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 Yu-Jin Zhang

Handbook
of Image
Engineering
Handbook of Image Engineering
Yu-Jin Zhang

Handbook of Image
Engineering
Yu-Jin Zhang
Department of Electronic Engineering
Tsinghua University
Beijing, China

ISBN 978-981-15-5872-6 ISBN 978-981-15-5873-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5873-3

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021

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Preface

Image engineering is a new inter-discipline that systematically studies various image

theories and methods, elaborates the principles of image operation, promotes the
applications of image technology, and summarizes production experience in the
image industry. As an overall framework and system for the comprehensive research
and integrated application of various image technologies, image engineering has
received extensive attention and made considerable development in recent years.
This is a handbook that takes the chapter as a representation unit for key
knowledge points of image engineering. These units combine the definitions of
common concepts, related principles, practical techniques, and specific methods of
image engineering. It could be of help to different readers related to the field of
image technology in diverse ways, such as offering a general idea to unlearned
readers who are looking to begin, making a summary for students who are currently
learning, providing consultation to engineers who have working requirements, and
delivering a comprehensive reference for senior researchers with relevant
knowledge.
This handbook is organized into 5 parts with 52 chapters that are corresponding to
different branches and directions of image engineering. For each chapter, the related
entries are grouped into several sections (totally 216 sections) and subsections
(totally 651 subsections). The numbers of entry for each chapter, section, and
subsection are marked in the braces after their titles in the contents. They provide
a general idea about the scale of the chapters, sections, and subsections and thus an
overall viewing of the book. Totally, near 10,000 entries are collected mainly from
dozens of books and some journal articles published globally in recent years. In the
subject index, more than 10,000 guiding items can be found.
This handbook provides a comprehensive coverage of image engineering. For
each chapter, in addition to its concise definition, extra explanations, examples,
analysis, and discussions are also provided. These entries are supported by totally
750 figures and 28 tables, as well as more than a thousand of formulas. These entries
can be cross-referenced by bold words in the text. These entries are also
interconnected by the specifiers “See”, “Same as”, and “Compare” at the end of

v
vi Preface

entry texts. Besides, for each chapter and section, several appropriate references are
selected to indicate the source for further and detailed information.
This handbook of image engineering integrates the common concepts, related
principles, practical technologies, and specific methods into one
• Comprehensive coverage, refined interpretation
• Flexible reference and easy access
• Well-organized and completely structured
Special thanks go to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and their staff members.
Their kind and professional assistance are truly appreciated.
Last but not least, I am deeply indebted to my wife and my daughter for their
encouragement, patience, support, tolerance, and understanding during the writing
of this book.

Beijing, China Yu-Jin Zhang

General Directory

vii
Contents

Part I Image Fundamentals

1 Image Basics {324} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Basic Concepts of Image {31} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Image and Image Space {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Digital Image and Computer-Generated
Image {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Image Decomposition {46} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Image Decomposition {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Pixel and Voxel {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Various Elements {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 All Kinds of Image {74} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 Images with Different Wavelengths {19} . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 Different Dimensional Images {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.3 Color Image {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.4 Images for Different Applications {19} . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4 Special Attribute Images {109} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.1 Images with Various Properties {16} . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.2 Image with Specific Attribute {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.3 Depth Images {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.4.4 Image with Variant Sources {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.4.5 Processing Result Image {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4.6 Others {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.5 Image Representation {47} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.5.1 Representation {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.5.2 Image Property {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.5.3 Image Resolution {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.6 Image Quality {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2 Image Engineering {160} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.1 Image Engineering Technology {40} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

