Textbook Memory Politics Identity and Conflict Historical Memory As A Variable 1St Edition Zheng Wang Auth Ebook All Chapter PDF
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MEMORY POLITICS AND
TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE
Series Editors: Maria Guadalupe Arenillas and
Jonathan Allen
MEMORY POLITICS,
IDENTITY AND
CONFLICT
Historical Memory
as a Variable
Zheng Wang
Memory Politics and Transitional Justice
Series editors
Jasna Dragovic Soso
London, United Kingdom
Jelena Subotic
Dept of Pol Sci, 1018 Langdale Hall
Georgia State University
Atlanta, GA, USA
Tsveta Petrova
Columbia University
New York, NY, USA
The interdisciplinary fields of Memory Studies and Transitional Justice
have largely developed in parallel to one another despite both focus-
ing on efforts of societies to confront and (re-)appropriate their past.
While scholars working on memory have come mostly from historical,
literary, sociological, or anthropological traditions, transitional justice
has attracted primarily scholarship from political science and the law.
This series bridges this divide: it promotes work that combines a deep
understanding of the contexts that have allowed for injustice to occur
with an analysis of how legacies of such injustice in political and historical
memory influence contemporary projects of redress, acknowledgment,
or new cycles of denial. The titles in the series are of interest not only to
academics and students but also practitioners in the related fields. The
Memory Politics and Transitional Justice series promotes critical dialogue
among different theoretical and methodological approaches and among
scholarship on different regions. The editors welcome submissions from
a variety of disciplines – including political science, history, sociology,
anthropology, and cultural studies – that confront critical questions at
the intersection of memory politics and transitional justice in national,
comparative, and global perspective.
Memory Politics,
Identity and Conflict
Historical Memory as a Variable
Zheng Wang
School of Diplomacy and International Relations
Seton Hall University
South Orange, NJ, USA
Bibliography 93
Index 99
vii
List of Figures
ix
List of Tables
xi
CHAPTER 1
Mission Impossible?
In Andrei Markovits and Simon Reich’s research on how Germany’s past
influences present policies, they found an interesting phenomenon: Even
though collective memory is “the biggest factor mitigating the exercise
of German power,” it is “an element many political scientists usually
avoid but any journalist working in Germany regularly sees in action.”1
intractable conflicts are deeply rooted in the involved parties’ history and
memory.
Objectives and Organization
This book is about conducting research on historical memory. It aims to
contribute to the theoretical and methodological discussion concerning
the use of historical memory as a variable to explain the political action
and social movement. Definition and measurement are two main barri-
ers to a more systematic incorporation of historical memory (and other
ideational factors) as a variable in helping to explain the political action.
Based on theories and research from multiple fields of study, such as
political science, international relations, sociology, and conflict resolu-
tion, this book proposes a series of analytic frameworks for the purpose
of conceptualizing the functions of historical memory. A series of ques-
tions are asked to define and/or measure whether and how the contents
of historical memory serve as specific functions.
By creating the analytic frameworks for research, the author hopes to
provide a model by which researchers can conduct a more rigorous study
of historical memory. These frameworks can help categorize, measure,
and subsequently demonstrate the effects of historical memory. Even
though this research focuses on using historical memory as a collective
identity, the framework can also be used for researching other types of
social identity. The focus here is on understanding the function of his-
torical memory in group identity formation and how historical memory
influences actors’ perceptions, interpretations, and decision-making pro-
cesses. These analytical frameworks can be used to (1) help researchers
determine which aspects of an event are worth considering; (2) generate
research questions; (3) provide researchers the tools for analyzing empir-
ical data; (4) guide categorizing and measuring the effects of historical
memory.
The chapters of the book conceptualize the relationship between his-
torical memory and national identity formation, perceptions, and policy
making. The book also discusses the function of formal history education
and social discourse in the formation of collective memory and national
identity. It particularly analyzes how contested memory and the related
social discourse can lead to nationalism and international conflict. The
purposes of these analyses are to provide theory-based analytic frameworks
1 HISTORICAL MEMORY AS AN OMITTED VARIABLE? 5
for determining the content and scope of historical memory, and for cat-
egorizing and measuring the effects of historical memory.
This chapter Historical Memory as an Omitted Variable introduces the
main content and organization of the book. It outlines the difficulties
of using historical memory as a variable for social science research. This
chapter also discusses why the functions of historical memory are over-
looked as an omitted variable and the reasons behind the lack of inte-
grated research on historical memory.
