier-
buyer interactions. The AD creates job opportunities for the locals, whose competence is among
the key-aspects of the business model. Thanks to this, value in the form of local heritage
conservation and valorisation is co-created.Also the external customers, to whom the hotel
services are directed, are, at least to a certain degree, active part of the system, especially when
involved in light agricultural activities that respond to their search for authentic experiences
and support the local livelihood.

The investigated AD seems to operate with a dual-core business model based on the
central idea of value-creation as a complex and embedded process of local development.
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of life of local communities and the well-being of their employees. Tourism and Hospitality
Research, 9(2), 147–158.
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versus co-creation: a process based continuum in the hotel service context. International
Journal of Hospitality Management, 32, 11-20.
Dall’Ara, G. (2010). Manuale dell’Albergo Diffuso, l’idea, la gestione, il marketing dell’ospitalità
diffusa. Milano: Franco Angeli.
Demil, B. & Lecocq, X. (2010). Business model evolution: in search of dynamic consistency, Long
Range Planning, 43, 227-246.
Droli, M. (2010). Valorizzare il mosaico paesistico-culturale attraverso l’Albergo Diffuso
virtuoso. Architettura del Paesaggio, 22, 1-38.
Edvardsson, B., Trondvoll, B. & Gruber, T. (2011). Expanding understanding of service exchange
and value co-creation: a social construction approach. Journal of the Academic Marketing
Science, 39, 327-339.
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Gottfridsson, P. (2012). Joint service development – the creations of the prerequisites for the
service development. Managing Service Quality, 22(1), 21-37.
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35(2), 119-130.
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the Academic Marketing Science, 38, 19-31.
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172
Three Types of Industrial Tourism In Japanese Manufacturing Companies

based on Marketing Strategies
Yosuke Endo
No Affiliation
Tokyo, Japan
tmu.tourism.endo@gmail.com
Introduction
The main focus of this study is industrial tourism. From previous tourism studies of Japan,
Suda (2006) defines industrial tourism as “tourist visits to industrial heritage sites, production
sites, and exhibition places which deal in products.” In recent years, the Japanese government
has attempted promote industrial tourism through the Tourism-based Country Promotion
Basic Act (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, 2012). Considering the
current situation, it is expected that industrial tourism will be a growing segment in the
Japanese economy, not only for the tourism industry as a whole, but also for other industries
such as manufacturing.
Although the promotion of industrial tourism is a new movement in Japan, Western
scholars have discussed industrial tourism from different perspectives. For example, Frew and
Shaw (1995) analyze how industrial tourism has a positive impact on tourist motivation, and
Frew (2000) points out the potential of industrial tourism as a tourism resource. There are also
claims that industrial tourism will contribute to the development of cities and local
communities (Otgaar et al., 2010). In addition, some scholars discuss the benefits of industrial
tourism for the companies that manage industrial tourism sites (Brumberg & Axelord, 2002;
Rudd & Davis, 1998). Based on these studies, it is commonly believed that industrial tourism
will have positive impacts on various areas of tourism.
Literature review
According to Bregman (2011), industrial tourism is a marketing tool for companies. For
example, Frew (2000) claims that industrial tourism can be used to improve a company’s
corporate image. Furthermore, Azevedo (2004) states that industrial tourism can be effective
for corporate branding through customer communication. Similar to Azevedo’s claim, Dodd
(1994) clarifies that wine companies often utilize wine tasting visits to acquire more customers.
Moreover, Coles and Hall (2008) investigate industrial tourism of German automobile
companies and discuss how industrial tourism can be used to build their brands. Similarly, Suda
(2006) claims that industrial tourism provides tourists with unique opportunities to
understand a company’s production process and feel the “production spirit.” This effect is
referred to as customer experience (Schmitt, 2000). Schmitt proposes the concepts of
experiential marketing and customer experience, which are the total experiences that
customers gain through interactions with companies. Thus, corporations can use industrial
tourism as a form of experiential marketing. In addition, Schmitt (2011) claims that customer
experience is an important element of building corporate brands. These studies show that
providing a unique customer experience is a powerful method of branding.
Otgaar (2010) notes the benefits of companies utilizing industrial tourism and also
concludes that the development of industrial tourism requires companies to have polices that
promote tours of their facilities. Building upon Otgaar’s study, this paper focuses on Japanese
companies’ corporate policies on industrial tourism. The purpose of the study is to clarify the
relation between Japanese companies’ corporate policies and their industrial tourism
173
management. We expect that their corporate policies are closely related to the development of
industrial tourism in Japan. Our survey includes manufacturing companies that produce
consumer goods because their industrial tourism sites are popular among tourists (Trip
Advisor, 2013). It seems that these companies use industrial tourism to enhance customer
communications and promote product branding. Our study reveals which companies
contribute more to the development of industrial tourism in Japan.

To gather information for our study, we administered questionnaires and interview
surveys regarding industrial tourism sites managed by Japanese consumer goods companies
(e.g., factories, corporate museums, and showrooms). These manufacturing companies
comprise several product types (e.g., food, beverage, household commodities, automobiles, and
consumer electronics). These surveys were conducted from 2010 to 2014. We sent a total of
170 survey requests and obtained 95 valid responses. Our study then applied statistical
methods to analyze the data. First, the survey results were converted to binary data in a cross-
tabulation table. Using the converted data, we conducted correspondence analyses to reveal the
features of each company. Correspondence analysis explains the relationships between the
column and the row of our cross tabulation table. The results allow us to evaluate which
companies tend to attract tourists, and which companies have a policy of collaborating with the
tourism industry to increase leisure visitors.
Results
Figure 1 shows the results from our correspondence analysis. This graph shows the
relation between items of the column and the row of the cross-tabulation table, and it shows
the variation of industrial tourism management. Table 1 provides the category score from the
correspondence analysis. The first axis of the map indicates whether companies attract leisure
visitors or not, while the second axis conveys whether companies collaborate with the tourism
industry or not. Through observing the distance between the column item and each company,
we can recognize the features of industrial tourism management of each company.
Our results suggest that industrial tourism of Japanese manufacturing companies is
mainly classified into three types: (1) tourism-oriented, (2) specified-customer-oriented, and
(3) education-oriented. With respect to their corporate policies, it is suspected that their
industrial tourism strategy is based on several marketing strategies. With (1), Japanese
companies are positive to increase leisure visitors in their industrial tourism for the purpose of
company profits. These companies are willing to collaborate with tourism industry. Type (1) is
a company’s flagship marketing because it focuses on public relations, customer
communications, and corporate branding (Kent & Brown, 2009). On the other hand, some
Japanese companies tend not to collaborate with the tourism industry with (2) and (3) because
their targets are not leisure visitors. Rather, (2) and (3) are social marketing and relationship
marketing (Berry, 1995; Kotler, 1971; Lazer & Kelly, 1973; Morgan & Hunt 1994). Although the
strategy of (2) is to attract consumers for customer communication, its targets are local
residents or loyal customers. With (3), Japanese companies use industrial tourism for
educational purposes such as social studies in schools or for employee training. Considering the
three types, we conclude that their marketing strategies lead to the variations in industrial
tourism management by Japanese manufacturing companies.
Additionally, companies in industries of certain product types present significant points
in our analysis. For example, most of the food and beverage companies tend to focus on the
tourism-oriented type and the specified-customer-oriented type. On the other hand,
automobile companies and major confectionery makers manage their factory tours due to
174
social studies of student groups in the local community. Industrial tourism of Japanese
automobile companies are applicable to (3), the education-oriented type.
2 Tourism-oriented type
Affiliation
1.5
Alcohol Beverage 23
Profitability Alcohol Beverage 10

Alcohol Beverage 15
1 Alcohol Beverage 19 Automobile 2
Beverage 3 Food 4 Education-
Traditional Clothes Collaboration oriented-type
Alcohol Beverage 6 Jewelry 1 Policy
Commodities 3
Food 15 Automobile 6
0.5 Alcohol Beverage 13 Medicine Automobile 4
3 Sports EquipmentAutomobile 3 Confectionery
Alcohol Beverage 4
House Appliance 2 7
Alcohol Beverage 12 Consumer Electronics 2 Food 10
Alcohol Beverage 24Food 8
Beverage 4 Musical
House Appliance 4 Instrument Automobile 1
Alcohol BeverageAlcohol
25 Alcohol8Beverage 18
Beverage Confectionery 4
Alcohol Beverage 14 Beverage 11
Alcohol
Food 16Beverage 5Location Student or
House Appliance 3 Automobile 8
Cosmetics 3 Consumer Electronics 1 Business Visit
0 Alcohol Beverage 7 Strategy CSR or Alcohol Beverage 16
Alcohol
Alcohol Beverage
Beverage 21 9 Automobile 7 Food 9
Confectionery 8 Food 1Food 17 Business Visit House Appliance 1 Alcohol Beverage 20
Beverage 2
Confectionery 1 Food 2
Jewelry 2 Food 11 Purpose Confectionery 3
Food 13 Confectionery 5 ShoesAutomobile 9
Stationery 2
Motorbike 2 Company Food 12
-0.5 Profit Confectionery 6
Purpose
Consumer Electronics 3
Clothes
Leisure Visitors Food 6Alcohol Beverage 1
Motorbike 1
Food 5Alcohol Beverage 2
Cosmetics 1
Alcohol Beverage 22
Medicine 1
-1 Glassware Stationery 1Food Food 3Commodities 1
7
Confectionery 9 FoodAlcohol Beverage 26
Automobile 5 14
Confectionery 2
Cosmetics 2
Medicine 2 Alcohol Beverage 27
-1.5 Commodities 2 Alcohol Beverage 3
Beverage 1 Alcohol Beverage 5
Alcohol Beverage 17
Specified-
customer-oriented type
-2
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Figure 1: Correspondence analysis of industrial tourism of Japanese manufacturing

companies
Table 1: Category score of the column in correspondence analysis

Elements of the Column Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3 Axis 4 Axis 5 Axis 6 Axis 7
Leisure Visitor -0.676 -0.731 -0.031 0.257 -0.196 -0.034 0.544
Student or Business Visit 2.143 0.422 0.072 0.014 0.103 0.534 0.531
Company Profit Purpose -0.028 -0.484 0.111 0.180 0.282 0.540 -0.416
CSR or Business Visit Purpose 0.538 -0.108 -0.088 0.068 -0.591 -0.655 -0.279
Profitability -0.957 1.059 0.849 -1.045 -1.163 0.752 -0.011
Location Strategy -0.224 0.126 -0.776 -1.121 0.622 -0.252 0.038
Affiliation -0.884 1.789 -1.819 1.481 -0.182 0.381 -0.047
Collaboration Policy -0.393 0.816 1.103 0.414 0.779 -0.574 0.057

Pertaining to the industrial tourism of Japanese manufacturing companies, the tourism-
oriented type can be regarded as comprising advanced cases because of their positive policy on
industrial tourism for leisure visitors. It is expected that their flagship marketing strategy
175
contributes to industrial tourism development throughout Japan. However, it should be noted

that this type is one of three that manufacturing companies use to promote industrial tourism.
In order to develop industrial tourism, we should pay attention to corporate policies of each
company based on their marketing strategies. Porter (2000) states that the essence of strategy
is choosing what not to do. In accordance with Porter, the question is whether Japanese
companies should have a strategy to attract the tourism-oriented type or not. If companies want
to be visible to a large number of consumers, their corporate policies are suitable for this type
of industrial tourism. Otherwise, they may consider the development of the specific-customer-
oriented type or the education-oriented type of industrial tourism in accordance with their
marketing strategies. For example, they could employ a strategy that targets local residents and
loyal customers rather than generic tourists.
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177
Non-wood forests products and the utilisation by the tourists in Training

Forest Enterprise Masaryk Forest Krtiny (Brno, Czech Republic)
Jitka Fialová
Jiří Kadlec
Hana Kubíčková
Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology
Brno, Czech Republic
jitka.fialova@mendelu.cz
Introduction
The popularity of spending free time actively in the forests is on the rise. This trend is
mainly obvious in the forests that surround large towns and cities. The Training Forest
Enterprise Masaryk Forest Křtiny (TFE MF Křtiny), surrounding especially the north-western
part of Brno, is not an exception.
Non-wood forest products (NWFP) have important commercial, environmental, social
and recreational roles in many European forests. They also have a relevant place in the
multifunctional sustainable forest management paradigm, being the main source of income
from forests in several regions. Mendel University in Brno (MENDELU) as the partner in COST
Action FP1203 did the additional research in the forests owned by the university. The
researchers were in the year 2014 finding out the ideas about the NWFP in the selected region,
what kind of products are the tourists using for their daily life and the state of the knowledge
about the NWFP. The role of the tourism operators can be seen in the promotion of the NWFP.
We see the experience of tourists in for example picking the berries as really memorable. The
operators should know where is it possible to bring something from the forest to the tourists
home and where not. The issue we are addressing is the sustainable tourism and marketing
tourism places and spaces. It is very important to know preferences in different tourists
segments and their expectations when tourists entering forest area. Then it is possible to
prepare correct information for tourists and encourage tourism in the region.
Literature review
The different methods for the tourists preferences and monitoring can be used. Koo
JaChoon, Park MiSun, Youn YeoChang (2013), Golos, P. (2013), Heyman, E. (2012), Kiper, T.,
Ozturk, A. G. (2011), Golos, P., Zajac, S. (2011), Lazdinis, I. (2009), Weber, N., Thode, H., Moggert,
J. (2007), Chaudhry, P. Tewari, V. P. (2006), Arnberger, A. (2006) mentioned different ideas and
difficulties they have to solve during their research.
The research of the NWFP has been based on the result for example of Šišák, L. (2000,
2007, 2013), Kadlec, J. (2011), Blaj, R. (2013), Kurlovich, L.E. (2012), Kusmin, J., Kusmin, T.
(2011), Tarang (2011), Kadlec, J., Fialová, J. (2015) who wrote about the non-wood forest
products and the use of it by the tourists.
It is very important to know what tourists are looking for in destinations (Peters, M. et all
2011) for encouraging of tourism destination competitiveness (Enright, M.J., Newton, J. 2004).

Based on the literature review the methods were chosen.
For the monitoring of the tourists number the automatic reader was chosen. The
cooperating company, Nadace Partnerství, o.p.s., has installed automatic reader of hikers and
bikers to the road in the district for the purposes of visitor monitoring of selected forest hauling
178
road in TFE MF Křtiny. The monitoring device was installed in July 2014 and the monitoring
was conducted until November 2014. Students of MENDELU in Brno performed manual
calibration counting in July 14-20, 2014, in the monitoring place. The trail visitor monitoring
used automatic readers Pyro Box Compact from Eco-counter. This device counts all users of
trail (hikers, bikers, in-liners, etc.) without distinguishing among them. Counting is based on
the temperature difference between a human body and the surroundings. The readers can
distinguish the direction of the movement and are installed in the narrowest places of the trails
in the way which prevents counting two persons walking side by side as one. The data are
stored in one-hour intervals. (Fialová et al, 2014, Fialová, J., 2015)
The NWFP research has been done in the form of questionnaires in three places for four
months (one whole week per month including weekends) - July to October - so the most
important months for the highest proportion of the NWFP to collect. The students and
employees from MENDELU asked the people to answer several questions about their status,
average income, the main reasons why they came to the area and some questions were
connected to the NWFP. The questioning was performed in July 14-20, August 11-17,
September 15-21 and October 13-19, 2014 – each day from 9 PM till 5 AM.
The NWFP questions were concentrated on the mushrooms, decorative elements (leaves,
decorative foliage etc.), medicinal herbs, parts of trees, and another forest fruits. The question
of the Christmas trees is important in the Czech Republic as well. Some questions in the
questionnaire were connected to the main species of the Christmas trees and the source of
those trees.
Results
The main goal of the article is to define the state of the utilization of the NWFP in the area
close to the second largest city in the Czech Republic.
The data from the research are still in the process but we can present some results
already. The number of the tourists from the automatic reader in one hauling road is 1025 in
the week of calibration. The main portion of it is presented of the bikers.
Generally the people who asked the respondents usually had the problem with the people
in the age of 35-50. Those people were focused just on them and their achievement (e.g. on the
bike). The retired people and the people who did not reach 35 were really helpfull in the
research.
The total number of the filled in questionnaires is 1589 in all the three places. Not
everybody was happy to answer all the questions, so the number of the respondents answering
the questions connected to the NWFP is limited. In this number of the answers we could
generalize some ideas about the state of the touristic area utilization and the NWFP utilization.
What we can already read from the data is that 25 % of the tourist in the area are collecting the
herbs, 28 % of the tourist are gathering pieces of the trees and decorative fruits (nuts), nearly
60 % of them are using the non-artificial Christmas trees (21 % of it is Spruce sp., 14 % of it is
Pine sp. and 35 % of it is Fir-tree sp.) and nearly 32 % of the respondents are going to the forest
to pick-up the mushrooms.
The partial concrete results can be seen in the tables 1, 2 and 3.
As we asked about the social status we can generalize that usually the businessmen use
the natural Christmas tree. It can be a question of money because there are differences in
Christmas tree species prices and Fir is the most expensive Christmas tree.
The plants that are collected the most are Urtica dioica, Betula pendula and Tilia cordata.
Usually the women are collecting the medicinal plants and mostly the pensioners – 50% of the
ladies pensioners collect this. This can be connected to the past when the tradition of collecting
179
of the medicinal plants was inveterated in the Czech families and this tradition is still forwarded
from generation to generation.
As the tradition of collecting mushrooms and berries from the forests is inveterated in the
families really deep, more than half of the people collets berries and mushrooms. About 71% of
the pensioners are picking the berries such as Vaccinium myrtillus in the proper forest stands,
Fragaria vesca (but really limited amount) or all kind of the edible mushrooms (such as Boletus
edulis, Leccinelum crocipodium or Xerocomellus chrysenteron).
The way how the students addressed the people in different places can be seen in the
figure 1 and 2.
The research will be processed this year (2015) on the TFE MF Křtiny again in July,
August, September and October. After this research we will be able to compare the preferences
during the years and different places in the area of TFE MF Křtiny.
Table 1: Results to the question – Do you use the non-artificial Christmass tree for the
Christmass?
Do you use the non-artifical Christmass tree for the
Christmass?
total in % from
What is your all the
status? NO YES total NO - in % YES in % respondents
pensioner 68 96 164 41,5 58,5 23,8
unemployed 14 17 31 45,2 54,8 4,5
businessman 20 41 61 32,8 67,2 8,9
student 30 50 80 37,5 62,5 11,6
household 32 38 70 45,7 54,3 10,2
employed 118 164 283 41,7 58,0 41,1
Total 282 407 689 40,9 59,1 100
Table 2: Results to the question – Do you collect the medicinal plants in the forest? (herbs, part
of trees..)
What is your status?
Do you collect
the medicinal
sex plants in the pensioner unemployed businessman student household employed
forest? (herbs,
part of trees..)
total in % total in % total in % total in % total in % total in % total
male NO 54 77,1 18 78,3 38 88,4 24 80,0 3 75,0 131 89,1 268
YES 16 22,9 5 21,7 5 11,6 6 20,0 1 25,0 16 10,9 49
total
for
male 70 100,0 23 100,0 43 100,0 30 100,0 4 100,0 147 100,0 317
female NO 47 50,5 7 87,5 12 63,2 37 72,5 50 75,8 101 73,2 254
YES 46 49,5 1 12,5 7 36,8 14 27,5 16 24,2 37 26,8 122
total
for
female 93 100,0 8 100,0 19 100,0 51 100,0 66 100,0 138 100,0 376
total 163 31 62 81 70 285 693
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Table 3: Results to the question – Do you collect the forest berries and mushrooms?
Do you collect the
What is your status? forest berries and in
mushrooms? Total %
pensioner NO 48 29,4
YES 115 70,6
total 163 100
unemployed NO 16 53,3
YES 14 46,7
total 30 100
businessman NO 29 47,5
YES 32 52,5
total 61 100
student NO 32 40
YES 48 60
total 80 100
household NO 29 42
YES 40 58
total 69 100
employed NO 122 43,9
YES 156 56,1
total 278 100
total nr. of the
respondents 681
Figure 1: The monitoring on the locality of Kopaniny (photo by Jitka Fialová)
181
Figure 2: The monitoring on the cycling route in Bílovice nad Svitavou (photo by Jitka
Fialová)

Results of our survey showed tourists preferences in different NWFPs and their
expectations during their visit in the area of TFE MF Křtiny. We can recommend to forest
management to concentrate on advertising of their Christmas trees production in nearby city
Brno. Second recommendation is connected with information tables where it is important to
put pictures and description of mushrooms and plants which tourists can pick and information
about localities where it is possible without negative influence to protected areas. The third
important task is the education of the tourist operators about the NWFPs to inform people for
example from abroad about the possibilities of the forests in the Czech Republic.
Acknowledgement
The paper was written with the support of the Research programme of the Ministry of
Education, Youth and Sports, COST LD14054 - Non-wood forest products in the Czech Republic
and with the support of the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology MENDELU Internal Grant
Agency No. 2015026/2015.
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Golos, P. (2013) The recreational functions of Warsaw's urban and suburban forests. Lesne
Prace Badawcze; 2013. 74(1):57-70. ISSN 1732-9442.
Heyman, E. (2012) Analysing recreational values and management effects in an urban forest
with the visitor-employed photography method. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening; 2012.
11(3):267-277. ISSN 1618-8667.
Chaudhry, P., &Tewari, V. P. (2006)A comparison between TCM and CVM in assessing the
recreational use value of urban forestry. International Forestry Review; 2006. 8(4):439-
448. ISSN 1465-5489.
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183
Digging deep into the experience – how can flow and immersion bring a
finer understanding of the tourist experience
Isabelle Frochot
Université Savoie mont blanc, France
Isabelle.frochot@univ-savoie.fr
Statia Elliot
University of Guelph, Canada
Introduction
The experience has been an object of major interest in the managerial and academic
spheres over the last decade, is not just a buzzword. Experience is at the heart of consumption,
it is what consumers have come to seek, to live, and it is time invested to create well-being and
long lasting memories. In tourism consumption, the experience is a topic that has been the
object of interest for several decades. Even if tourism academics have not necessarily used this
specific term to describe what takes place during the experience, tourist marketers, sociologist,
psychologists and geographers have gained an in-depth understanding of what lies at the very
heart of a holiday and how various elements might contribute to its development. Indeed, over
the years, various concepts have emerged to describe the core of the experience: enjoyment,
pleasure, well-being, peak experience, immersion, flow, etc.
Two concepts that are of interest to study the dimensions of the experience are those of
flow and immersion. These concepts have been studied over the years and bring a useful
framework to analyse the processes at stake in the experience. However, differences between
the two concepts are not always evident and more investigation is needed to further define
them and, most importantly, understand how they interact with each other. It is also important
to investigate how these notions evolve over the whole duration of a holiday.
This study aims to clarify how both concepts co-exist and interact with each other within
a holiday stay on a mountain resort. A study on 10 participants, studied on a daily basis bring
some useful information on both immersion and flow within their experience and brings some
interesting managerial implications.
Literature review
Csíkszentmihályi (1975, 1997) first identified the concept of flow as a condition among
artists during their creative process. This state was characterized by a total absorption in the
moment at the expense of any other activity (e.g. physiological needs, loss of sense of time).
Flow is characterized as an optimal mental state of intense concentration whereby individuals
feel completely absorbed in what they are doing. Whether in sport, play, recreation, Internet
searching, or education, to achieve flow there must be a balance between challenge and skill,
otherwise the result may instead be boredom or anxiety. Flow has since been developed and
used in other areas of consumption, particularly in recreation and leisure (Arnould and Price,
1993 and 2000; Celsi, Rose and Leigh, 1993; McGinnis, Gentry and Gao, 2008; Tinsley and
Tinsley, 1986; Tsau, Yen and Hsiao, 2013).
While some researchers suggest that consumers need an extraordinary event to create an
intense and unforgettable experience (Arnould and Price, 1993; Pine and Gilmore, 1999),
others indicate that not all experiences need to be extraordinary to procure immersion (Carù
and Cova, 2003; Fornerino et al. 2008). This aspect is important to take into consideration since
in the case of tourism, consumers seek at times calm and relaxing moments, thus immersion
can be achieved through non-extraordinary experiences. This concept was echoed by Ritzer
184
(2004) when he developed the idea that the contemporary consumption universe had
standardised the consumption experience and needed to be ‘re-enchanted’. Contemporary
consumers were described as seeking varied and absorbing experiences that would take them
away from their everyday world by propelling them in a circled, secured and thematised
universe (Firat, 2001; Goulding, 2000; Ritzer, 2004).
Immersion is created when a consumer comes in contact with an enterprise’s experiential
environment. Carù and Cova (2003) define immersion as “a feeling of well-being, development
and satisfaction” (page 60) and describe a process whereby consumers are totally absorbed by
the experience and their senses are stimulated by the surrounding environment (Carù and
Cova, 2006). Carù and Cova’ research also identifies that immersion is both a process and an
outcome of the experience. We are looking in this study at immersion during the experience (as
an outcome), that which is described by Cova as characteristic of detachment from everyday
life and that allows to achieve a state of relexation (table 1). When comparing the two notions,
flow appears to represent a high point of the experience, probably one that is necessary to cut
tourists free from any other elements. Immersion would represent a milder sense of
detachment, however because its intensity is less pregnant and its learning processes more
important, it requires a more intense co-creation process (whereas flow exists in its
spontaneity).
Table 1: Comparison of the dimensions of flow and immersion
Immersion (Carù and Cova, 2003) Flow (Csíkszentmihályi, 1991)

Detachment from everyday life Loss of self-consciousness
Intense focus
Immersion
Achieving a state of relaxation Loss of anxiety
Loss of self-consciousness
Nesting – developing a sense of being Intrinsic enjoyment
“at home”by developing a familiarity Sense of control
with the environement
Stamping – meaning making by being Clear Goals
able to compare the tourist Immediate feedback
environment to that of everyday life
Investigation – explore, signposts to
identify key reference elements
Skill/Challenge balance
Methodology
In this study, the use of qualitative data collection, rather than quantitative, was seen as
the most appropriate option if the researchers wanted to deeply analyse all the components of
the experience. The ESM approach was seen as comporting some limits as the random approach
would have meant that respondents might not have been surveyed at the highest points of their
experience. Moreover, interviewees were undertaking various activities and it would have been
problematic to interupt them especially in deeply involving activities such as skiing. Instead the
respondants were interviewed each day of their holiday and the data was collected over a five-
day period: Monday to Thursday at the resort, one day after their return (Friday) and one year
after their experience. The sample comprised 10 volunteer senior-level students of a tourism
university program, undertaking a four-day stay in the resort of La Plagne, France. A total of 38
185
semi-structured interviews were undertaken, transcribed and content analysed by the team of
researchers to identify the patterns of experiences and to assess the interplay between flow
and immersion. Additionally, and to more precisely identify the evolution of flow and
immersion, the researchers asked respondents to rate their daily experiences on a 1 to 10 scale,
whereby 1 was equivalent to their daily life experiences, whilst 10 corresponded to an optimal
experience (Figure 1). Whilst this measure might not be perfect, it was deemed appropriate to
encourage respondents to define those moments in comparison to what a daily, current, normal
experience would represent. Every time the respondents identify a peak, they were then
encouraged to describe those experiences in order to identify to which extent they represented
episodes of flow. The objective here was not to identify satisfaction but to assess how
respondents described and qualified those specific moments. Since those peak moments were
all positive occurrences, no specific negative elements emerged from the interviews.
Findings and Implications

First and foremost, the interviews clearly revealed episodes of both flow and immersion.
Unsurprisingly flow was strongly associated with the activity of skiing (e.g. concentration,
rewarding, loss of self-awareness and time), although a snowshoeing experience proved to be
very efficient in providing intense flow (albeit of a different nature, where challenges and skills
were balanced at a lower level). Immersion was also existent and presented itself through a
complete sense of detachment (and conscious willingness) to detach oneself from everyday life.
Immersion was expressed as a state of total absorption that could be global, but could also be
invoked by very simple moments (e.g. drinking a hot chocolate on a chalet terrace, walking in
the snow, “good tiredness”, etc.). To more precisely identify the evolution of flow and
immersion, the researchers asked respondents to rate their daily experiences on a 1 to 10 scale,
whereby 1 was equivalent to their daily life experiences, whilst 10 corresponded to an optimal
experience (Figure 1).
6 10
9 Elise
Elise
5
Sandrine
8 Sandrine
Sofie
7 Sofie
4
Ilse
6
Ilse
Alyssia
3 Li
Alyssia
5
Marie Li
Sheng
4
2 Marie
Sharlene
3
Barbara Sheng
1 2
Sharlene
1 Barbara
0
0
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Figure 1: Patterns of a Ski Resort Experience
Results show that respondents’ disparate levels of experiences at the start of their stay
are significantly influenced by their pre-acquired level of skiing and previous experience with
ski resorts (experienced skiers already know what to expect and get excited about their stay
much earlier than un-experienced skiers, enabling faster immersion). However whilst there is
186
intense variability of levels of immersion at the beginning of the trip, the respondents quickly
start to converge, and culminate together in a very high pick on day 3; a day where the weather
improved, and both skiers and non-skiers could enjoy the mountains (and especially the view).
Logically, a good weather improved the experience but the notion of the view, of taking a fuller
perception of the location (the sheer beauty of the landscape and grasping a sense of the place,
were mentioned predominantly). On the second day, participants also experienced a high peak
(slightly milder) associated with the snowshoeing experience. Notably, it seems that a peak can
take place every day as long as one special activity (at least) occurs. For instance, on day 2, the
two participants who did not participate in the snowshoeing activity did not experience a peak.
Equally on day 4, when participants left the resort at the end of the afternoon, the weather was
too poor to ski and boredom started to set in for many, affecting a drop in immersion.
One year later, when interviewed again, what stand out are, unsurprisingly the peak
episodes of the experience, especially the snow shooing event and the third day with good
quality skiing. This in itself corroborates partially the peak-end rule (Fredrickson, 2000) which
states that only the peak and end episodes are those remembered. In this case the peak episodes
remembered where those attached to strong emotions, however no end-moments were
identified.
The positive outcomes of immersion were deeply felt by the study respondents, from a
sense of well-being, accomplishment, to peace, calm, magic and Zen. The feeling of immersion
was more complex than what described Carù and Cova (2003), if indeed the sense of
detachment was important, it appeared to be a prerequisite to the experience of deeper feelings
highly enjoyable.
When identifying contributors and inhibitors to immersion, six dimensions emerged from
the analysis: social, physical, natural, psychological, sensorial, and environmental. Of interest
was the analysis of how those elements could be connected to managerial implications. Table
2 summarizes how resort managers might translate those results into product and service
developments.
187
Table 2 – Managerial implications

Dimensio Contributors Inhibitors of Positive outcomes Managerial
n to Immersion Immersion Implications
Social Friends, Foreign to group, Feeling a part of the Group events

group, outsider group
bonding,
Physical Activity: ski, Lack of experience ‘Good’ tiredness,
snowshoe, sense of Optional
walk accomplishment lessons
Natural Snow, winter, Bad weather, poor Calm, peaceful, Nature

fresh air, conditions, happy, magical experiences
white, open, no sun, cold for non-
landscape, sun skiers
Psychologi Autotelic Stress, nervousness, Well-being, pride of Offer

cal personality, hesitancy achievement, relaxed incentives to
positive all levels of
attitude, open skiers; create
positive
ambience
Sensorial Music, videos, Bad smells (in bar), Zen, disconnected, Appeal to all 5
smells of fresh distaste for type of unselfconscious senses, sights,
baking music playing sounds,
smells, tastes,
and even
encourage
the touch of
snow
Environm Chalets, Non-authentic, old Comfortable, cozy, Alps design
ental village, runs, buildings, buildings secure and theme
lifts, low level that block view
buildings,
charm
Conclusion
Overall, this study (within the limits of its sample), points to the different elements that
influence the evolution/construction of an experience. The pattern of experiences shows that
while a peak cannot be maintained throughout the duration of a trip, a peak is necessary every
day otherwise immersion will suffer. Immersion is clearly not just a milder version of flow, it is
boosted by flow experiences but, in itself, also relates to other dimensions of the experience,
especially the need to get away by immerging in a different environment, and thereby
distancing oneself from everyday life. Respondents’own characteristics will necessarily
influence their perception of the experience, however other elements provided by the resort
play a significant role. The study therefore points to the strategic place of activities and events’
provision to create flow (and thereby stimulate immersion) but also to the necessity to consider
188
the experiencescape (theming, design, planning), as an important contributor to immersion.

The study also identifies that consumers are co-creators of their own experience and well-being
by deliberately acting upon the ingredients of their experience and selectively perceiving the
experiencescape.
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189
Evaluating Effects of SNS on Tourism Recovery in a Rural Area Hit by the

Great East Japan Earthquake by Focusing on Volunteer Tourism
Miho Fukui
Yasuo Ohe
Chiba University, Department of Food and Resource Economics
Chiba, Japan
yohe@faculty.chiba-u.jp
Introduction
Social network services (SNS) or social media has become increasingly popular. However,
there has been little investigation on how to effectively mobilize this newly emerging tool to promote
tourism, especially in rural areas. The aims of this paper are twofold. First, among social media we
explore the role of Twitter for tourism promotion, especially by focusing on the recovery process of
tourism in a rural area affected by the huge earthquake and tsunami, magnitude 9.1, which hit eastern
Japan in March 2011. Second, to approach the first purpose we compare two types of tourism:
conventional ordinary tourism and “volunteer tourism”. This means that this paper takes a
comparative perspective between tourism in an emergency situation and tourism in an ordinary
setting. It was the Kobe-Awaji great earthquake in 1995 when the significance of volunteer tourism
in disaster-hit areas was widely recognized for the first time in Japan (Nakao, 2002). Just after the
2011 earthquake and tsunami, a massive number of volunteers came to these areas to help in the
recovery work from the devastation such as removing debris and helping evacuees rehabilitate their
lives in Iwate prefecture. To approach these aims, by focusing on Iwate prefecture, we employed the
text-mining method and econometric time series regression models to explore factors related to these
two types of tourism. Finally, policy recommendations were suggested.
Literature review
The topic of this paper covers areas overlapping three domains, i.e., disaster in tourism,
volunteer tourism, and social media. Although these three areas have attracted growing interest in
tourism research and there has been a large increase in such studies, the topic encompassing an
overlap of areas has been little studied. Firstly, with respect to literature on disaster and tourism,
Ritchie (2009) conducted a system-based approach to the crisis and disaster management for tourism
and mentioned that tourism organizations should work with media to ensure provision of consistent
and accurate information to the public and stakeholders. Scott and Prideaux (2010) dealt with safety
and security in tourism and recovery marketing after crises and included interesting chapters related
to the topic of this paper. Specifically, Volo (2010) focused on the role of destination marketing
organizations’ websites in communicating tourism crises caused by the avian flu in 2006 and
evaluated these websites as an effective tool to better share information. Albattat and Som (2014)
focused on the impact of natural and man-made disasters on tourism business in Thailand and pointed
out the role of media in disseminating correct information.
As an econometric evaluation of the impact of earthquakes on tourism inflow, Mazzocchi and
Montini (2001) applied event study methodology to tourist arrivals in Central Italy. It is natural that
this paper did not focus on the roles of social media, which at that time was newly emerging. In short,
although in crisis and disaster management of tourism many authors stressed the role of media to
disseminate correct information to the public, the roles of social media in tourism recovery in disaster-
hit destinations have not been studied.
Secondly, studies on social media in tourism have been published recently at an explosive pace.
Leung et al. (2013) conducted a literature review on social media in tourism and hospitality and
190
stressed the importance of social media for tourism competitiveness. Minazzi (2015) conducted full-
fledged research on social media marketing in tourism and characterized WOM (word of mouth) and
eWOM (electronic word of mouth). Nevertheless, eWOM was not fully referred to as a disaster or
crisis communication tool. The main research attention was focused on tourism marketing, e.g.,
national tourism organizations (Hays et al., 2013), airline companies (Hvass and Munar, 2012;
Dijkmans et al., 2015), hotel industry in Hong Kong (Chan and Guillet, 2011) and in the U.S. (Leung
et al., 2015), nature-based tourism (Wood, et al., 2013), and recreation and educational institutions
(Zehrer and Grabmüller, 2012; Hajli and Lin, 2014). Schroeder et al. (2013) investigated the roles of
social media in crisis communications among international tourists and mentioned that social media
is increasingly used to communicate with and by tourists in times of crisis while stressing further
study of social media as a means of crisis communications. This study fills the gap in this respect.
Thirdly, research on volunteer tourism has been extensively conducted since the 2000s.
Wearing and McGehee (2013a) conducted a large number of literature reviews. International
volunteer tourism often has been studied from pro-poor perspectives (Wearing and McGehee, 2013b);
Borland and Adams (2013) for cases in Central America, Conran (2011) and Mostafanezhad (2014)
for cases in Thailand, Coren and Gray (2012) in Vietnam and Thailand, Chen and Chen (2011) in
China, and Crossley (2012) in Kenya. As far as the authors’ knowledge, no studies have focused on
disaster and volunteer tourism.

We employed a text-mining method to find keywords used in the official Twitter account issued
by the Iwate Prefectural government, which is one of the top popular official Twitter accounts in this
country, and time series regression models to identify factors that promote the two types of tourism
and to statistically test whether the tendency of repeat visits exists by considering the time lag of each
tourism demand. Data were collected using official statistics of monthly incoming numbers of
ordinary tourists and volunteer tourists from January 2010, before the earthquake, to March 2013,
two years after the earthquake. Tweeted information was provided by Iwate Prefecture.
We estimated demand determinant time-series models for conventional ordinary tourism and
volunteer tourism, respectively. The explained variables were the numbers of incoming tourists to
Iwate in terms of conventional ordinary and volunteer tourism that were obtained from different
public data sources. As explanatory variables, we considered monthly dummy variables to control
seasonal fluctuations, the counted frequency of tweeted keywords related to local tourism resources
such as “cultural heritage”, “festival”, and “shellfish”, which reminds people of a local delicacy, and
to volunteer-related words such as “recovery/reconstruction” and “volunteer”. We also tested the
repeat-visit effect for these two types of tourism by using the number of tourists one month before
the present data.
Results
Before the estimation, we conducted unit root tests, i.e., Augmented Dickey-Fuller tests and
Phillips-Perron tests, to confirm the stationarity among variables for the models and found there was
non-stationarity, so that we took the first-order-difference models. The results revealed that, first, the
number of volunteer tourists compensated for the decrease in the number of ordinary tourists in the
disaster-hit coastal area (Table 1). Second, tweeted information on cultural resources and local
specialties had a positive relationship with the number of incoming tourists while information on
rehabilitation/reconstruction had negative effects. In contrast, third, tweeted information on tourism
resources worked negatively toward the number of volunteer tourists while that on
rehabilitation/reconstruction and on volunteers worked positively. Fourth, it was revealed that there
was a repeat-visit effect for volunteer tourists, which verified the effectiveness of tweeted information
for the promotion of repeat visits.
191
Table 1: Results of time series estimation model on no. volunteer tourists

Explained vaiable No. Volunteer tourists
Model I II III-1 III-2 III-3
ΔTt-1 (1st stage lag) 0.52*** 0.57*** 0.58***
**
May dummy vaiable 6983
July dummy vaiable 4005*
August dummy variable 3557*
Septmber dummy variable -8540*** -8378*** -8109*** -9914***
** * *** **
December dummy variable -6089 -4630 -7354 -4806
Δ“tourism resources” -140
***
-143
***
Δ“Hiraizumi” -460*** -574***

Δ“heritage” -954***
Δ“volunteer” 329
**
472
***
278
**
447
***
321
***
Temporary Dummy variables of earthquake 9982*

Hiraizumi world cultural heritage temporary dummy -8452**
Hiraizumi world cultural heritage dummy -3693**
*** **
Constant 3483 -678 1158 1338 954
DW static 1.55 1.51 - - -
adjusted R square 0.4683 0.3511 0.5885 0.7256 0.7216
Note: ***, **, * indicate 1%, 5%, 10% significance, respectively.

This paper quantitatively clarified by the text-mining method and time series regression models
that conventional ordinary tourism was substituted by volunteer tourism in the tsunami-hit coastal
areas. Although tweeted information was effective for both types of tourism, necessary information
should properly be provided for those tourists with different orientations.
The results of this paper also indicated that volunteer tourism for recovery work in disaster hit
areas has various impacts not only on the disaster-hit areas in physical terms, but also for people
outside of the disaster-hit areas because this type of volunteer tourism causes people to realize the
weakened solidarity among people in every modern society and help them take action to reverse this
trend even if temporarily. This paper clarified that modern information technology can help people
take action to connect with each other in the time of emergency. At the same time, we should also
recognize that interest in volunteer tourism for disaster-hit areas is diminishing as time goes by.
Consequently, it is important to design support measures that enable the local tourism sector to
attract incoming tourists after a drop in volunteer tourism as reconstruction of the disaster area
progresses. In this context, our results suggest how to effectively utilize Twitter for this purpose.
Acknowledgement
This study was funded by Grants-in Aid for Scientific Research No. 24658191, No. 26283017
and No. 25450342, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.
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Borland, K. and Adams, A.E. (2013) International Volunteer Tourism: Critical Reflections on Good
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194
Economic Crisis and Residents' Perception of Tourism Impacts in Mass

Tourism Destinations
Joan B. Garau-Vadell
University of the Balearic Islands
joan.garau@uib.es
Desiderio Gutierrez-Taño
Ricardo J. Díaz-Armas
Universidad de la Laguna-Tenerife
Introduction
Some of the mainstream European traditional tourism destinations located in southern
Europe (eg, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and Greece) are currently facing a severe economic crisis.
Research suggests that in times of economic uncertainty, perceptions and attitudes are subject
to various types of economic and psychological influences (e.g. Voon & Voon, 2012) and it could
be expected that residents’ perception of tourism impacts and support varies.
In the past, a large number of variables affecting residents’ perceptions have been
examined. However, there is a scarcity of research on the influence that economic crisis
exercises on residents’ (Smeral, 2009). This lack of research restricts from fully comprehending
how individuals respond to tourism development as well as from delineating the role of the
economic context in this process (Stylidis and Terzidou 2014). Furthermore, most of the
literature usually has been based on research conducted in depressed economies, with a
surprising absence of mainstream tourism destinations, such as the Caribbean or the
Mediterranean resorts- These destinations with dominant tourism sectors and/or significant
economic dependence on tourism, have been practically excluded from the research (Sharpley
2014). The existing research usually lacks from a temporal perspective and provides static
views of residents’ perceptions (Huh y Vogt 2008).
To fill in the research gap, this study compares data obtained in two prime mass tourism
destinations such as Tenerife and Mallorca (Spain) collected in 2006 and 2014. In 2006, data
were gathered in a booming economic environment and few years later, a second measurement
was taken in a long lasting economic crisis context. The final goal of this paper is to advance on
the understanding on how the economic environment affects perception of tourism impact and
support to tourism and discuss the destination management implications that may derive from
the results obtained.
Literature review
One of the most relevant theories dealing with residents support is the Social Exchange
Theory (SET). The SET holds that residents will give their support in case of positive results in
the comparison of the perceived positive and negative impacts of tourism (Ap 1992, Lindberg
& Johnson 1997; Gursoy et al. 2002; McGehee & Andereck 2004; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2012;
Garau et al. 2013). According to this theory, residents will support tourism development
whenever they perceive a positive balance in their relationship with tourists (Allen et al., 1993).
Inversely, residents will withdraw their support if perceived costs outweigh the benefits
(Lawson et al 1998).
This study follows the SET theory and proposes that support to tourism development will
vary along an economic crisis period due to the variation of the residents’ perception of tourism
impacts. In times of economic uncertainty, individual’s perceptions and attitudes may vary (e.g.
Voon & Voon, 2012). In accordance with the view that economic gains are the most visible and
195
powerful motivations for desiring tourism development in a community (Gursoy et al 2002) we

can hypothesize that:
H1: In a situation of economic crisis support of residents towards tourism increases
A large number of positive and negative tourism impacts have been identified in the
literature review. These impacts may be summarized into four dimensions: economic impacts,
social impacts, cultural impacts and environmental impacts (Gursoy & Rutherford 2004).
Although, there is a shortage on research aimed to understand how the financial and
economic crisis influences residents’ perceptions and attitudes toward tourism (Smeral 2009),
and most of this research has been conducted so far in remote, emerging or very little developed
resorts (Sharpley 2014), including destinations such as Idaho (Gursoy 2004) Shiraz in Iran
(Aref et al. 2009), Uganda (Lepp 2007), Mauritius (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2010), or Kavala
in Greece (Stylidis & Terzidou 2014), there are evidences that the perceived state of the local
economy influences the perception of impacts of tourism (e.g. Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004,
Stylidis & Terzidou 2014).
Economic gains are the most visible and powerful motivations for desiring tourism
development in a community (Gursoy et al 2002) and the vast majority of previous studies
support the idea that the perceived economic impacts of tourism have a positive effect on
residents’ support for tourism development (e.g. Andereck & Vogt, 2000; Jurowski et al., 1997),
therefore when residents perceive a bad local economy, they may appreciate the economic
benefits deriving from tourism development and reduce the perception of its economic costs
(e.g. Aref et al. 2009). Seemingly, as the possibility to access to jobs is usually extremely valued
by individuals suffering from unemployment (Sverke, Hellgren, & Naswall, 2002), in a context
of economic crisis with large unemployment figures, when the tourism industry seems to be
the sole generating employment sector residents will probably strongly perceive this economic
benefit. Following this discussion, we can hypothesize that:
H2: In a situation of economic crisis the perception of the economic costs of tourism declines.
H3: In a situation of economic crisis the perception of the economic benefits of tourism
increases
In the social and cultural dimensions, certain studies acknowledge that residents may
often be ready to sacrifice some of their social assets when they share a final belief that tourism
can create new economic opportunities (Kayat 2002), reduce their perception of social and
cultural costs and become more tolerant to the negative impacts of tourism if they forecast an
economic profit (Stylidis & Terzidou 2014; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2010; Gursoy & Rutherford,
2004;). In certain cases, even residents who do not directly benefit from tourism, in the context
of a depressed economy, can dramatically increase their support to tourism; fearing that if the
tourism sector fails, ultimately it will end up negatively affecting them (Wyllie 1998). Based on
this premises we could hypothesize that:
H4: In a situation of economic crisis the perception of the social costs of tourism declines.
H5: In a situation of economic crisis the perceived social benefits of tourism increase
H6: In a situation of economic crisis the perception of cultural tourism costs decreases.
H7: In a situation of economic crisis the perception of the cultural benefits of tourism
increases
With respect to the environmental dimensions, some research has shown that residents
may accept negative environmental impacts if they foresee economic benefits (Kayat 2002), in
certain cases residents fail to perceive negatively some of the impacts generated, even
neglecting such relevant aspects as pollution or congestion (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon, 2010;
Lepp 2007). Also, perception of some positive impacts such as a better appearance of the
community (Perdue et al., 1990) may also be more appreciated. According to these findings the
following set of hypothesis can be formulated.
196
H8: In a situation of economic crisis the perception of the environmental costs of tourism
decreases.
H9: In a situation of economic crisis the perception of the environmental benefits of tourism
increases.