ix
x Contents

2.1.1 Image Engineering {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

2.1.2 Image Processing {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.1.3 Image Analysis {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.1.4 Image Understanding {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.2 Similar Disciplines {64} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.2.1 Computer Vision {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.2.2 Machine Vision {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.2.3 Computer Graphics {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2.4 Light Field {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.3 Related Subjects {56} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.3.1 Fractals {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.3.2 Topology {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.3.3 Virtual Reality {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.3.4 Others {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3 Image Acquisition Devices {436} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1 Device Parameters {49} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.1 Camera Parameters {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.2 Camera Motion Description {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.1.3 Camera Operation {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2 Sensors {72} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2.1 Sensor Models {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2.2 Sensor Characteristics {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.2.3 Image Sensors {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.2.4 Specific Sensors {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.2.5 Commonly Used Sensors {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.3 Cameras and Camcorders {88} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.3.1 Conventional Cameras {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.3.2 Camera Models {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.3.3 Special Structure Cameras {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.3.4 Special Purpose Cameras {21} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.3.5 Camera Systems {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.4 Camera Calibration {49} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.4.1 Calibration Basics {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.4.2 Various Calibration Techniques {18} . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.4.3 Internal and External Camera Calibration {14} . . . . 124
3.5 Lens {85} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.5.1 Lens Model {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.5.2 Lens Types {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.5.3 Lens Characteristics {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.5.4 Focal Length of Lens {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.5.5 Lens Aperture and Diaphragm {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.6 Lens Aberration {31} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.6.1 Lens Distortions {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.6.2 Chromatic Aberration {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Contents xi

3.7 Other Equipment and Devices {62} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

3.7.1 Input Devices {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.7.2 Filters {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.7.3 Microscopes {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.7.4 RADAR {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.7.5 Other Devices {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4 Image Acquisition Modes {381} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1 Imaging and Acquisition {157} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1.1 Image Capture {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1.2 Field of View {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.1.3 Camera Models {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.1.4 Imaging Methods {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.1.5 Spectral Imaging {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.1.6 Coordinate Systems {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.1.7 Imaging Coordinate Systems {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.1.8 Focal Length and Depth {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.1.9 Exposure {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.1.10 Holography and View {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.2 Stereo Imaging {57} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.2.1 General Methods {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.2.2 Binocular Stereo Imaging {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.2.3 Special Methods {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.2.4 Structured Light {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.3 Light Source and Lighting {81} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.3.1 Light and Lamps {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.3.2 Light Source {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.3.3 Lighting {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.3.4 Illumination {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.3.5 Illumination Field {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.4 Perspective and Projection {62} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.4.1 Perspective {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
4.4.2 Perspective Projection {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.4.3 Projective Imaging {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
4.4.4 Various Projections {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.5 Photography and Photogrammetry {24} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.5.1 Photography {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.5.2 Photogrammetry {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5 Image Digitization {83} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.1 Sampling and Quantization {44} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.1.1 Sampling Theorem {21} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.1.2 Sampling Techniques {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5.1.3 Quantization {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
xii Contents

5.2 Digitization Scheme {39} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

5.2.1 Digitization {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.2.2 Digitizing Grid {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6 Image Display and Printing {71} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.1 Display {35} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.1.1 Image Display {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.1.2 Display Devices {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.2 Printing {36} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.2.1 Printing Devices {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.2.2 Printing Techniques {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.2.3 Halftoning Techniques {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7 Image Storage and Communication {50} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.1 Storage and Communication {22} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.1.1 Image Storage {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.1.2 Image Communication {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.2 Image File Format {28} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
7.2.1 Bitmap Images {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
7.2.2 Various Formats {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8 Related Knowledge {370} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.1 Basic Mathematics {169} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.1.1 Analytic and Differential Geometry {13} . . . . . . . . 277
8.1.2 Functions {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.1.3 Matrix Decomposition {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8.1.4 Set Theory {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
8.1.5 Least Squares {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.1.6 Regression {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.1.7 Linear Operations {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.1.8 Complex Plane and Half-Space {19} . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.1.9 Norms and Variations {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
8.1.10 Miscellaneous {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.2 Statistics and Probability {118} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.2.1 Statistics {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.2.2 Probability {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
8.2.3 Probability Density {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.2.4 Probability Distributions {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
8.2.5 Distribution Functions {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
8.2.6 Gaussian Distribution {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
8.2.7 More Distributions {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
8.3 Signal Processing {50} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
8.3.1 Basic Concepts {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
8.3.2 Signal Responses {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.3.3 Convolution and Frequency {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
8.4 Tools and Means {33} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
8.4.1 Hardware {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Contents xiii