Chapter 2 Collective Memory and National Identity analyzes the
important function of historical memory in collective identity forma-
tion. Ethnic, national, or religious identities are built on historical myths
that define who a group member is, what it means to be a group mem-
ber, and typically, who the group’s enemies are. These myths are usually
based on truth but are selective or exaggerated in their presentation of
history. This chapter provides frameworks to understand how historical
memory can serve as a constitutive, relational, cognitive, and purporsive
content for group identity. Each of these four types of identity content
implies an alternate causal pathway between this collective identity and
policy behaviors or practices. Particular questions are posed in an effort
to measure the content and contestation of historical memory as a col-
lective identity. This chapter also reviews the three main approaches to
looking at historical memory in identity formation: primordialism, con-
structivism, and instrumentalism. As Anthony D. Smith has argued “no
memory, no identity, no identity, no nation,” it is this collective memory
of the past that binds a group of people together.17 On the national level,
identity determines national interests, which in turn determines policy
and state action. Understanding a group of people’s collective memory
can help us better understand their national interests and political actions.
Chapter 3 Memory, Perceptions, and Policy Making discusses how his-
torical memory influences the actor’s interpretation and understanding
of the external world in a specific situation and the conditions where his-
torical memory influences the decision-making process. Although history
and memory are rarely by themselves the direct causes of conflict, they
provide the “lens” by which we view and bring into focus our world;
through the lens, differences are refracted and conflict pursued. The lens
of historical memory helps both the masses and elites interpret the pre-
sent and decide on policy. Frameworks are developed to conceptualize
the function of historical memory as the lens and motivational tool.
6 Z. Wang
Notes
1. Andrei S. Markovits and Simon Reich, The German Predicament (Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1997), 9.
2. Ibid.
3. T.H.R., “The Uses of the Past,” The Hedgehog Review 9: 2 (2007): 5.
4. Alexander George, “The Casual Nexus Between Cognitive Beliefs and
Decision-Making Behavior,” in Psychological Models in International
Politics, ed. L. Falkowski (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979), 95–124.
5. Peter Bruland and Michael Horowitz, “Research Report on the Use
of Identity Concepts in Comparative Politics,” (Manucript, Harvard
Identity Project, Wheatherhad Center for International Affairs: Harvard
University, 2003).
6. George, “The Causal Nexus Between Cognitive Beliefs and Decision-
Making Behavior,” 95–124.
7. Jianwei Wang, Limited Adversaries: Post-Cold War Sino-American Mutual
Images (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 28.
8. Victor Roudometof, Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic
Conflict: Greece, Bulgaria and the Macedonian Question (Westport, CT:
Praeger, 2002), 6–7.
9. Ibid.
10. Zheng Wang, “The Legacy of Historical Memory and China’s Foreign
Policy in the 2010s,” in Misunderstanding Asia: International Relations
Theory and Asian Studies Over Half a Century, ed. Gilbert Rozman (New
York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 227–240.
11. Judith Goldstein and Robert Keohane, “Ideas and Foreign Policy: An
Analytical Framework,” in Ideas and Foreign Policy, ed. J. Goldstein and
R. Keohane (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), 3–30.
12. Alastair Iain Johnston, “What (If Anything) Does East Asia Tell Us About
International Relations Theory?” Annual Review of Political Science 15
(2012), 53–78.
13. Ibid.
14. Jerzy Jedlicki, “Historical Memory as a Source of Conflicts in Eastern
Europe,” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 32 (1999), 226.
1 HISTORICAL MEMORY AS AN OMITTED VARIABLE? 9
Chosenness
Myth Trauma
Identity as a Variable
Many scholars have paid special efforts to use identity as an independ-
ent variable to explain political action. Some scholars believe that the
two issues hampering systematic incorporation of identity as a variable in
explaining political action are definition and measurement:
Constitutive norms Specifies norms or rules that define group membership, and the
interests of groups
Relational comparisons Conducts comparisons and references to other identities or
groups
Cognitive models Affects the way group members interpret and understand the
world
Purporsive content Provides the group socially appropriate roles to perform
20 Z. Wang
Constitutive Categorization Does the content of historical memory specify rules that determine group membership?
Norms
Identification Does the content of historical memory help to define the group’s fundamental characteristics and
attributes?
2
Pride, Trauma Does the content of historical memory constitute the basis of the group’s pride, glory, trauma and
& Self Esteem self-esteem?
Relational Social Does the content of historical memory help to specify to whom this social group compares
Norms Comparison themselves with and who the group’s enemies are?
Social Does the content of historical memory provide political leaders and elites with the basis for
Mobilization mobilizing mass support?
Social Mobility Is the content of historical memory a source of group members’ social mobility or social change?
& Change
Purposive Social Purpose Does the content of historical memory define group purposes?
Norms
Role Identity Does the content of historical memory provide actors socially appropriate roles to perform?