The empirical research of this work was conducted in Tenerife and Mallorca (Spain), two
top international mass tourism destinations hosting each more than 5M and 9.6M tourists in
2014 (CAIB 2014). As many southern Europe countries Tenerife and Mallorca have been
affected by a strong economic crisis. In the case of Tenerife, the largest of the seven Canary
Islands, the GDP from 2007 shows decline until 2013, the employment indicators also show a
clear negative trend from 2007 reaching 30% levels of unemployment by 2013 (CES Canarias.,
2013). In the case of Mallorca, from 2008 until 2010 negative GDP growth has been observed
of -2.7% in 2009 and -0.9% in 2010. Since then, a technical stagnation has been observed, with
growth levels below 0.6 % (IBESTAT, 2013). The economic crisis of the Balearic Islands is also
reflected in the rate of unemployment, which has gone from about 7% in 2007 to over 26% in
2013(EPA, 2013).
In this bleak environment, tourism has been one of the very few industries performing
positively. In the case of Tenerife, the number of tourists has increased since 2007, reaching a
total of 4.9 million in 2013 (Turismo de Tenerife, 2013). In this period, the weight of tourism
on Tenerife’s GDP, has increased from 27% in 2009 to almost 30% in 2012, generating 34.7%
of total employment (Exceltur, 2012). In the case of Mallorca since 2006 the number of tourists
has remained broadly stable at about 9.6 million tourists (CAIB 2014). The tourism industry in
this destination generates more than 25% of total employment and has been the economic
sector in which the least number of jobs were lost, although not massively, in this period of time
it has generated some net employment (IET, 2013),
Existing tested scales (Diaz and Gutierrez 2006, Gursoy et al 2004, Nunkoo and Remission
2010) were adapted to the specificities of the research. The final perceptions measurement
scale includes 24 statements related to economic, social, cultural and environmental impacts.
The perception of economic costs and benefits on each dimension were measured by constructs
formed by three items each. Similarly, the measurement of the support of residents to tourism
development was carried out using a construct conformed by three statements generated from
the literature review. Respondents were asked to grade their level of agreement to the
formulated statements in five -point Likert scales.
In order to explore the reliability and validity of the constructs used to measure each of
the analyzed dimensions, and in accordance with Chin (1998), Nunnally (1978) and Fornell &
Larcker (1981) suggestions, it will be calculated the loading factor, the composite reliability
(FC), the Cronbach's Alpha and the average variance extracted (AVE). Also, according to Chin
(1998) suggestions, to ensure the discriminant validity required to the constructs, the square
root of AVE is compared to the correlations between constructs.
The total sample used in this study consists of 1.605 individuals, 602 from Tenerife and
1.003 from Mallorca. 1071 questionnaires were collected in 2006 and 534 in 2014. Information
was gained through self-administered questionnaires in the place of residence of respondents.
To reduce the possible biasing effects of the sampling in the results obtained, and assure
that variations in the perceptions were not caused by differences in the sample structure, the
sample was weighed based on the weight each of the independent variables (age, gender,
occupation, educational level and economic sector in which respondents were involved) had in
2006. This procedure ensures that results are not influenced by a different profile in one or
another date
197
Results
To determine whether substantial variation occurs on the attitude of the residents
towards tourism and how tourism impacts are perceived, a set of T-test will be conducted.
These tests are aimed to compare whether average values of the results found in 2006
significantly differ from the ones obtained in 2014. As independent variable, the year of
collection, (2006 and 2014) has been used. The dependent variables were considered to be the
constructs used to measure the "support for tourism development" and each of the constructs
used to measure ‘perceived costs’ and ‘perceived benefits’ on each of the dimensions analyzed.
Findings confirm that the economic downturn substantially favors the development of positive
attitudes towards tourism, especially due to a significant reduction in the perception of costs
associated with tourism development.

It seems that, in an economic crisis, individuals change their perceptions and priorities
and try to adapt to the new situation, failing sometimes to perceive as negative as before, some
of the previously perceived negative impacts. This trend can clearly be observed in the
evolution of the perception of negative impacts, in both destinations perception of costs score
significantly lower in 2014 than in 2006. In accordance, and confirming the SET theory, the
reduction in the perception of costs, and the increase, or no significant change of the perceived
benefits, would be the basis on which a greater residents’ support to tourism is built. This
enhanced support can also be explained by the general belief that tourism can create
opportunities that will help avoid financial hardship, which can also push residents who do not
benefit directly from tourism to increase their support in the fear that negative effects may arise
if the tourism sector fails (Wyllie 1998).
These conclusions lead us to a point of the crucial challenge that economic crisis poses to
destination managers. In an economic crisis context, residents may develop a more permissive
view that, if not properly managed, can lead into uncontrolled expansion periods that can
irreversibly damage environmental, cultural or social assets. The consequences of such
development can negatively affect the authenticity and the attractiveness of the destination,
and seriously threaten its sustainability.
Tourism destination managers will therefore have to assume the important responsibility
to run their policies without compromising the sustainability of the destination. Otherwise, the
negative effects on the natural and socio-cultural environment may undermine the economic
viability of tourism in the long run. In fact, the crisis period should be seen as the time to avoid
short-term approaches and rather lay the basis for ensuring the sustainability of the destination
and obtaining long- term support from residents.
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200
The challenge of rebranding a traditional manor hotel into a wellbeing

hotel for people under 35
Evariste Habiyakare
Eva Holmberg
Haaga-Helia UAS
eva.holmberg@haaga-helia.fi
Introduction
Rebranding is a common strategy in the hotel industry today, both among hotel chains
and privately owned smaller hotels. The aim of this study is explore whether the rebranding
attempts by of a traditional manor hotel into a romantic getaway for especially younger couples
have been successful or not. The study was conducted during fall 2014.
Rebranding hotels
Aaker (1996, 7) defines a brand as “a name, term, symbol or design, or a combination of
them, intended to identify goods or services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate
them from those of their competitors.” Consumers are loyal to a brand because that gives them
the benefits they are seeking, for instance safety, reliability or familiarity or boosts their status
and self-esteem (Tasci and Kozak 2006; Johansson and Carlson 2014).
Brand identity is the core of the brand communicated to potential and existing customers.
In order to be successful, the brand identity should be clearly defined (Johansson and Carlson
2014). Brand identity corresponds to what some experts call the essence of the brand. The
brand essence can be stated in a short sentence or with a few words. The brand attributes are
adjectives used to describe the essence or identity of the brand (Keohane 2014). Brand image
is the associations and attributes consumers connect to the brand (Kotler and Pfoertsch 2010).
Thus, the brand identity is defined by the organisations owning the brand whereas brand image
is the associations of the customers in the market (Johansson and Carlson 2014).
Rebranding is often about changing the name or logo of an established brand for instance
due to two companies merging or the brand associations of a company or product being too
negative. Sometimes rebranding can also be done by repositioning the brand or by redefining
the brand attributes in the same time, as the name and logo of the company are untouched.
Rebranding is especially common in hospitality, finding the right segment is not enough
anymore, rather it is about finding a niche and creating an identity that is distinctive compared
to competitors. (Hanson, Mattila, O’Neill & Kim 2014)
Target hotel
The hotel in focus in this study is a Finnish privately owned manor hotel, with 24 rooms
in the manor house and 199 in a wing from the 1970ies. Services provided include also spa and
conference services and it is located in the Uusimaa region in Finland. The hotel used to have
two main groups of customers. The first customer group of the hotel used to be business
tourists staying overnight in connection with meetings and conferences and the second used to
be Finnish war veterans whose rehabilitation has been supported financially by the state. Due
to the economic recession, the share of the first group has declined from almost 80 percent of
all customers to about 50 percent during the last years. The second customer group has lost its
importance due to natural reasons, there are not that many war veterans from the Second
World War. The hotel has also always attracted a smaller number of individual customers, who
have been attracted by the brand created by the family owing the hotel.
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Since the number of hotel guests belonging to the traditional customer groups is difficult
to increase, the management team of the hotel decided to rebrand the hotel for new groups of
customers, couples under 35 interested in romantic holidays. New services like butler services
have been introduced in order to provide more luxury. The other brand attributes the hotel has
chosen to highlight in their marketing communication to support the brand are pampering,
excellent service, delicious food and good quality-price ratio. Thus, the wellbeing services
offered by the hotel are highly stressed in the newly defined brand attributes. These attributes
have been used both on the company's Internet page, in social media such as Facebook and
Instagram and in newspapers to attract people belonging the age group under 35 who are
necessary not aware of the hotel.
Methods
The aim of this study was to find out whether the rebranding attempts have been
successful, i.e. does the new brand identity created correspond to the image of the hotel
especially by people under 35?
The data was collected by third year students at a University of Applied Sciences during
late fall 2014 and combined both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Data triangulation
was respected by 9 semi-structured interviews, a social media analysis and by nethnography.
Results
In this section, the key findings are presented by a critical assessment of the existence of
a gap between the brand identity and the hotel brand image among the target audience. In order
to have a complete picture of the brand and the image, we add an additional dimension related
to the image of the hotel in general.
The image in general
By looking at the image of the target hotel in social media and in the interviews, the hotel
seems to get positive feedback. Respondents go on praising the hotel as being nice, amazing,
imposing and stunning. In social media, the SPA is considered as luxurious, fantastic, wonderful
place to relax and pampering. The manor house is described as elegant, beautiful, immaculate
and fabulous. This could be illustrated by the following statement from one respondent:
“In the summer this hotel is breath-taking and fantastic place to go and hold a party or
wedding during that time”
Looking at the perceptions about the rooms, there is a great variation in answers and this
depends on the part of the hotel where the respondent has stayed. The business rooms were
described as being too small and too old fashioned. There was also an impression that the
manor building was contradicting the image outside and inside:
“The manor building is beautiful but the conference zone is not so nice looking”
On one hand, guests who stayed in the manor have no complaints at all, they describe the
manor rooms as luxurious, clean, tidy, functional and comfortable. In addition, the manor and
surrounding is seen as positive, quality place, good impression, very peaceful, a place to relax,
and expensive but worth the money.
On the other hand, the ordinary hotel rooms are being criticized and one could find a big
contradiction between the proposed attributes and the perceived brand.
“If you are going to that hotel you should book a room from the manor, not the hotel because
it is boring”
For instance, several comments points to the fact that the rooms were boring, no air
conditioning, cold, expensive, DDR style and some of the commentators would never
recommend that hotel to their friends. The contradiction is illustrated in the following
statements:
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“The main building is very beautiful but once you step inside, it is as if you travelled to the
1980s or something like that”
While some comments praised the SPA as “very peaceful” and having good treatments
and as the best SPA hotel they have ever known, majority was disappointed and found that:
“Nothing special, full of Russians/elderly people; small and disappointing”
“The manor is much nicer than the SPA hotel and the SPA department needs to be renovated”
The brand attributes

Of the key brand attributes delicious food raised both positive and negative comments as
well. For instance, some people describe the food by using positive adjectives such as fresh,
healthy, nutritious tasty and delicious. However, a big majority of the comments were of the
view that the quality of the food did not match the price.
“Food is boring and overpriced and quality of food is not that good”
“I think the hotel should put more effort at least when it comes to food to make it trendier
and not so lame perhaps”
The level of service quality attracted both positive and negative comments as well.
Surprisingly, the majority described the service as rude, disappointing, problematic, and many
were worried about the decrease in the level of service as it is illustrated in the following
statement:
“The quality of service is bad and tired, and the place is dead. It is only a shadow of what it
used to be some time ago”
“The Service at the restaurant wasn´t the best, the servant was quite rude at first. Otherwise
everything was really nice, but if I owned that place, I would decorate the hotel interior again
(not quite fancy)”.
The attribute good price-quality ratio was generally not associated strongly with the image
of the hotel. For instance, in social media it became clear that many did not see the hotel as
anything for them since the services were perceived as expensive. When it comes to the brand
attributes romantic and pampering most data collected support the fact that the hotel is both
romantic and a place for pampering yourself.
“Absolutely yes! At our office we have about once in a half year a hotel day, when we choose
some treat from the beauty salon. It’s usually some special massage or facial treat.”
“I think I’m not the right person to discuss romantic holidays. But if I was planning something
like that, that hotel would definitely be one of the alternatives. I also have many friend
couples that have visited it for their romantic holiday. The place surely is very romantic, and
lots of activities you can do together. And good food to eat together!”
Conclusion
As it was stated in the beginning of this paper, the target hotel wants to create a brand
image corresponding to the following attributes: delicious food, pampering, romantic,
personalized service and good value for money.
By analyzing the above results, it is possible to depict a certain level of discrepancy or even
contradiction in the brand identity and the brand image of the studied company. Despite new
channels for marketing communication and the use of new types of messages and images, it
seems that the company´s image does not correspond to real perceptions of the potential
customers under 35 years old. Customers who are familiar with the hotel see it as romantic and
pampering but many are not associating good value for money and personalized, excellent
service to the brand. In general, the awareness of the hotel as a whole was rather low. The
rebranding strategy was implemented less than a year ago thus it is likely that the new
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marketing communication tools like videos in Youtube have not yet reached all potential
customers.
Today´s customers are more demanding and have access to a lot of information. Due to
their increasing welfare, people are travelling more than before. This may give them a critical
edge to scrutinize any service provider by comparing service quality, price and place with
similar places they have visited. Thus, the hotel must focus especially on improving the service
level in order to reduce the gap between the desired brand identity and brand image.
As the Disney Insitute (2015) puts it:
“Brand loyalty is established organizations consistently deliver suprior value relative to their
brand promise”
Literature
Aaker, D. A. (1996) Building strong brands. Bath, The Bath Press.
Johanson J. K. & K.A. Carlson (2015) Contemporary Brand Management, London: Sage
Hampf, A. & Lindberg-Repo, K. (2011) Branding: The Past, Present, and Future: A Study of the
Evolution and Future of Branding. Hanken Working Papers 556. Available from:
https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/26578 [Accessed 15th October 2014].
Hanson B, A. S. Matiila, J. W. o’Neill & Y. Kim (2009 Hotel rebranding and rescaling Effects on
financial performance in Cornell Hospitality Quarterly,360-370
Keohene K. (2014) Brand and Talent. London: Koganpage
Kotler P. & W. Pfoertsch (2010) Ingridient Branding. Heidelberg: Springer
Tasci, A. D. A. (2011) Destination branding and positioning. In: Wang, Y. & Pizam, A. (Ed.),
Destination Marketing and Management: Theories and Applications. London: CABI, 113-129.
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The value chains and innovative potentials in rural wellbeing tourism
Anne-Mette Hjalager
Professor, Research Director
Danish Centre for Rural Research
University of Southern Denmark
Hjalager@sam.sdu.dk
Introduction
This paper takes a critical view on the use of the value chain concept in tourism research,
and it exemplifies this with the case of wellbeing tourism in Northern European rural
landscapes. The paper claims that the traditional and most often seen tourism destination logic
of the value chain may compromise an informative and co-production oriented inquiry into the
true potentials of rural wellbeing tourism.
Literature review
Over the past years tourism practitioners and researchers have embraced the value chain
model. However, going into detail with the practice and research, it appears that the application
of the model takes place in two rather incompatible ways:
 The destination logic. In this logic the destination is analyzed as a composition or

sequences of services that the tourists can benefit from during their entire holiday. Destinations
with a varied amount of products that are transparently and accessibly linked together and
cover all needs from prior to the travel decision to after visit services, are considered more
likely to create higher values for the tourists than destination with weaker product coherence
(Gibson et al, 2005; Song et al, 2012; Weiermair, 2006). Moreover, the tourism businesses will
benefit to the extent that the value chain satisfies the totality of needs for tourists, and providers
will profit extra if tourists are ready to pay for the additional and comprehensive services.
 The supply chain logic. The logic relies more on Porter’s (1985) original production
oriented model. Any single tourism product consists of a chain of production steps, where
material and immaterial resources are added subsequently. At each step, new value is added to
the product or service. The production may take place in a single organization from the very
start to the delivery, or it may be produced by a number of actors in a supply chain. The focus
in this logic is on the business models and how value is generated across sectors by refining
and developing products (Nordin & Svensson, 2007; Rønningen, 2010). The point of view in the
supply chain logic refers to the business and production logics, and the value chain may be
completely different from what the tourist will experience. Well-coordinated supply chains will
enhance profits at each step in the chain, and potentially also benefit tourists with lower prices.
In tourism research, the destination value chain logic seems to have received far more
attention in tourism context than the supply chain model.
The rural is not a uniform concept, as landscapes and climates differ. Hence, also
wellbeing attributes may vary according to spatial contexts. As noted by Erfurt-Cooper &
Cooper (2009), even otherwise quite standard spa facilities attempt to diversity by relating
carefully to the local ambience. The composition of a value chain for rural tourism depends on
the types of landscape and configuration of rural life and activity (Bell et al 2010), and the paper
addresses the issues in four territorial categories: 1: Abandoned rural areas and wildernesses,
2) Extensive culturalised areas, 3) Stable agricultural areas, 4) Idyllised rustric areas.
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Method & materials

The paper is a conceptual contribution based on literature reviews, however with a
special reference to tourism in Northern European peripheral regions. Systematically, it relates
the destination value chain logic and the supply chain logic on the one hand with the potentials
for tourism related business creativeness in the four spatial categories on the other hand, and
it points to actions applicable for tourism business enterprises and destinations. This approach
has not been seen in previous studies of wellbeing tourism.
The main results of the research are summarized in the table, with a focus on the actions
and product types.
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Table 1: Summary of action

Destination value chain Supply value chain
Bonding resources, plentification Bridging resources, creating value
and unification of the product an innovations in tourism and
image other sectors
Wildernesses, Guiding services which link sights, Embedding tourism in extraction
remote and services and experiences into flows functions query, forestry, hunting
protected areas, and packages
low population Citizens/tourists science,
density rural Self-service provision, ex retail, investigative tourism, participation
zones, renting, angling permits, trails and in wellbeing research projects
abandonment related (paid) services
zones Media productions in connection
Theme based wilderness all with tours, for examples expedition
inclusive hubs, for example bulletins
hunting, health, spa
Conservation holidays co-creating
healthier landscapes or
environmentally safe tourism
facilities
Agricultural and Farm relaxation and participation Healthy food development and
forestry in farm life activities, for example subsequent new delivery systems
landscapes and growing/gathering/preparing that includes tourism
competition food etc.
about resources Bio-energy exploitation for
Touring, for example horse riding, wellbeing tourism products, for
dog training or other animal example heating of spas and spa
related well-being services product and ingredients
Forestry spas and resorts that

exploit micro-climatic conditions
in a composite product
Idyllic rural Artificial landscaping, and Participative landscape arts and

landscapes, closer provision of catering, landscaping, creating and amending
to urban areas accommodation and other the landscapes for wellbeing
services in connection with
sceneries Urban or close-to-urban leisure
husbandry – chicken, bees etc
Sensoric garden services, barefoot
gardens, silent landscapes etc Traditional spas in untraditional
settings
Green and blue fitness areas and
related services
207

The value chain can open the analytic mind, but more operatively and practically, it can be
seen as is a diagnostic tool. Hence, the chain model can assist in identifying:
 The dynamic linkages between productive activities. How are different links in a chain
tied together, what is the “glue”? What is the geographical distribution of the different
links in the chain? When one link in a chain is changing, what will happen with prior and
subsequent links? Will new value windows for profit arise, or will the opportunities be
closed in the case of changes?
 Constraints and levels of inefficiencies that prevent the further addition of net value,
innovation and competitiveness. What missing links prevent the emergence of an
efficient and attractive rural wellbeing cluster? What elements are underperforming?
What additional links could be of importance for a changed product profile? What
landscape related resources are inactive in the tourism value chain, and could they be
activated?
 Recognition of value created in and beyond tourism. What are intrinsic

interdependencies and flows created in the supplier part of the value chain? In a rural
development perspective, is the economic turnover larger among suppliers than in core
tourism actors? Are jobs in the supplying sector more favorable in terms of payment,
competence requirements and seasonal issues? Can outsourcing or insourcing benefit
the local tourism labour market?
In a wider perspective, the value chain analysis can inform policymakers at local and
national levels. It can be a way of identification of points of entry for policy. Value chain analysis
can help the re‐assessment of the economic power of target beneficiaries and “rules of the
game‟ in the value chain, and clarify structural impacts.
This paper takes into account the different types of landscapes that decisively affect the
composition of the value chains and the logics of their development. In the tourism literature,
this approach has not been implemented to any significant degree, particularly not the supply
chain version. There is a need, with more concise empirical studies, to validate and to enrich
the concepts and to test the diagnostic as well as the policy prospects.
References
Bell et al (2010). Migration and land use change in Europe. Living Reviews of Landscape
Resources, 4, 2.
Erfurt-Cooper, P. & Cooper, M. (2009). Health and wellness tourism. Bristol: Channel View
Publications.
Gibson, L., Lynch, P. A., & Morrison, A. (2005). The local destination tourism network:
Development issues. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 2(2), 87-99.
Nordin, S., & Svensson, B. (2007). Innovative destination governance: the Swedish ski resort of
Åre. The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 8(1), 53-66.
Porter, M. (1985). Competitive advantage: creating and sustaining superior performance. New
York: Free Press.
Rønningen, M. (2010). Innovation in the Norwegian rural tourism industry: Results from a
Norwegian survey. The Open Social Science Journal, 3(15-29).
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Song, H., Liu, J., & Chen, G. (2012). Tourism value chain governance: Review and prospects.
Journal of Travel Research, (ahead-of-print).
Weiermair, K. (2006). Prospects for innovation in tourism: Analyzing the innovation potential
throughout the tourism value chain. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism,
6(3‐4), 59‐72.
209
Japanese Wellbeing Tourists: Motivation Factors and Segments
Hiromi Kamata
Shukutoku University, Faculty of Business Administration
Saitama, Japan
hirom-k@mercury.ne.jp
Yuki Misui
Takasaki City University of Economics, Faculty of Regional Policy
Gunma, Japan
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to determine the motivation factors of Japanese wellbeing
tourists, and to derive the types of tourists (segments) by benefit segmentation. After
segmenting the tourists, the relationship between motivation and overall satisfaction, and the
corresponding effect on wellbeing are analyzed. We think that visits to spas probably have some
effect on the wellbeing of tourists.
In this paper, we refer to spa tourists as “wellbeing tourists,” and have focused on
Japanese spa tourists who have visited Hakone, one of the most famous and popular spa
destinations in Japan (located approximately one hour from Tokyo). Hakone offers various
kinds of hot springs, an unspoiled natural environment, and views of the nearby Mt. Fuji. Almost
all tourists enjoy the opportunity to visit a spa. However, as different groups of tourists have
different motivations for visiting, we predicted that their satisfaction levels and the
corresponding effect on their wellbeing would vary according to their motivations.
To explore this question, we developed and tested a hypothesis. From the results of our
analysis, we have suggested some implications for the marketing of spa destinations.
Spa tourism is very popular worldwide. However, it must be noted that the “spa tourism
style in Japan” is different from those in other countries. As Lee and King (2008) mentioned,
the hot springs tourism sector in Asia is different from that in Western countries. In Asia,
natural hot springs have been used for leisure. Almost all Japanese-style inns (ryokan) have
various hot spring baths both indoors and outdoors. Typical tourists spend their time in spa
destinations by soaking themselves in hot springs, eating local foods, strolling, visiting nearby
tourist spots, or engaging in other activities (hiking, skiing, etc.). They seek an enjoyable time
with family, friends, or colleagues. Japanese-style spa tourism is mostly for pleasure-travel
rather than being medical or healthcare-related. Based on these differences, it can be predicted
that the motivation factors of Japanese wellbeing tourists will be different from those of other
countries.
Literature review
There are many previous studies related to tourist motivation factors and segmentation.
Dolnicar (2002) proposed two fundamental ways to classify or segment individuals. One is the
typological approach, which is similar to a priori segmentation. The criteria of this approach
are known in advance. The other approach is data-driven segmentation (a posteriori
segmentation), and has received increased attention (Dolnicar, 2004). According to Cha,
McCleary and Uysal (1995), there are two dimensions of tourist motivation—push and pull
motivation. Tourists are pushed by their own internal forces, and pulled by external forces, such
as the attributes of the destination (Bieger and Laesser, 2002).
There are many studies on spa tourist motivations or valuations (Snoj and Mumel, 2002,
Alen et al., 2006, Pesonen et al., 2011, Kamata and Misui, 2015 etc.). Various motivation factors
210
(benefits) of spa or wellbeing tourists have been defined in previous studies. Here, we reviewed
representative studies. Pesonen et al. (2011) conducted benefit segmentation for deriving the
potential wellbeing tourists of Savonlinna region in Finland. They constructed 18 benefit
statements based on previous studies, except for six, which were considered for the original
characteristic of Savonlinna. The reason mentioned for considering six statements are that
tourism benefits are often attached to a specific destination, vacation, or activity, and cannot be
generalized. Four segments were derived from the benefit segmentation using these 18
statements. Pesonen et al. (2011) provided the implications that one segment enjoys nature-
based passive wellbeing, whereas other segments prefer buying wellbeing.
Kamata and Misui (2015) used 54 items for the motivation of spa tourists based on
research by the Jalan Research Center (2007). Then, seven motivation factors were derived
from these 54 items. They divided the respondents into five segments by these seven
motivation factors through cluster analysis, and revealed that the common important factors of
all segments are “soothing quality” and “release from routine.” Although they succeeded in
revealing the common important factors among Japanese spa tourists, some assignments have
remained. One of the assignments is to determine whether in each spa the motivation factors
and segments differ or not.
Based on these studies, this study attempts to reveal the motivation factors of Japanese
wellbeing tourists, and derive the type of tourists (segments) by benefit segmentation. Post
segmentation, the relationship between motivations and overall satisfaction, and the effect on
wellbeing examined by each segment are analyzed.

Our analysis included several steps. First, web-based research was conducted to collect
data from spa tourists who visited Hakone between 2013 and 2014. We focused on adult
overnight tourists (not students) between the ages of 20 and 60, who resided in the Tokyo
Metropolitan area. We asked respondents to answer questions about their motivation for
traveling to Hakone. Both “push” and “pull” motivation factors are considered, as seen in the
results of Kamata and Misui (2015). The respondents answered using a five-level scale [push
motivation: five (expectation) and one (no expectation); pull motivation: five (important) and
one (unimportant)]. In addition to motivation items, we asked the tourists for their overall
satisfaction level, and the effect on their wellbeing, which is categorized into 10 items.
Respondents’ travel profiles (including duration, companion, and expenses) and demographic
profile (including gender, age, family status, and educational level) are also ascertained.
Next, segmentation analysis is conducted to divide the tourists into segments. This study
uses the factor-cluster analysis. After segmenting the respondents, the socio-demographic and
travel profiles of each cluster were developed, and compared using a Chi-square test to find
statistical differences among the clusters. This analysis clarified the number of segments and
the characteristics of each. After factor-cluster analysis, SEM was conducted to test the
relationship between motivations and overall satisfaction, and the effect on wellbeing. We thus
analyzed all respondents and each segment.
Results
1) Tourist motivation and segmentation
Seven motivational factors were derived from the factor analysis. Each motivational
factor reflected the elements it contained. Relaxation, curiosity, spending time with a
companion, and culture are the “push” motivation items. Hot springs, destination, and inn are
the “pull” motivation items. The cluster analysis using these seven motivational factors was
applied to three segments. The share of each segment and the average score of each
211
motivational factor are shown in Table 1. The characteristic of each segment was derived by
carrying out a Chi-square test that used the demographic and travel profile data. Each segment
was named after a characteristic. We summarized each characteristic as follows:
Cluster 1 “Relaxation seekers”: The important factors for this group were the Relax
factors. A relatively high proportion of travelers in this cluster listed “Invited by companion” as
their reason for travel. The number of repeat visits was also relatively high. These tourists are
mainly in their 40s–60s. They tend not to pay for souvenirs.
Cluster 2 “Active tourists”: For these tourists, all the factors were important. They first
decided to travel to Hakone, and had a relatively high number of repeat visits. They tended to
stay at expensive, favorite inns. These tourists were mainly in their 30s, with a high level of
education.
Cluster 3 “Tourists who seek to relax with a companion”: These tourists chose Hakone as
their destination to enjoy a relaxed time with a companion using the budget plan of an inn. Most
of these travelers were first-time visitors to Hakone. They paid relatively little, and were mainly
in their 50s.
Table 1 Cluster analysis results

CL1 CL2 CL3
Relaxation Active Tourists who seek to relax
seekers tourists with a companion
Sample (number
143 371 462 976
of respondents)
% 14.7 38.0 47.3 F value S.L.
Relaxation 3.51 4.43 3.90 206.882 0.000
Hot springs 2.41 4.08 3.26 418.401 0.000
Curiosity 1.68 3.09 2.39 322.209 0.000
Spending time 2.90 4.09 3.37 130.330 0.000
with a companion
Destination 2.31 3.95 3.22 579.406 0.000
Inn 2.29 3.83 3.14 331.210 0.000
Culture 2.15 3.85 3.05 331.210 0.000
2) Relationship between motivations and overall satisfaction, and the effect on wellbeing
SEM was conducted by Amos. The path figure is shown in Figure 1, and the result is shown
in Table 2. The goodness-of-fit of models cannot be considered high by the value of GFI, CFI, and
RMSEA. This is included in our future assignments.
From the result, there is seen a positive relationship between overall satisfaction and
wellbeing. Wellbeing items also have a positive relation in every model. The coefficients are
different among clusters, and the characteristics of each cluster are reflected. For example, in
cluster 1, the coefficient of “relaxing without thinking” is the highest, because tourists in this
cluster seek relaxation. The motivational factors that comprised “pull” motivation items were
212
not related to overall satisfaction; hot springs, destination, and inn. In “All” and “CL3,” the factor
of curiosity was negatively related to overall satisfaction.
Get rid of fatigue
Relaxing Relaxing without

thinking
Hot springs Continue in good health
Maintaining beauty/
Curiosity handsome
Overall
Wellbeing Spend with a calm mind
Spending satisfaction
with a
companion Broaden my knowledge
Destination Value relationship with

others
Build a new relationship
Inn with others
Have contact with
Culture animals (including pets)
Have a contact with
nature
Figure 1. Path figure
Table 2 Results of SEM
213
All CL1 CL2 CL3

Satisfaction <--- Relaxing 0.377 *** 0.148 0.27 *** 0.343 ***
Satisfaction <--- Hot springs -0.068 0.103 0.016 -0.025
Satisfaction <--- Curiosity -0.222 *** -0.194 -0.175 -0.276 **
Spending with a
Satisfaction <--- 0.099 ** 0.285 ** 0.291 *** 0.09 *
companion
Satisfaction <--- Destination -0.033 0.037 0.073 -0.05
Satisfaction <--- Inn 0.042 0.075 0.085 0.066
Satisfaction <--- Culture 0.043 0.306 0.106 0.196
Wellbeing <--- Satisfaction 0.279 *** 0.167 * 0.332 *** 0.284 ***
Get rid of fatigue <--- Wellbeing 0.68 *** 0.697 *** 0.704 *** 0.68 ***
Relaxing without thinking <--- Wellbeing 0.695 *** 0.742 *** 0.722 *** 0.695 ***
Continue in good health <--- Wellbeing 0.77 *** 0.843 *** 0.792 *** 0.771 ***
Maintaining beauty/
<--- Wellbeing 0.567 *** 0.721 *** 0.545 *** 0.568 ***
handsome
Spend with a calm mind <--- Wellbeing 0.695 *** 0.717 *** 0.745 *** 0.695 ***
Broaden my knowledge <--- Wellbeing 0.459 *** 0.533 *** 0.513 *** 0.46 ***
Value relationship with
<--- Wellbeing 0.356 *** 0.369 *** 0.424 *** 0.357 ***
others
Bui l d a new rel a ti ons hi p
wi th others
<--- Wellbeing 0.264 *** 0.278 *** 0.239 *** 0.264 ***
Have contact with animals <--- Wellbeing 0.239 *** 0.498 *** 0.2 *** 0.24 ***
Have contact with nature <--- Wellbeing 0.33 *** 0.448 *** 0.46 *** 0.331 ***
Chi-square 2283.059 1087.934 1595.577 2003.831
Degree of freedom 555 534 533 533
Probability 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
GFI 0.74 0.697 0.777 0.776
CFI 0.602 0.661 0.698 0.661
RMSEA 0.082 0.085 0.073 0.077
Significant level: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.5, * p < 0.1

In this study, we segmented Japanese spa tourists by their motivation factors, and tested
the relationship between motivation and overall satisfaction, and the effect on wellbeing.
Although the goodness-of-fit was low, the results of SEM showed that the relationship between
motivation, satisfaction, and the effect on wellbeing differ by segment.
A possible future assignment involves improving goodness-of-fit for models. We should
aim to revise the path figure to improve the models.
Acknowledgement
214
This research was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists B (26870551) of Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).
References
Alen, M. E., J. A. Fraiz and R. Ruffin (2006). Analysis of Health Spa Customers’ Expectations and
Perceptions: The Case of Spanish Establishments. Revista de Estudos Politécnicos
Polytechnical Studies Review, III(5/6), 245-262.
Bieger, T. and C. Laesser (2002). Market Segmentation by Motivation: The Case of Switzerland.
Journal of Travel Research, 41, 68-76.
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A Factor-Cluster Segmentation Approach. Journal of Travel Research, Summer, 33-39.
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and Tourism Marketing, 12(1), 1-22.
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Approaches in Tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 42(3), 244-250.
Jalan Research Center (2007). The Research of Intention to Domestic Travel –Why Do People
Go on a Domestic Travel? (in Japanese)
Kamata, H. and Y. Misui (2015). Why Do They Choose a Spa Destination? The Case of Japanese
Tourists. Tourism Economics, 21(2), 283-305.
Lee, C-F. and B. King (2008). Using the Delphi Method to Assess the Potential of Taiwan’s Hot
Springs Tourism Sector. International Journal of Tourism Research, 10, 341-352.
Pesonen, J., T. Lakkanen and R. Komppula (2011). Benefit Segmentation of Potential Wellbeing
Tourists. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 17(4), 303-314.
Snoj, B. and D. Mumel (2002). The Measurement of Perceived Differences in Service Quality –
The Case of Health Spas in Slovenia. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 8(4), 362-379.
215
Asserting the Significance of the Brand Elements in Destination Branding
Stella Kladou
Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
S.Kladou@shu.ac.uk
Eirini Rigopoulou
Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
Mihalis Kavaratzis
University of Leicester, UK
Eleftheria Salonika
Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
Introduction
A place brand is completely different from other brands (e.g. Govers and Go, 2009), yet
many scholars and most of the practitioners continue to treat place brands as a simple case of
conventional branding. Thus, on the one hand, some scholars understand place brands in a
static way, ignoring that places are not formed through one-way message transmission and
cannot be manipulated. This rather mechanistic approach highlights the importance of the
brand elements as a communication vehicle for the identity itself. On the other hand, others
recognize place brands as dynamic, multifaceted, complex entities calling for a personalized
and experiential approach, rather than declaratory to mass audiences (e.g. Mayes, 2008;
Kavaratzis and Hatch, 2013).
There are significant indications that place identity construction is a dynamic, complex
process (Kavaratzis and Hatch, 2013). Thus, brand elements -as identifiers and, at the same
time, among the received stimulus by the recipients- are expected to be included in this process
with an interactive and dynamic way.
This study aims to contribute to the broader understanding of the role of brand elements
in the identity–based approach to place brand theory, according to the dynamics presented in
the Hatch and Schulz (2002) model of organizational identity. In fact, the proposed contribution
involves the impact of the brand elements on the four processes and behavioural decisions.
Literature review, methods & material

As Hatch and Schultz (2002) argue, the brand is formed at the interplay of culture, image
and identity and Kavaratzis and Hatch (2013) explain that the brand plays a role in the four
processes of expressing, impressing, mirroring and reflecting. We propose that brand elements
have an active role to play in all four processes. At the same time, this fourfold role of brand
elements also (again partly) determine the brand’s influence on peoples’ behavioural intentions
towards the destination. Thus, five relationships between the constructs examined here form
the themes under investigation.
Brand elements are key instruments in the sub-process of impressing, which refers to the
way in which the brand leaves impressions in peoples’ minds (Orth and Markewitz, 2008). It is
considered here that specific brand elements (i.e. the name, logo and tagline) have the power
to leave their ‘marks’ on the perceptions people hold of the branded place. These marks provide
the ground for remembering the destination and for holding positive images of it (Parkerson
and Saunders, 2005). In order to investigate and ascertain this power of the brand elements,
recall and recognition of them will be measured.
216
Brand elements also help the process of mirroring the images of others, which refers to
the ways in which people are affected by what other people think in their evaluations of
destination brands (Ruzzier and De Chernatony, 2013). This is best represented in the
construct of brand reputation and since reputation is the outcome of the cumulative image, the
Forbrum et al. (2000) Reputation Scale will be utilized. The relationship between brand
elements and reputation dimensions (visibility, distinctiveness, authenticity, transparency and
consistency) has already been demonstrated in the context of an organization (Bosch et al.,
2005).
Brand elements are supposed to assist the process of reflecting, which refers to the ways
in which the ideas and images of outsiders are incorporated in the destination’s culture and
identity (Gnoth, 1998). The attitude parameters according to Henderson and Cote (1998) were
chosen as indications to the particular topic. Following socio-cultural understandings of
tourism destinations (e.g. Saraniemi and Kylanen, 2011) and in line with Hatch and Schultz’s
(2002) ‘full stakeholder’ perspective, we accept here visitors as an integral part of the
destination system and therefore treat them as part of the destination’s culture.
Brand elements are also supposed to act as key instruments of expressing the place’s
culture and making it known to others. This is a major function of all brand symbolism and it is
a role of destination brands that is widely accepted and endorsed in practice. A common
branding device, namely the positioning statement was instrumental as the anchor for the
destination’s culture and has been utilized in order to examine the capacity and suitability of
different brand elements to express cultural understandings.
According to the last proposition, one of the major justifications of all branding efforts and
the investment they demand is the potential of the brand to influence the behaviour of
consumers. The existing correlation between favourable brand image and behavioural
intention is indisputable (Leisen, 2001). When it comes to destinations, the image and brand
formation is a complex process, which embodies various messages and their interactivity
(Moutinho, 1987) but is also considered to influence visiting intentions. For instance, Kotler
and Gertner (2002) assert that the country image influences travel decisions and destination
brands are considered important in persuading people to visit certain places (e.g. Morgan et al,
2002). The impact of the place brand elements on behavioural decisions was investigated by
addressing direct questions as regard to the intention to revisit and the intention to recommend
the destination to others.
Methodology
Greece, a country ranked among the most popular tourist destinations worldwide was
used as the referral country for the empirical validation of the study. Given that the evaluation
of a logo/ brand element is affected by the pre-existing attitudes and relationship toward the
brand, the fact that the respondents are already visitors indicates their positive disposition
when asked to evaluate the brand. First, the respondents were asked to identify the country-
related slogan/ tagline/ logo they recalled best. Then, they were asked to fill-in a questionnaire
designed to explore the above-mentioned themes. The brand elements used in the study were
drawn from recent campaigns as developed by the Greek National Tourism Organisation. For
pre-testing purposes, the questionnaire was administered to a small group of ten visitors to
Greece.
This study differs methodologically from existing literature (e.g. Lee et al. 2012) as it (1)
addresses actual visitors, which proves the success of the destination in attracting them and,
therefore, provides a chance to examine the role of brand elements in this success; (2)
investigates the relative strength of different elements towards a fixed reference point; and (3)
217
explores the link and assessment of alternative brand elements within the identity-based
approach.
A total of 201 questionnaires were selected, compatible size with other studies with a
similar topic (Stephens et al., 2011) and SPSS was employed.

Regarding the relative importance and role among the three examined brand elements,
analysis reveals that “name” comes out on top, but all three score at a moderate level. Focusing
on the strength of leaving impressions on others, we measured the recall as well as the
recognition of the tagline and the respective logo; 96% of the respondents were unable to recall
any tagline and 1 to 3 respondents recalled maximum 6 other taglines.
The perceived contribution of each element according to the Reputation dimensions

seems to be moderate (Table 1).
Table 1: The contribution on Reputation [Mean Scores in 5-point Likert scale]

NAME TAGLINE LOGO
Visibility 3.46 3.28 3.46
Distinctiveness 3.48 3.34 3.45
Authenticity 3.48 3.28 3.23
Transparency 3.17 3.03 2.94
Consistency 3.31 3.14 3.02
Each traveller then evaluated one’s first-to-be-recalled brand element (Table 2). The
Henderson and Cote (1998) in this case allowed for an evaluation of important attitude
parameters.
Table 2: Evaluation of brand elements [Mean Scores in 7-point semantic scale]

NAME TAGLINE LOGO
Dislike – Like 5.46 5.00 5.00
Good – Bad 5.41 4.87 4.89
Distinctiveness – Non Distinctiveness 5.35 4.79 4.75
Interesting – Not interesting 5.27 4.88 4.75
With Quality – W/O Quality 5.11 4.88 4.76
Finally, we incorporated a positioning statement as the one that best expresses the
cultural meanings of Greece. This was presented and read to the participants. Again, findings
revealed a moderate relevance with and impact of the 3 brand elements.
Our study empirically supports the view that traits and characteristics of the place are the
most influential decision-making factors. The impact of the three most outstanding brand
elements (name - tagline – logo) is shown to be relatively low (5-point scale).
Table 3: Impact on decision-making

218
NAME TAGLINE LOGO

Influence on destination decision 2.67 2.15 2.21
Destination image 2.70 2.25 2.22
Reason to revisit 2.49 2.15 2.17
Reason to recommend 2.61 2.19 2.20
This supports the argument that has been made repeatedly in the place branding
literature that campaigns and similar tools are not sufficient on their own (see Anholt, 2007;
Govers and Go, 2009). Such tools are useful only as reinforcement of a branding effort that
concentrates on the whole wide range of elements that combined actually form the place brand
(see Kavaratzis, 2004) and incorporates what local residents think and feel (e.g. Lichrou et al,
2010).
Discussion, conclusions and limitations

This study connects the brand elements with significant, in the brand management
literature, constructs (e.g. Reputation and Attitude formation), although limited sample size
blocks generalisations. Our research does not consider other macro-perspectives (e.g. the
particular politico-economic context is out of its scope), yet confirms the relatively limited
impact of the destination brand elements on the visitors’ behavioural decision.
In detail, all three brand elements have an impact mostly on the ‘liking’ aspect, thus on
image creation., Destination branding practices may still heavily focus on precisely these
elements, even in the country put in the scope (i.e. Greece in the first half of 2015 is planning to
invest approximately 10 ml Euros on a new logo and tagline). On the other hand, the study
offers adequate proof of the need to move destination branding beyond the design of slogans
and promotional campaigns and towards different directions. It also provides support for the
identity-based view of place branding examined in the first part of this paper.
References
Anholt, S. (2007). ‘Brand Europe’—Where next?. Place branding and public diplomacy, 3(2),
115-119.
Bosch A.L.M., John, M.D.T., & Elving, W.J.L. (2005), How corporate visual identity supports
reputation., Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 10, 108-116.
Gnoth, J. (1998). Branding tourism destinations. Annals of Tourism Research,25, 758-759.
Govers, R., & Go, F. (2009). Place branding: Glocal, virtual and physical identities, constructed,
imagined and experienced. Palgrave Macmillan.
Hatch, M. J. & Schultz. M., (2002). The dynamics of organizational identity. Human Relations. 55:
989-1018.
Henderson, P. W., & Cote, J. A. (1998). Guidelines for selecting or modifying logos. The Journal
of Marketing, 14-30.
Kavaratzis, M. (2004). From city marketing to city branding: Towards a theoretical framework
for developing city brands. Place branding, 1(1), 58-73.
Kavaratzis, M., & Hatch, M. J. (2013). The dynamics of place brands an identity-based approach
to place branding theory. Marketing Theory, 13(1), 69-86.
Kotler, P., & Gertner, D. (2002). Country as brand, product, and beyond: A place marketing and
brand management perspective. The Journal of Brand Management, 9(4), 249-261.
Leisen, B. (2001). Image segmentation: the case of a tourism destination. Journal of services
marketing, 15(1), 49-66.
219
Lichrou, M., O'Malley L. & Patterson M. (2010). Narratives of a tourism destination: Local
particularities and their implications for place marketing and branding. Place Branding
and Public Diplomacy 6(2), 134-44.
Mayes, R. (2008) A place in the sun: The Politics of Place, Identity and Branding. Place Branding
and Public Diplomacy, 4(2), 124-32.
Morgan, N., Pritchard, A., & Pride, R. (2002). Destination branding: creating the unique
destination proposition. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.
Moutinho, L. (1987). Consumer behaviour in tourism. European Journal of Marketing, 21(10),
5-44.
Orth, U.O., & Malkewitz, K. (2008) Holistic Package Design and Consumer Brand Impressions.
Parkerson, B., Saunders, J. (2005). City branding: Can goods and services branding models be
used to brand cities?, Place Branding, 1(3) July, 242-264.
Ruzzier, M. K., & De Chernatony, L. (2013). Developing and applying a place brand identity
model: The case of Slovenia. Journal of Business Research,66(1), 45-52.
Saraniemi, S., & Kylänen. M. (2011). Problematizing the Concept of Tourism Destination: An
Analysis of Different Theoretical Approaches. Journal of Travel Research, 50(2), 133-43.
Stephens Μ. Nekhili Β.Ρ., & Clifford L. (2011), Destination brand components, International
Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 5(1), 4-25.
220
Tourism Experience - Service Experience
Henna Konu
University of Eastern Finland, Centre for Tourism Studies
Savonlinna, Finland
henna.konu@uef.fi
Abstract
It is noted that tourism is highly experiential service industry. Tourism studies have
included approaches from different disciplines to examine the tourism experience and tourist
experience, and several conceptual analysis are made about them. However, there have been
only a little discussions about tourism experience as a service experience. Hence this will be the
aim of this study.
The concept ‘service experience’ is connected to the utilisation and consumption of
services and it may refer to process or to the outcome of the service i.e. customer value. A
customer will have a service experience regardless of the type of service (s)he is consuming,
but the nature of the service experience can differ in relation to what type of service is
consumed.
Tourism services are regarded experiential and complex services. A tourism service
product differs from several other services because the duration of the service experience is
longer, as the experience of the overall tourism product comes from a set of service modules
and encounters. The tourism (service) experience is an individual experience that includes the
personal experience of the service process that leads to the experience of the outcome of the
service. The experience may afford the consumer various consumption values and it may also
include extraordinary and ordinary experiences. This study argues that it is crucial to recognize
the special characteristics of a tourism experience and include process and outcome aspects of
the experience concept when tourism services are developed.
221
How Tourists Use Nature? The Case of Great Masurian Lakes, Poland
Sylwia Kulczyk
University of Warsaw, Department of Tourism Geography and Recreation
Warsaw, Poland
skulczyk@uw.edu.pl
Marta Derek
University of Warsaw, Department of Tourism Geography and Recreation
Warsaw, Poland
Małgorzata Kowalczyk
Institute of Spatial Management and Housing
Warsaw, Poland
Edyta Woźniak
Polish Academy of Sciences, Space Research Centre
Warsaw, Poland
Introduction
It is commonly perceived that humans’ contact with nature is one of the ways to achieve
a high quality of life (MacKerron, Mourato 2013; Gilbert, Abdullah 2004). Tourism
opportunities that appear thanks to environmental diversity and quality can be concerned as a
benefit that nature supports to human beings (MEA 2005).
In Poland, the Great Masurian Lakes, situated in north-eastern part of the country, are
considered to be a tourist destination possessing high natural values. Although previous
research reported that contact with nature is regarded as important by tourists visiting the
region (Kulczyk 2010), the majority of tourist infrastructure as well as tourist traffic is
concentrated in a few bigger towns of the region. This pattern is of course infrastructurally
conditioned (e.g. transport network), but nevertheless induces questions about the importance
of nature for tourists and their well-being.
Literature review
Spatial relations are essential in geographical research. There are two areas of research
that need to be combined to describe people-nature spatial interrelations: mapping of
nature/landscape suitability (supply side) and analysing visitors’ mobility (demand side).
However, the level of development of this two areas remains unequal. Nature suitability
assessment methods are well developed, with Recreation Suitability Mapping and Landscape
Potential concept being implemented all over the world (e.g. Gül, Örücü, Karaca 2006; Willemen
et al. 2008). On the other hand a deficiency of data on tourists’ mobility and preferences is
reported to be an important impediment to the assessment of spatial patterns of tourism and
recreation (Lew, McKercher, 2006; Tran, Ralston, 2006). On a general scale it is possible to
assess functions of nature and its benefit to tourism using national statistics and general reports
on people preferences (Paracchini et al. 2014). For more detailed studies obtaining field data
on tourists’ mobility is indispensable. Such studies are the most frequently conducted within
protected areas or in cities, where the limited area makes tourism monitoring easier (Shoval,
Isaacson, 2007; Kajala et al., 2007). The resulting studies describe that the patterns of nature-
tourist interrelations depend mostly on the level of familiarity with the area (Kalternborn,
Wiliams 2002), the form of activity (Schmitz, Aranzabal, Pineda 2007) and the personality type
222
(Beeco et al. 2013). They are also deeply rooted in tourists’ culture and their background
(Stedman et al. 2007).
This paper aims at analysing how tourists use nature in Poland’s greatest lakeland, the
Great Masurian Lakes. It is a very well-known tourist region in Poland and clean natural
environment is its most important attraction. We will focus on tourists’ activities and, hence,
on identifying those features of nature that are essential for them. Therefore, the main research
questions are:
- How much is nature important to tourists and their activities?
- What are the patterns of tourists’ nature-based activities?