8.4.2 Software {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

8.4.3 Diverse Terms {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

Part II Image Processing

9 Pixel Spatial Relationship {175} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
9.1 Adjacency and Neighborhood {49} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
9.1.1 Spatial Relationship Between Pixels {12} . . . . . . . . 353
9.1.2 Neighborhood {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
9.1.3 Adjacency {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
9.2 Connectivity and Connected {42} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
9.2.1 Pixel Connectivity {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
9.2.2 Pixel-Connected {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
9.2.3 Path {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
9.3 Connected Components and Regions {29} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
9.3.1 Image Connectedness {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
9.3.2 Connected Region in Image {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
9.4 Distance {55} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
9.4.1 Discrete Distance {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
9.4.2 Distance Metric {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
9.4.3 Geodesic Distance {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
9.4.4 Distance Transform {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
10 Image Transforms {231} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
10.1 Transformation and Characteristics {30} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
10.1.1 Transform and Transformation {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
10.1.2 Transform Properties {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
10.2 Walsh-Hadamard Transform {26} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
10.2.1 Walsh Transform {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
10.2.2 Hadamard Transform {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
10.3 Fourier Transform {66} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
10.3.1 Variety of Fourier Transform {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
10.3.2 Frequency Domain {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
10.3.3 Theorem and Property of Fourier
Transform {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
10.3.4 Fourier Space {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
10.4 Discrete Cosine Transform {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
10.5 Wavelet Transform {43} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
10.5.1 Wavelet Transform and Property {13} . . . . . . . . . . 415
10.5.2 Expansion and Decomposition {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
10.5.3 Various Wavelets {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
10.6 Karhunen-Loève Transform {40} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
10.6.1 Hotelling Transform {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
10.6.2 Principal Component Analysis {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
10.7 Other Transforms {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
xiv Contents

11 Point Operations for Spatial Domain Enhancement {249} . . . . . . . 441

11.1 Fundamentals of Image Enhancement {42} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
11.1.1 Image Enhancement {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
11.1.2 Intensity Enhancement {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
11.1.3 Contrast Enhancement {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
11.1.4 Operator {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
11.2 Coordinate Transformation {87} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
11.2.1 Spatial Coordinate Transformation {13} . . . . . . . . . 448
11.2.2 Image Transformation {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
11.2.3 Homogeneous Coordinates {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
11.2.4 Hierarchy of Transformation {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
11.2.5 Affine Transformation {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
11.2.6 Rotation Transformation {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
11.2.7 Scaling Transformation {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
11.2.8 Other Transformation {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
11.3 Inter-image Operations {34} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
11.3.1 Image Operation {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
11.3.2 Arithmetic Operations {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
11.3.3 Logic Operations {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
11.4 Image Gray-Level Mapping {38} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
11.4.1 Mapping {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
11.4.2 Contrast Manipulation {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
11.4.3 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions {15} . . . . . 482
11.4.4 Other Functions {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
11.5 Histogram Transformation {48} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
11.5.1 Histogram {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
11.5.2 Histogram Transformation {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
11.5.3 Histogram Modification {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
11.5.4 Histogram Analysis {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
12 Mask Operations for Spatial Domain Enhancement {175} . . . . . . . 499
12.1 Spatial Domain Enhancement Filtering {37} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
12.1.1 Spatial Domain Filtering {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
12.1.2 Spatial Domain Filters {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
12.2 Mask Operation {35} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
12.2.1 Mask {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
12.2.2 Operator {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
12.3 Linear Filtering {39} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
12.3.1 Linear Smoothing {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
12.3.2 Averaging and Mean {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
12.3.3 Linear Sharpening {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
12.4 Nonlinear Filtering {42} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
12.4.1 Nonlinear Smoothing {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
12.4.2 Mid-point, Mode, and Median {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
12.4.3 Nonlinear Sharpening {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Contents xv