COLLECTIVE MEMORY AND NATIONAL IDENTITY
21
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Symptoms. These are very indefinite, depending very much on the
complications. Some loss or perversion of appetite, a licking of the
soil or walls, eating litter, filth and even manure, a clammy mouth, a
redness along the margin of the tongue, eructations or attempts to
eructate, or actual vomiting, colicy pains which are usually dull until
the bowels are implicated, more or less rumbling in the bowels,
sometimes icterus, in other cases tympany, and nearly always tardy
passage of hard and scanty mucus-covered fæces. The colics may be
intermittent, appearing only just after food is taken, or they may be
continuous, the animal pawing incessantly hour after hour. A slight
hyperthermia and a distinct tenderness of the epigastrium and left
hypochondrium to pressure are valuable symptoms. Percussion
causes even keener suffering.
If the gastric contents are abundant and fermentation active, death
may ensue from gastric tympany. In other cases, the persistence of
colics at the time of feeding, of impaired appetite, constipation and
loss of condition are the main symptoms. In the last named cases the
patient may die of marasmus.
Lesions. In cases terminating in fermentation and fatal tympany
the stomach is full; in other types it is empty of all but water, mucus,
and perhaps some irritant contents, or decomposed food. The
alveolar mucosa of the right sac and above all of the pylorus is red,
congested, petechiated, macculated, thickened to double its normal
thickness or more, thrown into rugæ, and covered with tenacious
mucus. This mucus is highly charged with detached epithelial cells,
and at different points the mucosa is abraded by their desquamation.
The epithelium generally shows swollen, opaque cells. The red
congested spots show active engorgement of the capillaries, and this
is especially marked around the glandular follicles, with more or less
formation of embryonic cells. The duodenum is often implicated with
similar lesions of the mucosa and its epithelial layers, which may
block the orifices of the pancreatic and especially of the biliary duct.
In this case there is a yellowish discoloration of the liver, excess of
pigment in the hepatic cells, and hemorrhagic spots in the liver and
even in the kidneys. The urine may be yellow or reddish brown from
the presence of bile or blood pigment. In ruptured stomach,
spiroptera, bots, and other irritants, we find their characteristic
lesions, and in petechial fever there is excessive and partly
hemorrhagic infiltration of the mucosa and submucosa. In
protracted cases ulcers may be present on both stomach and
intestine. When it is a localization of some specific fever the
characteristic lesions of that affection will be found.
Treatment. If appetite continues, diet should be restricted to a
very moderate allowance of green food, pulped roots, bran mash,
boiled flaxseed, boiled middlings, with pure water or whey. If there
are irritants in the stomach they may be got rid of by a laxative (aloes
4 drachms, or sulphate of soda ½ pound). Sodium bicarbonate (½
drachm 2 or 3 times daily) is desirable to stimulate peptic secretion
and check acid fermentations. Pepsin (2 drachms) should be given at
equal intervals. Fermentations should be checked by the use of salol
(1 to 2 drachms), naphthalin (1 to 2 drachms), benzo-naphthol (1 to 3
drachms), or calcium salicylate (2 drachms).
In this connection bitters are of value to improve the tone of the
gastric mucosa, nux vomica, gentian, quinia and quassia in
combination with ipecacuan giving good results.
PHLEGMONOUS (PURULENT) GASTRITIS
IN THE HORSE.
Definition: deep inflammation tending to abscess. Causes: invasion by pus
microbes, infectious diseases, parasitism, traumas. Symptoms: hyperthermia,
colic, tenderness, icterus, coincident disease, hæmatemesis. Lesions: submucous or
subperitoneal abscess, parasites, peritonitis, exudation, thickening, neoplasm of
mucosa, catarrhal complications. Treatment: careful diet, antiseptics, bitters,
laxatives.
Definition. This is a gastric inflammation affecting the
membranous layers, and tending to submucous or subperitoneal
abscess. It is much less frequent than the catarrhal form.
Causes. It may be attributed to invasion of the gastric walls by pus
microbes, and appears as secondary abscess in pyæmia and above all
in strangles. The microbes are introduced more directly through the
wounds inflicted by the larvæ of œstrus, or by the burrowing of these
(Argus, Schlieppe, Schortmann), or of spiroptera (Argus). Wounds
by sharp pointed bodies taken in with the food, furnish other
infection—atria, and in their turn ulcers connected with catarrhal or
toxic inflammation may furnish a means of entrance.
Symptoms. These resemble those of catarrhal inflammation, but
are usually attended by greater hyperthermia, and the colicy
symptoms are more marked. There is also greater tenderness in the
epigastrium and left hypochondrium, and icterus is more marked.
When it occurs as an extension of strangles or pyæmia the symptoms
of these affections elsewhere are pathognomonic. When the abscess
bursts into the stomach there may be vomiting of bloody mucus
(hæmatemesis) which is not necessarily followed by a fatal result.