There are several methods that allow to describe tourists’ spatial activities, such as
surveys (see for example Ritchie, Burns, Palmer 2005), self-mapping (e.g. Gimblett et al., 2003)
and GPS tracking (e.g. Beeco, Hallo, Brownlee 2014). Previous pilot research proved, however,
that tourists are not familiar with maps and have problems with using them. It is difficult to use
GPS tracking in research concerning a lot of different activities as well as in large, open spaces.
Therefore, an approach based on on-site surveying tourists was used. As Wall Reinius (2011)
points out, questionnaires are widely used for collecting data on tourists in nature areas. A total
of 516 interviews were conducted with tourists in 9 places throughout the whole area. In order
to adequately assess the place-specific activities of tourists a survey was conducted in the
centres of the municipalities, in front of convenience stores (or small supermarkets, if there
were any). We assumed that every tourist, no matter if he is a sailor or a leisure tourist, has to
purchase food and drink, from time to time at least. Filter questions were used in the beginning
of each survey to sort out respondents who were not eligible to take part in the survey (like
local inhabitants or people whose stay in the region was not connected to tourism or leisure).
Deliberately, the survey was not conducted in tourist centres, tourist accommodation facilities,
marinas, or any other tourist establishments, in order to avoid any particular activity having an
undue influence (because it is obvious that we can expect sailors or other tourists interested in
water-based activities to be found in marinas or near the shores of a lake, and leisure tourists
in hotels, etc.). In this way we tried to get a sample as reliable as possible in terms of
representativeness of the activities undertaken by tourists. The survey was carried out in two
weekends and two different working days in the summer of 2014, in the morning, during the
day and in the evening, simultaneously in all 9 locations. The survey was conducted in Polish
language as Poles constitute the main group of the region’s visitors. Before this survey a pre-
survey was made by interviewing 50 tourists in 4 biggest towns to ensure that the
questionnaire was complete, clear, and reliable.
The questionnaire contained sections dealing with general questions about the visit (such
as travel reasons, length of stay, accommodation), very detailed questions about what activities
and where exactly were undertaken during staying in the region, a question concerning an
importance of different values of the region for a tourist, as well as questions about
respondents’ socio-demographic background. Tourists were also asked to evaluate the area’s
key characteristic landscapes presented on 10 different photographs. Finally, data were
entered into the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) to make calculations and statistical
analyses and ArcGIS programs to visualize where visitors declared undertaking the activities.
Results
Applying the approach outlined above, we expected to find out what are the most
important activities undertaken by tourists visiting the Great Masurian Lakes. The first step in
analysing the quantitative data was a frequency analysis. It appeared that swimming in a lake
223
or in a river, walking and sunbathing/picnicking were the most popular activities (they were
declared as “undertaken often and very often” by 76%, 62% and 55% of the respondents,
respectively). The group of tourists who participated in water sports was also quite large - 45%
of the respondents declared they were engaged in one of the following activities either often or
very often: sailing, kayaking, scuba-diving, windsurfing, using a boat or a pedalo, or doing
motorboat sports. 82% took part in one of these pursuits at least once during their stay.
As it can be seen, respondents declared they had been undertaking nature-based activities
to a large degree. Consequently, when they were asked to indicate factors that were important
for their well-being in the region, they pointed out a proximity to water and forests as well as a
distance from human settlements. The least important factor was a cultural and entertainment
offer. Therefore, we can conclude that tourists spending their time in the Great Masurian Lakes
not only need nature in order to undertake their favourite activities, but they also appreciate
its values.
The next step is to look at the places where respondents declared they were undertaking
these activities. Using spatial analysis we expect to find out to what extent these places
concentrated near human settlements, or, on the contrary, in the “real wilderness”. Maps based
on the geographical information given by the respondents will be prepared and analysed.
Another important factor to verify is the declared place of stay (accommodation) of the
respondents. As mentioned earlier, tourist facilities are concentrated mostly in a few bigger
towns of the region. However, there are a number of small cottages or guesthouses located in
the natural environment. We can also assume that there would be a number of tourists who
sleep in their tents or on their yachts in the outdoors away from provided accommodation. An
analysis of the exact locality of the accommodation will be conducted in order to discover how
many respondents stayed in towns and how many of them preferred places closer to nature.

The paper examines how tourists use nature in Poland’s largest lakeland. In particular it
proves what nature-based activities are carried out by tourists and where. It verifies tourists’
practices in one specific region. Therefore, the scope of the interpretation of the presented
findings is limited to this area. However, encounters between nature and humans, practices of
tourists in the natural environment and a question of how much nature is in nature-based
tourism still remain unclear and requires more research. This study aims at answering some of
these questions using the case of the Great Masurian Lakes.
References
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225
Consequences of Introducing Eco Labels- and Schemes to Tourism

Accommodations: Is Social Responsibility Inducing Value Co-creation?
Sonja Sibila Lebe

Borut Milfelner
University of Maribor, Faculty of Economics and Business
sonjasibila.lebe@guest.arnes.si
Introduction
When talking about the service dominant logic (SDL) concept, which Vargo and Lusch
developed in 2004 we are focusing on the interaction between costumers (in our case tourists)
and organizations. This paradigm caused the shift of the focal point from value creation towards
value co-creation. This means that during the value creation process not only the service
provider creates value: tourists themselves contribute their active part in service co-creation,
too. This is not all: Vargo and Lusch (2008) also state that value is co-created through joint
efforts of firms, employees, customers, stakeholders, government agencies, and other entities
related to any given exchange, but is always determined by the beneficiary who, in most cases,
is represented as customer. We are thus talking about a very complex system of interactions
and interdependencies that can only be managed with joint and coordinated actions of all
parties involved. Frow and Payne (2011) brought understanding of this new paradigm to the
point, calling for a more holistic approach inside the SDL. They stressed that value generation
occurs as co‐creation between various stakeholders, acting as a value alignment mechanism
within the marketing system.
The point we intend to illuminate in this paper results from this paradigm shift to co-
creation: we are discussing some of its consequences in the field of social responsibility (SR).
We argue that the next shift in thinking/perception actually occurs as its logical
consequence – yet has not been discussed/made conscious until now, namely: modifying
creation into co-creation automatically means modifying responsibility into shared
responsibility.
Amongst many service activities that can add value to tourists, several aspects of SR have
been proposed and researched. CSR (corporate social responsibility) activities proved to have
the potential of creating stronger relationships between firms and stakeholders (Peloza and
Shang 2011). In some cases, small hotel guests’ value perception was higher when introducing
social responsible practices (Zupan and Milfelner 2014). However, tourism providers are often
uncertain about the value of CSR, despite the existing proves that innovation towards more SR
can represent a mean how to add value and augment the firm’s competitiveness (Štrukelj and
Šuligoj 2014). An enterprise has several possibilities how to demonstrate its SR, among others
e.g. to undergo a certification process for an independent and renown sustainability certificate-
or scheme. The earned eco-label signals to the customers that they are buying
services/products from enterprises that try harder than the average to reduce their negative
impacts on the environment, and that they are actively complying with sustainability matters.
Some best-known examples in Europe are the EU Ecolabel for holiday accommodations
(http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecolabel), the Scandinavian “Nordic Swan” (www.nordic-
ecolabel.org) or the “Bio Hotels” in German speaking countries (www.biohotels.info).
Some authors are investigating the role of introduced socially responsible practices in
tourism on value creation (e.g. Caruana et al., 2014; Lo and Lee, 2011; Andereck, 2009).
However, the way how specific activities implemented by the suppliers who are applying SR
concepts (such as eco-labels and schemes) can contribute to tourists’ perceived value has not
226
been addressed sufficiently, since past research has mainly dealt with general measurement of
overall value perception of tourism services that included SR elements.
Intending to fill this gap at least partly, we decided to test several issues of socially
responsible practices such as eco-labels and schemes. We presume that the results are of
interest to researchers and to practitioners when they are addressing the topic of introducing
social responsibility measures in tourism accommodations.
First, several studies concerning services that included social responsibility (SR)
dimensions show that the perceived value and its outcomes (e.g. service quality, satisfaction,
loyalty) are high, but it is unknown, in which way SR praxis (such as eco-labels and schemes) add
and create value in the co-creation processes.
Second, until now it is unknown how the part of value added that results from introducing
SR-measures into accommodation operations is influencing the perceived quality and the overall
satisfaction.
Therefore, the main purpose of our research was to conduct a two-fold qualitative and
quantitative research on a sample of eco-certified tourism accommodation providers (TAP), all
offering wellness services, and their customers (tourists) in order to illuminate the role of value
creation activities in value perception.
Social responsibility Shared social

measures are integrated responsibility (provider
into the service as quality AND customer)
parameters within the becomes a crucial part
service co-creation. of service co-creation.
Value creation
Active personal involvement
Value perception
SATISFACTION
Active personal involvement
Figure 1: Scheme: Impact of social responsibility measures on guest satisfaction
Our analysis addresses several aspects of social responsibility (SR) that are included in
different segments of the EU Ecolabel criteria. We can consider the latter as the proof of
enterprise’s SR (Lebe and Vrečko 2014). Such analysis, which to our knowledge has not yet
been addressed in the literature, can provide several guidelines for TAP when they are in the
process of introducing eco labels and schemes, and related SR services.
Literature review and hypotheses development

Service providers usually search to add value primarily for the benefits of higher sales and
higher profitability. In order to be successful in doing so, it is important to consider the entire
value chain and to understand that perceived value in tourism is interrelated with other
concepts, such as service quality perception and satisfaction. Higher perceived quality usually
leads to perceived value, since perceived quality is the customer’s overall subjective assessment
227
of service superiority (Zeithaml, 1988). In order to achieve the creation and co-creation of
value, TAP have to address the problem of how to deliver quality services, and how perceived
quality services would influence the satisfaction. The latter is important when their aim is
achieving higher sales levels and higher market shares (that usually result in higher
profitability for the service providers). Therefore, we presume that one of the important service
provider’s reasons for introducing an eco-label/scheme is the expected result in form of a
higher tourists’ perceived value.
Some qualitative research outside the field of tourism has shown in what way the SR can
contribute to the customer value (e.g. Peloza and Shang, 2011) – yet this is not the only element
that has to be taken into consideration. It is sometimes hard to distinguish which element of
the services is contributing to the overall value creation, especially when several stakeholders
are involved. In order to get a closer insight, we focus primarily on tourists’ perceived benefits
and sacrifices. The value judgement is defined as the customers’ assessment of the value that
has been created for them; it represents the result of trade-offs between all relevant benefits
and sacrifices in the given specific situation (Ulaga and Chacour, 2001). In our research we
examine both dimensions that are important in the process of services delivery (for example in
the process of energy saving, water saving, in waste separation measures, etc.). Perceived
sacrifices are important since some studies show that even people who actively engage in
environmental protection during their daily activities engage in negative SR practices during
their vacation (Juvan and Dolincar, 2014). This means that some SR praxis can be perceived as
different forms of strains and burdens, and as such as sacrifices. We therefore propose the first
hypothesis:
H1: Services upgraded with SR measures (implemented due to obtained eco-labels and
schemes) create value in the co-creation processes.
Concerning the perceived value effects, multiple dimensions of perceived value (e.g.
functional, emotional and overall value) are known to influence the tourists’ satisfaction.
Empirical results in- and outside the tourism sector give indications that higher perceived
satisfaction is a result of perceived value (e.g. Gallarza and Saura, 2006; Sanchez-Fernandez and
Iniesta-Bonillo, 2007). Satisfaction in times leads to higher customer loyalty, and, when services
are concerned, to positive “word of mouth” communication. Our second hypothesis is therefore
based on linking the consumer’s positive experience, gained from benefits, and their intention
to behave -based on this eco-experience- in the future socially responsibly.
H2: Perceived benefits related to eco-labelled/certified services are positively related to
tourists’ satisfaction and their intentions to behave socially responsibly in the future.
Methodology
According to the set goals, we organised the research in the fall of 2014 and in the first
seven months of 2015. We divided it into three steps: analyses of the supply side, analyses of
the demand side, and analyses of the local environment (only in rural areas). At this moment,
the first step is completed, the second one is ongoing, and the third one is planned for
autumn/winter 2015.
The first step consisted of conducting semi-structured in-depth interviews with six
wellness accommodation providers in Slovenia (thus the supply side) and was completed in the
fall of 2014. All properties included into this research were either eco-certified or have already
entered the certification process for the EU Ecolabel for tourism accommodations (EU-ETA)
and were close to completing it and being licenced. This phase had three goals:
Find out major motives why the accommodation has decided to apply for the EU-ETA,
228
Determine the evolution in CSR-behaviour in the property after attaining the EU-ETA,
taking into consideration several viewpoints: providers’, customers’, and the one of the local
population, and
Investigate the accommodations’ plans for the future, mainly in the field of marketing, as
seen through the lens of CSR.
In the second step, we collected information from tourists who were staying in the six
accommodations that we included into the research2. We developed a structural questionnaire
and used it on a representative sample of tourists who booked the abovementioned
accommodations. The selected factors were aligned with those providers’ delivery package
elements for which we expected to be important in the value co-creation process. We addressed
four major groups of topics:
Importance of factors influencing the decision to book an eco-accommodation (seasonal
fruits/vegetables supply from local producers, organic food availability in the accommodation,
natural materials used by construction and furnishing, eco-certificate, offering healthy stay,
eco-friendly behaviour/eco awareness of the staff, SR);
Perceived value factors, which we divided into two major clusters:
Possible sacrifices: active participation in energy saving measures, water saving
measures, waste separation, hazardous waste delivery, charity collection activities;
Possible benefits: perceived added value due to accommodation’s eco-certificate; organic
food and beverages consumption; healthy surroundings; use of environmental- and human-
friendly cleaning agents; locally gained/produced artefacts and products available for purchase
on accommodation grounds; cooperation with the local community; wellness programmes
based at least partly on ecology; counselling guests on healthy ways of life, and workshops on
ecology topics.
Perceived service quality (factors influencing the decision to book an eco-
accommodation);
Overall satisfaction with delivered services, and
Intentions to behave socially responsibly in the future.
The content validity of the developed measurement instrument was addressed with the
help of two academics from the field of tourism marketing research. Additionally, we tested the
convergent validity of the scales with the exploratory factor analysis, and the reliability with
the Cronbach alpha calculation. The Hypothesis 1 is tested using the descriptive comparative
analysis between benefits and sacrifices. The Hypothesis 2 is tested within the multiple
regression models assessing the interrelationships between the tourists’ perceived benefits
related to eco-labels and schemes services, perceived quality related to eco-labels/schemes
services, and tourists’ overall satisfaction. In addition, the mediating influences between three
constructs will be tested using the methodology proposed by Preacher and Hayes (2008).
This paper is limited to the analyses of the demand side only (step 2 of the research) due
to space limitation (not to exceed the usual length of a paper).

As this research is still underway, in this abstract, we can only list our expectations
regarding the results. Within the results (gained during the opinion poll), we intend to
concentrate on perceived value deriving from social responsibility and eco-friendliness of some
selected wellness accommodations in Slovenia that hold the EU Ecolabel for tourism
accommodations.
2
The opinion poll is still under go in the time of setting up the abstract for the paper.
229
We expect the results to:

Confirm/refute our hypothesis, and to be additionally able to
Suggest distinguished profiles of guests visiting eco-accommodations, and
Gain deeper insights of the fact that tourists are not only co-creating the service they are
consuming, but also taking a share of social responsibility for the service consumption.
We also expect to be able to detect a segment of tourists who can be distinguished for
their SR concern from the average, and much more from tourists who do not accept (no matter
for which reason) their part of social responsibility.
We suggest introducing the term “social responsibility literacy”, and to start talking about
socially responsible or social responsibility mature tourists as of individuals who consciously
and actively participate in SR measures (no matter whether they are at home or whether they
live in a tourist accommodation).
To our knowledge, this point has not been tested and discussed from this point of view
before; this paper thus brings new cognitions and represents a contribution to new knowledge
building in the field.
References
Andereck, K. L. (2009). Tourists' perceptions of environmentally responsible innovations at
tourism businesses. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(4), 489-499.
Bio Hotels ( 17.3.2015). Retrieved from: http://www.biohotels.info
Caruana, R., Glozer, S., Crane, A., & McCabe, S. (2014). Tourists’ accounts of responsible tourism.
Annals of Tourism Research, 46, 115-129.
Frow, P., & Payne, A. (2011). A stakeholder perspective of the value proposition concept.
European journal of marketing, 45(1/2), 223-240.
Gallarza, M.G. & Saura, I.G. (2006). Value dimensions, perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty:
an investigation of university students’ travel behaviour, Tourism management, 27, 437-
452.
Juvan, E., & Dolnicar, S. (2014). The attitude–behaviour gap in sustainable tourism. Annals of
Tourism Research, 48, 76-95.
Lebe, S. S., & Vrečko, I. (2014). Eco‐labels and Schemes: A Requisitely Holistic Proof of Tourism's
Social Responsibility?. Systems Research and Behavioral Science.
Lo, A. S., & Lee, C. Y. (2011). Motivations and perceived value of volunteer tourists from Hong
Kong. Tourism Management, 32(2), 326-334.
Lusch, R. F., & Webster, F. E. (2011). A stakeholder-unifying, cocreation philosophy for
marketing. Journal of Macromarketing, 31(2), 129-134.
Peloza, J., & Shang, J. (2011). How can corporate social responsibility activities create value for
stakeholders? A systematic review. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 39(1),
117-135.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F., 2008. Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and
comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior research methods,
40(3), 879-891.
Sánchez-Fernández, R., & Iniesta-Bonillo, M. Á. (2007). The concept of perceived value: a
systematic review of the research. Marketing theory, 7(4), 427-451.
Štrukelj, T., & Šuligoj, M. (2014). Holism and social responsibility for tourism enterprise
governance. Kybernetes, 43(3/4), 394-412.
The EU Ecolabel (16.3.2015). Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecolabel
The Nordic Ecolabel - Limiting CO2 Emissions (16.3.2015). Retrieved from:
http://www.nordic-ecolabel.org
230
Ulaga, W., & Chacour, S. (2001). Measuring customer-perceived value in business markets: A
prerequisite for marketing strategy development and implementation. Industrial
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marketing, 68(1), 1-17.
Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2008). Service-dominant logic: continuing the evolution. Journal of
the Academy of marketing Science, 36(1), 1-10.
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synthesis of evidence, Journal of marketing, 52(3), 2-22.
Zupan, S., & Milfelner, B. (2014). Social responsibility, motivation and satisfaction: small hotels
guests' perspective. Kybernetes, 43(3/4), 513-528.
231
Engaging with nature: A Japanese approach to co-creating nature based

tourism experiences
Young-Sook Lee
UiT The Arctic University of Norway
young-sook.lee@uit.no
Nina Prebensen
HBV, Buskerud and Vestfold University College / UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Introduction
This paper contributes to our understanding of East Asian ways of co-creating tourism
experiences in nature based attractions. Recent studies suggest that nature base experiences in
the fast growing East Asian markets should not be viewed as an replica of Euro-Western or
homogeneous experiences. `Shengtai luyou´ in China may be analogue to Western ecotourism
where the meaning of nature, practice of tourism as well as governmental policy framework
reflect Chinese culture and social characteristics (Buckley, Cater, Linsheng, & Chen, 2008). Lee,
Weaver & Lawton (2013) identify a South Korean form of ecotourism where the society´s
indigenous cultural philosophies provide the backbone of the meaning and practice of the South
Korean form of nature based tourism experiences. Following the lead of these researchers, the
present work researches the meaning of nature by Japanese nature based attraction visitors. It
is important to recognized emic approach to cultural positions and its wider implications in
tourist behavior (Watkins & Gnoth, 2011). Considering that tourism experiences are an all-
encompassing interactions among many players such as tour operators, destinations, activities
and tourists themselves (Prebensen, Vittersø & Dahl, 2013), the concept of service dominant
logic (Penaloza & Venkathesh, 2006) is increasingly viewed relevant in tourism studies.
Connecting the these relevant arenas together, the present paper serves as a departure
point to explore Japanese tourists engagement with nature through by understanding their
meaning of nature. Thus, this study takes an emic approach to understanding Japanese tourist
market. It subsequently hopes to contribute to the unraveling of the intricate processes of co-
creating tourist experiences by the Japanese market.
Literature review
Service dominant logic and the significance of tourists´ position and role in creating and
co-creating their experiences constitute theoretical foundation in this paper. Vargo & Lush
(2004) suggest a shift in the view of the customers’ role in production and consumption
practices, including the primary unite of exchange, the determination and meaning of value, the
role of the customer, the nature of the firm-customer interactions and the source of economic
growth. The change from a product-centric logic to a new service-dominant logic include an
emphasis on intangible services, value as perceived and determined by the consumer in use as
benefits of specialized knowledge and skills they label as operant resources. The customer is
further delineated as co-creator of the service, and wealth obtained in the form of economic
capital from consumers to firms in the application and exchange of operant resources by
consumers and firms. With this theoretical perspective as foundation, Penaloza & Venkatesh
(2006) suggest a paradigmatic shift from marketing techniques and concepts to markets as a
social construction. Their argument is composed of six facets, in which the one deals with
“revisioning the creation of value in markets to include meanings” and another “addressing
more explicitly cultural differences between nations in level of development” (Penaloza &
Venkatesh, 2006: 299), both in which is fundamental underpinnings for the present paper.
232
As the capacity of the East Asian market headed by China is proven to be the fastest
growing market by 2020, tourism practitioners and researchers have been investing their work
on better understanding the growing market of East Asian tourists. Before the year 2000, Asia
as a whole in relation to nature based tourism was a place to be visited by international (largely
Western) tourists, thus main discussions in the region were more on product development or
adopting Western practices for a better provision of tourist experiences to Western tourisits
(Lew, 1996; Dowling, 1997). From the turn of the new century, however, debates have emerged
on the Asian form of ecotourism where Weaver (2002) argues that distinct form of Asian
ecotourism exist albeit influences from the West would be strong. Another view on Asian
ecotourism suggests that ecotourism that we know of is indeed a Western construct and Asian
practice of ecotourism-relevant activities need to be researched (Cater, 2006).
More recently, studies demonstrate distinct forms of ecotourism in China (Buckley, Cater,
Linsheng, & Chen, 2008) and in South Korea (Choo, & Jamal, 2009; Lee, Lawton, & Weaver,
2012; Lee & Mjelde, 2007). On Japanese market, importance of tour guides in ecotourism was
highlighted, linking this phenomenon to the country´s tourism policy framework (Yamada,
2011). In tourism, where the experiences are co-created through interactions between the
service providers and tourists (Prebensen, Vittersø & Dahl, 2013), recognizing the tourists´
departure point in terms of - what nature means to the tourists - is an essential element for
tourism industry and researchers alike. Taking this line of research enquiry further, the current
paper researches on one specific East Asian nature tourist market: Japan.
Specific research question addressed in the papers is `what is the meaning of nature to
Japanese tourists who visit nature based attractions?´. From this study, we may advance the
current understanding of East Asian nature based tourists market. This can further contribute
to learning the Japanese ways of co-creating experiences in the nature based tourism context.
Methods & materials

With the defined research area and the research question, this paper employs an open-
ended survey method. A nature based attractions near Tokyo has been chosen to approach and
solicit the visitors to participate in the open ended question survey. Due to time constraints of
the visitors during their nature based attraction experience on their weekend, an open-ended
survey was deemed more appropriate than an in-depth interview approach. Over 150
participants in the nature based attraction provided their meaning of nature when they visit
such an attraction.
Content analysis of the responses are employed for this paper as the paper aims to identify
Japanese indigenous interpretation/ meaning of nature, which may influence their ways of
interacting with nature hence co-creation of their nature based experience. Data coding has
been conducted, following three steps by Corbin & Strauss, 1990) for qualitative data coding
practices. This coding was to ensure the underlying principle of this study is to understand from
the data generated rather than imposing a structured framework on the collected data (Glaser
& Strauss, 2009). In order to enhance validity and credibility of the analysis result, researcher
triangulation (Miles & Huberman, 1985; 1994) was performed.

Main results expected in the paper are the meaning of nature from Japanese perspective.
The results can serve as the ground for establishing Japanese ways of interacting and co-
creating experiences in nature based attractions.
233

The findings from the current paper are expected to contribute in two ways to the existing
body of knowledge. First, they provide the ground for establishing Japanese meaning of nature
in the context of tourism, possibly reflecting the society´s cultural and historical influences to
the notion. Secondly, the theoretical ground can be further related to the ways, in which
Japanese tourists co-create their nature based tourism experiences. It is also expected that the
findings may contribute to the tourism industry their efforts to design and provide nature based
tourism experiences to Japanese visitors.
References
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in ecotourism. Annals of tourism research, 35(4), 945-968.
Cater, E. (2006). Ecotourism as a western construct. Jo
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evaluative criteria. Qualitative sociology, 13(1), 3-21.
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method: The case of the Korean DMZ. Ecological Economics, 63(2), 511-520.
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172.
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with the ecotourism promotion policy in Japan. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism
Research, 16(2), 139-152.
Value Co-creation in Re-branding Tourism Destinations - A Case Study

from Two Tourism Business Networks
Arja Lemmetyinen
234
Tanja Lepistö
Kati Suomi
Lenita Nieminen
Turku School of Economics at the University of Turku, Pori Unit, Finland
arinle@utu.fi
Introduction
The evolution and shift in logic according to which brand construction and branding
constitute a collaborative, value-co-creation activity among firms (Merz & Vargo, 2009) and
destinations with all their stakeholders motivated the research undertaken for this study. A
destination can be defined as a set of institutions and actors located in a physical or virtual
space where marketing-related transactions and activities take place challenging the
traditional production and consumption dichotomy (Saraniemi & Kylänen, 2011). In our view,
actors focusing on the co-creation of a destination brand constitute a tourism business network,
defined by Lemmetyinen (2010, 20) as an intentional network of firms engaged in activities and
controlling resources in connection with other actors.
In competitive global environments, places and regions need to maintain and develop
their distinctiveness by amalgamating images, identities and resources into coherent visitor
experiences under a common brand (Richards, 2011). According to service-dominant logic
(SDL), customers, employees and other actors become effective and efficient resource
integrators in value co-creation (Vargo & Lusch, 2004; 2008). The focus is on service systems,
defined as a configuration of customer and service-provider resources that support and guide
the value co-creation that results in customer experience (Payne et al., 2008). All value creation
is co-creational, and service providers and customers always act as co-creators (Vargo & Lusch,
2004; Grönroos, 2012). Shaw et al. (2011) stress the need for tourism management to join the
wider debate within the mainstream management literature applying S-D logic in this context.
We adopt Perks et al. (2012, 2) definition of co-creation as the joint creation of value by a
firm and its network of entities, including customers, suppliers and distributors. In our study
these entities are members of tourism business networks. Direct interaction among the co-
creating parties is essential for value co-creation to happen (Grönroos, 2011; Grönroos &
Ravald, 2011).
The tourism industry is characterized by high-contact services (Grissermann &
Stokburger-Sauer, 2012). Studies on value co-creation in the tourism business (Chathoth et. al.,
2013; FizPatrick et al., 2013; Cabbidu et al., 2013) emphasize the role of co-production and co-
creation (Shaw et. al., 2010). Sørensen and Jensen (2015) point out the particular limitations of
service encounters in tourism concerning the potential for knowledge development and value
creation. Changing them into experience encounters would overcome these barriers and
further enhance the potential for innovation, highlighting the need in the industry to “reframe
business to respond to competition, new market conditions, and customer requirements”
(Edvardsson & Enquist, 2009; Edvardsson et. al., 2011). Hankinson and Lomax (2006) mention
that re-branding is about real change in the organization and its values.
Value co-creation stemming from the cultural heritage of a destination and specific local
needs is the key element in community building, particularly in the context of tourism
entrepreneurship. In this framework branding signals the identity of a learning environment.
(Lemmetyinen & Go, 2010.) Recent literature calls for the development of practices for
collaborating with partners (Barczak, 2012) and extending the co-creation to include more
stakeholders (Frow et al., 2015). We aim to identify the processes that enhance the distinctive
branding of a region by analysing the prerequisites for building a brand for wellbeing tourism
- “an entity including diverse products and services aiming to promote and maintain holistic
235
wellbeing” (Konu, 2010, 42; http://www.visitfinland.com.) Recent studies on tourism and the
creative economy also emphasize the need for cross-sector collaboration and convergence to
stimulate innovation and development (OECD, 2014).
Methods and data

The study analyses the value-creation processes among entrepreneurs, public-sector
agencies and other collaborators in two cases located in rural Finland. For three years two of
the authors followed the cases in their attempts to re-brand their offerings as wellbeing
destinations, thus enhancing understanding of changes in value-creation processes (Ring and
Van de Ven, 1992). The first case, the Ironworks Village, has a rich industrial history and
architectural value. The ironworks was founded in the late 15th century and has been in the
hands of one of Finland’s oldest family businesses since the 1860s. The company still owns most
of the historic buildings and offers guest services in the Ironworks Village. The municipality
coordinates the network of service providers and has launched a project to develop wellbeing
services to attract new residents and tourists to the area. The second case is a small country
spa and resort founded in 2008 by an architect who was fascinated by the cultural heritage of
this historic Villa Area. She and her husband bought an old villa built in 1860 and renovated it
to become a spa and their private home. The site dates back to the 1850s and is among the best
preserved villa areas in Finland. The Spa entrepreneur’s vision is to offer customers
experiences of life as it used to be, with servants, gardeners and chauffeurs. Although good at
networking, she does not belong to any communities or networks creating value for her service
provision. The two cases are likely to replicate or extend the emergent theory of value co-
creation in re-branding tourism destinations (cf. Eisenhardt, 1989). Our choice (cf. Yin, 2003)
is justified given the expectation that the two analyses would enhance understanding of more
cases (Stake, 1998). The data was collected from participative observation (cf. Tedlock, 2000);
in-depth interviews (cf. Riessman, 2004), policy documents and web sites. The following
research questions comprised the sub-goals of the study: 1) What are the perceived benefits
that motivate members of a tourism business network to form a common brand? 2) What are
the perceived risks that keep actors from participating in a coordinated network brand?

The first aim of the study was to identify the perceived benefits of forming a common
brand in a tourism business network. Strong municipal support has been a lifeline for the
micro-entrepreneurs in the Ironworks Village in terms of strengthening the relationships
between the actors. The big company’s role as initiator and coordinator has enhanced the joint
re-branding as a wellbeing destination. The second aim was to identify the perceived risks that
kept actors away from the coordinated network brand. The re-branding work started in the late
1990s but stopped partly due to personnel changes at the big company, which owns most of the
buildings in the area. With regard to the Villa Area, the City has shown no interest in revitalizing
its old (cultural) history, and the regional DMO sees no value in re-branding. Without support
from these local institutions the spa entrepreneur will have to find partners and private
investors who share her values and vision of the area’s cultural heritage if she is to brand it as
a well-being destination.
Discussion
Our preliminary results show that co-creation motives among network members are
connected to their belief in the benefits of the brand. There is an apparent need to make the
network participants’ outcomes (VAI decision making and outcomes) more visible and thus
more likely to be perceived as rewards rather than risks (e.g., Lemmetyinen and Go, 2010).
236
Given that the two empirical cases represent (cultural) tourism, the results may not be directly
relevant to other industry sectors. Stakeholders in the field could nevertheless benefit from the
best practices.
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The opportunities for cultural tourism development in Canada- case of St.

Jacobs, Ontario, Canada (co-creation experience with a local community)
Marica Mazurek, MSc, PhD. candidate

University of Matej Bel Banska Bystrica, Slovakia
marica0011@yahoo.ca
INTRODUCTION
The tourism marketing strategies are becoming more sophisticated because the tourists
expect a spectrum of different experiences and tourism products while visiting destinations.
Community investment into the business of culture is important for the improvement of sense
of a place and marketing. A majority of marketing principles that have to be recognized by
successful tourism destinations represent the main components of the product marketing mix,
for example the marketing of the special “terroir” of destination (place), determining of the
main attractions of the core products defining in the destination’s main cultural product offer.
People and knowledge potential of a region, belong to the crucial leading factors of
competitiveness. Cultural tourism, which relies on highly educated and skilled labor due to the
educational content, depends on the marketing tool “people”. For this reason, it is crucial not
only to educate people, but also to create their relationship and attachment to the destination
and willingness to co-operate and be a part of the product offer. However, there might be
specific obstacles in a community based on the different cultural or religious background. For
this reason, even the best prepared marketing and branding strategies can fail due to the
insensitive commodification of a place. St. Jacobs in Ontario, Canada is a good example of a
sensitive approach to cultural tourism in a combination with a rural and agritourism. The
purpose of this case study and research is to point out at the possibilities of development of
cultural tourism in culturally sensitive places and to build an attractive cultural product, e.g. to
preserve a sustainable environment and apply marketing principles. Nowadays, in tourism
development is crucial to apply the principles of ethics and this example might be one of good
practices in the world.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The success of place-based development through place branding is based on the
combination of the cultural atmosphere and natural environment of a place. Place-based
development through place branding is aimed at increasing the quality and attractiveness of a
place, creating a unique identity and image for a place and making connections between people
living in a place. The place identities are highly dependent on the place and people living in a
place and influence the images of a place. For these reasons, forming of uniquely appealing place
characteristics, as well as connections between visitors and the place should be central in the
place-based development strategy. In this concept culture is crucial for the comparative
advantage. Mc Kercher and du Cros (2002) defined cultural tourism as visits by persons from
outside the host community motivated wholly or in part by interest in the historical, artistic,
scientific, or lifestyle/heritage offerings of the community, region, group, or institution.
Creative tourism is a development of cultural tourism but goes a step further, encouraging
participation, not simply observation. "Creative tourism involves learning a skill on holiday that
is part of the culture of the country or community being visited. Creative tourists develop their
creative potential, and get closer to local people, by actively participating in workshops and
learning experiences that draw on the culture of their holiday destinations"
(www.creativetourism.co.nz/index). In some cases to become a part of local community could
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be difficult. One of the obstacles could be a distinctive cultural group of people who cannot be
forced to be a part of that tourism product. There might be some rules how to involve such
communities, respectively to create them the conditions, which could be culturally friendly.
Wall and Matthieson (2006) mentioned a research of Affeld (1975, p. 109) dealing with the
cultural impacts of tourism on the tourist, the host and mentioned the tourist-host
interrelationships. The authors also mentioned the studies dealing with the impacts of tourism
on creation of different political, religious, cultural problems (among the mentioned authors by
Wall and Matthieson, 2006 were for instance the authors Jafari, 1974, Ryan, 1993, McKercher
and du Cros (2002), Jaffari (2001). These impacts could be based on different reasons as Wall
and Matthieson (2006) mentioned, for instance traditions, religious beliefs, customs, lifestyles,
dress codes, attitude against strangers. For this reason a creation of a place product offer in
some destinations might be challenging and requires an enormous knowledge of local
environment and sensitive place branding and marketing practices. Wall and Mathieson
(2006), Go and Govers (2009) mentioned a danger of commodification and staged authenticity,
which both means a loss of authenticity. Go and Govers (2009) also mentioned the idea of
Dietvorst and Ashworth (1995, p. 7) that the extent by which the identity of place is experienced
and to what degree places are authentic. In order to protect a community and to preserve the
authenticity, Murphy (1985) argues that “tourism relies on the goodwill and cooperation of
local people because they are part of its product” (p. 153). Local people can create positive
environment for tourists or can be a source of tension and stress for tourists and vice versa. Co-
creation factor in this relationship is crucial. Tourists can be a reason of creation of negative
externalities for local people. Gearing and Swart (1976) classified these negative factors as
“production externalities, externalities of consumption, externalities of environmental
protection and socio-cultural externalities” (p. 14). In a community, as stated by Singh (2003)
“all persons and public and private bodies are affected positively and negatively by the impacts
of tourism development. People’s participation through power sharing, social cohesion and
knowledge enhancement is very important in community development” (p. 19).
METHODS AND MATERIALS

A case study dealing with cultural tourism examples, which has been collected in the
primary research (personal experience during 4 years of study stay and work in Waterloo
region) and the secondary research (documents, videos, literature) has been used. Creswell
(2007) describes a case study as cases bounded by time and activity and the researcher collects
detailed information by using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of
time, involving multiple sources of information rich in context to understand the phenomenon.
He states that a case study is a strategy of inquiry that allows researchers to explore in-depth a
program, event, process or one or more individuals.
Smith (2010) considers case studies as designed to offer ‘deep’ insights, including
conclusions based on the context of the topic being studied, and involves the use of multiple
methods and data sources. The author (ibid, 2010) stresses the importance of case studies for
the rich understanding of interest and deeper insights into the phenomenon under study, which
cannot be achieved through other methods. Three possible approaches are familiar in case
studies and Stake (2005) recognized intrinsic, instrumental and multiple case study design. The
discussed case study could be categorized as intrinsic due to a fact that it provides a space to
learn about a phenomenon, to understand it and this is a main purpose of a study, e.g. to
understand a case without testing a theory.
In order to pursue this goal, our advantage is to be able to participate at several
excursions and study trips in St. Jacobs and to participate at classes with experts in tourism
community development, tourism marketing and cultural tourism at the University Waterloo,
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Canada. The case study is based on several discussions and personal interviews with academics,
personal observations and discussion with local people and business representatives as well as
employees of businesses in St. Jacobs (stores, farmer market representatives), visits of St.
Jacobs and personal experience. The existence of several academic research studies, which have
been also studied, contributed to the knowledge of problematic and cultural milieu (Dahms,
1991; Mitchell & de Waal, 1998, 2009; McClinchey & Carmichael, 2010) as well as personal
discussions and lectures and visits of St. Jacobs with Prof. Stephen Smith, Waterloo University
(now Guelph University in Canada), Prof. Geoffrey Wall from Waterloo University and Prof.
Marion Joppe, Guelph University in Canada. In order to support and justify a choice of case study
for our research we use the argument of Yin (2003a) who claimed a case study to be “an
empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context,
especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p.
13). A typical example in tourism and management studies might be the implications of cultural
tourism, where different methods and topics could be applied to deal with the commodification
of culture, acculturation, empowerment of host communities, globalization, etc. In the future,
socially responsible tourism topics will have even more influence on research and practice. For
this reason sometimes blending of methods and disciplines is also a good example of a holistic
view of the phenomena, as is drawing on results obtained through the lenses of different
disciplines, methodologies, cultures, etc. In our case, we decided to look at the problem from
the point of view of marketing, management and partially also applied social sciences as history,
cultural studies, anthropology, and geography in order to understand a problem with more
complexity. The innovative approaches in tourism policy, management, marketing and
environmental protection has embraced the need to look at tourism as an activity requiring a
more holistic approach. Based on systemic thinking (Mulej’s Dialectical System Theory), which
has been also explained by Božičnik and Mulej (2008), the synergy of different viewpoints
within economic, social, and environmental development (in which tourism development is
also embedded) have to be taken into account. Tourism development has to be attained by
accepting the rules of socially responsible activity, not only seeing it as a phenomenon of value
creation and economic growth.
RESEARCH AND RESULTS