12.5 Gaussian Filter {22} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

12.5.1 Gaussian {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
12.5.2 Laplacian of Gaussian {5} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
13 Frequency Domain Filtering {76} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
13.1 Filter and Filtering {26} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
13.1.1 Basic of Filters {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
13.1.2 Various Filters {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
13.2 Frequency Domain Filters {50} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
13.2.1 Filtering Techniques {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
13.2.2 Low-Pass Filters {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
13.2.3 High-Pass Filters {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
13.2.4 Band-Pass Filters {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
13.2.5 Band-Reject Filters {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
13.2.6 Homomorphic Filters {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
14 Image Restoration {215} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
14.1 Fundamentals of Image Restoration {56} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
14.1.1 Basic Concepts {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
14.1.2 Basic Techniques {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
14.1.3 Simulated Annealing {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
14.1.4 Regularization {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
14.2 Degradation and Distortion {46} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
14.2.1 Image Degradation {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
14.2.2 Image Geometric Distortion {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
14.2.3 Image Radiometric Distortion {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
14.3 Noise and Denoising {91} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
14.3.1 Noise Models {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
14.3.2 Noise Sources {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
14.3.3 Distribution {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
14.3.4 Impulse Noise {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
14.3.5 Some Typical Noises {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
14.3.6 Image Denoising {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
14.4 Filtering Restoration {22} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
14.4.1 Unconstrained and Constrained {10} . . . . . . . . . . . 598
14.4.2 Harmonic and Anisotropic {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
15 Image Repair and Recovery {83} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
15.1 Image Inpainting {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
15.2 Image Completion {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
15.3 Smog and Haze Elimination {25} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
15.3.1 Defogging and Effect {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
15.3.2 Atmospheric Scattering Model {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
15.4 Geometric Distortion Correction {40} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
15.4.1 Geometric Transformation {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
15.4.2 Grayscale Interpolation {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
15.4.3 Linear Interpolation {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
xvi Contents

16 Image Reconstruction from Projection {101} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

16.1 Principle of Tomography {57} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
16.1.1 Tomography {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
16.1.2 Computational Tomography {25} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
16.1.3 Historical Development {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
16.2 Reconstruction Methods {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
16.3 Back-Projection Reconstruction {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
16.4 Reconstruction Based on Series Expansion {21} . . . . . . . . . . 641
16.4.1 Algebraic Reconstruction Technique {11} . . . . . . . 641
16.4.2 Iterative Back-Projection {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
17 Image Coding {213} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
17.1 Coding and Decoding {83} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
17.1.1 Coding and Decoding {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
17.1.2 Coder and Decoder {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
17.1.3 Source coding {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
17.1.4 Data Redundancy and Compression {19} . . . . . . . . 653
17.1.5 Coding Types {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
17.2 Coding Theorem and Property {31} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
17.2.1 Coding Theorem {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
17.2.2 Coding Property {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
17.3 Entropy Coding {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
17.3.1 Entropy of Image {5} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
17.3.2 Variable-Length Coding {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
17.4 Predictive Coding {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
17.4.1 Lossless and Lossy {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
17.4.2 Predictor and Quantizer {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
17.5 Transform Coding {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
17.6 Bit Plane Coding {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
17.7 Hierarchical Coding {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
17.8 Other Coding Methods {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
18 Image Watermarking {156} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
18.1 Watermarking {74} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
18.1.1 Watermarking Overview {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
18.1.2 Watermarking Embedding {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
18.1.3 Watermarking Property {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
18.1.4 Auxiliary Information {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
18.1.5 Cover and Works {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
18.2 Watermarking Techniques {38} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
18.2.1 Technique Classification {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
18.2.2 Various Watermarking Techniques {20} . . . . . . . . . 701
18.2.3 Transform Domain Watermarking {5} . . . . . . . . . . 703
18.3 Watermarking Security {44} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
18.3.1 Security {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
18.3.2 Watermarking Attacks {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
18.3.3 Unauthorized Attacks {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
Contents xvii