Lesions. As these are seen only in fatal cases, the presence of an
abscess is the characteristic feature. This is usually submucous, or
less frequently subperitoneal, and may vary in size from a hazelnut
upward. The tendency appears to be to open into the stomach,
though it may burst into the peritoneum and cause general infection
of that membrane. In case of parasites, the spiroptera or œstrus larva
may be found in the abcess cavity having a narrow opening into the
stomach. In certain cases the abscess on the pyloric sac has been
found opening into the duodenum. Congestion, thickening,
puckering into rugæ and laceration of the adjacent mucosæ may be a
marked feature, a circumscribed catarrhal gastritis complicating the
local phlegmon.
Treatment. This is less hopeful than in catarrhal gastritis, but
should be conducted along the same lines. The same careful diet,
with daily antiseptics and bitters may prove valuable in limiting the
inevitable suppuration, and, if the pus should escape into the
stomach, in healing the lesion. Sulphites of soda, sulphide of
calcium, chamomile, and quinia, are to be commended and pepsin
may be added to secure at once proteid digestion and antisepsis.
Laxatives may be required to counteract constipation or expel
irritants, and these may be combined with the antiseptics already
named or with salol, eucalyptol, sodium salicylate or other non-
poisonous agent of this class.
TOXIC GASTRITIS IN SOLIPEDS.
Causes. These are like those producing the acute affection which
may easily merge into this by a continuation of such causes.
The symptoms too are alike. Inappetence, dullness, prostration,
arched back, vomiting, colic, constipation, with alternating diarrhœa.
There is hyperthermia with hot dry snout, thirst, increasing
emaciation, and anæmia.
Treatment. An entire change of diet, to green food, roots, fresh
milk, and soft mashes in limited quantity. Allow pure water freely.
Adopt all precautions against contamination of the food by the feet
or snout. The stomach may be quieted by oxide of bismuth (20 grs.)
or salol (10 grs.) two or three times daily, and the tone and secretions
of the stomach may be stimulated by bicarbonate of soda (1 dr.) and
nux vomica (1 to 2 grs.) thrice daily. In addition pepsin and muriatic
acid may be given with each meal in proportion adapted to its
amount. A life in the open air, and an occasional soapy wash will do
much to restore healthy gastric functions.
CHRONIC GASTRITIS IN THE DOG.
Causes: faults in diet, musty food, foreign bodies, poisons, lack of sunshine,
retained fæces, parasites, ill health, chronic diseases, icy bath, septic drink.
Symptoms: irregular appetite and bowels, fever, foul breath, red tongue, tartar on
teeth, dullness, prostration, vomiting of mucus or bile, tender epigastrium, arched
back, fœtid stools, emaciation. Treatment: regulate diet, sunshine, pure water,
scraped muscle, soups without fat, antiseptics, calomel, pepsin, muriatic acid,
strychnia.
Causes. The irregularity and variability of the food, overfeeding,
highly spiced foods, putrid or spoiled food, musty food, the
swallowing of pieces of bone, and of indigestible bodies, the
consumption of poisons, the absence of open air exercise, the
compulsory suspension of defecation in house dogs, and the
presence in the stomach of worms (spiroptera, strongylus), are
among the common causes of the affection. As in other animals, ill
health, debility, lack of general tone, and chronic diseases of
important organs (liver, kidney, heart, lungs) must be taken into
account. The plunging into cold water when heated and the licking of
septic water must also be named.
Symptoms. Appetite is poor or irregular, the nose dry and hot, the
mouth fœtid, the tongue reddened around the borders and furred on
its dorsum, the teeth coated with tartar, the animal dull and
prostrate, vomits frequently a glairy mucus mixed with alimentary
matters or yellow with bile, and there is constipation alternating with
diarrhœa. The epigastrium is tender to the touch, the back arched,
the fæces glazed with mucus or streaked with blood, and offensive in
odor. Emaciation advances rapidly and death may occur from
marasmus.
Treatment. Adopt the same general plan of treatment. Stop all
offensive and irritating food, give regular outdoor exercise, free
access to pure water, and every facility to attend to the calls of
nature. Give plain easily digestible food in small amount. In the
worst cases pulped or scraped raw meat, in the less severe mush, or
well-prepared soups with the fat skimmed off, and bread added.
Check the irritant fermentations in the stomach by salol, bismuth,
salicylate of bismuth, or naphthol. In case of constipation give 8 to 10
grs. calomel. Then assist digestion by pepsin (5 grs.) and
hydrochloric acid (10 drops) in water with each meal. If the
bitterness is not an objection 1 gr. nux vomica may also be added.
ULCERATION OF THE STOMACH.