According to Multicultural Canada, in the world live about 1.7 million baptized
Mennonites in 83 countries. In Waterloo Region live about 20,000 Mennonites in three main
groups, e.g. Old Order, Conservative and Modern. The Old Order Mennonites are a unique
culture with own faith and life style. They reject modern life (prefer traveling by horse and
buggy) and live on the farms. Visitors to St. Jacobs are interested in rural and especially cultural
tourism. They are looking for the opportunity to authentically experience other places, peoples,
and cultures. Mennonites' rural history in the area has now become a part of the cultural
tourism setting that attracts many visitors each year. Tourism brochures and travel articles
about St. Jacobs highlight many examples of built heritage, such as The Village Silos, The Mill,
the original Home Hardware, and the West Montrose Covered Bridge (Luke and Durand, 2009).
Several critics and academics have warned of the possible loss of heritage and culture through
tourism and its commodification. One example comes from the tension in St. Jacobs between
the locals and the tourists. Using religion, history, and lifestyle as a tourism attraction can be a
difficult and it requires sensitivity and forward-looking planning. Tourism academics and
experts are cautious against tourism development that strays too from the original culture of
the area and allows tourism to overwhelm the culture it is promoting (Mitchell, 2009).
Based on several former studies and discussion results (McClinchey & Carmichael,
2010, Mitchel & de Waal, 1998, 2009, Dahms, 1991), St. Jacobs was originally only a settlement
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of Mennonites, which is situated in the Waterloo Region in Ontario, Canada. The village is
situated very close to the important knowledge triangle of cities Kitchener, Waterloo and
Guelph as well as a town Cambridge. St. Jacobs is also not too far from a financial centre of
Canada, Toronto and a capital of a province Ontario. Dahms (1991) mentioned that a location
to major junction and transportation facilities (Highway 401) and close distance from the
Greater Toronto Area was a reason of good connection with markets interested in special
cultural places with a distinct Mennonite culture. People who are interested in excellent rural
products offered by local farmers and Mennonites as well as in cultural heritage of Mennonite
people and clean environment with culinary specialties and family attractions, might be fully
satisfied in this small village. St. Jacob is very popular with regular farmer markets, which take
place twice a week in the southern part of the village. Market is well known for livestock sale
and exchange and visitors have the opportunity to taste local food. Mennonite families
participate regularly at these markets and their products bear names of producers (brands of
a family). In many cases, they present also pictures of their farms and photos of family members
in the stores where they sell their products. The quality of production and a way how they sell
products, for instance, in traditional cloth, which is typical for their lifestyle, is very attractive
for the buyers. Despite of it, their role is not to become a stage of authenticity or tourism
attraction, but it is only their way of life and everyday routine. In branding, very important
might be not only to create an image for a destination and brand identity, but to use a special
ambassador of a place with a vision to promote a place. In case of St. Jacob this role was fulfilled
by a person who was one of Mennonites and his name was Milo Shantz. Milo Shantz was a leader
of the livestock exchange business and one of the creator of the Mennonite Visitors Centre.
Another great example of successful development and co-creation among the
community and local entrepreneurs was a case of the Mercedes Corporation, which is the
owner of 50 % of real estate and outlet mall and participate also in Farmer´s Market. It seems
to be very important also for this company and local people to be attentive to the Mennonite
Story Visitors especially from the point of view of preservation and sensitiveness to local
distinct culture of Mennonites. This might be a good example of a symbiosis of local business
representatives, community, public sector and a specific distinct culture like Mennonites and
also it might be a good example of the implementation of ethical approach in entrepreneurship
and community development. The brand “ St. Jacobs Country” is owned by a private Mercedes
Corporation, there is an active co-operation of other community partners who are also creators
of branding strategy of St. Jacobs. In this case, partnerships are very effective due to a majority
of ownership of Mercedes Corporation and this is a good example of private and public
partnership in tourism. An important fact for success in branding and marketing strategies as
well as in business strategies plays a coordinative function and hegemony of ownership which
is embedded in Mercedes Corporation. Trust, leadership, and cultural sensitiveness are crucial
for successful stories of destinations, especially with the ambition to be also popular places for
business, leisure and entertainment. Similarly has approached this problem also Dahms (1991)
who underlined not only the entrepreneurial success, but also heritage and amenities. Strategic
management, strong leadership and vision, governance and coordination through partnerships
are key elements of successful stories of cultural and historical places as well as places with the
ambition to succeed generally. For instance in case of Mercedes company, which is a brand
owner of this place, the opportunities for co-operation and participation are very effective and
a strong image and message is a result of common synergy. Ownership of Mercedes Company
in St. Jacobs might be a good example of the successful branding and financing of tourism and
community development.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
242
Tourism development creates in a community new relations, partnerships, positive

environment and multiple beneficial economic effects or negative effects. Impact of tourism on
communities is crucial in creation of communities’ attitude to the development. The synergy of
community interests and entrepreneur’s interests in tourism development is the optimal
outcome of a symbiosis of these two elements in economic, social and natural environment.
There could be 4 scenarios in this relationship (Singh 2003, p. 26) in the relation to community
and tourism:
- Win-win – development of tourism in community is beneficial also for community,
- Win-lose – community benefits, but tourism suffers,
- Lose-win – the case when tourism entrepreneurs benefit more as a community and
community suffers due to the decisions against community,
- Lose-lose – a case where both community and tourism suffer (in a case of mass
development of tourism and a creation of negative externalities).
“When examining the role of the community in tourism it is impossible to separate the
social, economic and political processes operating within a community from the conflict which
occurs between stakeholders” (Singh 2003, p. 100). There exist distinctive communities
created by specific cultures and religious groups, which require a specific approach. The
authors as Ap and Crompton (1993), Brown and Giles (1994) mentioned the possible responds
of residents, a community to tourism development, e.g. embracement, tolerance, adjustment
and withdrawal. There exist specific minorities or communities, which might be difficult to
demonstrate this approach due to their cultural and religious belonging. Despite of being a part
of cultural product in a community, the lifestyle of these people should be respected and the
community and visitors have to be tolerant to their specific way of life as well as people involved
in business activities of destinations. For this reason it is crucial to be able to combine
marketing and management of a community with the sensitive and sustainable development of
a place as a part of the ethical approach to entrepreneurship.
Case of St. Jacobs is a real story of success of the cultural sensitivity, tourism development,
partnership co-operation and branding strategy effectiveness. Despite the fact that St. Jacobs is
a village and a rural destination, the way how local initiatives are managed, development is
understood and the trust is created, is a reason why brand St. Jacobs is so successful. Despite a
fact that Farmer Market has been fully destroyed by a fire in 2013, the local initiative to revive
new place with the same function, joint the local community and businesses (a documentation
in appendix). People were so attached to this place and not only local people, but also people
from neighboring communities and visitors. Sense of place, place attachment, good image and
feeling about a place are crucial for successful branding strategies.
There might be visible one important factor, which is crucial in branding, e.g. the brand
identity and brand personality concept. In case of St. Jacobs was the identity formed by the
existence of a distinctive cultural group of people which influences the uniqueness of brand of
this village. The uniqueness means also the protection of a place against copying the special
character of a place. Despite of a fact that some managerial and marketing strategies could be
somehow copied or implemented (sometimes with more or less success because not all copied
or benchmarked processes are the same as the original), the distinct culture and uniqueness is
hardly to be copied and transferred because it is specific only for that particular place.
In conclusion, a strategic innovation concerning the approach to branding places and co-
creation of local community with local businesses might be a good initiative in the improvement
of processes in destinations. Existing balance of the environment, natural or social and the
economic activities of human society might be a goal of positive approach to cultural tourism
development in destinations. St. Jacobs must be thankful to the attributes of such people as
Jacob C. Snider, one of famous people of this region and entrepreneur (Dahms, 1991), Milo
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Shantz and the representatives of the Mercedes Corporations and its partners, however, also a
community of local patriots and Mennonites who create a mosaic of this special place, which is
so difficult to forget.
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245
Appendix:
Photo of former Farmer’s Market St. Jacobs and after a fire

Source:
https://www.google.sk/search?q=st.+jacobs+farmers+market+new+building&biw=1680&bih=88
5&noj=1&site=webhp&tbm=isch&imgil=TueZqG5Ccy3LIM%253A%25
246
Sustainable Tourism and Marketing in Zambia: The Case of Nature as

Driver of the Tourism Sector
Dr. Martin Mbewe

Dr. Wilson Silungwe
Hotel and Tourism Training Institute, Lusaka, Zambia
Corresponding author: mbewemartinn@yahoo.co.uk
Introduction
This paper is an analysis of secondary literature on sustainable tourism and marketing
with a specific focus on nature-based tourism in Zambia. The Victoria Falls, bordering Zambia
and Zimbabwe, and the wildlife assets are the two major categories of natural resources that
are the draw-cards for national and international tourism in Zambia. The protection,
conservation and management of these natural resources are, therefore, essential for the
survival and sustainable growth of the tourism sector over both the shorter and longer terms.
This will ensure that the benefits derived from these natural resources accrue to and meet the
needs of both the present and the future generations within the context of sustainable
development.
Together with the inputs from the tourism industry, the analysis is intended to show-case
sustainable tourism in Zambia. The paper then raises questions for future research to find
answers to input into the development of a set of guiding principles for achieving sustainable
tourism, marketing and promotion of local and international visitation to the country’s tourist
attractions.
Literature review
Zambia has been a tourism destination, for both local and international tourists, pre-
dating the country’s independence in 1964. The country’s tourism sector comes only third after
mining and agriculture in contributing to the nation’s Gross Domestic Product. The tourist
attractions are its abundant natural beauty that includes water falls, among them the world
renowned Victoria Falls, a United Nations Heritage Site and one of the seven wonders of and
the largest water fall in the world; twenty National Parks (NPs) and thirty-six Game
Management Areas (GMAs) with one of the largest concentrations of wild animals in Africa;
conservation areas for a spectacular variety of wild animals and bird species; a rich cultural
heritage; a number of traditional ceremonies and adventure activities. The Victoria Falls,
because of its uniqueness to Zambia and on the world stage, is currently the major focus of
Zambian tourism (Liu and Mwanza, 2014; Mbewe et. al., www.zambiatourism.com).
The analysis and understanding of the national and international value of Zambia’s
tourism and its sustainability must be contextualised within the larger realm of sustainable
development. To be sustainable, tourism “must take full account of its current and future
economic, social-cultural and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the
industry, the environment and host communities" (UNEP, 2005).
Tourism, as an economic activity (job creation, foreign currency earner, source of
disposable income, growth of transnational corporations, stimulates inward and industrial
investments), has an effect on the environment of the destination and this contributes to the
desirability and attractiveness of a tourist destination. Thus, the protection and conservation
of environmental resources, upon which the tourism industry depends as primary inputs in the
production of the tourist output, are prime considerations for the tourism industry (Swarbrook,
1999; Lim and McAleer, 2003).
247
Culturally, the aim of sustainable tourism is to carefully (re)integrate tourism into local
and regional culture and not to integrate culture into tourism. The locals at tourist destinations
need to be given the opportunity to not only keep their traditions for visitors, but also live
family culture and rites to the exclusion of strangers (Baumgartner, 2008).
Socially, the quality in tourism is determined by the quality of service and, therefore, the
improvement of the education and social protection levels of those employed in the tourism
industry are of utmost importance. This social dimension mainly concerns the high proportion
of adolescents and women as well as the high seasonal unemployment which have to be taken
into account and require specific legislative and voluntary measures. Then there are needs of
special guest groups comprising those aged 50 and more; the people with special needs
(“physically challenged”); non-smokers; families with children and single travellers who have
special demands on accommodation, destinations and transport service providers. In order to
be successful with these important parts of touristic target groups, potential special needs have
to be considered. Thus, there is need for equity to ensure that all stakeholders in tourism are
treated fairly; there are equal opportunities for both tourism employees and tourists; the
tourism industry is ethical in its dealings with both tourists and suppliers and that the host
governments are ethical in dealing with host populations and tourists; and, finally, tourists treat
those who serve them as equal partners and not as inferiors (Baumgartner, 2008; Swarbrook,
1999).

Available secondary literature on sustainable tourism and marketing in Zambia in general
and on the Victoria Falls and wildlife assets in particular, were reviewed and analysed. Chi-
square (X2) and Descriptive statistics were used to test for differences in visitors to the National
Parks; employment and income levels in the tourism sector. Trend analysis was used to analyse
differences in visitors to the Victoria Falls since there were only two variables; year and number
of visitors. For the X2 analyses, the probability of committing a type-1 error (alpha) was set at
0.05.
Results
Zambia’s tourism marketing strategies
The Zambia Tourism Board (ZTB), Zambia’s only tourism marketing agency, specializes
in two forms of Tourism marketing strategies: Domestic and International tourism. The
international market is the major focus with 60% of the investment and the remaining 40% is
on the domestic market (ZTB, 2013).
Domestic Tourism
The target for the domestic market is the middle class and mainly for leisure, focussing on
travels between municipalities within the country. The ZTB promotes, supports and markets
domestic tourism by participating in various local tourism-related events including the Zambia
International Trade Fair, Agriculture and Commercial Shows and Traditional Ceremonies. The
institution also hosts tourism programmes related to the marketing of Zambia’s tourism
attractions on national and private television and radio stations.
International Tourism
The ZTB often undertakes marketing initiatives in different existing and potential tourism
source markets to create destination awareness for Zambia; mainly in African, Europe, China,
India, North America and Australia. The institution also markets Destination Zambia via
international media and travel agents in these regions.
Visitors to Zambia’s National Parks
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Over a five-year period, 2009-2013, a total of 314,069 national and international tourists
visited Zambia’s National Parks (Zambia Tourist Board Annual Report 2013; Ministry of
Tourism and Arts: Tourism Statistical Digest (2013). The distribution of visitors was different
and statistically significant on origin (X2 = 9556.763, p<0.0001, df = 16) (Table 2). The majority
of visitors originated from Europe followed by those from Zambia. On a yearly basis, however,
the numbers fluctuated but substantially increased in 2013, Table 2.
Table 2. Chi-Square Tests for national and international visitors to Zambia’s National Parks
(2009-2013)
Year 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total X2 P < .0001 df
Visitor 64,76 50,51 63,89 57,70 77,28 314,06 9556.76 0.000 16
s 1 8 7 2 1 9 5
National and international visitors to the Victoria Falls (2004-2013).

A total of 1,384,090 tourists visited Victoria Falls from 2004 to 2013 (Government of the
Republic of Zambia, Ministry of Tourism and Arts, 2013). A trend analysis indicated fluctuations
across the years in the number of visitors, with 2005 having recorded the highest number
(Figure 1). In that year, 2005, Zambia launched the “Visit Zambia Campaign” and the increase
could have been attributed to the launch. The sharp reduction in 2006 could have been due to
the worldwide economic downturn that affected many tourist destinations that period of time.
There was, however, a modest visitor-increase from 2011 to 2013 probably a sign of
improvements in the world economy.
Visitors to Victoria Falls, 2004-2013

200 000
v 180 000
i 160 000
140 000
s
120 000
i 100 000
t 80 000 Visitors
o 60 000
40 000
r
20 000
s 0
2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Years
Figure 1. Visitors to the Victoria Falls, 2004-2013
Employment levels and accommodation earnings in the hospitality and tourism

industry
Between 2012 and 2013, a total number of 101,629 people were employed in Zambia in
the hospitality and tourism industry consisting of 45,035 males and 56,594 females
(Government of the Republic of Zambia, Ministry of Tourism and Arts, 2013). The distribution
of employees was different and statistically significant on Province (X2 = 273.383, p<0.0001, df
= 9) (Table 4).
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Table 3. Chi-Square Test for employees in the tourism sector across ten Provinces of Zambia
(2012-2013).
Number of Provinces 10 X2 P < .0001 df
Total number of employees 101,629 273.383 0.000 9
Lusaka and Southern Provinces of the country recorded the highest number of employees
due to the increase in the number of hotels and lodges. The Southern Province is home to the
Victoria Falls and the Mosi-o-Tunya National Park; two nature-based sites that support eco-
tourism. Additionally, Livingstone, Zambia’s tourist capital is located in Southern Province and
attracts a lot of international and domestic tourists visiting the tourist attraction sites. These
numerous tourist visits have increased the need for investments in the tourism establishments
that, in turn, have resulted in increased employment levels.
In terms of annual direct tourism-related earnings the country earned totals of USD
441,062,536.48 and USD 540,209,718.40 in 2012 and 2013, respectively (Government of the
Republic of Zambia, Ministry of Tourism and Arts, 2013). The descriptive statistics on earnings
indicated statistically significant differences on the type of tourism earnings in the two years
analysed (p<0.0001) (Table 4). The highest earnings came from accommodation
establishments followed by car hire, travel agents and hunting concessions.
Table 4. Descriptive analysis for annual earnings from Tourism

Year 2012 2013 Total P < .05
Number of Provinces 10 10
Mean 208645434.29 272629306.68 240637370.49 0.000
Standard deviation 423877619.15 55169463.02 479957375.10
The Southern Province recorded the highest earnings from accommodation

establishments due to high tourism activities in Livingstone and Siavonga, an attractive tourist
destination on the banks of Lake Kariba. Tourist draw cards in Livingstone, besides the Victoria
Falls and the Mosi-o-Tunya National Park, include bunji jumping, elephant back riding, walking
with the lions, boat cruise, flying over the Victoria Falls, water rafting and museums.

The Victoria Falls and the wildlife assets are Zambia’s back-bone of tourism. Most
international and national visitors to these tourism draw-cards originate from within Africa,
Zambia included, followed by the Europeans. This suggests need for the Zambia Tourism Board
(ZTB) to concentrate their tourism promotions on this market in order to attract more revenue
into the country’s economy. Furthermore, it is logistically cheaper for African tourists due to
shorter distances. On the other hand, it may suggest that ZTB is not doing more in promoting
these tourist attractions in the markets that have fewer visitors into the country. In both
scenarios, there is need for ZTB and other relevant tourism research institutions to deliberately
embark on market research to identify alternative tourism products to continue attracting both
repeat and new tourists alike.
The high employment figures in tourism activities, especially accommodation, in Lusaka
and Southern Provinces suggest high and selective concentration of tourism investments at the
expense of other regions that may need to benefit from tourism. It may also suggest that there
are no potential and attractive tourism destinations in the other regions. There is need,
therefore, for thorough research efforts to discover and aggressively market potential tourism
attractions in these otherwise neglected regions to create possible employment opportunities
for local communities.
250
References
Baumgartner, C. (2008): Nachhaltigkeit im Tourismus: Von 10 Jahren Umsetzungsversuchen zu
einem Bewertungssystem. Studienverlag: Vienna.
Government of the Republic of Zambia (2013). Tourism Statistical Digest. Ministry of Tourism
and Arts, Zambia.
Lim and McAleer, 2003. Ecological Sustainable Tourism Management. CIRJE-F-206 Discussion
Paper. Tokyo, Japan.
Liu, B. and Mwanza, F. M. (2014). Towards Sustainable Tourism Development in Zambia:
Advancing Tourism Planning and Natural Resource Management in Livingstone (Mosi-oa-
Tunya) Area. Journal of Service Science and Management, Vol.7 No.1.
Mbewe, M., Siamatowe, C. and Kalifungwa, P. (2014). Tourism Education and Training in
Zambia. Paper presented at the Second International Forum on Tourism Education and
Training and 9th China Tourism Forum, Guilin Tourism Institute, China. 16-18 October,
2014.
Swarbrook, (1999). Sustainable Tourism Management. CABI Publishing Series.
UNEP (2005). Marketing Sustainable Tourism Products. Nairobi, Kenya.
www.zambiaembassy.se
www.zambiatourism.com
Zambia Tourism Board (2013). The 2012 Annual Report.
251
Re-examining the concept of value in tourism
Scott McCabe
Nottingham University Business School, UK
scott.mccabe@nottingham.ac.uk
Introduction
It is over ten years since Prahalad and Ramaswamy introduced the concept of value co-
creation into the marketing lexicon, sparking a paradigm shift in thinking in marketing theory
and practice about the fundamental basis of exchange relationships (2004). Of course, in
tourism marketing, this merely confirmed what was accepted almost as taken for granted - an
implicit understanding about the very foundations upon all tourism business is based: that the
experience of the customer is central to value perceptions, and that each customer intrinsically
co-produces and consumes the experience synchronously. ‘In the experience space, the
individual consumer is central and an event triggers a co-creation experience. The events have
a context in space and time, and the involvement of the individual influences that experience.
The personal meaning derived from the co-creation experience is what determines the value to
the individual’ (Prahalad and Ramaswamy 2004:14). This is not to say that tourism marketing
theory was ahead of the curve, long being criticized for focusing too much on the attributes and
features of destinations, packages and experiences as opposed to the experiential or emotional
benefits perceived by consumers in the construction of marketing messages or in theorizing
tourist experiences (Tung and Ritchie 2012).
However, recently a new wave of research has examined value co-creation in a range of
tourism contexts. Some studies have explored the application of SD logic and the potential for
co-creation in the hotel sector (Shaw, Bailey and Williams 2011); and the role of company
support in customer satisfaction in facilitative co-creation in travel agencies (Grisseman and
Stokburger-Sauer 2012); the use of IT in value co-creation through the use of an open voucher
system to encourage low-season tourism in Sardinia (Cabiddu, Lui and Piccoli 2013); the scope
for co-creation in community based tourism planning (Hamilton and Alexander 2013), and;
exploring the capacity of tourism destination organization’s capacity to integrate customer co-
creation (Tussysdiah and Zach (2103). Other studies have sought to investigate the sources and
meaning of value in tourist experiences. Experience value for example, has been defined by
Prebensen, Vitturso and Dahl (2013:5) as “...comprised of the benefits the tourist perceives
from a journey and stay in a destination, including those assets or resources that the tourist,
other tourists and the host bring to the process of co-creating experiences.” Experience value
for the tourist then lies in being at the destination and taking part in producing and enjoying
various experiences while there (Prebensen et al, 2013). Of course, tourists experiences do not
exist entirely outside the context of the interactions with the tourism industry, yet value co-
creation theory recasts the role of firms and organizations as; “Firms can only provide services
as value propositions, which become an input to value realization” (Cabiddu, Lui and Piccoli:
2013: 88). There are also differing interpretations of the value co-creation construct as having
two distinct qualities, value co-production, whereby firms seek to incorporate consumers’
skills, resources and Value-in-use: co-creation tourism experience is seen as a simultaneous
production and consumption or “service experience,” which is a mutual co-production of
experience by tourists and tourism providers (Minkiewicz, Evans & Bridson, 2013).
Yet, despite this new literature on the sources and determinants of value co-creation,
there is little emphasis placed on understanding what is ‘value’ in tourism. If value is
determined by tourists, and we know that tourism is a vast multi-faceted phenomenon
embracing many forms of experience and activity, then value is surely similarly multifaceted. If
252
the theme of this conference is ‘Tourism Engagement: Co-creating Wellbeing’ and we know that
co-creation refers to the role of interactions between tourists and firms as co-producing value-
in-use, then it is important to understand what value determinants contribute to or constitute
wellbeing. This conceptual paper aims to; unpack the concepts of value and wellbeing; discuss
their relative functions in tourism practice from the perspective of the tourist experience and
tourism marketers, and; assess the implications for tourism marketing.
Literature review
There has been a long and interdisciplinary literature which has examined in depth the
concept of value. From a sociological perspective, Adler (1956) differentiates between four
types of value. Those which are absolutes, immutable and eternal, existing in the mind of God
and as such, independent of human action, and those that are embedded in an object, wither
material or non-material. These are also in distinction to values which are located in man (sic),
originating in his biological needs or in his mind (1956: 272). This can be either individually
held value or at the aggregate level of society. A final set of values can be equated with actions.
Thus value may be inherent in an object and absolute (such as the warmth of the summer sun)
but also relative in terms of the extent it is desired to satisfy needs of individuals. Whatever, in
the sociological view, value is determined by the quality or ‘goodness’ of the object. We might
recognise the inherent value of an object, for example, the four copies of the Magna Carta that
exist, particularly in this 800th anniversary year, for their rarity, great age, and influence on the
political and social systems of organisation in the Western World. These have universal value
beyond their appreciation of individuals and society. They have intrinsic value regardless of
fulfilment of any particular individual need.
The value originating in the needs of humans closely resembles conventional economic
reasoning. Adler quotes Park and Burgess in defining this type of value as “Anything capable of
being appreciated (wished for).” (1956: 273). Any object of any need can contain value as and
when a need or desire to obtain it arises. Here, value is something that exists outside of the
individual but which comes into existence by the value-bestowing activity that happens inside
the individual. This value is internal to the individual and there is no sense in thinking about
the object at all. Value only takes on this quality when ‘meaning’ is attached to it.
Thus value emerges when an object enters into the consciousness of an individual and
meaning is attached to the object to an extent that desire or perceived need is aroused sufficient
enough to take action. Value therefore exists on many different levels, and it is clear that value
is more than an economic concept, and has psychological and sociological implications. Take
for example, luxury value perceptions. International travel fifty years ago was perceived as a
luxury, yet now international travel has been democratised to such an extent that many of us in
the developed world think of an overseas holiday each year as a necessity. Thus, what is
perceived to be a luxury in a travel context is becoming increasingly opaque or differentiated
(Walls et al 2011; Wiedermann et al 2009). We might examine the ‘Veblen Effects’ of
conspicuous consumption for example (Badwell and Bernheim 1996). Consumption of highly
conspicuous goods and services is performed as a way to ‘advertise’ ones wealth, status or
position in society. Therefore consumption value includes symbolic value attached to certain
kinds of service experiences such as tourism.
Does a similar type of value exist in relation to wellbeing? Do consumers make choices
based on wellbeing needs or desires for wellbeing, and if so, what are the implications for co-
creation? Certainly a great deal of research has recently focused in on subjective wellbeing and
quality of life issues in tourism (McCabe and Johnson 2013). The importance of tourism to QOL
depends on the value attached to tourism-related goals (Sirgy, 2010). Some people value
tourism experiences more highly, and so they are likely to prioritise tourism consumption more
253
highly. Sirgy points out that tourism decisions are goal-driven. The goal-valence principle states
that tourism satisfaction will be enhanced when touristic goals are selected, for which
attainment is likely to induce high positive affect in various life domains. Sirgy discusses goals
related to growth versus basic needs. Growth needs include those high involvement activities
which are likely to contribute to personal and spiritual development, i.e. wellbeing outcomes.
Basic needs include low involvement activities such as escapism, relaxation or entertainment.
Although Sirgy predicates his arguments on the affect as a proxy for QOL and subjective
wellbeing, he raises an important link between goal related behaviour and that in turn raises a
crucial link to value conceptions.
Discussion/implications/conclusions
This paper is clearly a work in progress. There is much further work to do on the
theoretical discussion and the discussion of the implications and conclusions. Some basic ideas
for the conclusions are: value co-creation has been applied in a generic sense to ideas for
innovating tourism services and/or experiences. Yet even though value in the market literature
is presumed to be derived phenomenologically from firm-customer interactions, this makes an
assumption that value is economic and ignores the social psychological dimensions. Also, value
co-creation literature assumes a firm perspective and is entirely centred on the creation of
competitive advantage, whereas wellbeing comprises social and relational and developmental
(goals) elements. The paper posits that wellbeing value is an important outcome of and
motivating factor behind the purchase of tourism products and services. Tourism firms need to
act in a facilitating role to customer value orientations (be they symbolic, conspicuous, cost-
conscious [price driven] or wellbeing or others) and co-creation ideas and methods may not be
appropriate to the attainment of some of these value goals.
References
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279.
Bagwell, L.S. and Bernheim, B.D. (1996). Veblen Effects in a Theory of Conspicuous
Consumption. The American Economic Review, 86 (3), 349-373.
Cabiddu, F., Liu, T-W. & Piccolo, G. (2013). Managing Value Co-Creation in the Tourism Industry.
Annals of Tourism Research, 42: 86–107.
Grissemann, U., & Stokburger-Sauer, N. (2012). Customer co-creation of travel services: The
role of company support and customer satisfaction with the co-creation performance.
Tourism Management, 33: 1483-1492.
McCabe, S. and Johnson, S. (2013). The Happiness Factor in Tourism: Subjective Wellbeing and
Social Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 41, 42–65.
Minkiewicz, J., Evans, J., & Bridson, K. (2013). How do consumers co-create their experiences?
An exploration in the heritage sector. Journal of Marketing Management, (ahead-of-print),
1-30.
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Management, 32(2): 207-214.
254
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& Marketing, 26(7), pp.625–651.
255
Hospitality and shared experiences as content co-creation: Developing a

competitive advantage for destinations
Daniella A T Mendes
Elizabeth Kyoko Wada
Sergio Luiz do Amaral Moretti
Universidade Anhembi Morumbi
São Paulo, Brasil
Daniella_mendes@hotmail.com
Introduction
The study of Hospitality allows us to understand human relationships when welcoming
the other, becoming thus an important concept for understanding the perception of quality and
customer satisfaction. The positive sharing of experiences is influenced by the degree of
customers’ satisfaction, who publish experiences in travel websites and social networks,
creating images about certain moments.
Thus, the new perspectives, desires and motivations of an individual become fundamental
principles in creating a meaningful experience. The individual is called to create a hospitality
experience. The result of this new creation, reflected in shared content, results in the co-
creation of content or image that existed previously.
The general objective of this study is to verify, from the hospitality perspective, if the
sharing of experiences is characterized as content co-creation and competitive advantage. The
specific objectives are: 1) verify whether the selected tourist destinations encourage the
sharing of experiences by their visitors, 2) verify whether the selected tourist destinations use
the experiences of their visitors to their promotion 3) understand if pre-travelers use previous
travelers’ experiences as inspiration..
Literature review
Hospitality is addressed by the authors as a contemporary human exchange, idealized and
voluntarily assumed, which purpose is to enhance mutual well-being among the parties
involved (BROTHERTON, WOOD, 2007). This experience implies that there are at least two
characters involved: host and guest, where the guest needs to feel that the host is behaving
hospitably, inspired by the generosity and the desire to please the other (LASHLEY, 2008). The
hospitality experience can occur in the domestic, social and commercial domains.
The World Economic Forum in The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report (UNWTO,
2013), reinforces the idea of a Destination Hospitality, presenting as one of its evaluation pillars
the item "affinity for travel and tourism." This item represents the degree of openness of a
country and society to tourism and foreign visitors.
Since this study addresses hospitality as an item to attract visitors and promote the image
of a destination (KOTLER, 2006), the subject is within the commercial domain. In this domain,
hospitality becomes a strategic element in providing quality service and the host must therefore
be open to new offers of experience to the consumer. The higher the degree of interaction, the
more intense the experience (HEMMINGTON, 2007).
This experience should be treated as value. According to Pine II and Gilmore (1998),
creators of the experience expression as such, as long as it is thought in the following
dimensions: 1) active participation of the customer; 2) passive participation of the customer
and, 3) the individual's connection with the event, taking him/her to be immersed or absorbed
into the event.
256
According to Lugosi (2008), it is crucial to understand the customer experience produced

by the service encounter in order to understand how it will be shared, that is, how will the
possible content that it creates or co-creates be distributed. The commercial experience is not
produced isolated but in interaction with the originated experiences; it is therefore necessary
to understand the consumer deeply.
Experiences from previous consumers may also help the co-creation of experiences of
next consumers as well as the service offered by a provider. For Prahalad and Ramaswamy
(2004), the co-creation deals with the joint value creation, both by the company and the
customer. It is not the company trying to please the customer. Knowing how to use technology
to promote services and the destination itself has become a challenge for service providers and
inbound destinations. According to Buhalis (2008), the Internet reshapes the dynamics of the
exchange of information related to tourism, the way in which it is distributed and how people
plan and consume trips. He considers that information technologies help improve the quality
of services and generates greater traveler satisfaction. The author also states that predefined
tour packages are losing their market share to new travelers who organize independent trips.
Tribe (2011) mentions that the shared private experience promotes cultural identity and social
understandings. Customers consider previous customer experiences on review sites. Restrepo
and Marquez (2013), explain that this informal exchange of information (Word of Mouth), such
as observations of friends and acquaintances about their experiences and perceptions used to
be verbal, but nowadays happens via SMS, Facebook, Twitter, etc., simultaneously and at the
same moment as they occur.
In 2012, in Greece, during the first Tourism Forum organized by Google (BITZER, 2012) in this
country, 5 travel stages were presented: Dream, Planning, Booking (before the trip);
Experiencing (during the trip) and Sharing (after the trip) ,in order to meet the various stages
involved in its planning. The caring of the firs (previous) stages ensures positive consumer
generated content (CGC), which promotes the destination image.

This is an empirical and exploratory research based on secondary data. The general
objective of this study is to understand, from the hospitality perspective, if the sharing of
experiences is characterized as content co-creation and competitive advantage. To meet this
objective, the methodological procedures was been developed in three phases. Initially was
selected the ranking of destinations that receive the most international tourists using the
Tourism Highlights 2014 Edition report (UNWTO, 2013). Then, were chosen the three
destinations that occupy the top positions (France, United States and Spain) and two other
destinations that are part of the region that receives the least international tourists, the Middle
East (Egypt and UAE).
Finally, the data collection was carried out using a protocol designed to analyze online
channels which promote these destinations, focusing on cities receiving large numbers of
international tourists. Other points were also analyzed:
• Website: Analyzing the type of published content.
• Facebook: Analyzing the type of published content.
• Search Engine: Verifying, using the Google Trends tool, the quantity of internet
searches on these destinations (using the names of cities) from January to December
2014, triggering classification filters provided in the tool: all over the world and travel.
• Wi-fi: checking for internet wi-fi spots in public areas/places.
The content analysis for Website and Facebook channels was carried out thematic and
qualitatively (Bardin, 1977) and was classified in two dimensions of analysis:
 Informative content: content presented as "what to do"; features sorted by types of
257
activities such as leisure, culture, night; features disclosed by the nature of the
experiences such as adventure, gastronomy and others.
 Shared Content: the use of content generated by destination visitors

(CGC) for promotion in the analyzed online channels.
In addition to content analysis, secondary data gathered from researches made by
industry companies such as MDG Advertising and TripAdvisor were used in order to
understand whether pre-travelers use previous travel experiences as inspiration.
Results
The table below was developed based on the conducted research. It contains the features
found for each analyzed item.
Table 1: Provided by the authors

Destinations Website Facebook Search Wi-fi
Engine Internet
Present in
Informati 260 spots:
Informational
Paris onal 78 gardens,
Content
Content parks,
libraries
New York Subway
Informati stations,
Informational
onal 47 libraries,
Content
Content parks and
squares
Madrid Informati
onal
Content
Informational Public
and 55
Content transport
Shared
Content
Cairo No
No website Indoor
website 2
(tourism) locations
(tourism)
Dubai Indoor
Informati locations,
Informational
onal 74 subway, bus
Content
Content stops, Zabeel
Park
The website channels of the analyzed destinations feature informational content.

Although attractions in Dubai are presented as experiences, these do not match the experiences
of its visitors. In the Facebook channel, informational content features are also predominant.
Only Madrid representing Spain and occupying the third position in the ranking of destinations
that receive the most international tourists, shares visitors’ experiences (photos) on its page.
However, Paris and New York, representatives of France and the United States have the larger
quantity of f free wi-fi internet spots throughout the city. Despite occupying lower positions,
258
Dubai, UAE representative, is one of the destinations that have an internet search volume
similar to the representative occupying the first position in the ranking, Paris (France). A survey
conducted by TripAdvisor (2012/2013) shows that for 93% of respondents, online reviews of
other travelers have impact in their booking decisions and that during the trip, 39% of them
upload photos on social networks and 34% post updates in their profiles. The survey also shows
that 81% of responding hotel services providers encourage guests to submit their assessments.
The MDG Advertising agency (2012), using surveys from companies such as Marriott,
TripAdvisor and ComScore, conducted a study on how travelers use social networks and mobile
technology before, during and after the trip. The study reported that 52% of responding
travelers used social networks as an inspiration for their holidays.

Based on studies conducted by market research companies and the tourism industry, it is
noticed that the traveler uses the internet as a source of inspiration for planning a trip. Social
networks, used for publishing photos and experiences, are the channels used for this
inspiration (MDG ADVERTISING, 2012; TRIPADVISOR, 2013).
As pointed out earlier by Restrepo and Marquez (2013) it was noticed that during the trip,
when the experience is experienced, travelers use social networks to share content. In turn,
service providers began to encourage the sharing. Currently, this incentive can be shown by
providing wi-fi to enable this sharing.
If the welcoming, the hospitality experience of a city is successful and shared at the time
of experience, such initiative could be considered a powerful consumer-generated information
with the benefit of being used by pre-travelers. This is the type of content that the new travelers
search for. These experiences, generated and shared, co-create the traveler experience and the
destination image. To ensure that this action follows a positive line, the destination must be a
good host (Lashley, 2008; Lugosi, 2009).
Based on the results, it can be said that to get a competitive advantage status, destinations
need to facilitate this sharing and develop creative options for promoting its attractions. The
study objective- understanding that experiences generated from Hospitality can cause the
traveler to co-create the destination image through a new content that can be shared, thus
giving the destination, if it positively uses this sharing, a competitive advantage- was thus
accomplished.
References
Bardin, L (1977). Análise de Conteúdo. Lisboa, Edições 70.
Bitzer, M. (2012). How to Target Customers In Each Of The 5 Stages of Travel. Disponível em:
http://www.bluemagnetinteractive.com/blog/89-how-to-target- customers-in-
the- 5-stages-of-travel.html.
Brotherton, B e Wood, R. C. (2007). Key Themes in Hospitality Management, In R. C. Wood and
B. Brotherton (eds), The Sage Handbook of Hospitality Management. London: Sage.
Buhalis, D.; Law, R. (2008). Progress in information technology and tourism management: 20
years on and 10 years after the Internet—The state of eTourism research. Tourism
Management 29, 609–623.
Hemmington, N. (2007). From Service to Experience: understanding and defining the
hospitality business. The Service Industries Journal. September, V. 27, N. 6.
Kotler, P; Gertner, D; Rein, I; Haider, D (2006). Marketing de lugares. Pearson Education do
Brasil.
Lashley, C. (2008). Studying hospitality: insight from social science. Scandinavian Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism, 8 (1), 69–84
259
Lugosi, P. (2009). The Production of Hospitable Space: Commercial Propositions and Consumer
Co-Creation in a Bar Operation, Space and Culture, 12(4), 396–411.
.MDG Advertising (2012). Vacationing the Social Media Way. Disponível em:
http://www.adweek.com/socialtimes/files/2012/08/social-vacationing.png
Peter Lugosi, (2007). Consumer participation in commercial hospitality. International
Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, Vol. 1 Iss 3, p. 227 – 236.
Pine II, J.B; Gilmore, J.H (1998). Welcome to the Experience Economy. Harvard Business Review,
p.97-105.
Prahalad, C.K; Ramaswamy, V. (2004). Co-creation experiences: the next practice in value
creation. Journal of Interctive Mrketing.V. 3, N 3.
Restrepo, F. B.; Márquez, I. D. (2013). The Orange Economy - An infinite opportunity. Inter-
American Development Bank, Washington. P. 148.
Tribe, J (2011). The Economics of Recreation, Leisure and Tourism. Oxford, Elsevier, p.153,
p. 185.
TripAdvisor (2013). TripBarometer Reveals Travel, Freen nd Mobile Trends. Disponível em:
http://www.tripadvisor.com/TripAdvisorInsights/n627/tripbarometer-reveals-travel-
green-and-mobile-trends-infographic
UNWTO - United Nations World Tourism Organization (2013). Tourism Highlights 2014 Edition.
260
The Natural Environment as a Factor Increasing Attractiveness of a

Tourism Product of a City on an Example of Szczecin
Beata Meyer
Marta Bordun
Szczecin University, Faculty of Management and Economics of Services
Szczecin, Poland
meyer.beata@gmail.com
marta.bordun@gmail.com
Introduction
Cities play an important part in the modern development of tourism. On the one hand,
they are the biggest generator of both international and domestic tourism movement, on the
other hand, they are one of the most important places of the reception of domestic and foreign
tourists. In terms of tourism in urban areas, which basically focuses on monuments, events,
sightseeing, etc., the natural environment gives an opportunity to supplement an urban tourism
product with elements connected with it which create conditions to calm down, rest and gain
energy before starting other activities. The natural environment consists of green, water and
naturally valuable areas which have a wide range of recreational, tourism and special values
which enable various activities such as walking, nordic walking, cycling or horse-riding. In fact,
the natural environment can be used for recreational and holiday purposes without any special
preparations, however, appropriate development enables, above all, environmental protection
through relocating various activities, which take place there, to areas which are most
appropriate for them and, at the same time, least damaging to the environment. Well-
maintained, well-located as well as attractive infrastructure makes undertaking activities in
green areas easier and often stimulates spending time in the bosom of nature.
The natural environment is treated as obvious surroundings for tourists’ activities in a
city and is rarely perceived as an element of their attractiveness or an element of a tourism
product. However, possibilities of using environmental potential in the process of developing
a city's tourism product can be indicated in many cities. A city's tourism product enriched
with environmental elements could be more attractive for tourists as well as it could enhance
their mental and physical comfort while spending time in urban areas. This issue is not often
raised in theory or practice because cities are treated as areas mainly connected with business
tourism, culture tourism and event tourism which do not deal with the natural environment
and it is not their essential element. The study brings up this issue on the basis of an analysis of
a tourism product of the city of Szczecin (situated in north-western Poland) that has varied
environmental potential which adequate use could contribute to an increase of tourism
attractiveness of the city and of tourists' comfort of stay.
The objective of the study is to present new possibilities of developing tourism products
of cities using the natural environment on an example of Szczecin.
Literature review
The most common definitions of a tourism product in the literature present, above all, a
structural approach. They emphasize mainly its large capacity, complexity and flexibility.
V.T.C. Middleton (1996) thinks that a tourism product is a mixture of three main components:
attractions, tourism infrastructure in a destination and their availability. J.Ch. Holloway, Ch.
Robinson (1997), L. Mazurkiewicz (2002) and J. Kaczmarek, A. Stasiak, B. Włodarczyk (2010)
agree with this definition.
261
Definitions which focus on psychological aspects of a tourism product, such as benefits,

pleasures, satisfaction which all can result from the purchase of it are considerably less
common. A greater emphasis on possibilities of fulfilling needs and expectations of tourists can
be noticed in a definition of a tourism product suggested by V.T.C. Middleton (1996).
A city is a typical example of a regional tourism product. In their approach, V.T.C.
Middleton and R. Hawkins claim that destinations (tourism reception areas) can exist on the
market as places identified by tourists, thus have their own distinctive brand and develop their
own management system and procedures (V.T.C. Middleton, R. Hawkins 1998, p. 82). V.F.C.
Goncalves and P.M.R. Aguas (1997) promote other approach to the term. The issue of tourism
in urban areas was also considered by M. Sorkin (1992), Ch.M. Law (1993) and P. E. Murphy
(1997). Their views are shared by Polish authors, such as J. Altkorn (2001), M. Mika (2007) and
M. Derek (2013). The majority of authors agree that a city's tourism product includes such
elements as: natural and anthropogenic values, infrastructure and services of a destination as
well as its availability, image and price paid by the consumer (Niezgoda, Zmyślony, 2003, V.T.C.
Middleton, 1996, R. W. Butler, 2006, S. L.J. Smith, 1994).
The issue of the natural environment in terms of tourism attractiveness of cities is rarely
discussed in the Polish literature and only studies by Z. Mieczkowski (1995) can be found.
However, the issue is raised more often in the foreign-language literature, among others in
studies by A. Holden (2008) and R. Dowling, D. Newsome, S. Moore (2002), but they often refer
only to specific situations. The significance of the natural environment is not examined in
relation to activities of tourists in urban areas.

The research process has been divided into four stages:
1. The critical analysis of the literature on the subject on the basis of which the review
of theoretical foundations of the undertaken topic and criticism of the researched issues
in the context of scientific achievements to date will be conducted.
2. The analysis of main elements creating a tourism product of the city of Szczecin
which consists of tourism values, attractions, infrastructure, offer.
3. The description of the natural environment of Szczecin and identification of
elements of the environment which can be used as a supplement to/extension of a
tourism product of the city.
4. The assessment of attractiveness of a tourism product of Szczecin and the analysis
of activities undertaken by tourists in Szczecin, with particular focus on these performed
in the natural environment.
Results
Szczecin - the capital city of Zachodniopomorskie Voivodeship - the city with almost a
1000-year history, is one of the most attractive cities for tourists in Poland and has a population
of almost 410,000 residents. Since the former image of the city changed, it maintained its own,
unique character which enchants with beauty of the historical Art Nouveau architecture and
lush greenery. Szczecin is a city of a huge area (more than 300 sq km) and of the varied natural
environment in which there are a lot of water and green areas (25% and 20% respectively).
The city is located in the area of Western Pomerania and macroregion of Pobrzeże Szczecińskie
which comprises 11 mesoregions, 4 of which are situated in the city: Dolina Dolnej Odry,
Równina Goleniowska, Wzgórza Szczecińskie and Wzgórza Bukowe. The distance from the city
centre to the Baltic Sea in a straight line is 55 km (road distance is more than 90 km). The city
is surrounded by three forests: Puszcza Wkrzańska in the north, Puszcza Bukowa in the south
and Puszcza Goleniowska in the east.
262
The significance of tourism, as a branch of Szczecin economy, has been increasing for few
years. The number of tourists visiting Szczecin fluctuates around 370,000 people annually
(around 40% of foreign tourists, especially from Germany and Scandinavian countries) and
rises slowly but steadily. Tourists spend around 2 days in the city and their main aim of stay is
sightseeing, learning about architecture, culture and the natural environment of Szczecin as
well as visiting family and friends. According to more than 2/3 of tourists, Szczecin is a very
attractive city. In terms of tourism movement and the level of expenses, Szczecin does not differ
significantly from cities which are considered as more attractive (Gdańsk, Poznań, Wrocław). It
can mean that Szczecin is able to offer the adequate number of attractions to visiting tourists.
The most important places which foreign tourists come from are: Germany, Denmark, Sweden,
Norway as well as Belgium and the Netherlands.
A great attraction of Szczecin, which makes it distinctive of other cities in the country, is
the natural environment creating landscape values: hills surrounding the city, large forests and
landscape parks as well as a flat surface of Międzyrzecze with the Oder branches, many parks
with a unique stand of trees. Its importance was affirmed by the vision of Szczecin formulated
as Szczecin Floating Garden 2050 Project. This considerably new vision of Szczecin is a
revolution in the city development. Szczecin tries to shift itself towards water, ecology and is
going to combine good points of a metropolis with a place comfortable to live. The new brand
of the city works on the assumption that the development of Szczecin should be based on values
which were given to the city, shift towards water and greenery, focus on ecology, combine good
points of a metropolis and a place which does not overwhelm and life there does not involve
many drawbacks of modern cities. The city brand and the longstanding strategy of its
implementation involve a long-term process including many levels: from creating a brand
concept, its vision and mission, to designing a logo, a coherent visual system of the city and a
communication system. The strategy concerns the need for and possibilities of changes in the
scale of activities in order to develop unused or derelict spaces in the city. In order to develop
islands of Śródodrze and other parts of Szczecin, the most innovative urban planning,
architectural and technological solutions can be applied which, at the same time, help to protect
the nature which is ubiquitous in this unique place. This kind of approach gives new
possibilities of creating the city's tourism product which the natural environment will be an
intrinsic and essential part.