19 Image Information Security {45} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711

19.1 Image Authentication and Forensics {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
19.1.1 Image Authentication {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
19.1.2 Image Forensics {4} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
19.2 Image Hiding {32} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
19.2.1 Information Hiding {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
19.2.2 Image Blending {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
19.2.3 Cryptography {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
19.2.4 Other Techniques {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
20 Color Image Processing {253} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
20.1 Colorimetry and Chromaticity Diagram {86} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
20.1.1 Colorimetry {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
20.1.2 Color Chart {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
20.1.3 Primary and Secondary Color {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
20.1.4 Color Mixing {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
20.1.5 Chromaticity Diagram {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
20.1.6 Diagram Parts {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
20.2 Color Spaces and Models {76} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
20.2.1 Color Models {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
20.2.2 RGB-Based Models {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
20.2.3 Visual Perception Models {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
20.2.4 CIE Color Models {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
20.2.5 Other Color Models {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
20.3 Pseudo-color Processing {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
20.3.1 Pseudo-color Enhancement {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
20.3.2 Pseudo-Color Transform {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
20.4 True Color Processing {72} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
20.4.1 True Color Enhancement {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
20.4.2 Saturation and Hue Enhancement {18} . . . . . . . . . . 759
20.4.3 False Color Enhancement {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
20.4.4 Color Image Processing {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
20.4.5 Color Ordering and Edges {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
20.4.6 Color Image Histogram {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
21 Video Image Processing {191} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
21.1 Video {70} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
21.1.1 Analog and Digital Video {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
21.1.2 Various Video {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
21.1.3 Video Frame {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
21.1.4 Video Scan and Display {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
21.1.5 Video Display {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
21.2 Video Terminology {35} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
21.2.1 Video Terms {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
21.2.2 Video Processing and Techniques {19} . . . . . . . . . 787
xviii Contents

21.3 Video Enhancement {31} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790

21.3.1 Video Enhancement {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
21.3.2 Motion-Based Filtering {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
21.3.3 Block Matching {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
21.4 Video Coding {40} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
21.4.1 Video Codec {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
21.4.2 Intra-frame Coding {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
21.4.3 Inter-frame Coding {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
21.5 Video Computation {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
21.5.1 Image Sequence {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
21.5.2 Video Analysis {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
22 Multi-resolution Image {75} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
22.1 Multi-resolution and Super-Resolution {24} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
22.1.1 Multi-resolution {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
22.1.2 Super-Resolution {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
22.2 Multi-scale Images {26} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
22.2.1 Multi-scales {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
22.2.2 Multi-scale Space {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
22.2.3 Multi-scale Transform {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
22.3 Image Pyramid {25} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
22.3.1 Pyramid Structure {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
22.3.2 Gaussian and Laplacian Pyramids {7} . . . . . . . . . . 820

Part III Image Analysis

23 Segmentation Introduction {195} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
23.1 Segmentation Overview {61} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
23.1.1 Segmentation Definition {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
23.1.2 Object and Background {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
23.1.3 Method Classification {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
23.1.4 Various Strategies {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
23.2 Primitive Unit Detection {60} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
23.2.1 Point Detection {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837
23.2.2 Corner Detection {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
23.2.3 Line Detection {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
23.2.4 Curve Detection {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
23.3 Geometric Unit Detection {50} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
23.3.1 Bar Detection {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
23.3.2 Circle and Ellipse Detection {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
23.3.3 Object Contour {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
23.3.4 Hough Transform {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
23.4 Image Matting {24} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
23.4.1 Matting Basics {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
23.4.2 Matting Techniques {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
Contents xix

24 Edge Detection {157} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859

24.1 Principle {25} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
24.1.1 Edge Detection {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
24.1.2 Sub-pixel Edge {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
24.2 Various Edges {28} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
24.2.1 Type of Edge {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
24.2.2 Edge Description {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
24.3 Gradients and Gradient Operators {57} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
24.3.1 Gradient Computation {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
24.3.2 Differential Edge Detector {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
24.3.3 Gradient Operators {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881
24.3.4 Particle Gradient Operators {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
24.3.5 Orientation Detection {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
24.4 High-Order Detectors {47} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
24.4.1 Second-Derivative Detectors {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
24.4.2 Gaussian-Laplacian Detectors {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
24.4.3 Other Detectors {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
25 Object Segmentation Methods {245} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
25.1 Parallel-Boundary Techniques {40} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
25.1.1 Boundary Segmentation {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
25.1.2 Boundary Points {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
25.1.3 Boundary Thinning Techniques {12} . . . . . . . . . . . 905
25.2 Sequential-Boundary Techniques {90} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
25.2.1 Basic Techniques {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
25.2.2 Graph Search {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
25.2.3 Active Contour {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
25.2.4 Snake {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
25.2.5 General Active Contour {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
25.2.6 Graph Cut {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
25.3 Parallel-Region Techniques {58} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
25.3.1 Thresholding {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
25.3.2 Global Thresholding Techniques {12} . . . . . . . . . . 927
25.3.3 Local Thresholding Techniques {13} . . . . . . . . . . . 930
25.3.4 Clustering and Mean Shift {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
25.4 Sequential-Region Techniques {40} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
25.4.1 Region Growing {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
25.4.2 Watershed {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942
25.4.3 Level Set {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
25.5 More Segmentation Techniques {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
26 Segmentation Evaluation {64} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953
26.1 Evaluation Scheme and Framework {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953
26.2 Evaluation Methods and Criteria {46} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
26.2.1 Analytical Methods and Criteria {11} . . . . . . . . . . . 957
xx Contents