In the age of the modern demanding tourism market, a tourism product of a city has to be
more competitive. Cities, being artificially created by humans and being very often the result of
centuries-old development, are main areas of tourism reception. Having many attractive
cultural resources and rich tourism infrastructure, they offer an attractive mega-product and
many partial products to tourists. Particular components of a product usually complement
each other harmoniously. Cities attract tourists with numerous attractions. These attractions
are mainly in the form of: city's cultural heritage, numerous forms of entertainment, conference
centres and specialized services. The natural environment is treated mainly as a barely
recognizable background for various activities undertaken by tourists in urban areas, with the
exception of special situations when it is so unique that it can serve as the basis for creating
tourism attractions. Simultaneously, in the context of changing expectations of tourists and
new development trends, the natural environment should play a huge part in developing
tourism products of cities because of its potential which enables creating excellent conditions
for resting, regenerating or spending active time in a friendly environment.
References
263
Altkorn J.(2001), Marketing w turystyce, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 106,

Derek, M. (2013), Turystyka poza utartym szlakiem – nowy model turystyki miejskiej,
Turystyka Kulturowa, number 9, 78.
Dowling R., Newsome D., Moore S. (2002), Natural Area Tourism: Ecology, Impacts and
Management, Channel View Publications, 65.
Goeldner Ch.R., Richtie J.R.B. (2006), Tourism. Priciples, Practices, Philosophies. John Wiley &
Sons, New Jersey, 54.
Law Ch.M. (1993), Urban Tourism: Attracting Visitors to Large Cities. Mansell, London.
Middleton V.T.C., Hawkins R. (1998), Sustainable Tourism. A Marketing Perspective.
Buttenworth- Heinemann, Oxford.
Mieczkowski, Z. (1995), Environmental issues of tourism and recreation. Lanham, MD:
University Press of America, 45-75
Mika M. ( 2007), Turystyka miejska. W: Turystyka. Red. W. Kurek. Wydawnictwo Naukowe
PWN, Warszawa.
Murphy, P. E. (1997), Quality management in urban tourism. Chichester ; New York : Wiley.
Sorkin M. (1992), Variations on a Theme Park: The New American City and the End of Public
Space. Noonday, nr 12, New York.
264
Using service design thinking and tools for designing tourism services for
families with children
Heli Müristaja
Heli Tooman
Pärnu College, University of Tartu
heli.muristaja@ut.ee
Introduction
This paper will discuss how the service design thinking and tools could be used in
designing new and developing the existing family tourism products and services.
The first part of this paper examines the main principles of service design thinking, the
logical stages and tools of service design, and analyses the ideas concerning the use of service
design principles and tools for designing tourism products and services. The next part describes
the position and trends of family tourism and provides some results of the surveys related to
designing family tourism products and services. The last part of this paper provides some
recommendations for tourism organizations how to follow service design thinking and use
service design tools in designing tourism products and services for families with children.
Using service design thinking and tools in designing tourism products and services
Service design was first introduced as a design discipline at the beginning of the 1990s
and it has gained a lot of interest in various fields (Hollins & Hollins, 1991; Stickdorn &
Schneider, 2010). Service design has several definitions. In general it is the activity of planning
and organizing the people, infrastructure, communication and material components of a service
in order to improve its quality and the interaction between the service provider and customers.
Service design thinking lays out on five main principles: user centered, co-creative, sequencing,
evidencing and holistic. Together with the most traditional methods used for product design,
service design requires methods and tools to control new elements of the design process, such
as time and the interaction between agents.
It is necessary to divide the service design process into logical stages and there are several
approaches for that. (Stickdorn & Schneider, 2010; Clatworthy, 2011). One of the well-known
models is called: The Double Diamond diagram. This model was developed at the Design
Council (UK) in 2005 as a simple graphical way of describing the design process divided into
four distinct phases: discover, define, develop, and deliver.
The principles, techniques and tools of service design are considered universal and
applicable in all service-related areas, including tourism. However, in tourism these approaches
and opportunities are still awaiting more thorough research and discovery. A pioneer in
discussing the opportunities of service design principles and tools in tourism was Zehrer
(2009), who primarily studied how to apply them in designing new services and developing
existing services in small tourism companies.
Family tourism development and trends

Carr (2011) has said that children represent a significant portion of the world’s
population and tourist market in their own right and that family represents one of the largest
markets for tour operators and other vacation service providers. Yesawich (Yesawich, 2007)
expects family travel to continue growing at a faster rate than all other forms of leisure travel,
as both parents and grandparents continue to view travel as a way to “reunite” families in a
contemporary world that is increasingly dominated by demanding work schedules … even if
only for a few days.
265
Based on studies conducted in Europe, one may conclude that approximately 30 to 40 per
cent of vacation trips include children (Schänzel et al 2012). This seemingly easy target group
is becoming increasingly challenging with its wishes and needs (Carr 2011), as the target group
itself consists of diverse sub-groups (e.g. parents, children in various ages, grandparents, etc.)
and all of them have different and sometimes rather contradictory expectations, wishes and
needs.
Nowadays, the demand and supply in family tourism are influenced by changes in the
ideologies and values of the society, the demographic situation, the change in the role of fathers
in the family and the increasing role of children as consumers and tourists. Yeoman and
Schänzel (2011) point out the key factors and trends that are most likely to influence this target
group in the future: new family structures resulting from demographic changes (e.g. single
parents, democratic families, fewer children, divorce, etc.); the role of gender and parenting
behaviour (e.g. intensive mothering and involved fathering); the role of time; social exclusion
(e.g. social tourism initiatives); tourism builds family capital (bonding between grandparents,
parents and children and the social identification that is facilitated on vacation).
The Estonian National Tourism Development Plan for 2014–2020 identifies family
tourism as one of the priority areas for development (2013). To promote family tourism, it is
necessary to design differentiated family tourism products and services together with the
supporting infrastructure, which take into consideration the needs of travelling families and
provide exciting activities for children and youth from different age groups. The Development
Plan for the City of Pärnu until the year 2025 also highlights the importance and necessity of
developing family tourism (2011). Pärnu County has formulated the region’s vision for the
years 2030+ (Arengustrateegia, 2014), which establishes Pärnu County as the top health and
family tourism destination in the Baltic States following the countries’ capitals. The destination
was considered to have great potential for focusing on families with children, but still needed a
lot of work to satisfy the target groups and to design attractive and competitive family tourism
products and services to them.
Implementation of service design tools in process of the family tourism service design
In order to fully understand this target group, including both children and parents, we
need to understand their expectations, wishes, needs and feelings better. While the first three
categories can be studied by using traditional research methods – questionnaires and
interviews –, the mapping of feelings requires a more creative approach, and here methods such
as free drawing and storytelling are generally considered more appropriate. To answer the
question posed by this paper, the authors used a mixed research method consisting of a
questionnaire and focus group interviews, with the latter not only involving guided discussion
(a method most commonly used with focus group interviews) but also free drawing, poetry
creation and storytelling.
Firstly, families with children visiting the town were asked to fill out the questionnaire.
The respondents included 120 families in their place of destination, half of whom were
domestic and the other half international tourists. The results were then coded and analysed
using the statistical data analysis method. Open answers were analysed using content analysis
and intuitive coding methods. In brief, the following results and conclusions were obtained:
 Although a high percentage of returning visitors (approx. 75%) indicates that
people are generally satisfied with the products and services offered at the
destination, even the best experiences may lose their appeal over time, and
therefore continuous product development and informing of the visitors of the
latest updates is vital for keeping their interest alive;
266
Respondents were especially satisfied with free attractions (beach, parks, etc.) as
it helps price sensitive target groups to keep their costs low;
 Domestic visitors generally spend only 1–3 days at the destination, while the
average length of stay of foreign families is one week;
 More attention should be paid to designing wholesome customer journeys – this
applies to domestic as well as international tourists;
 Currently there are few activities designed for children aged 12–15 and for families
with children of mixed ages (e.g. whole-family joint participatory activities,
activities requiring active participation, youth clubs, etc.);
 Families are very much interested in travelling outside the summer season –
therefore, it is necessary to present concrete and attractive offers for weekends
and school holidays;
 Pärnu continues to be one of the main summer destination for Estonians, while the
key arguments for foreign visitors tend to be its small size, tranquility and
coziness;
 When asked about the propagation of information and the role of marketing, the
respondents relied most on recommendations by family and friends and their past
positive experiences associated with the place;
 Another way to attract foreign visitors could be combining several attractive
tourist destinations (for instance, Tallinn, Tartu and Riga/Jūrmala as well as
Pärnu) in a joint marketing effort;
 Information available on the internet must be up to date, directly addressing the
target groups, and translated into the languages spoken by the target groups;
 In several cases, respondents also highlighted some negative aspects relating to
the upkeep and cleanliness of the town/beach area and questionable functionality
of street lighting in the summertime;
 To increase the overall satisfaction of families with children, it is necessary to
improve the city environment and services so that they are more child and family
friendly.
To gain a deeper understanding the of the target group’s feelings related to travel, another
survey was carried out by employing creative techniques. Hence, an interview was conducted
with a group of ten, including parents, people whose daily work is connected with children (e.g.
the managers of hobby groups and theme days), managers of companies that have already
started to pay attention to satisfying the needs of families with children. The group also
included one child. In addition to tourism specialists, the first half of the discussion was
conducted by a creative therapist.
The group interview took place outside the daily environment of the interviewees – in a
creative room – and the participants were seated on the floor around a large piece of paper.
This was necessary in order to descend from the so-called daily adult level and view the world
from a child’s perspective. First, the participants were requested to choose a favourite colour
and draw a picture with two hands and their eyes shut; later, this picture could be perfected
with open eyes and the participants were asked to associate the drawing with a cheerful
memory from childhood. The participants were very open in sharing their thoughts, which
resulted in a substantial collection of ideas and values that provide us with the hunch of what
really makes families with children happy. In addition to other methods, the hour-long creative
technique was concluded by writing a poem together, the poem’s central idea being the
expression of childhood pleasures. The focus group was wrapped up by a group interview
conducted by tourism specialists, discussing more general principles and details of products
267
that are aimed at families with children. The focus group interview lasted for a total of three
hours and the entire discussion was recorded with a sound recorder.
The recording of the group interview was transcribed and the text was encoded pursuant
to pre-set categories. New codes and categories were also created during the encoding process.
The analysis resulted in 11 values and characteristics that a family tourism product should
include or be based on. These are curiosity, playfulness, carefreeness, warmth, wind, nature,
peace, love, longing, movement and permission. Every value can be explained more thoroughly
and a suitable family tourism service can be designed and marketed based on these values.
Conclusions
Service design is still not very well acknowledged academic topic in tourism field and
there are rather few related scientific research and articles. From the practical point of view,
better knowledge and understanding of theoretical approaches of service design thinking,
stages and tools gives tourism organizations a lot of useful hints to design new customer
centred and attractive tourism products and services or redesign the existing ones.
Every tourism organization design and develop its products and services by itself, nobody
else can dictate what kind of target groups to choose or what kind of products and services to
develop and offer to them. If the organization decides that they wish to compete on the family
tourism market, they have to work hard to find the best solutions and to design the products
and services that are attractive for families – for children, parents or grandparents.
To make it as simple as possible, it would be smart to start with the two most important
aspects of service design.
Develop and deepen knowledge and understanding of the five main service design
thinking principles: user centred, co-creative, sequencing, evidencing, and holistic.
Follow the logical stages of the service design processes: discover, define, develop, and
deliver, and learn to know and use different service design tools suitable for the particular
stages of the design process.
The goal of this article was to discuss how to use the service design thinking, principles
and tools of service design in designing new tourism products and services, as well as perfecting
the existing ones. Special emphasis was laid on family tourism products and services.
As a result of the surveys, the authors discovered that families with children are likely to
return when their previous experience related to the destination has been enjoyable; moreover,
they also bring along other families with children. The respondents mentioned the lack of
wholesome customer journeys as one of the major drawbacks – parents are not interested in
acting as travel agents during their holidays and would rather enjoy their time with children.
In addition, information currently available for visitors is not always up to date, easy to find and
use, and the city environment and services could also be improved in terms of child-
friendliness. The second survey highlighted the most important values and feelings that
families generally experience or wish to experience when travelling with children. These were
curiosity, playfulness, carefreeness, warmth, wind, nature, peace, love, longing, movement and
permission. By using these keywords in destination and service design and marketing, it is
possible to attract the interest of the target groups and provide them with a deeply satisfying
visiting experience.
We hope that this paper encourage tourism organizations to follow the best ideas of
service design thinking and the stages of service design process to design the attractive and
competitive family tourism products and services Using different service design tools is not too
difficult to manage even in very small tourism businesses. The result – the customer centred
and high quality products and services – is worth to work with that!
268
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269
The role of destination brand personality on golf tourists’ satisfaction and

behavioural intentions
Rosaria Pereira
Antonia Correia
University of the Algarve
rpereira@ualg.pt
Introduction
A longitudinal research frame shows that tourism research has been focused on
destination image for several years, more recently the concept of image evolved to positioning
destination brand personality traits. Another stream of research is satisfaction and loyalty.
Researchers assessed the role of brand image and brand equity in terms of satisfaction and
loyalty (e.g. Chen & Phou, 2013; Nam, Ekinci & Whyatt, 2011), nevertheless the role of
destination brand personality in satisfaction and behavioural intentions is still limited. This
topic is even scarcer in the field of golf tourism literature.
This study focuses on exploring how brand personality affects satisfaction and
behavioural intentions of a specific type of destination: golf destination. To that end the brand
personality of the destination was assessed through different perspectives: the holistic
perspective of the region as a golf destination and a relational perspective depicting the
components of the relational brand personality (functional, symbolic and experiential). Two
approaches are suggested seeking to verify if the overall perception of the brand might differ
from the perception of the relational components of the brand personality and therefore to
identify different dimensions of the construct (Pereira, Correia & Schutz, 2015). Whether by the
holistic perspective or through the relational one, the results suggest a chain effect where the
perceived golf destination brand personality influences positively consumers’ satisfaction and
that, in turn, influences behavioural intentions suggesting that satisfied tourists tend to return
or recommend the destination.
This the research examine the mediating role of the customer satisfaction and the
relationship between brand personality and brand loyalty.
Literature Review
It has been proved that human characteristics can be associated to brands in an attempt
to create a relationship between the consumer and the brand (Aaker, 1997, Azoulay & Kapferer,
2004, Plummer, 2000). Aaker (1997) defines brand personality as the “set of human
characteristics associated with a brand” and she validated a measurement tool to assess brand
personality of consumer goods. Tourists are informed of a representation of the “personality”
of the destination and based on a destination-as-person perspective they attribute a personality
to a destination (Azoulay & Kapferer, 2004) as they do with commercial brands. Ekinci &
Hosany (2006) were the first to examine the applicability and validity of Aaker’s (1997) brand
personality scale to the context of destinations and defined destination personality as the “set
of human characteristics associated with a destination” (Ekinci & Hosany, 2006: 128). The
authors demonstrated that a destination consists of tangible and intangible components
associated with particular attributes that could be associated with personality traits. In this
context, as destinations are rich in terms of symbolic values, the personification of a destination
can easily occur. This richness in tangible and intangible components differentiates
destinations from other consumer goods. Taking into account the relationship that tourists
establish with destinations, which is reflected in Hankinson’s (2004) functional, symbolic and
270
experiential components of the relational brand personality, it is likely that other than human
personality traits (HPT) might emerge as part of destination brand personality. For instance,
some traits do not relate to human characteristics, e.g. sunny (for climate), expensive (for
price), quality (for accommodation and facilities) but describe critical attributes of a
destination.Brand personality is then characterized by functional attributes (tangible:
utilitarian and environmental) (Sirgy & Su 2000) and symbolic attributes (intangible: which
meet the need for social approval, personal expression and self-esteem) (Keller 1993). Linking
these two categories of attributes together is a set of experimental attributes, which describe
the visitor’s experience (Echtner & Ritchie 2003).
Consumer satisfaction is one of the most frequently research topics in marketing as it is a
fundamental determinant of long-term business success. Much of the research investigates its
impact on consumers’ post consumption evaluations such as behavioural and attitudinal loyalty
(Cooil, Keiningham, Aksoy & Hsu, 2007). Previous studies have explored the relationships
between consumer satisfaction and consumer loyalty (Achouri & Bouslama, 2010, Chen & Phou,
2013, Nam et al., 2011) but observing the impact of brand personality on satisfaction and on
behavioural intentions towards a tourist destination is still limited. Rodriguez del Bosque & San
Martin (2008) suggest that consumer satisfaction is not only cognitive but also emotional.
According to Jones and Suh (2000) satisfaction can occur just after the purchase following a
single encounter with the service provider - transaction-specific satisfaction. Another
approach to satisfaction suggests that it is an evaluative judgement of the last purchase
encounters based on all encounters with the service provider - overall satisfaction defended by
Bitner & Hubbert, (1994). The literature suggests that overall satisfaction is a better indicator
of future loyalty (Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha & Bryant, 1996; Johnson, Gustafsson,
Anderssen, Lervik & Cha, 2001). Consumer satisfaction is therefore a consumer’s overall
emotional response to the entire brand to the brand experience (Nam et al., 2011) and therefore
is the approach adopted for this study. Loyalty is another aspect that can be approach from two
perspectives: behavioural loyalty and attitudinal loyalty (Bandyopadhyay & Martell, 2007;
Dicck & Basu, 1994). While behavioural loyalty refers to the frequency of repeat purchase,
attitudinal loyalty relates to the psychological commitment that consumers make in the
purchase act, such as intentions to purchase and intention to recommend without necessarily
repeating the purchase. In their tourism literature Chen & Gursoy (2001) argue that the
attitudinal approach is more appropriate to study travel loyalty because travellers can be loyal
to a destination even when they do not (re)visit the place (Nam et al., 2011). This study adopts
attitudinal loyalty and defines brand loyalty as the consumers’ intention to revisit or the
willingness to recommend the destination.

The study comprises two models which hypothesize that the dimensions found for a golf
destination brand personality, through both an holistic and relational approach, positively
relate to destination satisfaction and in turn are positively associated with intentional behavior
(intention to return and intention to recommend). The personality was measured using a
number of traits depicted from the literature and validated by a panel of experts (Pereira et
al.,2015). The first model suggested for this research proposes that: H1 brand personality of
the destination has a positive effect on consumer satisfaction; H2 consumers´ satisfaction has a
positive effect on behavioural intentions; H3 brand personality of the destination has a positive
effect on behavioural intentions and H4 consumers’ satisfaction mediates the effects of brand
personality dimensions on behavioural intentions.
The second model proposes that: H1 relational brand personality of the destination has a
positive effect on consumer satisfaction; H2 consumers´ satisfaction has a positive effect on
271
behavioural intentions; H3 relational brand personality of the destination has a positive effect
on behavioural intentions and H4 Consumers’ satisfaction mediates the effects of brand
relational brand personality dimensions on behavioural intentions.
The data was collected through a self-administrated questionnaire given to 545 tourists
visiting the Algarve to play golf while sitting in the clubhouses after the game. A total of 27 golf
courses were included in the sample, over a period of one month. The questionnaire was
distributed in three languages (Portuguese, English and German) according to the respondent
nationality and/or preference. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA), using the generalized least
squares (GLS) method with varimax rotation was carried out with the items of the scale.
Furthermore, to verify the latent structure identified from the EFA, a confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) was performed using structural equation modelling (SEM) technique performed
with the software AMOS Graphics v. 20 (Analysis of Moments Structures) using the other half
of the sample (n=273 for model I and n=273 for model II). Data was analyzed in order to check
if the SEM requirements were fulfilled, particularly multivariate normality.

The results show that male participants far outnumbered females (80.6% vs. 19.4%). The
majority of the respondents are British (51.2%) with an average age of 52,6 years old.
Regarding the participants educational background, a significant number (41.4%) have a
university or college degree and work full-time (35%) with a reasonable number retired (33%),
earning an annual average income of 36 503.00(€). Most respondents started to play golf in the
1990s with an average handicap of 18.4 playing an average of 69.5 rounds a year. An
overwhelming majority are repeat visitors (77.9%), who stay around eight nights and play five
golf rounds. Most stay in a hotel (50.7%), travel with friends (45.2%) and book through a travel
agent (45.2%). Moreover, in terms of satisfaction with the destination the result is positive,
being 53.3% satisfied and 32.8% very satisfied with the destination. The respondents intend to
return to the Algarve to play golf – very likely (25.6%) and most certainly (50.9%). Also, the
respondents intend to recommend the destination to play golf - very likely (35%) and most
certainly (52.3%), which indicates a strong loyalty towards the destination.
Model I indices support a good overall model fit X2=106.399, p=.000, RMSEA= 0.38, GFI=
0.971, CFI=0.984 TLI=0.979 NFI=0.963. The composite reliability is above 0.76 for all the
factors showing adequate reliability (Wu, 2007). Convergent validity, which is reflected in the
Average Variance Extracted (AVE>0.50), was above 0.51 for all factors.
272
Figure 1 – Model I
The results of model II are also satisfactory revealing a good model fit X2=143.255,
p=0.000, RMSEA= 0.043, GFI=0.965, CFI=0.977, TLI=0.971, NFI=0.956. Once again, the
reliability and validity of the model II was assessed. Composite reliability which is ranging
between 0.77 and 0.81 and AVE values for the four factors are all above 0.50. Finally, the
discriminant validity was also examined for both models. The reliability and validity
requirements were observed supporting the reliability and validity of the latent construct.
273
Figure 2 – Model II

The results shows that in either model perceived destination brand personality has a
positive effect on consumer satisfaction (0.59 for model I and 0.53 for model II ) and that
satisfaction with the golf destination Algarve has a positive influence on behavioural intentions
(0.70 for model I and 0.83 for model II). Model testing suggests that consumer satisfaction
mediates the effect of brand personality on brand loyalty. This study contributes to an increase
in literature on brand personality and its effect on brand loyalty. The study suggests that brand
personality dimensions and golf destination can affect consumers’ satisfaction with the
destination and on loyalty. Consumers intend to recommend or return to the destination not
only for their functional attributes but also for the symbolic values associated with the
destination. The study explores how deep and meaningful relationships can be established
between brand and consumers through symbolic and experiential consumption. Also the study
examines the effect of consumer satisfaction in predicting brand loyalty. This is the first study
that examines the influence of consumer satisfaction in relationship to brand personality and
behavioural intentions applied to golf destinations. The study finds that consumer satisfaction
mediates the effects of brand personality on behavioural intentions stressing the importance of
satisfaction in brand experience. Finally golf destination stakeholders and DMOs should
study/make use of personality characteristics of the destination and develop a brand image to
match with consumers’ ideal self-concept. Destination brand personality can be used for
positioning this type of destination in competitive markets. For example is a golf destination is
found to be friendly, welcoming, pleasant, relaxed, reliable, etc. and that those correspond to
satisfied and repeated tourists, marketing campaigns should design promotions that feature
characteristics since consumers develop brand loyalty because the brand personality of the
destination fits well with their lifestyle, and social identity.
References
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Achouri, M.A. & Bouslma, N. (2010). The effect of the congruence between Brand Personality
and Self-image on Consumer´s satisfaction and Loyalty: a conceptual framework. IBIMA
Business Review, 2010, 1-16.
Azoulay, A. & Kapferer, J.N. (2003). Do brand personality scales really measure brand
personality?. Journal of Brand Management, 11, 143-155.
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quality. In R. T. Rust & R.L. Oliver (Eds.), Service Quality: New Directions in Theory and
Practice (pp. 72-94). London: Sage.
Chen, C.F. & Phou, S. (2013). A closer look at destination: Image, personality, relationship and
loyalty. Tourism Management, 36, 269-278.
Chen, J. & Gursoy, D. (2001). An investigation of tourist’ destinations loyalty and preferences.
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 13(2), 79-85.
Cooil, B. Keiningham, T.L., Aksoy, L. & Hsu, M. (2007). A longitudinal analysis of customer
satisfaction and share of wallet: Investigating the moderating effect of costumer
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assessment. Journal of Travel Research, 31(4), 3-13.
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tourism destinations. Journal of Travel Research, 45, 127-139.
Fornell, C., Johnson, M.D., Anderson, E.W., Cha, J. & Bryant, B.E. (1996). The American costumer
satisfaction index: Nature, purpose and findings. Journal of Marketing, 60(4), 7-18.
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future of national customer satisfaction index models. Journal of Economic Psychology,
22(2), 217-245.
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empirical analysis. Journal of Services Marketing, 14(2), 147-159.
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Algarve. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 9(2), 133.153.
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79–83.
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integrative model. Journal of Travel Research, 38, May, 340-352.
275
Hotel Attributes: Comparing Business and Leisure Travelers' Preferences

for Hotel Accommodation
Juho Pesonen
Raija Komppula
University of Eastern Finland
juho.pesonen@uef.fi
Abstract
Hotels have two main groups of customers: leisure travelers and business travelers, the
needs and preferences of which may differ. Even though hotel selection and factors affecting it
has attracted a lot of research attention, there are still research gaps. Comparing the
preferences of business and leisure travelers and the meaning of these differences for business
practices and hospitality theory is one of those. Only few studies has touched this issue and
often from a specific perspective, as e.g. Green hotels or a certain destination. The purpose of
this paper is to broaden this field of research by presenting results of a study comparing the
preferred hotel attributes of Finnish business and leisure travelers.
A questionnaire was designed that incorporated 54 hotel attributes from earlier literature
regarding business and leisure hotel attributes. 329 business travelers and 828 leisure
travelers rated the importance of each attribute when choosing a hotel for their business or
leisure trip. The data was collected through an online panel data representing Finnish travelers.
The data was analyzed using principal component analysis with varimax rotation to
reduce the amount of information and find out the underlying structures and connection
between attributes in the data. Among both groups, 10 categories of hotel attributes were
found. The groups differ from each other regarding the content and importance of attributes.
The most important difference is the price which was clearly more important for leisure
travelers. Also a large number of other differences were identified and discussed.
276
Eye-Tracking-Based Model of Country Logotype Attractiveness
Lina Pilelienė
Viktorija Grigaliūnaitė
Arvydas Petras Bakanauskas
Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania
l.pileliene@evf.vdu.lt
Introduction
Place marketing is becoming essential for every country, region, town, or other place of
tourist attraction. According to Rainisto (2003), place marketing is used for multiple goals, such
as to build a positive image for the place and attract enterprises, tourists, institutions, events,
etc. (p. 12). Being a relatively new branch of marketing, place marketing often uses or adapts
basic principles used for regular products and services; considering place as a product, place
branding becomes a regular practice of place marketing.
Analyzing company branding Tero (2012) argues that brand is made up of three specific
elements: name of brand, a graphic element, and a slogan. These three elements usually make
up most logotypes associated to brands. Same elements are forming countries’ logotypes. If
considering country-name as a name of brand, two remaining elements (a graphic element and
a slogan) can lead to variations in logotype’s attractiveness. It can be hypothesized that
variations with the combinations of elements of country logotype can attract attention
differently, as well as provide different reactions. The problem analyzed in the article rises with
the question: what combination of country logotype elements attracts most visual attention?
Literature review
Places can be branded in the same way as consumer goods and services (Caldwell &
Freire, 2004). Despite the benefits associated with place branding, it is still an extremely
difficult proposition to accomplish (Florek, Conejo, 2007). Conceptualizing place branding,
Szondi (2007) distinguishes destination branding and country branding: ‘destination branding’
aims to attract visitors and boost tourism, while ‘country branding’ promotes economic,
commercial and political interests at home and abroad. We consider country brand as a part of
destination marketing, hypothesizing that:
H1: Country’s economic, commercial and political images have a direct impact on its
touristic image.
Tero (2012) suggests that the first specific element of a brand is its name. According to
Florek and Conejo (2007), unlike their first world counterparts, developing countries face
additional challenges while building and managing their national brands: due to limited
exports, political importance and media coverage, developing countries have a much smaller
share of mind. We propose the hypothesis:
H2: Logotypes of developed and larger developing countries attract more visual attention
than those of small developing countries.
Phillips, McQuarrie, and Griffin (2014) suggest that visual brand identity can be
approached as the face of the brand. Achieving to develop a rich and clear brand identity, unique
set of associations has to be formed (Ghodeswar, 2008). Herstein and Berger (2013) argue that
“country branding by its very nature should be based on non-tangible (representational)
aspects, whereas regions and cities should be based on tangible aspects”. Countries should
leverage the emotive or representational parts of their brand identity, while regions and cities,
277
should leverage more functional facets (Caldwell, Freire, 2004). Representational attributes are
linked to the individual’s self-expression, and functional attributes are the utilitarian aspects of
the destinations. We hypothesize:
H3: Logotypes which have a visual association with a country attract less visual attention
than those that have no visual association to a country.
The other essential element of country logotype is slogan. Kuvykaitė and Kerbelytė (2008)
emphasize that the slogan usually highlights some exclusive country’s activity, the tone of the
nation, unique geographical position. Moreover, several slogans (for different target groups)
forming one theme are often used. However, a slogan is not an obligatory element of the
logotype. We hypothesize:
H4: Logotypes with written slogans attract more visual attention than those without a
slogan.
Color plays a significant role in triggering emotions in people (Patil, 2012). Memory color
refers to the colors that are recalled in association with familiar objects (Kimura et al, 2013).
Country’s flag can be considered as an object reflecting color familiarity. Patil (2012) states that
hot colors lean towards activity, black and white are neutral, and cold colors are passive.
According to Tero (2012), logotypes with white and black contrasts applied on a colored
background are very easily seen. Patil (2012) argues that printed word activates the left brain
whereas color activates the right brain; the combination of both impacts consumers with better
recall, recognition and attention. We hypothesize:
H51: Logotypes with a dominating hot color spectrum attract more visual attention than
those with a cold one.
H52: Colorful logotypes attract more visual attention than those in black and white.
One aspect that seems so minor, but is extremely important is the type of font used to
represent the brand name (Zaichkowsky, 2010). Tero (2012) emphasizes that logotypes using
letters with shapes are easily remembered. We hypothesize:
H6: Logotypes using letters with shapes attract more visual attention than those with
simple fonts.
Graphic elements give the brand a special look showing that special attention is given to
details (Tero, 2012). We hypothesize:
H7: Complex logotypes (using a variety of graphic elements) attract more visual attention
than simple.

The experimental research using eye-tracking system was provided. According to Pieters,
Warlop, and Wedel (2002), consumers extract information during eye fixations, which reflect
the moments of visual attention. Participants’ accumulated fixation duration on different
country logotypes were measured.
During the eye-tracking procedure, different combinations of logotypes of European
countries were shown for participants. For each hypothesis (except H1) selected logotypes
emphasizing the specific attribute were presented at once on the computer screen (resolution:
1366x768). Computer-generated random order of logotypes on the screen was presented for
the participants by applying Matlab R2012b software package. Tobii Eye-Tracking Glasses (30
Hz sampling rate) were used for the research and calibrated on each subject. Tobii Studio 3.2.3
software package was employed for the analysis of eye-tracking data. Participants’ mean and
standard deviation values of the duration of all fixations within an area of interest (AOI) were
calculated. The comparisons of latter calculations for different AOIs regarding the specific
attribute allowed supporting the hypotheses about the elements of country logotypes.
278
Achieving to substantiate the hypothesis H1, the questionnaire about the economic,
commercial, political, and touristic images of different European countries was provided for the
participants.
Results
The main results of hypotheses testing are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Results of hypothesis testing

No. Result Explanation
Country’s commercial (β = 0.377; p < 0.01) and political (β = 0.334; p
< 0.01) images have a statistically significant direct impact on its
Partially
H1 touristic image (R2 = 0.324); country’s economic image has no
supported
statistically significant direct impact on its touristic image (β = -
0.039; p > 0.05).
 Logotypes of small developing countries (44.5 % of total
viewing time) attract statistically significantly (p < 0.05) more
visual attention than those of developed (19.1 % of total viewing
H2 time) and larger developing (10.9 % of total viewing time)
countries; logotypes of developed countries attract statistically
significantly (p < 0.05) more visual attention than those of larger
Rejected
developing countries.
 Touristic image of developed countries is statistically
significantly (p < 0.05) better than touristic image of larger
developing and small developing countries; touristic image of small
developing countries is statistically significantly (p < 0.05) better
than touristic image of larger developing countries.
Logotypes which have no visual association with a country (51.5 %
H3 Supported of total viewing time) attract statistically significantly (p < 0.05) more
visual attention than those that have it (35.1 % of total viewing time).
There is no statistically significant difference (p > 0.05) in visual
H4 attention toward the logotypes with written slogans (46.7 % of total
Rejected
viewing time) and those without slogans (40.5 % of total viewing
time).
There is no statistically significant difference (p > 0.05) in visual
H51 attention toward the logotypes with a dominating hot color spectrum
Rejected
(38.2 % of total viewing time) and those with a cold one (49.5 % of
total viewing time).
Colorful logotypes (51.9 % of total viewing time) attract statistically
H52 Supported significantly (p < 0.05) more visual attention than those in black and
white (25.5 % of total viewing time).
Logotypes using letters with shapes (60.3 % of total viewing time)
H6 Supported attract statistically significantly (p < 0.05) more visual attention than
those with simple fonts (32.1 % of total viewing time).
Complex logotypes (54.5 % of total viewing time) attract statistically
H7 Supported significantly (p < 0.05) more visual attention than simple ones (29.1
% of total viewing time).
279
The analysis reveals that the combination of country logotype elements which attracts
most visual attention is the following: no visual association with a country, colorful, complex,
and using letters with shapes.
Logotypes of small developing countries attract most visual attention, though touristic
image of latter countries is poor. On the other hand, touristic image of developed countries is
superior, though logotypes of latter countries attract less visual attention. Finally, logotypes of
larger developing countries attract least visual attention and the touristic image of latter
countries is assessed as the worst.

The analysis of the research results leads to the creation of country logotype
attractiveness model (Figure 1). As it can be seen, four visual elements of country logotype have
to be managed in order to make it attractive: associations, complexity, colors and letters.
Nevertheless, not all of the countries’ logotypes are worth investments.
Figure 1: Country logotype attractiveness model
Logotypes of small developing countries are not worth investments; to enhance the
touristic image latter countries should allocate their investments into the improvement of
commercial and political images. Touristic images of developed countries are superior; latter
countries should allocate their investments into the improvement of the attractiveness of
country logotype. Large developing countries should allocate their investments into both: the
touristic image and the attractiveness of the country’s logotype.
Acknowledgment
This research was funded by a grant (No. MIP-098/2014) from the Research Council of
Lithuania.
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281
From conflict to co-creation: Ski-touring on groomed slopes in Austria
Ulrike Pröbstl-Haider
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Austria
ulrike.proebstl@boku.ac.at
Rainer Lampl
Green Solutions, Germany
Introduction
In Austria in the last four years a new activity by tourists and recreationists appeared:
Ski-touring on groomed slopes. Instead of buying a ticket for the ski slopes and the cable car
enterprise an increasing amount of tourists decided to ascend the mountain on the ski slope
with touring skis. This activity traditionally applied outside ski areas and off-piste suddenly
appeared within the boundaries of a ski area. The first reaction by the tourism entrepreneurs
and industry was a fight against this activity calling these tourists “parasites”. The presented
research focuses on this new user group and discusses this phenomenon against the concept of
co-creation in tourism.
Our hypothesis was that if we are able to understand the motives and the desired
experiences by this new segment of winter guests, we would be able to co-create a new tourism
product for winter tourism in Austria. The research led to new product development in
cooperation with a SME and its implementation in two destinations do far.
Literature Review
Current literature perceives the tourist no longer as a client booking a certain offer, but
as a participant in the value creation process (Carù and Cova, 2007:7; Prebensen et al.
2013:241). Co-creation in tourism is defined as a development of tourism products in
collaboration with the users. Co-creation starts including user feedbacks to improve the
product and the various services on one hand and the satisfaction of future visitors on the other
(Kim et al. 2012:14).
In theory co-creating experiences during a vacation often require interaction with other
people (such as hosts and guests) and with products and services and result in a changed
experiences value for themselves and others (Prebensen et al. 2013). While the influence of
282
customers based on information technology is already large, the discussion of co-creation using
other means is still limited (Cabiddu et al. 2013). In order to be successful, co-creation in
tourism requires a tourism supply which is open for new ideas, new experiences and new
concepts proposed by its clients.
The presented case study deals with the co-creation of experiences, where the customer
acts as an active agent, the reaction of the tourism branch and the start of a successful co-
creation process in winter tourism.
In our example the tourism branch was confronted with “creative” clients developing and
requesting new offers. The tourism branch showed no openness (see fig.1) to exchange new
ideas and demand to discuss this new emerging trend. So it was the task of research to learn
more about the values, motivation and desired experiences of this new user group.
Methods
In order to study the main motivation of this new user group, their desired experiences
and also their criticism of the existing offers, we conducted an online survey in cooperation
with German and Austrian Alpine Clubs. Overall, 520 tourists and recreationists attracted filled
in the questionnaire (respondents from Austria 342, respondents from Germany 178). In this
study everybody could participate interested in ski touring on slopes. The analyses showed that
the survey included potential beginners (about 5 %) and experienced winter tourists (95%)
attracted by this new activity.
The research findings were used to discuss a new offer with experts and managers of the
ski-world “Amadé” in Austria, in order to use the information by the clients for the development
of new infrastructure in co-creation.
Results
The analyses of the online survey revealed detailed information about this new potential
target group and their main motives (see fig.2). The potential new target group is dominated
by experienced winter tourists, mainly middle aged (majority between 35 and 55), belonging
to higher income groups and the majority with higher academic education.
Fig.2 Motivation of the new potential target group
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The main motives are improving personal health, sport and action, being active in the
mountains. The reasons for doing this activity on groomed slopes and not backcountry, are that
for this activity
 no information about avalanches is required,
 only little time for preparation is needed and
 it is not necessary to find a suitable team.
Asked about the demand for a new product development and related offer, the
respondents are very interested requesting not only in special infrastructure, but also
additional signage, a training area for beginners and educational offers. For this new offer
including a special insurance the majority is willing to pay about 5 Euro if is included.
The survey revealed that there are excellent conditions to establish a new product. The
demand mirrors well-known trends in tourism, such as health prevention, fitness in nature and
flexibility in planning the activity.
Against this background a specific product development was discussed with the winter
sport destination Ramsau/Styria. Similar to the trend to develop centres for running, nordic
walking, hiking (see e.g. Roth et al….) the development of a clear defined product seemed to be
necessary to attract new clients and to create a competitive advantage in this market. In the
sensitive alone environment it is necessary on one hand to combine infrastructure and new
facilities and to offer attractive nature experiences on the other. The promotion of the new
product must also highlight the positive health effects to be successful.
Against this background and based on the cooperation with local experts, the
development of a new tourism product was started and successfully implemented.

The research findings and the related case in Ramsau/Styria (Austria) study show that
co-creation of experiences explicitly in the field of health, well-being and being in nature has a
great potential. In this case this potential was not perceived by the established tourism
industry, which was trying to down-size, regulating or hindering this new request and demand.
Co-creation is only then a powerful tool if the provider is open for changes, adaptation and new
concepts. Meanwhile the new infrastructure has been implemented and the new concept will
be used in other destinations as well. Those destinations that start providing services for these
skiers first might get competitive advantage.
Literature:
Cabiddu F., Lui T., Piccoli G. (2013). Managing value co-creation in the tourism industry. Annals
of Tourism Research 42, pp. 86-107.
Carù, A., Cova, B. (2007). Consuming experiences: an introduction. In: Carù, A., Cova, B. (Eds.),
Consuming experience, Abingdon, UK: Routledge, pp. 3-16.
Kim, J.H., Brent Ritchie, J. R., McCormick, B. (2012). Development of a Scale to Measure
Memorable Tourism Experiences. Journal of Travel Research, 51(1), pp. 12-25.
Prebensen, N.K., Vittersø, J., Dahl, T. (2013). Value Co-creation significance of Tourist resources.
Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 42, pp. 240-261.
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Wellbeing Tourism Policy Implementation: a ‘new institutionalist’ Multi-

country Comparison
Fernando Correia
Hull University Business School at Scarborough, UK
f.correia@hull.ac.uk
Anna Dluzewska
Kazimir the Great University of Bydgoszcz, Poland
Stela Baltova
International Business School, Bulgaria
Anja Tuohino
University of Eastern Finland
Abstract
Since the publication of the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment reports in 2005, the concept
of ‘ecosystem services’ as basic foundations of human well-being has been gradually
transitioning to policy-making discourses and initiatives in multiple areas, from food security
to green infrastructure or health provision. Tourism is one of the latest areas to show signs of
this emerging trend, with some policy arenas (and industry players) co-opting and adapting the
concept to reframe the synergies and interdependences between the sector, human wellbeing
and the natural environment these rely on. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the ‘wellness tourism’
related-sectors have been the ones where such interdependencies have been made more
explicit in the past, mostly through industry-led initiatives. However, recent developments
indicate a willingness by (some) policy-making bodies to move beyond ‘wellness’ into a more
wide-encompassing - and nature-based - ‘wellbeing’ tourism focus that encompasses a range of
recreation activities and services. An example of such is the Finnish Tourism Strategy that
includes wellbeing tourism as one of its key focus areas, but doing so in a way that tries to
maximise the possibilities and resources of the Finnish countryside for economic development
purposes. A different approach appears in the UK where, in turn, is its new environmental
policy (heavily based on the ecosystem services concept) that ‘invites’ the consideration of
tourism as an instrument to generate nature-based wellbeing and societal benefits. Given the
early stages of such policy trends and their relative novelty in terms of focus, our paper will
then focus on issues of early policy implementation, an area that has received only limited
attention in tourism studies, and rarely theoretically-informed by the political studies’
literature.
We agree with Hall & Jenkins (1995) that tourism policy is both influenced by and a
consequence of factors such as economic, social and cultural characteristics of a specific society,
but also the values and ideologies of its political environment, conceptions of the role of the
state, existing institutional frameworks, etc. However, much tourism research often ignores the
centrality of political ‘traditions’ and values for the understanding of tourism policy creation
and implementation. Contemporary policies and patterns of governance are shaped by history,
institutional and national governmental traditions, and national policy styles. There is in
principle no reason why the situation should be any different in terms of tourism policy
creation and implementation.
Therefore, we draw on new institutionalism theories for their focus on contingency on
institutions as limiting frames for policy development, and make an exploration of how such
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contextual frames condition the (actual or potential) development of ‘wellbeing tourism’ as a

policy concept in three countries with distinctive political traditions and backgrounds. These
include the UK, as representative of the anglo-saxon and neo-liberal political model, Finland as
an example of the social democratic Nordic model, and Poland, as an example of continental
centralized model. Our purpose is to progress the tourism literature away from the generic
“policy recipes” it tends to fall on when issues of policy implementation are discussed, but to
use these contrasting examples to generate more meaningful insights, reflections and
recommendations to researchers, practitioners and policy-makers from nations along the
European political spectrum.
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Consumer' Tactics for Savvy Decision-making
Alma Raissova
Lund University, Sweden
Alma.Raissova@ism.lu.se
Introduction
Servicescapes are planned and constructed for the customers’ convenience (Bitner,
1992). Customers get messages about servicescapes from the ambient and physical design and
the elements of social environment (J. Baker, 1987). However, in service places customers may
experience various constraints (Daniels, Drogin Rodgers, & Wiggins, 2005; Small, Darcy, &
Packer, 2012).
The aim of this research is to investigate how customers do experience constraints in
service places. The research gap is addressed through a specific case of how blind and visually
impaired travelers act and move in hospitality servicescapes. Blind people use only four senses,
and can better translate all possible constraints in the service places. The role of blind and VIPs
in this research is twofold: they are travelers and a hotel guests.
Literature review
Tourism and leisure researchers inform that people with disabilities (PwD) develop
strategies to overcome various constraints in service places (S. M. Baker, 2006; Daniels, et al.,
2005; Small, et al., 2012). PwD plan their activities by handling “their grocery list” to put the
items in the cart, or taking a guide dog which helps to find dog-fancier for accompanying in a
store’ layout (Baker, 2006:45). Blind and visually impaired customers act strategically, because
they wish to keep control and demonstrate the competence (Small, et al., 2012). But constraints
in service places are “ongoing, interrelated, and nonlinear” (Daniels et al., 2005:925). Hence, it
is quite difficult to act strategically toward unexpected constraints.
The research applies the concept of constraints from the time-geography framework
(Hägerstrand, 1970) and the concept of tactics (De Certeau, 1984). The concept of constraints
accounts why the acts and the moves of the customers are constantly changing. The concept of
tactics explains why blind and visually impaired guests develop different tactics. A
complimentary usage of these concepts helps to screw and expand the theory of servicescape.
Time-geography framework underlines emerging nature of constraints (Thrift & Pred,
1981) in hospitality servicescapes. Acts and moves of every individual depend not only from
constructed physical environment, but also from her/his ability to manage resources around
(Hägerstrand, 1970). Individual’ intention might be changed next moment, because of
constraints “invented” by other individuals or/and as a result of individual’ interaction with
“elements of natural environment” (Pred, 1977:209). Therefore, time-geography framework
underlines different abilities of individuals to overcome similar barriers and depicts emerging
constraints, which individuals have to deal with (Shoval, Mckercher, Birenboim, & Ng, 2013).
Once customers get in a hotel, they can only get services in the forms authorized by service
providers. When constrained customers are failing to use strategies, they develop other
techniques to take attention of service place (Quinlan & Bates, 2012).
The concept of tactics helps to understand how customers answer to the emerging
constraints. In de Certeau’s language tactics developed by blind guests are resistance to the
control in service places. Constructed service places often ignore the needs of blind and VIPs by
inconvenient design(Kaufman-Scarborough & Childers, 2009) and/or social surroundings (S.
M. Baker, Stephens, & Hill, 2002). Tactics occur in an alien territory and tactics are non-planned
(De Certeau, 1984). Quinlan and Bates (2012) retell a protest story of wheelchair people using
287
de Certeau’s theoretical writings. Researchers consider the acts of the protestors as tactical.
The protest occurred in a city center, a place controlled by city administration. Although
protestors agreed in advance to meet at the city center, their further step as a dance movement
on wheelchairs in front of the bus was not planned. Protestors also did not plan that their non-
disabled colleagues alert the bus passengers on what is happening. In addition, the idea to invite
media also came to protestors spontaneously (Quinlan & Bates, 2012).
Tactics are aimed to save time without breaking the rules (De Certeau, 1984). Customers
are forced to interact with constructed physical and social environment and follow the rules
developed by service providers. To overcome emerging constraints customers make use of the
moments to get expected services.
In contrast, strategies are tools of planners (De Certeau, 1984).Though blind and VIPs may
plan their travel and shopping activities, their acts and moves are controlled by service places.
Apart from personal plan of activity and desire to control this activity, blind and VIPs are not
the owners of service spaces. Hence, people use tactics to negotiate strategies that were set for
them by a dominating group (Manovich, 2008).
Methods
The study population is composed of blind and VIPs from Synskadades Riksförbund’s
(SRF), Helsingborg, Sweden and Republican Library for Blind and Visually Impaired, Almaty,
Kazakhstan. This research combines individual and focus group interview and observation
methods to illustrate how blind and VIPs move and act in hospitality servicescapes. Interview
and observation participants shared with their travel experiences in hotels and resorts in
Sweden, Kazakhstan, Germany, Japan, Turkey, and China. In total I interviewed and observed
56 blind and VIPs. The age of participants is ranged from 25 and above.
To minimize a risk of misunderstanding between the researcher and interview participant
(Silverman, 2001) I used individual interviews. Although individual interview was time-
consuming, there was a chance to raise additional question to specify previously observed
incidents and ask for their clarification. In contrast, focus group interview was quick and
comparatively easy for collecting research data (interviews included from 3 to10 participants).
Group meetings gave an opportunity “to involve” everyone to share their point of view, and
encouraged those who thought that they have nothing to say (Kitzinger, 1995).
Go-along observation combined interview and observation with moving alongside
participant(s) (Kusenbach, 2003). There was no need for the researcher to apply oral
imagination of the physical place, because go-along technique acts artlessly in the field (Jones,
Bunce, Evans, Gibbs, & Hein, 2008).This method helped to understand why observed people
acted by a certain way (Carpiano, 2009). Researcher was also an escort person for blind and
visually impaired travelers.

A majority of service providers assume that most visually impaired customers have
usable vision and are able to walk and get services by their own (Kaufman-Scarborough &
Childers, 2009). However it is far from the reality. Ambience and design in hospitality
servicescapes may help (or not) VIPs to develop different mobility tactics. For instance, VIPs
often identify eating establishments by the sound of flatware (focus group interview, Almaty,
Kazakhstan, 08.21.2013). In unfamiliar spaces VIPs move alongside the wall for orientation
purposes. (hotel observation with VIP, Almaty, Kazakhstan, 07.17.2012). Noise of vacuum
cleaning or sounds of elevator were convenient for navigation. (focus group interview, Almaty,
Kazakhstan, 08.21.2013). Next quote illustrates how VIP managed air quality in hotel
accommodation: It is rare to have an open window in a hotel room instead there is usually an air
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conditioner. To make the air fresh I always try to leave the door open. (woman, GI VIP, focus group
interview, Almaty, Kazakhstan, 08.21.2013). Observation activity allowed the researcher to
discover various tactics, which helped hotel guests to avoid emerging constraints. For instance
blind people use touch to check how much water is in the glass. They place their forefinger on
one side of the glass’ edge and fix a bottle on another side. The fingertip turns inside the glass
and helps to check the glass’ capacity. (observation, Solhaga Majenfors, Sweden, June 1-3,
2012). Blind clients sometimes touch the served meal with their fingers to check the space
around the plate and to control any food that is placed back down on their plate. (observation,
Helsingor, Denmark, May 12, 2012). For most VIPs displaying competence in the marketplace
is of utmost important, therefore confident and successful acts recognize their potential and
realize self-aspiration ( Baker, 2006).

Blind and VIPs in our research developed different tactical acts and moves not only to
overcome constraints in hospitality service spaces, but also to save time and to benefit service
environment (De Certeau, 1984). A common marketplace offers a number of substantial
barriers for VIPs (Baker, 2006). A desire to be treated as a regular client force VIPs to act. They
often develop different skills, which people without disabilities may not possess, such as strong
memory, smell, and sensor skills of visually impaired (Odette et al., 2003). VIPs’ desire for
independence in a marketplace is beforehand to simple fulfilling social and personal needs (
Baker, et al., 2002). Researchers focus on social dimension of servicescape and recommend
retailers recognize uniqueness of consumers with vision impairment. These publications
discuss resistance of visually impaired clients to the barriers in service places.
Our research findings reveal that servicescapes generate various constraints, which restrict the
acts and the moves of blind and VIPs in a service space. Planned and constructed servicescapes
draw an analogy with strategies developed by service providers to attract more customers.
Restricted customers are aimed to get expected services and therefore resist constraints by
developing different tactics. Based on all reasons above, constrained customers act tactically
rather strategically to interact with servicescapes. Consequently, servicescapes are for all, but
with different tactics.
Research implications
Our research findings reveal significance of time and space dimensions in customers’
interactions with servicescapes. Three factors of servicescapes may produce constraints, which
restrict customers in time and in space. The emerging constraints make customers less served.
Aimed to get expected services and to save time, blind and VIPs develop different tactics to
overcome unexpected constraints. Hence, constrained customers are forced to apply additional
time and efforts to get expected services.
Based on time-geography approach (Hagerstrand, 1970) to service research, our research
investigation suggests that customers may differently perceive a similar service environment.
This is in the line with Small and her colleagues (2012) on the statement that two VIPs with a
similar level of visual impairment differently perceive similar barriers. Therefore, service
providers should be aware that ambience and design of service place, as well as unskilled
personnel may differently influence customers’ activities.
Reference
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narratives of consumers with visual impairments. Journal of Retailing, 82(1), 37-50.
Baker, S. M., Stephens, D. L., & Hill, R. P. (2002). How can retailers enhance accessibility: giving
consumers with visual impairments a voice in marketplace. Retailing and Consumer
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Bitner, M. J. (1992). The Impact of Physical Surroundings on Customers and Employees. The
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analysis of constraints and negotiations to pleasure travel as experienced by persons with
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Tactics in the 1985 Bus Accessibility Protests. Disability Studies Quarterly, 32(1).
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Lake-destination image assessment: the case of the Alqueva reservoir,

Portugal
Ana Isabel Rodrigues

Polytechnic Institute of Beja, Portugal
ana.rodrigues@ipbeja.pt
Antónia Correia
CEFAGE, Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Portugal
Metin Kozak
School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Turkey
Introduction
This study focuses on the concept of destination image more specifically on its nature
(Gallarza et al., 2004), structure (Baloglu and McClearly, 1999) or dimensions (Beerli and
Martin, 2004), proposing relationships between the different levels of evaluations within its
structure (image dimensions and overall image). The proposal here is to examine the dynamic
nature of DI rather than applying a more static approach (Baloglu and McClearly, 1999), but
now specially applied to the lake tourism context. The Alqueva reservoir as an lake-destination
area (LDA) located in the south of Portugal, the Alentejo region, will be the illustrative case.
Lake tourism is a very recent academic field of tourism research, more specifically in the
destination marketing area. In fact, image assessment studies in lake-destination areas (LDA)
have been scarce in DI literature (Tuohino and Pitkänen, 2004).
The goal of this paper is to determine the main dimensions involved in the image
formation of this type of destination, their influence on the overall image and also to perform
an initial approximation of a lake tourist profile. To address this, two conceptual models to
assess the image of the Alqueva reservoir were proposed. The pictorial image was considered
in this study since in the last two decades DI studies have showed the benefits of using the
pictorial element in DI formation (Fairweather and Swaffield, 2002; MacKay and Fesenmaier,
1997). In order to determine what image dimensions most influence the lake-destination image
formation, two models were tested.
These objectives are reflected in the following research questions: (1) to develop an image
analysis of an LDA, determining the image dimensions and items that formed this image; (2) to
determine the influence of each image dimension on a lake-destination image formation; (3) to
analyse which type of image (attribute-based or photo image) exercises more influence on the
overall image of an LDA.
Literature review
There has been an extensive literature research in destination image over the past forty
years of research (Rodrigues et al., 2012). Various meta-analysis papers were published in the
last 20 years (Gallarza et al., 2002; Pike, 2002), bringing to light different theories and methods.
The literature suggests that DI construct lies at the very centre of multi-items constructs
(Gartner, 1989), where different dimensions or components are used to define and measure it
(Echtner and Ritchie, 1993; Baloglu and MacKleary, 1999; Beerli and Martin, 2004). Therefore,
the attribute-intensive directive was the approach that have characterized the first two decades
of DI research, determining the quantitative methodologies used in empirical image studies
291
since the construct’s appearance in the 1970s (e.g. Haahti, 1986). However, one of the most
cited problems was the fact that the identified attributes may not be the most important in
consumer decision process (Gartner, 1989). Based on this assertion, new methodological
approaches in assessing DI started to be applied more grounded on imagery processing-
approach (MacInnis and Price, 1987). An holistic or gestal impression started to be capture
(Echtner and Ritchie, 1991, 1993) and photo-based methodologies found in DI research a
prosperous field of study (e.g. MacKay and Fesenmaier, 1997; Fairweather and Swaffield,
2002).
Methods & materials

The empirical study was carried out in the Alqueva reservoir located in the south of
Portugal, in the Alentejo region. A convenience sample of Portuguese as the main market
visiting this LDA was considered. 500 questionnaires were correctly filled in and considered as
valid respondents. Data was gathered between August 2014 and January 2015.
The questionnaire comprised six sections with 23 questions broken down into 97
variables. Section A regarded the visit characterization; section B had a set of 39 attribute’s-
based images depicted from previous stages of the research to assess the DI of the Alqueva lake;
section C comprised photo ranking where each respondent was required to rank photos from
different DI categories; section D was a series of open questions designed to allow respondents
to think freely about the destination (Echtner and Ritchie, 1993); section E covered the socio-
demographic profile of lake tourists; and, finally section F had an open question to allow
respondents to spontaneously express their opinions about the destination. Thereafter, overall
image was measured using a five-point rating (Baloglu and MacCleary, 1999).
Conclusively, data were processed with SPSS 22.0 and AMOS statistical package.
Following the usual procedure there are two stages in data analysis (Anderson & Gerbing,
1988): (1) an exploratory analysis of the scale reliability based on Cronbach’s alpha and item-
total correlation was performed using confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, a study of the
influence of each image dimension on both attribute and photo-based image was carried out;
(2) a study of the influence of these dimensions on tourists’ overall image of the destination
using a structural equation model was performed.

For this study two hypothesized models, Model I (Attribute-Based_Image) and Model II
(Photo_Image) were performed and twelve hypotheses were derived. The a priori
specifications of the models were based on a model generation approach, which occurs when
an initial model does not fit the data and is subsequently modified by the researcher. The
altered model is tested again with the same data until it makes theoretical sense, is reasonably
parsimonious and its correspondence to the data is acceptably close. Through employing SPSS
and AMOS data analysis various statistical tools such as correlation analysis and structural
equation modelling were included. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of scale reliability
based on Cronbach´s alpha and item-total correlation was performed. The results of EFA,
confirmed by CFA, show that various image dimensions influence the attribute-based image
and photo-based image (“natural resources”, “infrastructures”, “tourist leisure and recreation”,
“culture and heritage” and “atmosphere”). However, “infrastructures” had to be eliminated in
the case of attribute-based image.
To analyse convergent validity of the scale, a CFA was performed using the maximum
likelihood (ML) and generalized least squares (GLS) robust method of estimation. The initial
models did not offer a good fit, so following the recommendations of the program and always
taking into account that changes should be reasonable from the conceptual point of view, some
292
variables were eliminated. Subsequently, the reliability and validity of both models was
assessed though factor loading, composite reliability, convergent and discriminant validity
indexes. The models finally obtained a good fit. The CFA of the measurement model specifies
the relationship of each observed variable with the latent constructs. Considering that all the
constructs are freely intercorrelated, an analysis was performed on each construct separately
before testing the measurement and structural model. The correlation analysis showed that the
latent factors were correlated, suggesting that the structural model could be tested.
After this, a structural equation analysis was performed to determine the influence of the
attribute-based image and photo-based image on tourists’ overall image of the destination.
Several authors considered that overall image is an independent component of destination
image (Baloglu and McClearly, 1999). Overall and comparing the result, this paper suggests that
it is photo-based image that most contributes to the overall perceptions of the Alqueva Lake as
an LDA, more than attribute-based image.

The goal of this paper was to determine the main dimensions involved in the image
formation of LDAs. Concerning attribute-based image, the most important image dimension is
“atmosphere”, followed by “culture and heritage”, “leisure and recreation” and, finally “natural
resources”. Regarding photo-based image, the findings shows “culture and heritage” as the
most relevant image dimension with “atmosphere”, “leisure and recreation”, “natural
resources” and “infrastructures” coming after. These results are in line with the idea that a lake
can be a landscape with strong emotions and memories associated with it and grounded on the
atmosphere of the lake or a more functional environment for various activities (Tuohino and
Pitkänen, 2004). Hence, the findings seems to support the growing importance of affective
image approach on DI studies (Martin and Bosque, 2008), confirmed by the relevance of
“atmosphere” as an image dimension. Conjointly, an image analysis of the destination was also
developed. A set of image attributes was detected that formed an image of an LDA such as the
one studied.
From a practical point of view, this study contributes to deepening the understanding of
destination image construct more applied to LDAs, and which is critical for marketing
authorities to implement marketing strategies. The conclusions have relevance to the current
strategic plan initiative to build a successful brand of the Alqueva Lake. Advertising and
promotion of this destination to markets has been totally absent since the reservoir was
established in 2002. From a branding perspective there should be cohesion in positioning an
LDA, in this case the Alqueva reservoir, as a more local destination within larger entities such
as the Alentejo region where the lake is located. According to Wang et al. (2005) each
destination may hold some strong or distinctive images; however, a small destination may find
it hard to distinguish itself from its larger partners.
The present study also indicates the importance of employing more than one technique
to assess the attributes of a particular DI (Prebensen, 2007). Visual-based research has great
opportunities and challenges in tourism studies (Feighey, 2003), particularly in the DI field
(MacKay and Fesenmaier, 1997), where photo sorting tasks, combining verbal and pictorial
stimuli appear powerful in calling forth tourists’ assessments of a DI (Jacobsen, 2007).
Finally, future lines of research should be directed towards defining reliable and valid
scales of image measurement for LDA. Development of this scale could be a useful tool for
marketing management of this type of destinations. Moreover, since LDAs are distinct in their
nature and level of tourism development, it will be interesting to test this model on other LDAs
and compare the results. These findings would lead to defining a typology of LDAs.
293
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294
Well-being tourism experiences – Products and services to current and

future tourists
Juulia Räikkönen
Miia Grénman
Turku School of Economics
juulia.raikkonen@utu.fi
Introduction
Personal health and well-being now intrigue individuals more than ever, and
consequently, they have also become significant motives for consumption. This is partly due to
the increased economic affluence, demographic shifts, commercialization of leisure, and
changes in values and lifestyles. (Suontausta & Tyni, 2005; Yeoman, 2008; Hjalager et al., 2011).
Furthermore, consumption has become a culturally accepted means of seeking happiness, well-
being, and a better quality of life (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002). As the relationship between
materialism and well-being is questioned, some researchers suggest that through consumption
also immaterial well-being, meaning of life, self-development, and experiences are pursued
(McLarney & Chung, 1999; Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Yeoman, 2011).
Numerous studies highlight the growing commercial well-being, i.e., the wellness market
(Suontausta & Tyni, 2005; Pilzer, 2007; Yeoman, 2008). Wellness consumption has become a
major consumption trend, and its potential is widely recognized (e.g. Pilzer, 2007). The
wellness market branches out to various other industries, e.g., tourism, fitness, beauty, culture,
entertainment, technology, and pharmaceuticals, providing products and services mainly to
healthy individuals who wish to feel healthier and better-looking, slow down the effects of
aging, and prevent sickness (Suontausta & Tyni, 2005; Pilzer, 2007; SRI International, 2010;
2013).
Wellness refers to holistic well-being, i.e., the balance of physical, mental, and social well-
being. It is often understood as a lifestyle that becomes evident in mundane consumption, such
as nutrition choices, physical exercise, stress management, and the use of health-related
products and services (Müller & Lanz Kauffman, 2001; Nahrstedt, 2004; Suontausta & Tyni,
2005). Wellness can also be considered as experience consumption. Besides health benefits,
individuals pursue enjoyment or indulgence, and construct self-identity. Central to wellness
consumption is, however, the active role of consumers in creating consumption experiences (cf.
Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004; Vargo & Lusch 2004).
Wellness is no longer a niche market, but grows and diversifies in terms of products and
services, time and place, as well as customer segments (e.g. Mintel, 2004; Yeoman, 2008). The
estimated value of the global wellness industry is 3.4 trillion USD. Tourism is a major sector of
the wellness industry with the share of nearly 500 billion USD (SRI International, 2013). In
Finland, health-related tourism is considered so significant that well-being tourism is one of the
four main marketing themes of The Finnish Tourism Board.
Previous research on well-being tourism has examined, e.g., tourist motivation (Konu,
2010), destination development (Björk et al., 2011), and various development projects
(Tuohino, 2012). However, more research on commodification, product development, and
marketing on well-being tourism is needed – especially on the level of tourism businesses
(Tuohino, 2012). The purpose of this study is to examine the supply of the Finnish well-being
tourism market. Through qualitative data, we analyze what kind of well-being tourism
products, services, and experiences are offered to the current tourists, and how the service
295
providers of the well-being tourism sector are developing their offerings in order to respond to
the needs and expectations of the future tourists.
Literature review
The tourism industry exists to provide consumers with various experiences (Morgan et
al., 2010). In the last decades, customer experience has become a key concept in marketing
literature and the underlying logic and managerial rationale for experience marketing is well
established (Tynan & McKechnie, 2009). Pine and Gilmore (1999) viewed experiences as series
of memorable events that a company stages in order to engage consumers in a personal
manner. In recent debates, however, the emphasis has shifted from staging or producing
experiences to creating and co-creating experiences, which recognize the active role of
consumers in determining their own experiences (e.g. Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004; Vargo &
Lusch, 2004).
There is a consensus that experiences cannot be produced or sold by tourism
organizations (Tung & Ritchie, 2011; Walls et al., 2011). This, however, does not mean that
tourism organizations cannot influence their customers’ experiences. A tourism experience
consists of the influential realm, i.e., the external elements that have an impact on the
experience (physical and social aspects, products and services) and personal realm that cannot
be easily influenced (e.g. knowledge, memory, emotion, and self-identity) (Quinlan Cutler &
Carmichael, 2010).
This study focuses on the products and services, which the tourism industry offers in
order to create experiences. In Finland, well-being tourism is often examined on the basis of the
strategy work of the Finnish Tourist Board (FTB, 2005; 2009), according to which, health-
related tourism is divided into medical tourism and well-being tourism (Figure 1). The main
motive for medical tourism is treating diseases and curing illnesses through medical
procedures. Well-being tourism, in turn, focuses, besides maintaining and enhancing health and
well-being, on activities that offer pleasure, enjoyment, and pampering. Occupational health
care/workplace wellness can fall into both, whether the focus is on rehabilitation or prevention.
HEALTH-RELATED TOURISM
Sick Healthy
Medical tourism Wellbeing tourism
Medical Occupational  Spa and sauna W

procedures health-care/ services E
Workplace wellness L
 Silence and High L
relaxation quality & N
luxury
 Treatments (beauty, E
rejuvenation, natural, S
alternative) S
 Physical activity
Figure 2. Health-related tourism (FTB, 2005; 2009)
Well-being tourism includes numerous products and services related to spa and sauna,
silence and relaxation, various treatments, and physical activity. When these products and
296
services are offered in high-quality settings and environments with a high-quality service, they
can be considered as wellness offerings (FTB, 2005; 2009). Consequently, wellness goes beyond
well-being in terms of quality and feelings of luxury.
The supply of the Finnish well-being tourism consists of the basic well-being offering
“Finnrelax” that includes elements of getting away from everyday routines, relaxation, peace
and nature, as well as exploring Finnish culture through, e.g, retreats, Finnish sauna, and food.
In addition, two specifically targeted offerings have been identified. “Health and fitness”
consists of different physical activities, professional training, and the use of Finnish wellness
technology. “Pampering” comprises spa and beauty treatments in a high-quality settings
offering passive enjoyment, and is the closest to the understanding of the wellness tourism.
(FTB, 2009; Björk et al., 2011).
Research questions and methodology

The purpose of this study is to examine the current and future supply of the Finnish well-
being tourism market. Accordingly, two research questions were formulated:
RQ1: What kind of well-being tourism products, services, and experiences are offered to
the current tourists?
RQ2: How the service providers of the well-being tourism sector are developing their
offerings in order to respond to the needs and expectations of the future tourists?
The data consists of structured qualitative interviews that were conducted in Matka 2013
tourism fair in Helsinki (January 18th, 2013). The data consist of 23 interviews, of which 16
were tourism businesses, six destination marketing organizations (DMOs), and one
governmental organization. Interviewees (20) were selected among tourism fair exhibitors
who, according to their own perception, operate in the well-being tourism sector. Additionally,
three organizations were selected by the researchers as they were clearly significant actors
within the sector.
The interview questions were formed by the researchers based on previous literature
(e.g., SRI International, 2010). The interviews were conducted by students of an advance level
tourism course. Notably, some interviews were concise and strictly followed the predetermined
structure, while others were more discursive, but still covered all the themes. All interviews
were recorded and transcribed.
In the content analysis, data was themed according to research questions. The first theme
covered issues related to the development of the well-being tourism trend and its current state
including, e.g., the main products and services as well as the customer segments. The second
theme consisted of plans regarding to the future such as changes in the demand and supply of
well-being tourism.
Expected results and discussion

As the analysis is still ongoing, only preliminary results can be suggested. It is clear that
well-being tourism is understood as a very wide sector including not only offerings directly
linked to health and well-being (cf. Table 1) and representing the basic offering “Finnrelax”, but
also various activities like skiing, diving, and golf, that fall into the product category of “Health
and fitness”. Naturally, the various spas focus on the “Pampering” offering with varying levels
of luxury. The DMOs further widened the scope by relating well-being tourism also to various
cultural attractions. To some extent, interviewees drew parallels between the domains of well-
being (physical, mental, social, and spiritual) and the motives of leisure tourism (physical,
cultural, and social motives, entertainment, and religion) in general.
The service providers felt that, within the well-being sector, something new is expected
every year. Besides typical well-being offerings, the organizations were developing new
297
products such as sleep coaching, salt therapy, pole dancing, detox-packages, and sensory walks.
Furthermore, some were concerned that the organization (products, facilities, or personnel)
did not signal the right image of wellness.
The typical customer segments were senior travelers and couples, but many respondents
highlighted the growing amount of younger customers, e.g., groups of young women. The
domestic tourists formed the main market, but Russian and Japanese tourists were especially
mentioned. In relation to outbound tourism, besides popular destinations like Estonia and
Thailand, well-being packages to Canary Islands and China were also offered.
All respondents identified the expanding wellness trend, but some pointed out, that due
to the increasing supply and competition, the amount of customers is even decreasing.
Furthermore, the organizations developed their offerings mainly by themselves, but many
stated that ideas and concreate assistance in product development and marketing was needed.
References
Björk, P., Tuohino, A., Konu, H. (2011). Wellbeing Tourism in Finland – a Wide Perspective.
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Perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 29, 348–370.
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experience: Consumer and managerial perspectives, M. Morgan, P. Lugosi, J. R. B. Ritchie
(Eds.), xv–xxii. Bristol: Channel View Publications.
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7(1), 5–17.
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future, K. Weiermair & C. Mathies (Eds.), 181–198. Binghampton: The Haworth
Hospitality Press.
Pilzer, P. (2007). The New Wellness Revolution. 2nd edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Pine, J. & Gilmore, J. (1999). The experience economy: Work is theatre & every business a stage.
Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Prahalad, C. & Ramaswamy, V. (2004). The future of competition: Co-creating unique value with
customers. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Quinlan Cutler, S. & Carmichael, B. (2010). The dimensions of the tourist experience. In: The
tourism and leisure experience: Consumer and managerial perspectives, M. Morgan, P.
Lugosi, J. R. B. Ritchie (Eds.), 3–26. Bristol: Channel View Publications.
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com/press/statistics-and-facts-press>, (retrieved 2.2.2015).
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SRI International. (2010). Global Spa Summit, Spas and the Global Wellness Market: Synergies
and Opportunities. <http://www.globalspasummit.org /images/ stories /pdf / gss_sri_
spasandwellnessreport _rev_82010.pdf>, (retrieved 4.10. 2010).
Suontausta, H. & Tyni, M. (2005). Wellness-matkailu: Hyvinvointi matkailun tuotekehityksessä.
Helsinki: Edita.
Tung, V. & Ritchie, J. (2011). Exploring the essence of memorable tourism experiences. Annals
of Tourism Research, 38(4), 1367–1386.
Tuohino, A. (2012). Löytöretki hyvinvointimatkailuun. Hyvinvointimatkailun nykytilakartoitus
ja toimenpide-ehdotukset.
Tynan, C. & McKechnie, S. (2009). Experience marketing: A review and reassessment. Journal of
Marketing Management, 25(5–6), 501–517.
Vargo, S. & Lusch, R. (2004). Evolving to a new dominant logic for marketing. Journal of
Marketing, 86(1), 1–17.
Walls, A., Okumus. F., Wang, Y. C., Kwun, D. (2011). An epistemological view of consumer
experiences. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(1), 10–21.
Yeoman, I. (2011). The changing behaviours of luxury consumption. Journal of Revenue and
Pricing Management, 10(1), 47–50.
Yeoman, I. (2008). Tomorrow’s tourist: Scenarios & trends. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
299
Boost to the Rural Tourism Services in Eastern Finland
Ilona Sares
University of Lapland
Rovaniemi, Finland
ilona.sares@gmail.fi
PhD Hilkka Lassila

Savonia University of Applied Sciences
Professor Satu Miettinen

University of Lapland
Introduction
Tourism as an industrial sector is growing strongly and influencing to tourists as well as
to the developing of tourism sites. The tourism product is usually described as a service
package, which consists of several service modules, such as accommodation, transportation and
different kind of activities. These products are typically experience-centric services, which are
designed to engage customers emotionally, physically, intellectually or even spiritually
experiences (Shaw, Bailey & Williams 2011). Usually the developers of tourism products focus
on the technical properties of the product rather than the experiences of the customers
(Komppula 2005). Nowadays tourists are seeking sustainable tourist services, which give them
memorable experiences and wellbeing. Pure nature in rural area in Finland will be the good
environment to produce this kind of tourist products.
We need new ways to approach developing process when creating tourism products in
Eastern Finland. Today turism business doesn’t co-operate regularly with other sectors in rural
areas when offering services to tourists. Customer satisfaction is the key element in evaluating
process of services. The producer has to know what are the key elements to build excellent
tourism products for customers. Could creative tourism and service design give answers when
we create and develop tourism products?
The aim of this paper is to show the structure of tourism products by using the model of
Smith (1997) and applying it to develop tourism product in Finnish rural area. The other aim is
to discuss about the role of creative tourism when developing tourism products. This paper is
discussing creative tourism production where the user orientation and engagement are
essential.
The model will be applied ongoing service and product development project
"Internationalizing the local food producers". Theoretical framework is constructed from the
thematic of creative tourism and service design applied in tourism production. The data has
been using this theoretical framework.
Theoretical background
According to Smith (1994), in ideally: “tourism product meet marketplace demands, are
produced cost-efficiently, and are based on the wise use of the cultural and natural resources
of the destination”. He presented that tourism products are generic products, which consists
five elements; physical plant, service, hospitality, freedom of choice and involvement (Smith,
1994).
Service design is establishing itself as a method for developing services and service
businesses (Miettinen, 2007). Service design process has characteristics from both iterative
design process goals and Human Centered Design (ISO9241-210, 2010). Service design is a
300
process: an iterative cycle of design, test and measure and redesign. The Human Centered
Design process model can be applied to involve problem framing, information gathering and
interpretation, solution ideation, development and evaluation in developing an existing service
or in designing a new service solution. Human-centered design thinking captures unexpected
insights and produces innovative solutions that more precisely reflect what consumers want.
Creative tourism has its roots from 1997-1999 EUROTEX -project. A group of researchers
and developers noticed that a value of a craft product is bound to the experience of the
production process. They developed this idea further to creative tourism. Richards (2010) have
defined creative tourism as: ”Tourism which offers visitors the opportunity to develop their
creative potential through active participation in courses and learning experiences which are
characteristic of the holiday destination where they are undertaken”.
Creative tourism processes thus engage tourists in creative activities and also stimulate
creative processes and production in a particular location. Creativity in tourism can be achieved
in several ways: as a more passive tourism experience where tourists consume creative
experience for example by watching spectacles such as traveling art exhibitions or festivals.
Another type of activity would be visiting creative spaces that have an arts, architecture and/or
design focus. In creative spaces tourists enjoy the atmosphere and the learning process is
already more interactive. In creative tourism the tourists themselves participate in creative
activities. Skills development is part of the creative experience. In this kind of tourism tourists
themselves actively learn from their environment and apply knowledge to develop their own
skills. (Richards and Wilson 2006)
Methods & materials

This research project will be carried out with the action research approach. The aim of
the project is to develop rural tourism business. In action research the researcher will be the
trigger of change. The action research process is cyclical, typically comprising the following
steps: identifying the problem; gathering data; design; performing the actions; analyzing and
reflecting on the results; capturing the knowledge; and planning the next steps (Ferrance, 2000;
Waddell, 2007). The action research framework is constructed around service design process
which follows similar process.
The cycles of action research are constructed around case studies which include and
engage local public companies in creative tourism product development. The case studies are
designed and constructed to produce data which would respond and give understanding
about research questions. The essential feature of action research is testing ideas in practice as
a means of increasing knowledge about or improving the target issue (Kemmis & McTaggart,
1988). Each case study is documented and analyzed. Theory based content analysis is used for
analyzing the research data. Analytical apparatus is constructed using theories and thematic
relevant to this research: The project utilizes a pragmatic, explorative service design research
approach. Service design approach works as means for acquiring research data not only about
the research context and problematic in that but about solution models and prototypes that can
make transformation.
In this project we will utilize service design as the framework for the participatory
research process. But while seeking to benefit from service design methods and tools, we will
also analyze critically and develop further its potential as a multi-disciplinary, holistic approach
in development research.
At Eastern Finland the current status research among food, tourism and creative cluster
industries has been done 2013. Altogether 20 viable companies that are geographically close to
each others were contacted and motivated to co-operation workshops where new models of
co-operation have been generated to build a network for international tourism business.
301
Workshops started 2014 and for finding fruitful spirit in co-operation service design tools was
used. According to Mattelmäki (2006) using co-design helps network creating process. In this
process a variety of different co-design tools are used and they all help team members to share
their ideas aloud with others, think aloud and also justify different solutions.
Action research process is on the first step now, so this is the picture of the starting point.
Tourism product has been modeled by using workshops with photos, videotapes and research
diary. The next step will be to use this Smith`s model to develop tourism products by using the
methods of service design and role of creative tourism. The research will have an action
research approach.

Smith has developed a model to separate tourism service onto different layers to be able
to have a closer look at them. The importance between different levels varies but all of them
are present in a tourism product (Smith 1997, 588). When developing tourist product to
Eastern Finland, we look it through these five different levels: physical plant, service,
hospitality, freedom of choice and involvement. This has been successful way to create a niche
product and thus it can be used when developing creative tourism service cluster to Eastern
Finland.
Emotion, stories and community are the key words and key themes when we have started
to create new tourist services. At workshops, many of the entrepreneurs met each other for the
first time. For the co-operation the first step has been to get to know and to find a common
language among stakeholders. During four one-day-workshops this could be sensed: people got
closer and started to share ideas with each other.
In the next table are showed by using Smith’s five elements model the structure of tourism
product in rural village after first step of action research.
302
Developing: After co-design

SMITH
EAST FINLAND EAST FINLAND
The basis of an tourism
Hotel-type accommodation Hotel-type accommodation
experience is built around
close to lake or river that are close to lake or river that are
a physical place. This can
physically close to different physically close to different
PHYSICAL be a hotel, yatch, a site, a
tiny enterprises, also wild tiny enterprises, also wild herb
PLANT natural park. The design
herb business. Villages with business. Village with shops.
and culture as well as
shops. Finnish forests and Finnish forests and
quality of this place has
countryside. countryside.
an impact to a traveller.
Six rural accommodation sites
Tourism services are not
are the heart of the services.
working together with
Two of them are always linked
creative sector + wild herb
to use same creative sector
enterprises regurarly, few
The physical plant needs services: multisensing trip to a
courses have been arranged
a variety of services to National Park where a Fairy of
SERVICE make it useful for
to some gourmet cooks but
the Forest tells the guidelines
courses have not been linked
tourists. to the usage of wild plants and
with basic tourism sector.
shows, how they are collected
Wellness sector services
and prepared for a lunch is one
available. Riding
model that is offered to
possibilities.
travelers.
Regional service providers
“Hospitality is an At co-design workshops the
could strengthen their co-
expression of welcome by entrepreneurs were testing
operation - this could give
HOSPITALITY local residents to tourists
more value to tourist and at
each others services. In this a
arriving in their warm collaboration started to
the best feeling of
community” form between them.
hospitality.
A person can’t feel
satisfaction and relaxed if Possibilities to choose different
one can’t have the parts of the program and also
Every service needs decision
possibility to make possibility to stay out of it.
FREEDOM OF to take it or leave it. Plenty
choices. “Freedom implies Good surprises during the
CHOICE of freedom when making
not just choice, but also week is planned to cheer up
decisions.
the potential for happy customers. Method: give more
surprises and you promised, is used.
spontaneity.”
The combination of all
levels: acceptable
The products are not yet tested
physical plant, good
The owner of one local hotel by tourists. All the
service, hospitality and
have changed at the entrepreneurs don’t have the
freedom of choice are
beginning of 2013. New same level of involvement,
needed to create a
INVOLVEMENT successfull entity for a owner is local. This and some of them have been too
some other positive signals busy and one has been on sick
consumer. ”For tourism,
have brought new energy leave. Most of them are fully in.
involvement is not simply
and hope to the community. One of them said: ”This is the
physical participation, but
best we have done ever!”
sense of engagement, of
focusing on the activity.”

As a conclusion of this paper our model shows that when developing creative tourism
services the whole community or cluster of enterprises is involved when offering the service to
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tourists. We would like to expand the usage of co-creation to community collaboration when
developing and building a large tourism product with Smith model.
If we want to create a niche product to tourism business, local traditional habits and
nature connected to creative culture professionalism can create strong possibilities to tourism
service package. Using wild plants and herbs is one example of this kind of culture which is
connected to local flora. When this entity is done well, it will be positioned to involvement level
at Smith model. When developing tourism products in Eastern Finland with service design tools
we point out that in creative tourism experience the story, feelings and other relevant elements
are present in service journey.
Creative tourism experiences can create a new kind of interaction between the tourists
and the local communities. The creative tourism product is co-created in a dialogue between
the hosts and the visitors. Tourists experience this process as a learning experience where the
learning about the context of Eastern Finland and the local traditional habits becomes part of
the experience. Experience is constructed through all the senses. The feeling of the materials,
smells, sceneries and sounds construct the landscape of experience. Creative tourism as such is
very much a community-based tourism effort. It is important to remember that this kind of
tourism form is by far a niche area of tourism, but different applications can also be produced
and used in any local tourism market. Further the creative tourism can effect both the host and
the visitor when the dialogue takes place during the creative tourism experience.
References
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US. Retrieved 10 26, 2011, from Alliance Brown:
http://www.alliance.brown.edu/pubs/themes_ed/act_research.pdf
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1988). The action research planner (3rd ed.). Deakin University
Press. Victoria, Australia.
Komppula, R. (2005). Pursuing customer value in tourism - a rural tourism case-study. Journal
of Hospitality & Tourism 3 (2), 83-104.
Miettinen, S. (2007). Designing the Creative Tourism Experience. A Service Design Process with
Namibian Crafts People. Publication series of University of Art and Design Helsinki A 81.
Doctoral Dissertation. Gummerus kirjapaino oy. Jyväskylä.
Richards G. (2010). EUROTEX: Trans-national partnership linking crafts and tourism.
Case study published in: UNWTO (2010) Joining Forces: Collaborative Processes for
Sustainable and Competitive Tourism. Madrid: UNWTO, pp. 83-88.
Richards, G., & Wilson, J. (2006). Developing creativity in tourist experiences: A solution to the
serial reproduction of culture? Tourism management, 27(6), 1209-1223.
Smith, S. (1994). The Tourism Product. Annals of Tourism Research. 21(3), 582-595.
Shaw, G,. Bailey, A. & Williams, A. (2011). Aspects of service-dominant logic and its implications
for tourism management: Examples from the hotel industry. Tourism Management, 32
(2), 207-214.
Mattelmäki, T. (2006). Design Probes. Publication Series
of the University of Art and Design Helsinki A 69. Vaajakoski.
Waddell, G. (2007). What is Action Research. Retrieved 02.01.2015, from:
http://www.slideshare.net/Gregwad/action-research
304
Conceptual Model of Customer-Company Interaction in Value Co-Creation
Lenna Shulga
James Busser
Tony Henthorne
University of Nevada Las Vegas, William F. Harrah College of Hotel Administration, USA
shulga@unlv.nevada.edu
Introduction
Organizations face challenges to gain insights into the resources customers contribute to
value co-creation (Baron & Warnaby, 2011) and the benefits and drawbacks resulting from
customer involvement (Prebensen et al., 2013). However, the main focus of the majority of
tourism research has centered around one particular type of co-creation – the value co-creation
of experience (Binkhorst & Dekker, 2009). Today’s customers can co-create their experiences,
co-recover service failures, co-create marketing strategies, co-create brand value (Payne et al.,
2009; Xu et al., 2014), co-innovate, and even become partial employees of the firm (Shaw et al.,
2011). Overall, customers are in a unique position to offer guidance and suggestions to
companies, because they have considerable experience with the service and are customer
perspective experts (Bettencourt, 1997). Nonetheless, very few studies have systematically
examined value co-creation in tourism and offered structure to value co-creation and customer-
company interaction.
Purpose of the Paper

The purpose of this paper is to examine the customer-company interaction from the
customer’s standpoint and to explore what drives tourists to participate in value co-creation
activities. Based on the relational nature of co-creation (Gronroos, 2011), the tourist-service
provider relationship is examined through social identity and social penetration theories. With
the goal to expand an understanding of how tourism organizations can become valuable
partners in co-creation, a conceptual model of customer-company interaction in value co-
creation is introduced. The literature and research in support of four major co-creation types,
the stages of customer-company co-creation participation are reviewed along with customer
and organization outcomes.
Literature review
Co-creation of value is defined as the joint, collaborative, concurrent, peer-like process of
producing new value, both materially and perceptually (Galvagno et al., 2014). Co-creation
encompasses all the specific theoretical and empirical concurrences in which companies and
customers generate value through interactions (Vargo & Lusch, 2008). Service Dominant (S-D)
logic implies that value is defined by and created in concert with the customer, rather than
simply being embedded in the output (Vargo & Lusch, 2004). The shift to S-D logic enabled the
examination of how participant processes and resources interact to co-create value in service
systems (Vargo et al., 2008) or configurations composed of people, technology and value
propositions ( Lusch & Vargo, 2006).
Value co-creation is a series of activities performed by the customer to achieve
desired outcomes (Payne, et al., 2008; McColl-Kennedy et al., 2012). Within S-D logic customers,
instead of being targets of producer-created value, are now triggering value creation, as they
engage their unique knowledge and skills in social, dynamic, and interactive network
relationships with firms and other stakeholders, including customer’s self-generated activities
(McColl-Kennedy et al., 2012). The critical role for the service provider in co-creation is to
305
engage in a dialogue with and learn from customers (Matthing et al., 2004). Overall, customer-
company interactions within complex social structures and networks lead to the relational
nature of value creation (Edvardsson et al., 2011). Accordingly individual needs, preferences,
habits and values have a significant influence on value co-creation. In addition value is not co-
created until customers attach personal identity to it (Vargo & Lusch, 2004).
Customers’ Social Identity

Social identity theory, which addresses the relationship among self-concept, group, and
intergroup phenomena (Bergami & Bagozzi, 2000), may assist in explaining why customers
voluntarily participate in value co-creation. Extending social identity theory into the customer
domain, customer-company identification suggests that similar to employees, customers can
identify with a company even without formal membership (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003). Strong
identification occurs when a company becomes personally relevant for consumers, and creates
the potential for emotional reactions, thus offering both self-definitional and emotional
meaning (Bettencourt 1997). Subsequently, as customers seek to improve their social self-
identity, their identification with the company motivates them to act favorably toward the
company raising its status and their personal status and role (Homburg et al., 2009). Therefore,
the social identity approach including customer-company identification creates a social system
favorable for value co-creation to occur. The focus on positive development of such customer-
company relationships should ensure the success of value co-creation.
Co-Creation Processes in the Tourism Context

Travelers today are looking to fulfill not only physical needs but also psychological needs
such as inspiration, authenticity, value, and belonging to a meaningful community (Binkhorst
& Dekker, 2009). The processes of co-creation in tourism can be classified into four distinct
types: co-creation of experience, co-recovery, co-innovation and co-marketing. The co-creation
of experience is based on the consumer taking an active part in consuming and producing value.
The co-creation of experience consists of co-production, customization and co-creation of
experience from customer-to-customer. For example, co-production happens when a tourist
decides to participate in a sporting event while visiting a destination. Customizing occurs when
a couple takes an active part in their upcoming tour of vineyards by adding cooking classes. In
customer-to-customer experience co-creation, customers usually direct helping behaviors
toward other customers, under the assumption that other customers might need help behaving
in the ways consistent with their expected roles (Rihova et al., 2013).
According to Xu et al. (2014), co-recovery is a process where customers are asked to be a
part of problem solving, during which they have an opportunity to provide their opinions and
recommendations. Co-recovery can be divided into recovery from service failure and online
reputation management. Co-innovation can be viewed as a product or service development and
cost-cutting initiatives stemming from the co-creation activities with customers. For example,
low cost airline companies are based on a business model that is highly dependent on co-
creation, as the customers take the role of booking flights via the internet (Shaw et al., 2011),
which in turn benefits the customer by price reductions.
Overall, co-marketing within value co-creation can be viewed through the co-creation of
brand value, co-creation of community and content co-creation. Co-creation is especially
apparent in consumer groups such as brand communities, that actively participate in co-
creating brand identity (Payne et al., 2009). In tourism, consumer groups may identify
themselves not only with company brands, like Southwest Airlines, but also destination brands,
for example, “I love NY”. The research on consumer groups has included consumer tribes or
brand tribes, brand communities and user communities (McConnell & Huba, 2007). Enabled by
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social media, consumers actively participate in the co-creation of content. For example, under
the banner of "Travel Brilliantly", Marriott is reinventing travel and its brand, including opening
a global content studio focused on publishing, distributing and sharing digital and filmed
content co-created by the brand community (www.brandchannel.com, 2014).
Conceptual Model of Customer-Company Interaction in Value Co-Creation

Based on Social Penetration Theory, Knapp (1978) proposed a relationship staircase
model, which includes initiating, attracting, experimenting, intensifying and bonding.
According to Knapp’s staircase model, relationships are advanced through increased disclosure
and depth. Transforming Knapp’s five-stage staircase model, we propose the conceptual model
of customer-company interaction in value co-creation (Figure 1), which follows a six-stage
model: initiation, engagement, involvement, contribution, and feedback, resulting in bonding.
The concepts of initiation, engagement and involvement have received scholarly attention in
tourism and hospitality (Xu et al., 2014; Prebensen et al., 2013). Contribution represents the
effort both customers and employees make to advance co-creation. Feedback is a necessary
part of successful peer-like, collaborative and concurrent value co-creation (Galvagno et al.,
2014). Bonding represents the public commitment to the company and the highest level of
empathy and trust (Welch & Rubin, 2002). Bonding leads to positive organizational, personal
and co-outcomes. Co-outcomes are the benefits valued by the company and the customer (i.e.,
customer satisfaction, loyalty, trust, word-of-mouth). The organizational outcomes are not only
directly connected to the co-creation of customer-centric services, (i.e., new product and
services development), but also linked to shared marketing outcomes, such as advertising and
public relations. Finally, positive co-creation outcomes lead to increases in profitability and
revenue growth. The co-creation outcomes that singularly belong to the customer domain are
psychological, physical, and/or financial well-being (McColl-Kennedy et al., 2012).
307
Figure 1: Conceptual Model of Customer-Company Interaction in Value Co-Creation
Discussion
It can be argued that if the company goal is to achieve not just organizational outcomes,
such as the generation of new service ideas, but also to strengthen the bond with customers in
an effort to increase their loyalty, or co-outcomes, the company must develop a meaningful
relationship with its customers. Consequently, if the customer wishes to improve their social
identity status, leading to improved psychological well-being, they must also develop a
meaningful relationship with the company. This happens through the peer-like, collaborative,
mutual participation found in co-creation.
The primary contribution of the model is providing a holistic framework from which to
examine existing and proposed testable constructs we believe to be associated with co-creation
of value. The model extends the existing research into relationship development by introducing
the constructs of contribution, feedback and bonding. It is within the stage of bonding that the
308
model connects to the organizational and consumer outcomes of co-creation of loyalty, trust
and satisfaction, and to the co-outcomes of co-creation. Each stage of the model should be tested
in the context of the four types of co-creation, in order to understand how the constructs impact
the proposed co-outcomes and what mediators influence the process in a positive or negative
way.
Selected References
Baron, S., & Warnaby, G. (2011). Value co-creation from the consumer perspective. Service
systems implementation (pp. 199-210) Springer.
Bhattacharya, C. B., & Sen, S. (2003). Consumer-company identification: A framework for
understanding consumers’ relationships with companies. Journal of Marketing, 67(2), 76-
88.
Binkhorst, E., & Dekker, T. D. (2009). Agenda for co-creation tourism experience research.
Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 18(2-3), 311-327.
Edvardsson, B., Tronvoll, B., & Gruber, T. (2011). Expanding understanding of service exchange
and value co-creation: A social construction approach. Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science, 39(2), 327-339.
Galvagno, M., Dalli, D., & Mele, C. (2014). Theory of value co-creation: A systematic literature
review. Managing Service Quality, 24(6), 643-683.
Grönroos, C. (2011). Value co-creation in service logic: A critical analysis. Marketing Theory,
11(3), 279-301.
Homburg, C., Wieseke, J., & Hoyer, W., D. (2009). Social identity and the service-profit chain.
Lusch, R. F., & Vargo, S. L. (2006). Service-dominant logic: Reactions, reflections and
refinements. Marketing Theory, 6(3), 281-288.
Matthing, J., Sandén, B., & Edvardsson, B. (2004). New service development: Learning from and
with customers. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 15(5), 479-498.
McColl-Kennedy, J. R., Vargo, S. L., Dagger, T. S., Sweeney, J. C., & van Kasteren, Y. (2012). Health
care customer value cocreation practice styles. Journal of Service Research, 15(4), 370-
389.
McConnell, B., & Huba, J. (2007). Citizen marketers: When people are the message. Chicago, IL:
Kaplan Pub.
Payne, A., Storbacka, K., Frow, P., & Knox, S. (2009). Co-creating brands: Diagnosing and
designing the relationship experience. Journal of Business Research, 62(3), 379-389.
Prebensen, N. K., Woo, E., Chen, J. S., & Uysal, M. (2013). Motivation and involvement as
antecedents of the perceived value of the destination experience. Journal of Travel
Research, 52(2), 253-264.
Rihova, I., Buhalis, D., Moital, M., & Gouthro, M. B. (2013). Social layers of customer-to-customer
value co-creation. Journal of Service Management, 24(5), 6-6.
207-214.
Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2008). Service-dominant logic: Continuing the evolution. Journal of
the Academy of Marketing Science, 36(1), 1-10.
Marketing, 68(1), 1-17.
Vargo, S. L., Maglio, P. P., & Akaka, M. A. (2008). On value and value co-creation: A service
systems and service logic perspective. European Management Journal, 26(3), 145-152.
309
Welch, S. A., & Rubin, R. B. (2002). Development of relationship stage measures. Communication
Quarterly, 50(1), 24-40.
Xu, Y., Marshall, R., Edvardsson, B., & Tronvoll, B. (2014). Show you care: Initiating co-creation
in service recovery. Journal of Service Management, 25(3), 369-387.
Full list of references is available upon request
310
The role of commercial friendship in company versus customer initiation

of value co-creation for tourism brands
Lenna Shulga
James Busser
Tony Henthorne
University of Nevada Las Vegas, William F. Harrah College of Hotel Administration, USA
shulga@unlv.nevada.edu
Introduction
The core concept of service-dominant logic (S-D logic) is that the customer is always a co-
creator of value (Vargo & Lusch, 2004). As active participants and collaborative partners in
relational exchanges, customers co-create value with the firm through involvement in the
entire service-value chain (Yi & Gong, 2013). As firms position themselves to fulfill personal
and evolving customer needs, they increasingly must move beyond internal focus and
dynamically engage customers (Brandenburger & Nalebuff, 1997) in an effort to offer
comprehensive value propositions (Peppard & Rylander, 2006). Historically, success in tourism
is built on transitioning satisfied customers into loyal customers, who are less sensitive to price-
demand fluctuations and competition advances. Thus it is imperative for the tourism manager
to participate with customers in value co-creation and form communities of loyal customers,
improving customer experiences, creating competitive advantages with added brand value, and
even disrupting the market with new innovative co-products and co-services.
Purpose of the Paper