26.2.2 Empirical Goodness Methods and Criteria {12} . . . 959

26.2.3 Empirical Discrepancy Methods and Criteria {14} . . 961
26.2.4 Empirical Discrepancy of Pixel Numbers {9} . . . . . 965
26.3 Systematic Comparison and Characterization {5} . . . . . . . . . . 967
27 Object Representation {188} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
27.1 Object Representation Methods {28} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
27.1.1 Object Representation {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
27.1.2 Spline {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
27.2 Boundary-Based Representation {85} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
27.2.1 Boundary Representation {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
27.2.2 Boundary Signature {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
27.2.3 Curve Representation {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
27.2.4 Parametric Curve {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
27.2.5 Curve Fitting {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
27.2.6 Chain Codes {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
27.3 Region-Based Representation {75} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
27.3.1 Polygon {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
27.3.2 Surrounding Region {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
27.3.3 Medial Axis Transform {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000
27.3.4 Skeleton {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
27.3.5 Region Decomposition {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
28 Object Description {159} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011
28.1 Object Description Methods {32} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011
28.1.1 Object Description {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011
28.1.2 Feature Description {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
28.2 Boundary-Based Description {32} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
28.2.1 Boundary {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
28.2.2 Curvature {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018
28.3 Region-Based Description {40} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
28.3.1 Region Description {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
28.3.2 Moment Description {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
28.4 Descriptions of Object Relationship {22} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
28.4.1 Object Relationship {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
28.4.2 Image Topology {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028
28.5 Attributes {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
28.6 Object Saliency {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036
29 Feature Measurement and Error Analysis {110} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
29.1 Feature Measurement {59} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
29.1.1 Metric {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
29.1.2 Object Measurement {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
29.1.3 Local Invariance {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
29.1.4 More Invariance {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
29.2 Accuracy and Precision {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
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29.3 Error Analysis {33} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054

29.3.1 Measurement Error {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
29.3.2 Residual and Error {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
30 Texture Analysis {174} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
30.1 Texture Overview {42} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
30.1.1 Texture {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
30.1.2 Texture Elements {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
30.1.3 Texture Analysis {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
30.1.4 Texture Models {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
30.2 Texture Feature and Description {29} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
30.2.1 Texture Features {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
30.2.2 Texture Description {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
30.3 Statistical Approach {28} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
30.3.1 Texture Statistics {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
30.3.2 Co-occurrence Matrix {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
30.4 Structural Approach {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
30.4.1 Structural Texture {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
30.4.2 Local Binary Pattern {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
30.5 Spectrum Approach {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
30.6 Texture Segmentation {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
30.7 Texture Composition {32} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
30.7.1 Texture Categorization {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
30.7.2 Texture Generation {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
31 Shape Analysis {175} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095
31.1 Shape Overview {26} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095
31.1.1 Shape {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095
31.1.2 Shape Analysis {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
31.2 Shape Representation and Description {43} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
31.2.1 Shape Representation {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
31.2.2 Shape Model {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
31.2.3 Shape Description {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
31.2.4 Shape Descriptors {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105
31.3 Shape Classification {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108
31.4 Shape Compactness {21} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
31.4.1 Compactness and Elongation {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111
31.4.2 Specific Descriptors {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111
31.5 Shape Complexity {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116
31.6 Delaunay and Voronoï Meshes {57} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1117
31.6.1 Mesh Model {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118
31.6.2 Delaunay Meshes {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119
31.6.3 Voronoï Meshes {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1120
31.6.4 Maximal Nucleus Cluster {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123
xxii Contents