The purpose of this paper is to examine the role of commercial friendship in company
versus customer initiation of co-creation interaction for tourism destination brands within the
four types of co-creation: co-creation of experience, co-recovery, co-innovation and co-
marketing. Customer-company co-creation interactions are examined through social
penetration theory and Knapp’s relationship development model. The effects of commercial
friendship and initiation are linked to co-creation outcomes, such as customer satisfaction,
loyalty, word-of-mouth and trust.
Literature review
The value co-creation concept stems from the service-dominant logic, which states that
all businesses are essentially service providers, who exchange service for service as the
fundamental basis of exchange (Vargo & Lusch, 2004). Two types of customers’ value co-
creation behavior were defined: customer participation behavior, which refers to required
behavior necessary for successful value co-creation, and customer citizenship behavior, which
is voluntary behavior that provides extraordinary value to the firm (Yi et al., 2011). However,
not all customers will have the same motivations during the value co-creation process. Some
individuals may see greater value in engaging in certain activities than others and will have
preferences for ways of interacting based on their particular view of their role as a resource
integrator within the given context (McColl-Kennedy, et al., 2012).
Social identity theory states that being a member of a social group (i.e., being an employee,
citizen, or member of a club) contributes to how people define themselves as individuals (Tajfel,
1982) and determines their future behavior. In the context of customer-company identification,
being a loyal customer of a company can also contribute to how customers define themselves
(Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003). Van Doorn, et al., (2010) suggested that the social identify of a
customer can be shaped and reinforced by co-creation activities. It was also noted that when
311
customers engage in the service development process, their perception of belonging to the
company is reflected by their satisfaction and loyalty (Grissemann & Stokburger-Sauer, 2012).
The concept that captures the social benefits of customer-company identification is
commercial friendship. Research suggests that customers who develop commercial friendships
believe in employees’ compassion and integrity and will provide detailed information to enable
service customization and enhance satisfaction (Han et al., 2008). It was revealed that
consumers can become friends with service personnel which involves affection, self-disclosure,
social support, reciprocity, and trust. Furthermore, customers perceive the service provider’s
listening to their needs and special treatment as instrumental benefits of the friendship (Price
& Arnould, 1999). Additionally, in co-creation processes involving tourism networks both
employees of the firm and their customers were defined as experience facilitators (Sfandla &
Bjork, 2013). Therefore in destination tourism relationships may also develop social bonds
through the service provider’s interaction with the customer’s social network (e.g., online),
through broader service-brand communities (i.e., travel clubs), and perhaps even through the
customer’s interaction with a virtual service provider (e.g. virtual “friend” who makes product
recommendations), which can increase trust (at the firm level), commitment, as well as
switching costs (Oliver, 2010). Therefore the following hypothesis is proposed:
H1: Customers with stronger commercial friendship through the co-creation customer-
company interaction develop stronger co-creation outcomes.
Becoming a friend means that the relationship between two entities is moving through
stages of development, this allows for the deepening strength of communication (Knapp, 1978).
As a part of social penetration theory, relationships are viewed as developing through increased
disclosure and depth (Altman & Taylor, 1973). For example, once a person shares information
with another, the person’s view moves toward a more intimate or new level of relationship. The
outcomes of relationship are identified as empathy, intimacy and trust (Welch & Rubin, 2002),
which are constructs that receive special attention in the tourism research. The first stage of
relationship development is initiation. The construct of initiation was researched in connection
with the co-creation of service recovery in a hospitality setting (Xu, et al., 2012). Findings
showed a difference in customer co-creation perceptions and outcomes depending on who
initiated the process: employees or customers. When a service employee initiates a co-
recovery, customers perceive higher justice, greater satisfaction and a higher tendency to
repurchase in the future (Xu, et al., 2012). However, the effect of customer versus employee
initiation has not been examined in the context of the other co-creation types, such as co-
creation of experience, co-innovation and co-marketing in tourism.
Tourism co-creation of experience can be understood as an active customer’s
participation in consuming and producing value through designing tourism related
experiences. Thus, the customer is co-producing, customizing and sharing their experience with
the tourism service provider and other customers while contributing to the scene and their own
experiences (Mossberg, 2007). Co-recovery is a process where customers are asked to be a part
of problem solving, during which they have an opportunity to provide their opinions and
recommendations (Xu, et al., 2012). In the process of co-innovation, in the buyer-centric model
of S-D Logic, customers are viewed as operant resources in order to create new products and
services for destination tourism brands (Shaw, et al., 2011). Co-marketing in tourism is the co-
creation of brand value through the tourism brand communities and co-creation of the content
through social media. Consumers form relationships with brands that mirror social
relationships, enhancing communication skills, creating social contacts and enjoyment
(Aggarwal, 2004). Even though people’s relationships with brands do not necessarily share the
312
same richness and depth as their relationships with human partners, they can interact with
brands as if they have a relationship with them (Aggrawal, 2004).
The outcomes of co-creation can be divided into purely organizational outcomes, personal
outcomes and co-outcomes, which lay on the crossroads between singular benefits of co-
creation. Based on the known outcomes of commercial friendship and relationship
development model the following co-outcomes are considered: customer satisfaction, customer
loyalty, trust and word-of-mouth. All four constructs are actively researched in tourism and
hospitality. Therefore the following hypotheses are proposed:
H2: Employee-initiated co-creation leads to higher levels of customer satisfaction with the
company than customer-initiated co-creation for all four types of co-creation.
H3: Employee-initiated co-creation leads to higher levels of customer loyalty with the
company than customer-initiated co-creation for all four types of co-creation.
H4: Employee-initiated co-creation leads to higher levels of customer trust in the

company than a customer-initiated co-creation for all four types of co-creation.
H5: Customers have a higher tendency to promote the company through word-of-mouth
after employee-initiated co-creation than a customer-initiated co-creation for all four types of
co-creation.

A scenario-based experiment focused on destination tourism brands will be used to test
the research hypotheses (see Appendix 1). The scenario-based approach is consistent with
other studies on co-creation (Xu, et al., 2012). The subjects must have a leisure traveler
experience within the last 12 months. A 2 x 2 x 4 within-subject experiment will be used;
commercial friendship (high, low), initiation (customer, company), co-creation (co-creation of
experience, co-recovery, co-innovation, co-marketing). Initiation and co-creation type will be
manipulated, while commercial friendship will be measured using the eleven-item scale
developed by Price and Arnould, 1999. Questions based on measures of satisfaction, loyalty,
trust and word of mouth measures using Likert-type scales ranging from 1=Strongly Disagree
to 7=Strongly Agree will be completed by subjects after each experiment scenario. Measures of
loyalty will include intention to return to the establishment and recommend to others based on
five-item scale (Zeithaml, Barry, & Parasuraman, 1996). Satisfaction will use the four-item scale
developed by Oliver (2010). Trust will be examined based on four-item Tax et al., 1998 scale.
For word-of-mouth the modified Price and Arnould (1999) three-item scale will be used. The
scenarios and measurement scales will be pre-tested and manipulation checks will be verified
using a pilot group of respondents. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis will be performed to
evaluate properties of all multi-item constructs. ANOVA and MANOVA will be conducted on the
dependent measures of satisfaction, loyalty, trust and word-of-mouth. Data will be collected
June-July 2015. The results will reveal which of the initiation types for each type of co-creation
are most likely to lead to customer satisfaction, loyalty, trust and word-of-mouth. It is predicted
that the more the customer experiences commercial friendship with the company, the more
they will positively influence co-creation co-outcomes.
Implications
The theoretical contribution of this study is to explain why customer-company interaction
during the first stage of value co-creation may result in strong co-outcomes through robust
313
relationship development between the customer and the destination tourism organization. By
testing the strength of commercial friendship and the effects of initiation, the results of the
study offers tourism industry practitioners direction on how to start the collaborative
relationship with customers in various co-creation types, with the goal to achieve positive
outcomes of co-creation.
Selected References
Aggarwal, P. (2004). The effects of brand relationship norms on consumer attitudes and
behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(1), 87-101.
Bhattacharya, C. B., & Sen, S. (2003). Consumer-company identification: A framework for
understanding consumers’ relationships with companies. Journal of Marketing, 67(2), 76-
88.
Grissemann, U. S., & Stokburger-Sauer, N. E. (2012). Customer co-creation of travel services:
The role of company support and customer satisfaction with the co-creation performance.
Knapp, M. L. (1978). Social intercourse: From greeting to goodbye. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
McColl-Kennedy, J. R., Vargo, S. L., Dagger, T. S., Sweeney, J. C., & van Kasteren, Y. (2012). Health
care customer value cocreation practice styles. Journal of Service Research, 15(4), 370-
389.
Mossberg, L. (2007). A marketing approach to the tourist experience. Scandinavian Journal of
Nalebuff, B. J., & Brandenburger, A. M. (1997). Co-opetition: Competitive and cooperative
business strategies for the digital economy. Strategy & Leadership, 25(6), 28-33.
Oliver, R. L. (Ed.). (2010). Satisfaction: A behavioral perspective on the consumer (M.E. Sharpe
Trans.). (2nd ed.). NY: Armonk.
Peppard, J., & Rylander, A. (2006). From value chain to value network: Insights for mobile
operators. European Management Journal, 24(2), 128-141.
Price, L. L., & Arnould, E. J. (1999). Commercial friendships: Service provider-client
relationships in context. The Journal of Marketing, 38-56.
Sfandla, C., & Bjork, P. (2013). Tourism Experience Network: Co-creation of Experiences in
Interactive Processes. International Journal of Tourism Research, 15, 495-506.
207-214.
Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33(1),
1-39.
Van Doorn, J., Lemon, K. N., Mittal, V., Nass, S., Pick, D., Pirner, P., et al. (2010). Customer
engagement behavior: Theoretical foundations and research directions. Journal of Service
Research, 13(3), 253-266.
Marketing, 68(1), 1-17.
Welch, S. A., & Rubin, R. B. (2002). Development of relationship stage measures. Communication
Quarterly, 50(1), 24-40.
Xu, Y., Marshall, R., Edvardsson, B., & Tronvoll, B. (2014). Show you care: Initiating co-creation
in service recovery. Journal of Service Management, 25(3), 369-387.
Full list of references is available upon request
314
315
From a Conflicated to a Collaborative Destination: A Case Study of

Marketing and Management Challenges in Co-creating Wellbeing in
Novalja, Croatia
Neda Telisman-Kosuta
Neven Ivandic
Ivo Kunst
Institute for Tourism
Zagreb, Croatia
neda.kosuta@iztzg.hr
Introduction
With maturing of the tourism industry, there is a growing understanding of destinations
as complex systems composed of numerous diverse actors who, despite often conflicting
agendas, each play a role in jointly creating and delivering visitor experiences. ‘Destination
thinking’ has become established in the academic community and the need for collaborative
marketing and management is also becoming increasingly recognized among tourism
practitioners. Focusing on the Croatian town of Novalja, a central Adriatic island resort and one
of the country’s internationally recognized ‘party tourism’ destinations, this paper examines
the challenges of collaborative marketing and management as key instruments of mitigating
current antagonistic relationships between locals, club owners and visitors which, despite the
town’s increasing affluence, are threatening its spatial, environmental and social coherence. By
presenting this case study, the authors hope to contribute to the ongoing discussion on
collaborative capacity of destinations and the mechanisms involved in creating a collaborative
destination as a means of co-creating wellbeing for both hosts and guests.
Literature review
Along with tourism being embraced worldwide as an effective economy booster, its
potentially conflicting, even disruptive nature particularly in relation to environmental and
social structures of places has been widely researched, documented and acknowledged from
early studies mainly focusing on under-developed regions (Jafari, 1989) to recent works in
developed tourism destinations (Dredge, 2010). Studies of tourism induced cultural and social
conflict within a community or between local and outsider groups have contributed to the
understanding of tourism destinations as highly complex, interacting systems comprising of
numerous and diverse organizations, the local population, temporary residents and various
different tourist segments with different interests and expectations from tourism development
(Buhalis, 2000; Ritchie & Crouch, 2003; Manente & Minghetti 2006; Wang & Pizam, 2011).
These differences, if not managed, can be expected, in line with the destination lifecycle model,
to contribute to loss of competitive edge leading eventually to stagnation and decline (Butler,
1980; Buhalis, 2000; Hovinen, 2002). Thus, cooperation among stakeholders can be seen as a
prerequisite for planning, development and delivery of integrated tourism products and, in fact,
for destination viability (Beritelli, 2010). This thinking brings to the fore the notion that
destination competitiveness is ‘… a function of how successfully constituent components work
together to deliver the tourism product …’ and that organizations should adjust their strategies
‘… toward achievement of collaborative advantage rather than competitive advantage’ (Fyall,
Garrod & Wang, 2012). In other words, destinations must cooperate internally to be able to
compete externally. It has been noted that tourism, more than most other economic sectors,
involves the development of some kind of cooperative function encompassing both formal and
316
informal collaboration, partnerships and networks (Scott, Cooper & Biaggio, 2008).
Government, guided by public interest as determined by an evaluation framework, should lead
in mediating conflict (Dredge, 2010). At the same time, despite broad agreement on the
importance of thus generated policy implementation, tourism planning is in fact often applied
only partially or not at all (Krutwaysho & Bramwell, 2009).
This is the context for exploring and understanding Novalja’s current collaborative
capacity, as well as for posing questions about marketing and management mechanisms which
can increase it thus leading on to a rejuvenation cycle.

Research on Novalja’s current collaborative practices was conducted in a two phase
process. The first segment involved conducting of focus groups with public and private sector
organizations which would logically be involved in determining and shaping the town’s tourism
development, namely with: a) elected town officials, Novalja Tourism Board, the Port Authority,
cultural institutions, environmental groups, various associations and NGOs; b) accommodation,
food and beverage providers and travel intermediaries; c) club owners on Zrće beach. The
discussion centered on issues pertaining to current tourism planning practices, existing
stakeholder relationships and responsibilities, as well as on needed tourism development
control mechanisms. Focus groups were recorded and the discussion was content analyzed.
The second phase involved a survey of local residents aimed at assessing their attitudes
toward tourism development in Novalja. More specifically, the survey was designed to measure
resident attitudes on: ‘the importance and benefits of tourism for the local community’, ‘the
direction of tourism development in the future’ and ‘the importance and benefits of party
tourism for the destination’. The survey was carried out on a sample of 300 individuals, age 15
and above. It was implemented using the CATI method aided by a structured questionnaire with
answer options provided on a Likert scale (1-5). Resident attitudes were analyzed for the whole
set and for subsets determined by ‘age’, ‘education level’ and ‘income dependence on tourism’.
Results
Novalja is today a prosperous but, as research results have shown, also a conflicted
tourism destination. ‘Party tourism’ is seen locally as having been imposed by outsiders and a
handful of local power players. It is seen as something that ‘happened’ or ‘was done’ to the local
community with great speed and intensity virtually ‘wiping out’ other forms of tourism, namely
family ‘sun and sea’ vacations Novalja traditionally targeted. The sudden surge of ‘party
tourism’ demand provided lucrative business opportunities, however, and part of the local
community, particularly those with property near Zrće beach where the music clubs are
located, were drawn in eventually. At this point there is quite a high degree of consensus among
the local population, including individuals whose income depends on ‘party tourism’, that
Novalja is suffering from overbuilding, a short summer season revolving around beach music
festivals, beach pollution and crowding. Economic wellbeing but a social and ecological
downward spiral are resulting in, what one of the respondents called, ‘collective schizophrenia’.
An ‘either us or them’ attitude is palpable.
On the other hand, club owners feel they are being treated by the local community as
‘milking cows’ while in their opinion local initiative in upgrading Novalja’s tourism offer
through diverse, added value services is practically non-existing. In their view, it is the club
owners who are taking all the business risks, not only driving, but also paying for community
development.
As certain ‘critical points of tolerance’ have been passed, namely disturbing loud noise
from the open air clubs throughout the night, excessive behavior by some guests in public
317
spaces and plummeting real estate values, local residents but also some club owners (with
others being cooperative) have joined in a community driven call for change. Both see the local
government as responsible for facilitating change and a more balanced future tourism
development. The newly elected town officials, replacing the previous long-standing political
option, have proclaimed restoring orderly behavior their short-term priority with a new
strategic tourism orientation to become their long-term focus.
A more detailed insight of obtained research results is summarized below:

Stakeholder
View of current situation View of desired future
group
Tourism is extremely important as
the economic mainstay of Novalja, but
Novalja is a destination with a
the destination deserves higher
diversified tourism offer, an
Local residents quality guests. Two-thirds feel further
extended tourism season and
construction of tourism apartments
revitalized agriculture
should be stopped and only a third
see ‘party tourism’ as important.
Novalja is lacking a whole range of
facilities, namely quality hotels,
‘Sun & sea’ will always be
marinas, sports and recreation
Public sector Novalja’s main resource, but it
venues, well-kept beaches. There is
institutions should nurture other selective
dire need for better qualified human
types of tourism
resources, especially on managerial
level.
Party tourism is highly profitable,
albeit only for two months, and
nobody will give it up regardless of A change in guest structure and
Private sector how they personally feel about it. upgrading of facilities should be
tourism service Besides, the clubs are untouchable. initiated enabling Novalja to
providers The problem lies in reconciling party diversify beyond ‘party’ and
and traditional family guests who feel ‘sun & sea’ tourism
threatened and are turning away.
Investment in quality does not pay.
Novalja is currently a ‘cheap’
Novalja is renowned for world
destination. The clubs are ready to
class club and music
invest in improving quality, but
Beach clubs entertainment with
everyone else must also ‘pull their
accompanying high quality
weight’. Novalja needs better hotels,
facilities
restaurants and infrastructure.
Disorderly conduct by clubs and
guests cannot be tolerated, Novalja is a town that works,
Newly elected overbuilding and beach pollution attractive for investment and
town officials must stop. Existence of beach clubs is offering a range of high quality
not in question, but town discontent tourism products
is palpable.
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Widespread dissatisfaction with the existing ‘tourism model’ in Novalja dependent on

‘party tourism’ as the destination’s defining tourism product has reached a critical point
motivating local residents, club owners and the local government to initiate discussion about
change and its desired direction. This action in itself may be viewed as a natural response to a
‘crisis’ with the local mayoral elections having most probably been the catalyst. It did provoke
and result, however, in ensuing action, spearheaded by the town Mayor, involving the drawing
up of a Tourism Masterplan with a 2025 timeframe and supported by a strategic marketing
component, where all stakeholders participated in the visioning process and the formulation of
Novalja’s repositioning strategy, all of which is collaborative thinking moving the destination
in the right direction. Furthermore, various collaborative mechanisms, both within marketing
and management domains, ranging from community directed internal marketing and
formation of clusters to a DMO and multidisciplinary, non-political supervision bodies, have
been foreseen as means of delivering on collaborative thinking and setting Novalja on the path
toward a more collaborative and, thus, a more competitive destination.
It is, however, the ‘delivery’ which is the critical component. Monitoring Novalja’s
development in the short and mid-term future (e.g. up to next five years) will be crucial for
evaluating whether ‘crisis’ induced collaborative mechanisms such as strategic planning,
internal marketing and allocation of responsibility to cooperative bodies are enough to induce
effective and long term change toward generating a more collaborative destination. It is
necessary to bear in mind that a number of threats may diminish Novalja’s collaborative
capacity in the future, including limited human and financial resources, as well as the
community’s socio-cultural heritage of customary reliance on a ‘higher (political) authority’. In
a broader sense, this case study could contribute to our understanding of collaboration and
change mechanisms in tourism destinations, but could also inform of these processes in
emerging market economy social contexts such as Croatia’s.
References
Beritelli, P. (2010). Cooperation among prominent actors in a tourism destination. Annals of
Buhalis, D. (2000). Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tourism management,
21(1), 97-116.
Butler, R. W. (1980). The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for
management of resources, The Canadian Geographer/Le Géographe canadien, 24(1), 5-12.
Dredge, D. (2010). Place change and tourism development conflict. Tourism management,
31(1), 104-112.
Fyall, A., Garrod, B., & Wang, Y. (2012). Destination collaboration: A critical review of theoretical
approaches to a multi-dimensional phenomenon. Journal of Destination Marketing &
Management, 1(1), 10-26.
Hovinen, G. R. (2002). Revisiting the destination lifecycle model. Annals of tourism research,
29(1), 209-230.
Jafari, J. (1989). Sociocultural dimensions of tourism: an English language literature review. In
Bystrzanowski, J. (Ed.) Tourism as a Factor of Change: A socio-cultural study. Vienna,
Austria: International Social Science Council European Coordination Centre for Research
and Documentation in Social Sciences, 17-60.
Krutwaysho, O. & Bramwell, B. (2010). Tourism policy implementation and society. Annals of
Manente, M., & Minghetti, V. (2006). Destination management organizations and actors. In:
Buhallis D. & Costa.C. (Eds.) Tourism business frontiers: Consumers, products and industry.
Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 228-237.
319
Ritchie, J. B., & Crouch, G. I. (2003). The competitive destination: A sustainable tourism
perspective. CABI.
Scott, N., Cooper, C., & Baggio, R. (2008). Destination networks: Four Australian cases. Annals of
Wang, Y., & Pizam, A. (Eds.). (2011). Destination marketing and management: Theories and
applications. CABI.
320
Activity preferences of winter tourists: the case of Northern Norway
Dr Aaron Tkaczynski
School of Business
Faculty of Business, Economics & Law
University of Queensland
a.tkaczynski@uq.edu.au
Abstract
Winter tourism represents an essential source of revenue for many countries. Whilst
many studies have aimed to profile tourists visiting winter-orientated destinations based on
snow-orientated activities, limited research has aimed to determine the relevance of other
winter activities. Neglecting these activities may not accurately represent the full cohort of
winter tourists. The aim of this research was to segment tourists that have holidayed at a winter
destination based on the behavioural preference for activities. Through employed an on-site
self-administered questionnaire, this study segmented 2,500 winter tourists to Northern
Norway. TwoStep cluster analysis identified four valid clusters that differed significantly on
their preferences for activities. The largest segment experienced activities that were not
dependent on snow despite these options being available during the time of vacation.
Consequently, this research suggests that the argument in the tourism literature that winter
tourism can be used almost interchangeably with snow-orientated activities is incorrect. A
second contribution relates to the importance of the Northern Lights. Whilst it was hardly
surprising that this activity was the most popular attraction across the four segments, fewer
than half of the respondents’ in three of the segments did not choose to participate in this
activity with “other activities” more frequently identified. An opportunity for future research is
to identify if the outlined process can benefit other winter destinations such as New Zealand
and Canada. Through using a similar theoretical and methodological process outlined within
this research, future research can determine whether the results are generalisable to other
winter-orientated destinations.
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The business trip as a framework of time and its effects on the business
traveler’s well-being
Orit Unger
Natan Uriely
Galia Fuchs*
Dept. of Hotel and Tourist Management

The Guilford Glazer Faculty of Business and Management
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,
* Corresponding author: galiaf@som.bgu.ac.il
Abstract
The current study focuses on the business traveler and its objective is to shed light on the
effects of the framework of time of the business trip on the business traveler’s well-being.
Based on the analysis of in-depth interviews with twenty-four business travelers, whose
work involves a minimum of ten international air-travel trips annually, the study reveals four
distinct phases of the journey- the trip preparations, the passenger experience, the destination
experience and the homecoming.
Business travelers are hardly occupied with trip preparations.
Their passenger experience consists of “moments of relaxation”, in which they can enjoy the
comforts as well as the social status associated with the airport executive lounges and the
business class airplane seats.
Their experience of the destination is often associated with stressful timetable and the
pressure of work obligations.
The return from a business trip to the routine of everyday-life hardly involves a break for
recovery. Coming home is also a return to the routine of being always ready for the next trip.
Another aspect of the homecoming experience concerns the efforts made to compensate
spouses and family members for the business traveler’s frequent absence from home.
Overall, while the visited destination is the main space-time of recreation and leisure for other
tourists, for the business travelers, airports and aircrafts are the zones of relative recreation
and relaxation. Hence, this phase of the trip framework of time is the phase that contributes to
the business travelers' well-being.
322
Expressing Sustainability in Marketing of Local Food Products in Rural

Tourism
Hanna-Maija Väisänen
University of Helsinki, Ruralia Institute
Mikkeli, Finland
hanna-maija.vaisanen@helsinki.fi
Anne Törn
JAMK University of Applied Sciences
School of Business and Services Management
Jyväskylä, Finland
anne.torn@jamk.fi
Introduction
Food is an inseparable part in creating the tourists’ travel experience and the trend risen
from responsible consuming makes it possible to highlight the sustainable issues marketing
food products and services also in tourism context. Tourists have become more conscious of
the environmental, social and cultural effects of products and services and also the interest in
sustainable alternatives has increased. Buying local food can be a way for tourist to act
sustainable (Everett & Aitchison, 2008).
Consumers connect several attributes with local food including also sustainable ones.
Therefore it is important to market local food so that it reveals the sustainable message clearly
to the tourists. Marketing products or services considering the sustainable characteristics in
addition to the most important beneficial attributes for consumers would be an effective
concept for marketing local food with sustainability (Belz & Peattie, 2009). Although the
importance of food in tourism and the interest of the tourists on local food are recognized, the
combination of food, tourism and sustainability in rural tourism context is unexamined in
Finland.
The objective of this paper is to present how sustainable dimensions are understood via
the pictures and texts of local food products. In this paper an interview study of a local food box
is introduced.
Literature review
Food is an inalienable part of travel experiences and it might even be the main reason for
travelling. Consuming local food and drink products can create connections to local cultures
and make tourist feel responsible. (Everett & Aitchison, 2008)
Local food is assumed to be sustainable, because locally owned producers generate
economic welfare in the region; it sustains cultural heritage, and it strengthens the regional
identity. Issues that motivate Finnish consumers to use local food are: wellbeing effect to own
and family’s health, positive economic impact (e.g. the support of local entrepreneurs) and
trust. The most important attributes of local food for Finnish consumers are the freshness, taste,
healthiness and safety. (Isoniemi et al., 2006)
It has been shown that despite tourists’ declared positive attitudes towards sustainable
tourism, only a few of them act accordingly by buying responsible tourism products or services.
This is mainly because often other attributes are more significant for the consumer than
sustainability related ones. (Budeanu, 2007) Among the customers as well as tourists there can
be identified sustainability oriented segments, like LOHAS-consumers. It has been suggested
that if, the attributes consumers value in a product or service can be combined with the
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sustainable attributes of the product or service, the marketing with sustainability arguments
may be successful. This is because consumer sees that sustainable attribute of a
product/service may give him/her certain benefits and this could motive him/her to purchase
the product/service. (Belz & Peattie, 2009) According to theory of consumer demand the
decision consumer makes in buying is based on the attributes of the product and the attributes
represent the utility consumer is demanding. (Lancaster, 1966)
The term ‘sustainable’ in itself is not favourable when marketing by sustainability. To
enhance the marketing of local food in tourism business it is important to know what kind of
pictures and texts communicate consumers the desired benefits of the product. The
motivational factors why consumers buy local food is known, but if sustainability issues are
used in marketing local food it should be ascertained, what particular sustainable issues are
necessary to highlight and how. It is unexamined how the sustainable message via pictures and
texts in local food context are understood by consumers in rural tourism context. The
information could be helpful in marketing local food to reach the sustainability oriented
customer segments. Therefore the main question in this study is: how do pictures and texts
(including packaging material) express the sustainability of local food?

A package was designed (material, pictures and texts) for a local food box concept and
tested by consumers. Consumers were interviewed (semi-structured) about the local food and
sustainability related attributes connected with the local food box. The attributes were the most
often mentioned as motivational factors for consumption, or quality characteristics of local food
mentioned in local food studies (Isoniemi et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2009). As well these attributes
can be considered also sustainable ones. Altogether thirty interviews were carried out with
twenty women and ten men. The age of the consumers ranged from 20 to 65.
The picture of the box was showed to consumers (Figure 1.) and asked how they felt about
local food box by following themes:
- Generally what sustainable issues of the local food box brings.
- Specific sustainable issues of local food box:
Local food production
Good taste
Cleanness or purity
Healthiness
Freshness
Support for local entrepreneurs
There was a phenomenological approach chosen in the research, because it focused on

the human experiences of the consumer. The data analysis process was carried out by abductive
analysis. The results were analyzed by thematic analysis to exam the themes within the data.
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Figure 1. The tested local food box included a variety of food from South Savo region.
Results
The local food box clearly expressed the following issues: “local food production”, “purity”
and “support for local entrepreneurs”. According to the comments of consumers the word “local
food” refers to local food production. It was noticed that the picture of lake landscape was
connected in mind to a certain familiar place which reminded the answerers of locality from
their point of view. Certain images of landscapes may represent locality if it can be recognized
and located (as in this case the lake landscape). The purity was mentioned to have connection
to the local food box because of the elements “lake” and “nature” in the picture. It could be
assumed that elements that consumer see as to be pure, like Finnish lakes, communicate the
purity of products. The support for local entrepreneurs is a well-known impact of local food. So
the word “Local Food” itself includes the message of supporting local entrepreneurship.
The issues that were less expressed by the local food box were “taste”, “healthiness” and
“freshness”. The local food box design did not very well reveal a good taste. Reasons for that
were dark colors of the picture which reminded consumers of autumn, and the photo of the
landscape was not successful to connect comments with good taste. Those who identified single
products in the box argued that this box expresses good taste.
Most of the consumers had the opinion that the box did not communicate healthiness or
freshness. Those who had an opinion that the box reminded healthiness mentioned that the
products itself communicate the health effects (for example the vitamins of fish), not the box
per se. The main reason why the box did not communicate the freshness was the contents of
the box. Canned food does not represent the concept of freshness even if the canned food is
local food.
When asking the consumer about the overall sustainability of the local food box the
participants paid attention to the material of the box and food products’ packaging, which they
regarded to be “recyclable” or “no plastic”. Secondly they noticed the sustainability of the food
products, whereupon they meant the origin of the products (from nature or nearby).
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The consumers experience about how the pictures and texts of local food box express the
sustainability of local food were examined. The picture of lake landscape (and text ‘local food’)
represented to consumers clearly the issues ‘local food production’, ‘purity’ and ‘support for
local entrepreneurs’, but not the issues ‘taste’, ‘healthiness’ and ‘freshness’.
The local food concept itself contains several sustainable dimensions and issues, like local
production. By the image of landscape, the locality can be expressed, but it may be difficult to
promote food. It seems to be that the more concrete the image is associated to food the more
obvious is that the image is connected to food (Törn et al, 2015). In this case the lake landscape
did not have a very strong bond to food, but maybe a photo of a crop field could do that instead.
It can be concluded that in this case both the picture and text are meaningful in communicating
the sustainability issues: local food production, purity and support for local entrepreneurs.
One important notion was that consumers paid the most attention to the images and the
materials, not to the texts. Pictures have an important role in capturing consumers’ attention
(Bolen, 1984) and images are too open to a variety of possible meanings. Adding a text will help
to extend or point out the meaning of the image. (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996) Also it is known
that there is a large consumer segment that favour environmental friendly packaging (Rokka &
Uusitalo, 2008). For that reason it is favourable to also consider the material of the products.
The big question is that why did this local food box not communicate the most important
attributes “taste”, “healthiness” and “freshness”? According to Isoniemi et al. (2006) the
freshness is an important attribute of food and especially meaningful in the local food concept
and for that reason worth highlighting. It could be recommended that in marketing with the
good taste colorful and bright colors are useful. Also the food product itself is the best advertiser
of the taste (Kupiainen et al., 2008). It is worth investing in the visual images of local food,
because the visual images of local food may play a key motivational role in providing sensory
pleasure for tourists (Kim et al., 2009).
Healthiness is one of most major motives in buying local food (Isoniemi et al., 2006; Kim
et al., 2009), and for that reason should be communicate very visible and clear to the consumer.
It can be concluded that the food products themselves are the best communicators of the
healthiness, because people are aware of the health effects of certain products. We encourage
marketing material to include sufficient information about the health issues of products
(Wansink, 2003).
It can be concluded that the sustainability of local food is able to express by pictures and
texts. It is already known that by the package design it could be able to influence consumers’
image of the product (Kupiainen et al., 2008). The sustainable image of local food is already
rather good. If the sustainability message wanted to be emphasized, it needs carefully selected
pictures and supporting texts including emotional and rational appealing elements (Törn et al.
2015).
References
Belz, F.M., & Peattie, K. 2009. Sustainability Marketing. A Global Perspective. Chichester: Wiley.
Bolen, W.H. 1984. Advertising. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Budeanu, A. 2007. Sustainable tourist behavior - a discussion of opportunities for change.
International Journal of Consumer Studies. 31 (5), 499–508.
Everett, S., & Aitchison, C. 2008. The Role of Food Tourism in Sustaining Regional identity: A
Case Study of Cornwall, South West England. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 16 (2),
150 – 167.
Isoniemi M., Mäkelä J., Arvola A., Forsman-Hugg S., Lampila P., Paananen J., & Roininen K. 2006.
Kuluttajien ja kunnallisten päättäjien näkemyksiä lähi- ja luomuruoasta.
Kuluttajatutkimuskeskus, julkaisuja 1:2006. Helsinki.
326
Kim, Y. G., Eves, A., & Scarles, C. 2009. Building a Model of Local Food Consumption on Trips and
Holidays: A Grounded Theory Approach. International Journal of Hospitality
Management, Vol 28 (3), 423-431.
Kress, G.R. & van Leeuwen, T. 1996. Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. Routledge.
Kupiainen, T., Luomala, H., Lehtola, K., Kauppinen-Räisänen, H. 2008. Tavoitteena tyytyväinen
kuluttaja. Vaasan yliopiston julkaisuja. Tutkimuksia, 286.
Lancaster, K.J. 1966. A New Approach to Consumer Theory. The Journal of Political Economy,
Vol. 74 (2), 132-157.
Rokka, J. and Uusitalo, U. 2008. Preference for green packaging in consumer product choices –
Do consumers care? International Journal of Consumer Studies, Vol. 32 (5), 516–525.
Törn, A., Väisänen, H-M, Matilainen, A. & Lähdemäki, M. 2015. Tunteella ja tiedolla –
Kestävyydellä markkinointi maaseutumatkailuyrityksessä. Helsingin yliopisto, Ruralia-
instituutti, Raportteja 150.
Wansink, Brian. 2003. How Do Front and Back Package Labels Influence Beliefs About Health
Claims? The Journal of Consumer Affairs, Vol. 37 (2), 305 - 316.
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Eating out – a study of visitors’ value creating activities related to food and
meals
Ute Walter
Inger M Jonsson
Joachim Sundqvist
School of Restaurant and Culinary Arts, Umeå University, Sweden
Corresponding author: ute.walter@umu.se
Introduction
Restaurant experiences are an important part of a destination’s service offer and
restaurants in their turn play an important role for visitors’ and for inhabitants’ well-being.
Naturally high quality of food is essential for a restaurant customer’s experience, however this
is not enough. Often feeling welcome, meeting skillful employees and enjoying the atmosphere
are as important as the food served. From a destination perspective it is especially interesting
to understand how visitors create value during their stay. From a restaurant and hotel company
point of view it is especially interesting to further understand how their customers create value
during their entire stay with a special focus on eating out. In order to understand visitors’ value
creating processes during their stay at a destination it is important to know the customers’ own
world of processes, activities and value creation seen from the customer perspective. These
processes and activities are partly invisible for companies and destinations. Compared to
earlier studies where the customer is regarded as a passive receiver of solutions, a goods-
dominant-view (Vargo & Lusch, 2004), this project aims to regard the customer as a person
who actively integrates different opportunities in order to create value in a specific context, a
customer-dominant-view (Vargo & Lusch, 2004, 2008).
Literature review
Value is always created in an interaction between an offering and a customer, and the
interaction is relative, interactive and depends on the customers’ preferences (Holbrook,
2006). The customer is in the center of attention, as an active thinking and reflecting individual,
determining the own customer value, which is realized through customer experiences
according to Holbrook (2006, 1999) or as value in context according to Vargo and Lusch (2008).
During value creation all actors act as resource integrators, by actively using their personal
resources (knowledge and skills) in continuous interactions in order to enhance their personal
consumption experience (Baron & Harris, 2008; Payne, Storbacka, & Frow, 2008; Vargo &
Lusch, 2004). Resources could according to Arnould et al. (2006) be distinguished as social,
cultural, physical, operant (knowledge and skills) and economic operand resources (objects
and physical spaces). The active role of customers as participants in the service
production/delivery indicates customers’ knowledge and skills playing an important role.
Visitors’ experiences related to eating out are characterized by contact-intensive services
(Shostack, 1985), including many activities and interactions. Visitors’ eating out experiences
are multifaceted and could be related to many aspects such as traveling for leisure or in
business, meals as social and cultural events and eating out as an urban experience (Bell &
Valentine, 1997; Finkelstein, 1989; Jonsson & Pipping Ekström, 2011; Morgan, Watson, &
Hemmington, 2008; Mäkelä, 2009). Also Walter (2011) highlights the social and physical
dimension of restaurant experiences. Furthermore Mathisen (2013) examines how tourism
firms act as co-creators of value in tourist activities with a special focus on story telling.
Sundqvist (2015) has examined travellers experiences related to perceived authenticity of a
328
meal context from a sociological perspective. His study shows that individuals’ cultural capital
(Bourdieu, 1984) is the main influence of how they perceive meal contexts.
Many aspects of tourist and eating out experiences have been examined, however there is
still a need for research of eating out experiences as a part of a visitors’ stay at a destination.
Especially a holistic view of visitors eating out experiences during their whole stay at a
destination from the visitor’s point of view is of interest.
The aim of the study

The purpose of this study is to examine drivers of visitors’ resource integrating activities
during their stay at a destination with a special focus on eating out. The focus of this study will
be the business travellers’ perspective.
Methods & material

Methodologically the study will follow the recommendations made in earlier innovation
research related to tourism, hospitality and service indicating a need for approaches that
facilitate holistic and multi-disciplinary approaches (Hjalager, 2010). Tronvåll, Brown et al.
(2011) recommend studies of customers’ service experiences to be based on multi-method field
studies with observations as an important part. This project will apply an (n)ethnographical
inspired field study approach, including observations, interviews and field documentation
(Kozinets, 2002; Van Maanen, 2006). The design of the empirical study will, besides research
literature, be based on the outcome from the workshops with the multidisciplinary research
group and representatives from the industry. Data will be analysed in an inductive approach
according to constant comparative principles (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).
Expected main results

The results will illustrate the visitors’ stay in a holistic way with the customer experience
and value creation in focus. Furthermore the drivers beyond visitors’ actions, interactions and
activities regarding eating out, which describe customers’ resource integration processes
related to eating out activities. The results will also contribute to the development of companies
as well as destinations with regard to eating out and meals.
References
Arnould, Eric J, Price, Linda L, & Malshe, Avinash. (2006). Toward a Cultural Resource-Based
Theory of the Customer. In R. F. Lush & S. L. Vargo (Eds.), The Service Dominant Logic.
Dialogue, Debate and Directions. (pp. 91-104). New York: M.E. Sharpe Inc.
Baron, Steve, & Harris, Kim. (2008). Consumers as resource integrators. Journal of Marketing
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The Value of Cittaslow Network in Sustainable Tourism Development
Nezih Yalabik
Burcin Hatipoglu
330
Boğaziçi University, Sustainable Tourism Management Program

İstanbul, Turkey
nezihyalabik@hotmail.com
burcin.hatipoglu@boun.edu.tr
Introduction
Interest in the study of sustainable tourism has increased exponentially in recent years,
and scholars have identified significant factors related to destinations engaging in more
sustainable forms of tourism and its positive outcomes for all the stakeholders. International
nongovernmental organizations such as United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) have long been working around this topic
and have relentlessly encouraged the tourism industry to make a transformation. Similarly, the
Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) has established sustainable tourism criteria for the
industry and destinations. Meanwhile visitors have also become more aware and
knowledgeable about responsible travel and alternative forms of tourism. In support of these
occurrences governmental agencies and destination management organizations have made
long term plans for sustainable tourism and suggested more proactive strategies. However,
tourism in developing countries is moving rather slowly towards sustainability. There appears
a need for more work to be done at multiple levels and responsibility to be shared among
multiple tourism stakeholders. This research addresses the value of Cittaslow network in aiding
destinations to develop a sustainable tourism model. It particularly takes a critical approach in
studying the Cittaslow concept and vigorously questions its meaning for small towns and
communities. The study setting is the three Cittaslow towns in Turkey.
Literature Review
Although the concept of sustainable tourism development has been much discussed by
scholars around the world the most cited definition is given by the UNWTO. It is described as
"Tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and
environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and
host communities" (UNWTO, 2005).
One of the most significant contributions to the frame of Sustainable Tourism
Development (STD) of the above definition is in the way the notion has been conceptualized.
This form of tourism is suggested to consider the needs of multiple stakeholders while
maintaining a balance between the three pillars of sustainability (Selin, 1999). Enhancing
visitor experiences are taken as important as improving the quality of life of host communities.
Even more, informed participation from all stakeholders including the residents is encouraged
(UNWTO, 2005).
Communities’ perception of tourism development will determine their support and
participation in STD. Scholars have studied numerous determinants of community
participation in the planning and implementation processes of tourism development. Among
many they have established a positive relationship between tourism development and
satisfaction with quality of life (Andereck & Nyaupane, 2011; Woo, Kim, & Uysal, 2015).
According to McIntyre (2011, p.11) “The quality of life of the host community, provides a high
quality of experience for the visitors and maintains the quality of the environment on which
both the host community and the visitor depend”.
The literature also points out that both community and individual well-being are
necessary outputs of truly sustainable tourism practices within its economic, social and
environmental aspects (Choi & Sirakaya, 2006; Rowe, 1992). When communities perceive
331
tourism as enhancing their satisfaction with their life domains they are more supportive of
tourism development. Subsequently it becomes important to study the tourism models that add
value to the quality of life of residents.
The requirement of sustainable tourism development indicators (STDI) emerged when
tourism scholars started to claim that sustainable development indicators are not sufficient for
monitoring STD (Butler, 1999; Goodall & Stabler, 1997; Gunn, 1988; Moisey & McCool, 2001;
Mowforth & Munt, 1998; Sirakaya et al., 2001; Twining-Ward, Butler 2002; Weaver,
1998;WTTC et al., 1997;). According to Sirakaya et al. (2001) the need STDI comes from the
complex nature of tourism and interrelations between tourism components.
As a starting point, World Tourism Organization (WTO) developed a set of indicators to
compare destinations' tourism sustainability. This initiation step was followed by many other
sets developed by using different techniques and for different purposes (Choi& Sirakaya, 2006;
Manning et al., 1996; Miller, 2001). However, above mentioned studies are mostly criticized by
researchers of being ‘cookie-cutter’ techniques (Potts & Harril, 1998; Twining-Ward, Butler,
2002).
A second group of indicators are the place based developed indicator sets. Tourism
Optimization Model that is developed by Manidis Roberts Consultants (1997) and
Sustainability Performance Index of Castellini & Sala (2009) are good examples for these.
Although place based developed indicators grants researches precision of evaluating
uniqueness of destinations, they have also some disadvantages too. For instance, lack of
stakeholder information can be considered as a problem in terms of participatory policy
making processes. Moreover, locals may have sympathy or apathy towards tourism
development so this may affect the whole process. Additionally, compared to ‘cookie-cutter’
sets, developing site or time specific indicator sets are time consuming activities, and also time
will change the effectiveness of policy due to changing needs of the destinations. Lastly, since
there will be different sets for different destinations it would not be possible to make a
comparison between destinations.
Italian rooted Cittaslow movement is widely known as a model which aims to achieve
sustainable development in small settlements by preserving their local culture, identity, values
and natural environment. Rapidly increasing number of members and other candidates waiting
to become a member of this organization show that the movement is highly respected by many
countries and local administrative bodies. There are 195 towns in 30 countries by July 2015
and among these 9 of them are in Turkey (Cittaslow, 2013).
The Cittaslow Charter sets 60 common goals and policies aimed at improving the life
quality of communities. These indicators, action plans and projects demonstrate how the
network adds value to quality of life for the residents and visitors (Mayer & Knox, 2009;
Hatipoglu, 2015). Even though tourism development is not at the center of Cittaslow philosophy
in many Cittaslow cities, tourism is considered a useful tool to achieve urban development.
Nevertheless, many scholars point out that an uncontrolled tourism growth may prevent
Cittaslow cities to reach their goals. Thus, before the implementation process the most suitable
tourism type for a destination should be carefully evaluated and planned by officials.
The requirements of nomination for the network are mainly composed of sustainable
development indicators however these can be short to evaluate the complicated and multi-
dimensional network structure of the tourism phenomenon. Therefore, assessment of
sustainability may give better results if theory driven STDI are used in those cities which
position tourism at the center of their sustainable developmental goals.
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the sustainability of the tourism models in
Cittaslow cities by using STDI and investigate the role of Cittaslow model in STD. Results of this
study will provide insights both for the practitioners in the field as well as for the researchers.
332
Practically, tourism oriented sustainable development aiming Cittaslow cities may use results
as a guide book or to overview their future plans and theoretically, can be used to enhance
Cittaslow model and increase its efficiency in terms of sustainable tourism development.
Method of the Study

The study was conducted in Turkey using a sample of stakeholders from three Cittaslow
towns during February-June 2014. These three cities (Taraklı, Akyaka, and Yenipazar) share
the common timeline of nomination and acceptance to the network but display geographical,
demographical and tourism type variety. Therefore they provide variety and a rich context to
this research.
Following a secondary data research the three towns were visited and in-depth face to
face interviews were conducted with a total of 18 respondents. Besides the mayors and
Cittaslow representatives of the three cities respondents included local government officials,
NGO representatives, tourism establishment owners & employees. The interviews lasted
between an hour to three hours. The interviews were taped and photographed; and notes were
taken during the site visits. The collected data were transcribed verbatim by the first researcher
while being controlled and corrected by the second researcher. The qualitative soft-ware NVivo
(version 9.0) was used to manage and analyze the data. An initial coding book was prepared in
guidance of the model utilized.
Content analysis was used to identify themes that emerged from the data. Collected data
has been evaluated by using sustainable tourism indicators developed by (Choi & Sirakaya,
2006). Based on the evaluations and comments above, Choi & Sirakaya’s (2006) indicator set
has been found appropriate to adopt this study because of several reasons such as; the
indicators’ compliance with Cittaslow criteria, the indicator development methodology and
contribution of respected tourism experts, the ease of application and, ability of making
comparison between destinations. Comparisons have been made between governmental
bodies and tourism related stakeholders. Additionally, results of each city were compared to
display the differences among them.
The main limitation to the research was the timing of the study. The towns were visited
during the low season and there were few out-of town visitors or international tourists and
some tourist shops were closed. The small and medium sized entrepreneurs are an important
stakeholder group in destinations (Komppula, 2014) and should have been more widely
included in this research. The local elections during the time period have also influenced data
collection. As a result the sample size of the study was somewhat limited than planned.
Results
Findings related to the Sustainable Tourism Development indicators
Findings suggest that, being a Cittaslow city caused social enhancement yet, cultural and
political problems are still valid. And membership to the Cittaslow network could not help for
refinement of this situation in an overall perspective.
Akyaka differs from the other two cities in the application of the Cittaslow principles. The
city has not much accomplished in terms of cultural, natural, political and social dimensions of
sustainable development. However, Akyaka seems to be developed in terms of integration of
technology and innovation in their tourism activities in a very wide range from energy
efficiency to data collection and ability of using social media effectively. Yet, there was no
concrete evidence which address the contribution of being a part of the Cittaslow network.
In comparison to the other two cities Taraklı, suffers from cultural, political and
technological shortcomings. In terms of natural and social development Taraklı is more positive
333
however Taraklı is new to tourism and lack of knowledge about tourism’s negative
consequences on both societies and nature may result in this perception.
Yenipazar aims to achieve sustainable development by encouraging local craftsmanship
and locally produced goods with the support of Cittaslow; however, tourism is promoted
inadequately. Especially F&B establishments expect to receive more customers as a result of
increased tourism activity. Political uncertainty and low technology involved daily life are still
big problems between tourism stakeholders and STD. Low awareness about tourism and its
negative effects can be observed in Yenipazar just like Taraklı. Consequently, natural, economic
and social indicators display that Yenipazar stakeholders are pleased about developments in
these dimensions.
Findings regarding the Sustainable Tourism Development Barriers

Generally, lack of tourism planning and limited knowledge about tourism and tourism
industry are accused for being most problematic issues for achieving STD. On the other hand,
respondents think that, both local government and local community support are their strong
sides. Respondents in Akyaka believe that community support towards STD is extremely high.
Yet lack of planning, funds and infrastructure problems are urgent issues that need to be solved.
High local community support and strong will of local government are good features of
Taraklı hence; tourism related economic activities are increasing steadily. But, lack of tourism
knowledge, lack of cooperation between stakeholders, lack of planning, lack of economical
support for tourism entrepreneurs and lack of tourist attractions are problematic issues in
Taraklı. Collaboration between stakeholders and funding issues are satisfactory in Yenipazar.
However lack of planning and implementation, and lack of community support proved
themselves as major problems in the city.

Results of this study demonstrate a few important points for the field of study. Firstly the
stakeholders believe that inclusion to the Cittaslow network does not assure STD.
Consequently, results of this study point out that being a Cittaslow city positively influences
social enhancement however does not change the other dimensions of sustainable tourism.
Moreover, this research confirms that lack of planning and limited knowledge about tourism
industry is common barriers for achieving sustainable tourism development. However there is
noticeable difference among the three cities in terms of results.
References
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perceptions among residents. Journal of Travel Research, 50(3), 248–260.
Choi, H. C., & Sirakaya, E. (2006). Sustainability indicators for managing community tourism.
Tourism management, 6, 1274-1289.
Cittaslow. (2013, November). Association: About Cittaslow Organisation. Retrieved February
2014, from Cittaslow: http://www.cittaslow.org/section/association
Hatipoglu, B. (2015). “Cittaslow”: Quality of Life and Visitor Experiences. Tourism Planning &
Development, 12(1), 20-36.
Komppula, R. (2014). The role of individual entrepreneurs in the development of
competitiveness for a rural tourism destination–A case study. Tourism Management, 40,
361-371.
Mayer, H., & Knox, P. (2009). Pace of Life and Quality of Life: The Slow City Charter. In
Community Quality-of-Life Indicators: Best Cases III (pp. 21-39). Springer.
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Sustainable Tourism, 7:3-4, 260-273, DOI:10.1080/09669589908667339
UNWTO. (2005). Sustainable Tourism Development. Retrieved from Making Tourism More
Sustainable - A Guide for Policy Makers, UNEP and UNWTO, p.11-12:
http://sdt.unwto.org/content/about-us-5
Woo, E., Kim, H., & Uysal, M. (2015). Life satisfaction and support for tourism development.
Annals of Tourism Research, 50, 84-97.
335
Does the Market Link Thermal Tourism to Wellbeing Tourism? The Case of
Copahue's Bath Therapy Center (Argentina)
Marina Zanfardini
Andrea Gutauskas
Universidad Nacional del Comahue
Neuquén, Argentina
Corresponding@author marina.zanfardini@fatu.uncoma.edu.ar
Luisa Andreu Simó

Universidad de Valencia
Valencia, España
Introduction
The thermal tourism trend is reflecting a shift from the traditional thermal tourism
towards the wellness thermal tourism (Henn, Lopes, Goncalves, & Fraiz, 2008; Radnic & Gracan,
2009). In Argentina, national tourism authorities have incorporated this phenomenon within
the national tourism offer under the name of Wellness Tourism, including thermalism as a sub-
product (Subsecretaría de Desarrollo Turistico, 2011).
With the intention of exploring wellness thermalism’s trend in Patagonian region, we
segmented the inbound-potential market of Neuquén City for Copahue’s Bath Therapy Center
(BTC). Using attributes and benefits associated to thermal product as segmentation criteria, we
analyzed if perceived image by the market -or at least by any segment - relates thermal tourism
to wellbeing tourism. Our research questions were: (1) What attributes and benefits are
associated by potential tourists to Copahue as a thermal experience? (2) Which segments can
be identified and how is the destination's positioning - in terms of the continuum ´traditional
thermalism´ vs. ´wellness thermalism´- for each segment?
Literature review
In previous research, health tourism is usually classified in two categories: (1) medical
tourism, related to medical procedures to cure some illness; (2) illness prevention tourism,
which in turn can be separated on services for specific illness preventions and the wellness
tourism (Mueller & Kaufmann, 2001; Voigt, Brown, & Howat, 2011).
Consistency in the literature regarding the concept of wellness tourism is lacking and
some terms such as “health tourism”, “holistic tourism”, “well-being tourism” or “spa tourism”
are used interchangeably. Although spa tourism has tend to dominate the concept of wellness
tourism, it is used by authors to describe a very broad range of tourism activities and contexts,
such as new age tourism, volunteer tourism, outdoor, sport and adventure activities, yoga
tourism as well as spiritual and religious tourism.
In this paper we use the narrower definition of wellness or well-being tourism proposed
by Voigt et al (2011), as “the sum of all the relationships resulting from a journey by people
whose motive, in whole or in part, is to maintain or promote their health and well-being, and
who stay at least one night at a facility that is specifically designed to enable and enhance
people’s physical, psychological, spiritual and/or social well-being” (Voigt et al., 2011, p. 17).
Thermal tourism is the set of activities related to the therapeutic use of medicinal-mineral
waters, mud, vapors and algaes (Alén & Rodriguez, 2004). Trends in thermal tourism show a
product positioning shift from traditional thermalism toward the modern, complete and
complex health and recreation tourism (Radnic & Gracan, 2009). Traditional thermalism is
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consumed by sick, old and low-income tourists, who spend long stays once a year at hospital
type curative establishments and mainly consuming curative treatments. On the other hand,
wellness thermalism is mainly consumed by 30-40 years old, younger but exhausted and
higher-income tourists, which travel throughout the year and that spend more-varying stays at
healing establishments and/or hotels, and demanding a wider offer of prevention in addition
to cure treatments (Radnic & Gracan, 2009).
Except when repeating visit, potential tourists base their destination choices on brand
image (Keller, 1993) and product positioning (Ries & Trout, 2002). Brand image results from
attributes and benefits associations (Keller, 1993). Positioning is based on the image and it
represents the relative place that a destination/product has in the tourists minds in relation to
the images of other destinations or other products of the same category (Ries & Trout, 2002).
When thermal tourism is positioned as a wellness experience, tourists associate it with
benefits as ‘relaxation and relief’, ‘escape’, ‘self-reward and indulgence’, and ‘health and
beauty’(Mak, Wong, & Chang, 2009). Konu & Laukkanen (2009) suggested that tourists who are
motivated in participating physical activities, getting in better shape and promoting and
enhancing health have intentions to make a wellbeing trip. Voigt et al. (Voigt et al., 2011)
founded ‘transcendence’; ‘physical health and appearance’; ‘escape and relaxation’; ‘important
others and novelty’; ‘re-establish self-esteem’; and ‘indulgence’ as benefits linked to wellness
tourism.
Methods & Materials

Located 360 km away from Neuquén City, Copahue’s BTC is the most important thermal
product of Neuquén Province. It presents a differentiation from other Argentinean thermal
destinations, since it has the four possible types of thermal resources: waters, sludges, vapors
and algae. Its management is through the Provincial Ente of Neuquén Termas (EProTeN), it has
a capacity of 2500 baths per day and, due to the climatic constraints, its opening period for
tourists goes from December to April.
In May 2013 we conducted an online structured survey on 364 30-60 years old citizen of
Neuquén. People included in the sample had a thermal previous experience but they haven’t
visited Copahue’s BTC. A quota sampling was applied, following population parameters of
gender and age of the last census (INDEC, 2010).
Research constructs were operationalized using previous research scales: the Attributes
scale was built from Radnic & Gracan (2009) and the Benefits scale was adapted from Mak et
al.(2009). They were measured using five-point semantic differential scales for attributes items
and 7-point Likert scale for benefits. The questionnaire was pretested with academics and
students of a tourism degree.
Using the SPSS computer program, factor analysis was performed to reduce the number
of variables and to detect the structure in the relationship between variables. Principal
component analysis was employed to examine the underlying relationship among the 16
attributes and benefits items. Factor scores were saved as variables and a hierarchic cluster
analysis was applied, with the Ward method for agglomeration and the square Euclidean
distance as measure.
Results
Attributes and benefits were reduced to 8 components, explaining 76.52% of total
variance and with a KMO measure of sampling adequacy of .800 (sig. =.000). Four components
represented attributes: Varied and fun (13.35%), High quality thermal resources and
experience (10.96%), Sophisticated and modern (10.37%) and Expensive (6.51%); while the
337
other four components represented benefits: Aesthetic and reward (9.96%), Cure and health
(9.77%), Escape and affiliation (8.37%) and Spiritual refreshment (7.22%).
Five different segments were identified (Table 1):
Cluster 1 (N= 149, 38.5%): they believe that Copahue’s BTC is a place for aesthetic care
and for personal reward. They don´t believe it as a place neither to spend time with
family/friends nor to look for a spiritual refreshment.
Cluster 2 (N= 55, 15.1%): this group perceives that the center offers a low-quality
wellness experience and that delivers only-medical treatments. They link it with the aesthetic
benefit as well as cure and health, but employing standard services and old technology.
Cluster 3 (N=92, 25.3%): Associates Copahue BTC to wellness thermalism. They believe
is a place prepared to entertain people of all ages, that deserves be visited many times a year,
and where high quality thermal resources and varied wellness experience are guaranteed. They
also associate the BTC with sophisticated services, with modern technology and, with an
expensive trip. They relate several benefits to Copahue BTC: spiritual refreshment, medical
cure and routine escape and being with relatives, but they don't believe the place offers
opportunities for aesthetic care.
Cluster 4 (N=43, 11.8%): Skeptics to thermals service of Copahue BTC. This group is the
one that has the most negative perceived image regards the thermal product of Copahue. They
don't agree that Copahue BTC is a place where neither the aesthetic-care nor the self-reward
can be achieved, nor to cure to medical affections.
Cluster 5 (N=34, 9.3%): Associates Copahue BTC in a transition. This group positions
Copahue BTC in a transition between traditional thermalism to wellness thermalism. They are
the most optimists relating to the high quality of Copahue BTC thermal resources and
experience and they highlight the spiritual refreshment that the place can offers. However, they
emphasize that the services are standard and that the technology is old fashioned. So, they
perceive the services must be cheap.
Table 1: Clusters means for attributes and benefits

Ward Method Clusters ANOVA
1 2 3 4 5 F Sig.
N= 140 N= 55 N= 92 N= 43 N= 34
(38.46 (15.1 (25.2 (11.81 (9.34
Attritubes and Benefits Components
%) 1%) 7%) %) %)
Att.: Varied and fun -.18 .15 .46 -.46 -.15 9.641 .000
Att.: High quality thermal resources and
.21 -1.41 .47 -.29 .50 62.512 .000
experience
Att.: Sophisticated and modern .19 -.13 .30 .21 -1.62 36.760 .000
Ben.: Aesthetic and reward .29 .24 -.28 -.79 .17 14.348 .000
Ben.: Cure and health .18 .21 .38 -1.70 .04 59.716 .000
Ben: Escape and affiliation -.17 -.02 .17 .18 .07 2.093 .081
Ben: Spiritual refreshment -.63 .31 .66 -.15 .51 39.900 .000
Att.: Expensive -.05 .15 .31 -.12 -.74 7.990 .000
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Discussion and conclusion

This study allowed to characterize the potential for wellness tourism at Neuquén travel
market and to go deeply into the attributes and the sought benefits at wellness tourism
destinations. Its results provide useful information for taking positioning decisions and for the
planning of their practices of products design as well as their image's communication.
While a global trend is to relate thermal tourism to wellness tourism, this situation is not
reflected consistently in the image perception of Copahue’s thermal experience at the market
in study. Only one segment (Cluster 3) follows strictly this trend while we also found some other
“grey situations”.
The Clusters 3 and 1 are the most attractive potential segments, the former due its
positive image about the BTC as wellness center, and the second due to its size. The EProTeN´s
managers may improve the demand’s level through generating and promoting specific offers to
highlight the attributes and benefits sought by them, as "spa services" for Cluster 1 and
"inclusive wellness programs (for family, friends, etc.)" for Cluster 3.
The Cluster 5 has a mixed or a “in-transition” image and the Cluster 2 still believes that
when travelling to Copahue’s BTC they will find a traditional thermal center, more related to a
hospital than to a wellbeing place. To avoid this confusing image, it is imperative that managers
make better efforts to distinguish wellness vacations in Copahue from cure stays and illness
and to create and communicate their differentiated offer to the market.
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339
Loyal vs. first-time tourists – challenges for destination management
Snježana Boranić Živoder

Sanda Čorak
Ivan Sever
Institute for Tourism
Zagreb, Croatia
snjezana.boranic@iztzg.hr
Introduction
Many different supply aspects have an effect on the experience of visiting a destination.
Some of these are partly inherited, such as natural and cultural resources, but some of them
primarily depend on the quality of destination management. Although many definition of
destination management exist, the UNWTO (2007) defines destination management as “a
planned and coordinated activity of a large number of stakeholders in the public and private
sectors with the aim of improving the quality of life and visitors’ experiences in a destination.”
Collecting data on travel characteristics of the tourists such as the number of visits are
extremely important and can significant contribute to the quality of marketing and
management activities. This paper aims to investigate difference between ‘first time’ visitors to
those who visited Croatia ‘several times’ (6 visits and more). It examines the differences with
respect to the motives of arrival, length of stay, activities in the area, consumption, satisfaction,
intention to return and expenditures, and gives some insight into the destination management
tasks.
Literature review
Loyalty of tourists visiting tourism destinations is often associated with positive
connotations. These are the emotional connection with the destination, positive experiences
that encourage return, and recommendations that satisfied tourists are disseminating (Marušić
at al., 2011; Opperman, 2000). In addition, surveys that have been conducted shows that the
previous stay is one of the most important sources of information. Some authors claim (Oom
do Valle, Silva, Mendes & Guerreiro, 2006) that consumers have less free time available and
therefore try to simplify their buying decisions process by acquiring familiar products. The
other (Moutinho, 2000) consider that trip to the same destination means reducing some of the
risks inherent in the consumption of services. Campon, Alves and Hernandez (2013) pointed
out that “risk-averse people may feel the need to revisit a familiar destination.” Thus, different
factors in contemporary life can affect the behavior of tourists and change of habits.
In the marketing as well as in the tourism literature, repeat purchase and / or visitation
often is taunted as something to be desired (Oppermann, 2000). Benefits of attracting loyal
guests includes lower sensitivity to price changes (Alegre & Juenada, 2006) and the lower
marketing costs needed to attract that segment (Haywood, 1989). Although the loyalty in
marketing literature is very well described, that is not a case in tourism (Alegre & Juaneda,
2006, Opperman 2000). Nevertheless, more recently some of the aspects of consumers’ loyalty
have received increased attention of the scholars. These aspects include the correlation
between satisfaction and motivations of loyal tourists (Oom do Valle Silva Mendes & Guerreiro,
2006; Yoon & Uysal, 2005; Um al. Al. 2006, Leon, Yeh, Hsiao & Huan, 2015) and the correlation
between tourists’ loyalty and expenditures in a destination (Alegre & Juaneda, 2006).
At the same time , in a world of growing competition in tourism, destination management
is one of the most important discussion topics in scholarly and professional circles.
Developments in the modern world are rapidly changing tourist market where it is increasingly
340
difficult for destination to gain and to maintain the level of desired competitiveness. With new
destinations entering the tourist market and technological development, potential tourists are
exposed to a large quantity of information and they finally make decisions about their trips on
the basis of many different sources and experiences/recommendations. In such a globalized
world, it is particularly interesting to investigate characteristics of loyal tourists vs. those in a
first visit to a destination and explore their differences in travel characteristics and patterns of
their stay in a destination. For example, research results about the vacation planning of
Europeans indicate that natural beauty, quality of accommodation, cultural and historical
attractions and favorable prices are the most important aspects in revisiting destination
(European Commission, 2014).
Campon, Alves and Hernandez (2013) analyzed 47 papers dealing with the issue of loyalty
in tourism and showed that 30 of them use repeat visits and recommendations as indicators of
loyalty either alone or accompanied by other factors. The behavioral dimension of loyalty, as
one of dimension, inherently acknowledges that previous experiences is influential on todays
and tomorrow’s travel decisions and destination choice (Oppermann, 2000). This paper defines
the ‘intention to return to destination’ as loyalty factor and therefore the main goal of this paper
is to compare the tourists who visited a destination six or more times vs. first-time tourists.
Metodology
The data reported herein were collected as a part of a larger survey on attitudes and
expenditures of tourists in Croatia – “TOMAS Summer survey 2014” (Institute for Tourism,
2015). The survey was conducted during the summer months of 2014 (June-September), and
includes 4,035 respondents interviewed in 76 destinations in the seven coastal counties that
account for more than 90% of total overnights realized in Croatia. Stratified sample has been
chosen and strata include the different types of accommodation facilities (hotels and similar
facilities, camps and private accommodation) and major generating markets (16). This paper
utilizes the data on first-time visitors (n = 827) and tourists who realized six or more visits to
Croatia (n = 1.344). As the question on the number of visits to Croatia was not applicable to
domestic tourists, the analysis refers to the foreign tourists that realize usually majority of total
overnights (more than 80%).
This paper examines the differences between first-time visitors and loyal tourists
(defined above) with respect to the motives of arrival, travel party, length of stay and activities
in the area, total expenditures, satisfaction and intention to return. In accordance with the
categorical nature of the variables describing the motives of arrival, travel party, activities in
the area and intention to return, calculated descriptive statistics include relative frequencies.
The association between the characteristics of stay and tourist loyalty was examined by chi-
square test. In the case of low occurrence of certain values of variable, Fisher's exact test was
applied. On the other hand, descriptive statistics for quantitative variables related to the length
of stay, total expenditures and perceived satisfaction included mean values and standard
deviations/confidence intervals or medians and interquartile ranges. Differences in the
distributions of the ratings of satisfaction items and length of stay between the two groups of
tourists (first-time visitors and loyal guests) were tested by the nonparametric Wilcoxon Rank-
Sum test. Satisfaction items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale anchored by 1 – ‘very
dissatisfied’ and 7 – ‘very satisfied’. Distribution of the average daily expenditures in
destination, both total and excluding those for the accommodation services, were
approximately log-normal; therefore, the difference in these variables between the two groups
was analyzed using the t-test for independent samples. The significance level was set at 0.05.
Analysis was performed using the SAS System, version 8.2 (SAS Institute Inc., North Carolina,
USA).
341
Research results
This section examines the differences in travel patterns between first-time tourists and
repeat guests.
Main motives: Significant difference between first-time tourists and repeat tourists were
was noted for the majority of motives. First-time tourists were motivated more by the
entertainment (51% of first-time tourists vs. 39% repeat tourists; p < 0.001), new experiences
and adventures (41% vs. 25%; p < 0.001), gastronomy (37% vs. 23%; p < 0.001), visiting
natural attractions (30% vs. 15%; p < 0.001) and by cultural heritage (14% vs. 4%; p < 0.001).
A higher proportion of those who have come for rest and relaxation (79% of loyal tourists vs.
67% first-time visitors; p < 0.001), who are visiting friends and relatives (9% vs. 2%; p < 0.001),
who are motivated by sports and recreation (7% vs. 4%; p = 0.003) and who came for health
reasons (6% vs. 2%; p < 0.001) were registered more among repeat tourists.
Activities: Significant differences between first-time tourists and repeat tourists were also
detected across their activities in a destination. First-time tourists were generally more active.
They were more often engaged in shopping (75% vs. 59%; p < 0.001), sightseeing (71% vs.
61%), attending events (66% vs. 56%; p < 0.001), visiting museums (58% vs. 28%; p < 0.001),
dance or disco clubs (55% vs. 39%; p < 0.001), attending concerts (45% vs. 25%; p < 0.001),
visiting national parks (44% vs. 33%; p < 0.001), engaging in water sports (40% of first-time
visitors vs. of 31% of loyal tourists; p < 0.001), visiting theatres (37% vs. 19%; p < 0.001),
adventure sports (18% vs. 9%; p < 0.001), hiking (16% vs. 12%; p = 0.018) and horse riding
(11% vs. 5%; p < 0.001). Repeat tourists were more active in cycling or mountain biking (33%
of loyal tourists vs. 27% of first-time visitors; p < 0.001) and fishing (27% vs. 14%; p < 0.001).
Satisfaction: Analysis of perceived satisfaction level with various aspects of destination
products showed that the first-time visitors are more satisfied with the following elements:
suitability for people with special needs, beach equipment and beach tidiness, quality of local
transport and ‘value for money’ for gastronomic offer. On the other hand, loyal tourists were
more satisfied with personal safety, suitability for a family holiday and short-break holiday,
accessibility of destination, service quality in accommodation and friendliness of staff in the
accommodation facilities.
Length of stay: The results of the Wilcoxon Rank Sum test suggest that there is a
significant difference in distributions of number of overnights in Croatia and in destination of
visit between the first-time and loyal tourists. Duration of stay in a destination of the first group
of tourists was shorter. Average stay of first-time tourists amounts to 8.5 days and average stay
of loyal tourists was 10.6 days.
Travel party: Chi-square test confirmed that there is a significant difference between the
first-time and loyal tourists with respect to the type of travel party (p < 0.001). Travelling with
family is more popular among loyal tourists (50% compared to 38% of first-time visitors). On
the other hand, travelling with a partner only is more represented amongst first-time visitors
(42% compared to 34% of loyal tourists).
Planning the 2015 summer holiday in the same destination: First-time tourists
significantly differ from loyal guests regarding the 2015 summer plans. While every second
loyal guest plans to return to the same destination in 2015, this is true for only 17% of first-
time tourists.
Expenditure: The comparison of average (i.e. per person) total daily expenditures in a
destination revealed significant difference between first-time and loyal tourists (p < 0.001;
independent t-test). Average total daily expenditure amounts to 84 Euros (95% CI: 78.8-88.6)
for first-time and 54 Euros (95% CI: 51.7-55.8) for loyal tourists. However, this difference is
342
partially due to the chosen different accommodation facilities being chosen by these two
groups.
The comparison of average daily expenditures in a destination (without accommodation
costs) revealed that first-time tourists spent significantly more (at aggregated level) on
destination services such as gastronomy, shopping, culture, sport and recreation,
entertainment, organized trips and other services than loyal tourists (p < 0.001; independent
t-test). Average daily expenditures on these services were 36 euros (95% CI: 33.5-39.5) for
first-time tourists and 21 euros (95% CI: 19.8-22.0) for repeat tourists.

As previously stated, the aim of this paper is to investigate the link between loyalty to a
destination and travel characteristics and behavior patterns of tourists. Insights into the results
can provide valuable information for destination planning and possible improvements of
destination marketing and management activities.
The analysis provides valuable insight for destination management, particularly in
relation to elements of destination tourism products and market segmentation. This
information enables tourism managers to pay more attention to specific elements of
destination offer that need improvement. Research results showed significant differences
between the investigated market segments, in that way giving ideas for better tailored
marketing and destination management activities. Future research should also investigate
psychographic characteristics of first-time vs. repeat tourists, since these can also affect their
travel patterns and behavior while staying in destination.
References:
Alegre, J. & Juaneda, C. (2006). Destination Loyalty Consumers’ Economic Behavior. Annals of
Campton, A. M., Alves, H. & Hernandez, J. M. (2013). Loyalty Measurement in tourism: A
Theoretical Reflection. In A. Mathias (Ed.) Quantitative Methods in Tourism Economics (pp
13-40).
European Commission. (2014). Preferences of Europeans towards tourism. Report. Retrieved
January 2014 from http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash/fl_392_sum_en.pdf.
Haywood, K. M. (1989). Managing the world of mounts communications. Journal of Service
Marketing, 3(2), 55-67
Marušić, Z., Čorak, S., Sever, I. & Ivandić, N. (2011). Stavovi i potrošnja turista u Hrvatskoj –
TOMAS Ljeto 2010. Zagreb: Institute for Tourism.
Moutinho, L. (2000). Consumer Behavior. In L. Moutinho (ed.), Strategic Management in
Tourism (pp. 41-78). Wallingford: CABI.
Leong, A. M. W., Yeh, S., Hsiao, Y. & Huan, T. T.C. (2015). Nostalgia as travel motivation and its
impact on tourism loyalty. Journal of Business Research, 67, 81-86.
Oom do Valle, P., Silva, J. S., Mendes, J. & Guerreiro, M. (2006). Tourist Satisfaction and
Destination Loyalty intention: A Structural and Categorical Analysis. Journal of Business
Science and Applied Management, 1(1).
Opperman, M. (2000). Tourism destination loyalty. Journal of Travel Research, 39(1), 78-84.
UNWTO. (2007). Practical guide to destination management. UNWTO: Author.
Yoon, Y. & Uysal, M. (2005). An examination of effect of motivation and satisfaction on
destination loyalty: a structural model. Tourism Management, 26, 45-56.
343
Postmodern Museum Visitor Experience as a Leisure Activity: The Case of

Yilmaz Buyukersen Wax Museum
Çağıl Hale Özel

SedaBuldu
Anadolu University, Tourism Faculty
chkayar@anadolu.edu.tr (Corresponding author)
Introduction
20th century has implied the period in which postmodernism gradually evolved and that
had its reflections on the studies that handle the development of museums. Indeed, museums
started to represent postmodern conditions (hyper reality, fragmentation, reversal of
consumption and production, decentering of the subject and paradoxical juxtaposition)
proposed by Firat, & Vankatesh (1993) in many respects. In a way, it can be argued that
functions of the museums have increasingly diversified and gained a post-modern nature.
Visitors of postmodern museums, where consumption, game and entertainment coexist
(Featherstone, 2007), are thought to be different from other museum visitors (Bruce, 2006,
p.135). This assumption stems basically from the transformation from consumer to
postmodern consumer. Postmodern consumers’ patterns of consumption are extremely
adaptable and easily changeable (Brown, 1995, p.138). Therefore, motivations and behaviors
of postmodern museum visitors or the issues they heed in their visits acquire a different
character.
Considering this point of view, profile of Yilmaz Buyukersen Wax Museum’s visitors was
identified with a descriptive research design in this study. The assumption that Yilmaz
Buyukersen Wax Museum can be accepted as a postmodern museum has led authors of this
study to find out whether Yilmaz Buyukersen Wax Museum’s visitors constitute a homogeneous
group in the context of their motivations. Besides, this study attempted to determine the
profiles of motivation-based visitor clusters in the context of their demographic characteristics
and travel behavior. In addition to investigating the evolution of museums after
postmodernism, this study is noteworthy in terms of providing information about postmodern
museums’ visitor profile.
Literature Review
Beginning from the middle of 1990s, museums have grown exponentially in number, size
and variety. It can be said that there are two dimensions of this museum revaluation. On the
one hand, physical changes in design and style come into existence. Thus, museums’ additional
spaces for cafes, museum shops, and visitor centers play a significant role in maintaining and
expanding the visitor base and financial support (Rectanus, 2006, pp.389-390). Similarly,
Marstine (2006, p.12) explains the transformation of the museum by exemplifying new
museum facilities which may include reception and orientation areas, restaurants, cafes, shops,
rest rooms, education centers, and theatres etc. Meaning-based changes as the second
dimension have become apparent in museum revaluation. According to modernist theory, the
museum was a shrine - a ritual site influenced by church, palace, and ancient temple
architecture (Marstine, 2006, p.10). As Urry (1990, p.130) mentioned, living museums replace
dead museums, sound replaces hushed silence, and visitors are not separated from the exhibits
by glass.
Rentschler (2007, p.346) suggested that understanding audiences is an important part of
museum marketing. As Onur (2012) mentioned before, in spite of superficiality of the previous
researches, further studies focus on various psychographic factors, lifestyle values and
344
motivations (Davidson, & Sibley, 2011, p.179). Nevertheless, reasons, motivations and prompts
for a visit, which are conceptually different are mixed up in the question regarding ‘why people
visit’, and motivations to visit a museum are multiple and diverse (Kawashima, 1998, p.28; Gil,
& Ritchie, 2009, p.484). This has led authors of this study to grasp how the market segments of
visitors in postmodern museums can occur. Authors of this study aim to gain insights into the
characteristics of visitor profile of Yilmaz Buyukersen Wax Museum. More specifically, this
study aimed to examine whether YBWM’s target market comprises of both modern and
postmodern visitors segment. By examining and deeply understanding the visitor profile of the
museum, marketing strategy may be more visitor oriented and visitors’ wants and needs can
easily be fulfilled.
Methods and Material

Questionnaire was used as data collection technique. In questionnaire development stage,
previous studies (Ozgoren, 2007; Gurel, 2013; Uysal, 2005; Hsieh, 2010) in the literature, which
examined the profiles of museum visitors, have been referred. In the first section of
questionnaire, museum visitors in the sample were asked to indicate demographic data. In the
second section, questions were related to travel behavior. The last section was developed to
measure the motivations of museum visitors by means of a 5 point Likert type scale. A total of
21 motivational items were derived from the literature review.
Convenience sampling technique was benefited for the selection of museum visitors to be
taken in the context of research. Face to face interviews took place in restaurants and cafes in
Odunpazari and in waiting area outside the museum. 225 usable questionnaires were collected
during May 2015. This study used a factor-cluster approach to identify the profile of the
YBWM’s visitors. Cluster analysis aimed to generate homogenous groups of visitors as to their
motivations. Finally, chi-square analysis was used to generate a profile of visitor clusters based
on the demographic and travel behavior data.
Results
Having identified the motivational factors, the study applied a cluster analysis to divide
museum visitors into market segments based on their motivations. Table 1 gives the results of
cluster analysis based on motivational factors of museum visitors. Based on the importance
scores of each cluster for each motivation factors, four clusters were named “Technology
Lovers”, “Hyper Reality Seekers”, “Diners and Shoppers”, and “Escapists”.
345
Table 1: Cluster Analysis for Museum Visitors
Clusters F-ratio p
Factors
1 2 3 4
Escape .28110 .14387 -.1.33960 .51684 53.313 0.000
Hyper reality -.47330 .66932 -.47503 .12575 23.644 0.000
Technology Fondness .70328 .33795 -.23309 -1.13778 70.734 0.000
Socialization .40413 -.68833 -.03341 .38705 21.106 0.000
Food & Beverage and
-.57005 .45663 .44268 -.20508 18.741 0.000
Shopping
n 66 66 41 52
% 0.29 0.29 0.19 0.23
After the segments were identified segment characteristics were determined based on the
differences among clusters. Chi-square statistic was employed for the assessment of differences
in terms of demographics and travel behavior dimensions. As shown in Table 2, only visitors’
age showed significant difference among four clusters.
346
Table 2: Differences among Museum Visitors’ Clusters in Terms of Demographics and Travel
Behavior
Characteristics of Clusters Technology Hyper Diners Escapists
Lovers Reality and
Seekers Shoppers
Sex Female 57.6 60.6 48.8 55.8
Male 42.4 39.4 51.2 44.2
Marital status Married 24.6 24.6 37.5 32.7
Single 75.4 75.4 62.5 67.3
Age* 0-17 0.0 10.6 2.4 5.8
18-24 50.0 25.8 29.3 32.7
25-44 39.4 57.6 56.1 42.3
45-64 9.1 6.1 9.8 19.2
65 + 1.5 0.0 2.4 0.0
Employment Government employee 26.2 40.6 31.7 33.3
status Self-employed (owner) 3.1 10.9 4.9 5.9
Merchant/industrialist 0.0 1.6 2.4 2.0
Worker 13.8 6.2 12.2 13.7
Retired 4.6 0.0 7.3 5.9
Housewife 3.1 1.6 7.3 2.0
Student 49.2 37.5 34.1 35.3
Banker 0.0 1.6 0.0 2.0
Monthly 0-1000 46.9 36.9 35.0 37.3
income 1001-2500 21.9 20.0 20.0 31.4
(Turkish 2501 + 31.2 43.1 45.0 31.4
Liras)
Educational Primary school 0.0 3.1 2.5 2.0
Attainment Secondary school 1.5 6.2 7.5 5.9
High school 18.5 12.3 15.0 21.6
Associate’ degree 6.2 6.2 10.0 15.7
Bachelor’s degree 61.5 40.0 45.0 45.1
Master’s/Doctorate degree 12.3 32.3 20.0 9.8
Place of Eskisehir 75.8 76.9 75.0 67.3
residence Outside Eskisehir 24.2 23.1 25.0 32.7
Frequency of Once in six months or more 37.9 45.5 22.0 38.5
visit to frequent
museums Once a year 42.4 43.9 43.9 40.4
Biennially 6.1 9.1 14.6 5.8
Every three years or less 13.6 1.5 19.5 15.4
frequent
Travel party Alone 1.7 1.6 5.0 4.2
Family 28.8 25.4 27.5 29.2
Relative(s) 6.8 1.6 17.5 2.1
Children 0.0 3.2 5.0 6.2
Friend(s) 49.2 54.0 30.0 41.7
Package Tour 13.6 14.3 15.0 16.7
Main Private vehicle 30.8 23.4 35.9 26.9
transport Public transportation 40.0 45.3 38.5 40.4
used By walking 29.2 25.0 23.1 32.7
By taxi 0.0 6.2 2.6 0.0
Printed newspaper/magazine 11.1 8.2 13.5 7.8
347
Information Radio/TV 3.2 6.6 5.4 9.8

Source Printed leaflet/ad/catalog 14.3 9.8 10.8 5.9
Recommendation of 30.2 42.6 45.9 41.2
family/friends
Signs/Signboards 11.1 13.1 13.5 7.8
Printed posters 14.3 8.2 5.4 2.0
Internet 12.7 8.2 5.4 19.6
Tour Guide/Program 3.2 3.3 0.0 5.9
*p < 0.05
Conclusion and Discussion

In this study, motivations of museum visitors were measured and it was found that
visitors’ motivations can be explained under five different motivation dimensions. Among the
motivation dimensions, Escape owns the greatest share. Results of this study supports the
previous studies in terms of determining Escape as a basic motivation dimension. Additionally,
YBWM’s visitors are also motivated by hyper reality and technological facilities. As known,
postmodern consumers are pleased with ambiguity between reality and fiction. In fact, wax
sculptures or dioramas provide postmodern museum visitors the simulations instead of real
ones. As another motivation dimension, technology enables active visitor involvement in
museum experience by the help of digital guides and books, touch screens, applications for
smartphone, simulators, layer holograms, and etc. Thereby, it is possible to view the results of
this study in the context of reflection of postmodern conditions to motivations of museum
visitors.
Although the motivations of Socialization and Food & Beverage and Shopping were also
frequently highlighted in the previous tourist behavior studies, visits of postmodern museums’
visitors with these motivations might be a result of psychical and meaning-based changes in
museums. The considerable variety of identified factors implies that postmodern museums’
visitors are motivated by many other dimensions, which stay out of pre-determined and well-
known motivation dimensions, and this reveals the fact that further studies are required on
behaviors of postmodern museums’ visitors’.
The results of cluster analysis which used factor scores indicated that YBWM’s visitors
can be classified into four clusters based on their motivations. These clusters were named as;
Technology Lovers, Hyper Reality Seekers, Diners & Shoppers and Escapists. As can be
understood from the results of this classification, there is not a single and stable prototype of
postmodern museum visitors. Instead, visitor groups who have differentiating motivations
constitute homogenous market segments. Moreover, identified visitor clusters show significant
differences according to age as a demographic variable whereas there is not a significant
difference between clusters in terms of behavioral variables. Findings of this research will not
only give a hint for Yilmaz Buyukersen Wax Museum management but also for museums which
have a similar nature in terms of postmodern conditions.
References
Brown, S. (1995) Postmodern marketing. London, UK: Routledge.
Bruce, C. (2006). Spectacle and democracy: Experience music project as a post-museum. In J.
Mastine (Ed.), New museum theory and practice: An introduction (pp. 129-152). United
Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
Davidson, L., & Sibley, P. (2011). Audiences at the “new” museum: Visitor commitment,
diversity and leisure at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Visitor
Studies, 14 (2), 176-194.
Featherstone, M. (2007). Consumer culture & postmodernism. London: Sage Publications.
348
Firat, A. F., & Venkatesh, A. (1993). Postmodernity: the age of marketing. International Journal
of Research in Marketing, 10 (3), 227-249.
Gil, S. M., & Ritchie, J. B. (2009). Understanding the museum image formation process a
comparison of residents and tourists. Journal of Travel Research, 47 (4), 480-493.
Gurel, E. (2013). Ankara’daki müzelerde ziyaretçi profillerinin ve motivasyonlarının
değerlendirilmesi. Ankara Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1 (2), 1-9.
Hsieh, C. M. (2010). Roles of motivations, past experience, perceptions of service quality, value
and satisfaction in museum visitors' loyalty. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan
State University, ABD.
Kawashima, N. (1998). Knowing the public. A review of museum marketing literature and
research. Museum Management and Curatorship, 17 (1), 21-39.
Marstine, J. (2006). ‘Introduction’, In J. Marstine (Ed.) New museum theory and practice: An
introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Onur, B. (2012). Çağdaş müze eğitim ve gelişim müze psiklojisine giriş. Ankara: İmge.
Ozgoren, F. (2007). Boş zaman pazarlaması ve müzecilikte bir uygulama. Unpublished master's
thesis, Marmara University, Istanbul.
Rectanus, M. W. (2006). Globalization: incorporating the museum. In S. Macdonald (Ed.), A
companion to museum studies (pp. 381-397). United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
Rentschler, R. (2007). Museum marketing: understanding different types of audiences. In R.
Sandell, & R. R. Janes (Ed.), Museum Management and Marketing (pp. 345-365). USA:
Routledge.
Urry, J. (1990). The tourist gaze. London: Sage.
Uysal, Ç. K. (2005). Müze eğitimi ve müze ziyaretçilerinin Atatürk ve Kurtuluş Savaşı Müzesi
ziyaretçi profili aracılığıyla incelenmesi. Unpublished master's thesis, Ankara University,
Ankara.
349

A Community Based Collaborative Approach

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Tourism engagement: co-creating well-being.

Proceedings of the 6th Advances in Tourism Marketing Conference

Tourism engagement: co-creating well-being

ATMC Scientific Board:

Local Organizing Committee

Contents (in alpabetical order of the first author surnames) Page

A Journey Inside Tourist Souvenirs ....................................................................................... 136

Contents (Alphabetical order based on the title of the paper) Page

Identifying criteria than exert an influence in the co-creation process between

Adventure Campers, Fairy Tale Glampers, and Authenticity

constructed beliefs of what is authentic. In this view, authenticity is not evaluated by

Discussion and Conclusions

Image analysis of a tourist destination: Malaga, Spain

The hypotheses proposed in the current research are the following:

Methods and materials

Figure 1. Average rating for the sources of information

Analysis of the components of the image

Figure 2. Average rating for the attributes of the cognitive component

After application of the Mann-Whitney test, statistically significant differences are

(ii) Regarding the affective component, measured by a semantic differential based on a

Figure 3. Affective component

Table 1. Factor analysis of destination image

C12 Malaga is a great place to go shopping 0,354

Malaga is the perfect place for hosting meetings or

C16 Malaga is a place that transmits modernity 0,750

C17 Malaga has good accommodation infrastructures 0,594

C2 Malaga has an attractive local cuisine 0,737

KMO Index = 0,877

Figure 4. Motivational component

Discussion and Conclusions

Profile of residents: Attitude towards tourism in Benalmádena (Costa del

Methods and materials

Table 1. Questionnaire items corresponding with measured impacts

Positive aspects Negative aspects

Table 2. Correlations between characteristics of residents, and tourist impact variables

Age .13** .04 -.08*

Having children .13** .07† -.03

Level of studies .04 .18** .16**

Type of work .00 .04 -.06†

Social Participation .01 -.02 -.11**

Native condition -.14** -.17** -.10**

Years of residence -.19** -.16** -.06†

Note: † p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01

Effects of socio-demographic factors on attitude towards tourism ANOVA tests

Discussion and Conclusions

The Impact of Social Media Involvement on Intentions to Purchase of

H2: Communicability positively influences intentions to purchase travel online.

H4: Individuals’ social media involvement is positively related to intentions to purchase

Methods and material

Figure 1 – PLS Results

The second hypothesis proposed that communicability influences intentions to purchase

Discussion and Conclusions

Identifying criteria than exert an influence in the co-creation process

Can Rural Tourism Satisfy Portuguese Tourist's Needs? Examining

0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5

Figure 1 – Items’ mean values

Table 1 - Rotated Component Matrixa

Discussion and Conclusions

The Package Tour Experiences and Tourist Satisfaction

Level of studies .04 .18 .16

Native condition -.14 -.17 -.10**

Years of residence -.19 -.16 -.06†

ρ <0.001 ρ <0.05 ρ <0.1 (two-tailed test)