32 Motion Analysis {229} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127

32.1 Motion and Analysis {63} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127
32.1.1 Motion {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127
32.1.2 Motion Classification {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1129
32.1.3 Motion Estimation {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1130
32.1.4 Various Motion Estimations {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132
32.1.5 Motion Analysis and Understanding {14} . . . . . . . . 1134
32.2 Motion Detection and Representation {27} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135
32.2.1 Motion Detection {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1136
32.2.2 Motion Representation {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137
32.3 Moving Object Detection {21} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141
32.3.1 Object Detection {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141
32.3.2 Object Trajectory {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143
32.4 Moving Object Tracking {74} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
32.4.1 Feature Tracking {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
32.4.2 Object Tracking {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
32.4.3 Object Tracking Techniques {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1148
32.4.4 Kalman Filter {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150
32.4.5 Particle Filtering {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154
32.5 Motion and Optical Flows {44} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
32.5.1 Motion Field {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
32.5.2 Optical Flow {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
32.5.3 Optical Flow Field {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160
32.5.4 Optical Flow Equation {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162
33 Image Pattern Recognition {346} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
33.1 Pattern {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
33.2 Pattern Recognition {55} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1168
33.2.1 Recognition {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1168
33.2.2 Recognition Categories {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169
33.2.3 Image Recognition {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
33.2.4 Various Recognition Methods {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
33.3 Pattern Classification {45} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176
33.3.1 Category {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176
33.3.2 Classification {21} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177
33.3.3 Test and Verification {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1182
33.4 Feature and Detection {30} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184
33.4.1 Feature {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184
33.4.2 Feature Analysis {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1187
33.5 Feature Dimension Reduction {30} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1189
33.5.1 Dimension Reduction {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1189
33.5.2 Manifold and Independent Component {16} . . . . . . 1193
33.6 Classifier and Perceptron {56} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
33.6.1 Classifier {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196
33.6.2 Optimal Classifier {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202
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33.6.3 Support Vector Machine {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203

33.6.4 Perceptron {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208
33.7 Clustering {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1210
33.7.1 Cluster {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211
33.7.2 Cluster Analysis {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213
33.8 Discriminant and Decision Function {46} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214
33.8.1 Discriminant Function {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214
33.8.2 Kernel Discriminant {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217
33.8.3 Decision Function {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220
33.9 Syntactic Recognition {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
33.9.1 Grammar and Syntactic {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
33.9.2 Automaton {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1226
33.10 Test and Error {27} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1226
33.10.1 Test {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227
33.10.2 True {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1228
33.10.3 Error {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229
34 Biometric Recognition {152} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231
34.1 Human Biometrics {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231
34.2 Subspace Techniques {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1233
34.3 Face Recognition and Analysis {58} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236
34.3.1 Face Detection {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236
34.3.2 Face Tracking {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
34.3.3 Face Recognition {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1241
34.3.4 Face Image Analysis {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1244
34.4 Expression Analysis {25} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245
34.4.1 Facial Expression {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246
34.4.2 Facial Expression Analysis {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247
34.5 Human Body Recognition {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250
34.5.1 Human Motion {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250
34.5.2 Other Analysis {5} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1252
34.6 Other Biometrics {25} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253
34.6.1 Fingerprint and Gesture {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253
34.6.2 More Biometrics {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255

Part IV Image Understanding

35 Theory of Image Understanding {57} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1259
35.1 Understanding Models {32} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1259
35.1.1 Computational Structures {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1259
35.1.2 Active, Qualitative, and Purposive Vision {15} . . . . 1262
35.2 Marr’s Visual Computational Theory {25} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1265
35.2.1 Theory Framework {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1266
xxiv Contents

35.2.2 Three-Layer Representations {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268

36 3-D Representation and Description {224} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273
36.1 3-D Point and Curve {42} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273
36.1.1 3-D Point {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273
36.1.2 Curve and Conic {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275
36.1.3 3-D Curve {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278
36.2 3-D Surface Representation {105} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1280
36.2.1 Surface {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1280
36.2.2 Surface Model {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1282
36.2.3 Surface Representation {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284
36.2.4 Surface Description {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
36.2.5 Surface Classification {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1291
36.2.6 Curvature and Classification {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1297
36.2.7 Various Surfaces {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299
36.3 3-D Surface Construction {26} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304
36.3.1 Surface Construction {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304
36.3.2 Construction Techniques {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1306
36.4 Volumetric Representation {51} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1311
36.4.1 Volumetric Models {21} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1311
36.4.2 Volumetric Representation Methods {17} . . . . . . . . 1315
36.4.3 Generalized Cylinder Representation {13} . . . . . . . 1317
37 Stereo Vision {164} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1321
37.1 Stereo Vision Overview {78} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1321
37.1.1 Stereo {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1321
37.1.2 Stereo Vision {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324
37.1.3 Disparity {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327
37.1.4 Constraint {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1330
37.1.5 Epipolar {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1331
37.1.6 Rectification {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333
37.2 Binocular Stereo Vision {44} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337
37.2.1 Binocular Vision {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1338
37.2.2 Correspondence {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1341
37.2.3 SIFT and SURF {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343
37.3 Multiple-Ocular Stereo Vision {42} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345
37.3.1 Multibaselines {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345
37.3.2 Trinocular {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1347
37.3.3 Multiple-Nocular {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349
37.3.4 Post-processing {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1351
38 Multi-image 3-D Scene Reconstruction {94} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1355
38.1 Scene Recovery {35} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1355
38.1.1 3-D Reconstruction {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1355
38.1.2 Depth Estimation {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1357
38.1.3 Occlusion {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359
38.2 Photometric Stereo Analysis {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1360
38.2.1 Photometric Stereo {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1360
Contents xxv

38.2.2 Illumination Models {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1362

38.3 Shape from X {40} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1364
38.3.1 Various reconstructions {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1364
38.3.2 Structure from Motion {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366
38.3.3 Shape from Optical Flow {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1370
39 Single-Image 3-D Scene Reconstruction {66} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373
39.1 Single-Image Reconstruction {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373
39.2 Various Reconstruction Cues {53} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1376
39.2.1 Focus {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1376
39.2.2 Texture {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1378
39.2.3 Shading {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1382
39.2.4 Shadow {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1384
39.2.5 Other Cues {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1387
40 Knowledge and Learning {198} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1389
40.1 Knowledge and Model {68} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1389
40.1.1 Knowledge Classification {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1389
40.1.2 Procedure Knowledge {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1392
40.1.3 Models {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396
40.1.4 Model Functions {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1398
40.2 Knowledge Representation Schemes {41} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1401
40.2.1 Knowledge Representation Models {14} . . . . . . . . 1401
40.2.2 Knowledge Base {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1404
40.2.3 Logic System {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1405
40.3 Learning {61} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1408
40.3.1 Statistical Learning {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1408
40.3.2 Machine Learning {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1411
40.3.3 Zero-Shot and Ensemble Learning {12} . . . . . . . . . 1414
40.3.4 Various Learning Methods {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1416
40.4 Inference {28} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1418
40.4.1 Inference Classification {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1419
40.4.2 Propagation {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1421
41 General Image Matching {196} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429
41.1 General Matching {45} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429
41.1.1 Matching {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429
41.1.2 Matching Function {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1433
41.1.3 Matching Techniques {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1436
41.2 Image Matching {68} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1441
41.2.1 Image Matching Techniques {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1441
41.2.2 Feature Matching Techniques {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . 1442
41.2.3 Correlation and Cross-Correlation {15} . . . . . . . . . 1444
41.2.4 Mask Matching Techniques {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1447
41.2.5 Diverse Matching Techniques {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450
41.3 Image Registration {48} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1454
xxvi Contents

41.3.1 Registration {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1454

41.3.2 Image Registration Methods {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457
41.3.3 Image Alignment {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459
41.3.4 Image Warping {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1460
41.4 Graph Isomorphism and Line Drawing {35} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462
41.4.1 Graph Matching {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462
41.4.2 Line Drawing {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1464
41.4.3 Contour Labeling {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1467
42 Scene Analysis and Interpretation {123} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471
42.1 Scene Interpretation {56} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471
42.1.1 Image Scene {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471
42.1.2 Scene Analysis {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474
42.1.3 Scene Understanding {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1475
42.1.4 Scene Knowledge {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1477
42.2 Interpretation Techniques {67} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1479
42.2.1 Soft Computing {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1480
42.2.2 Labeling {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1482
42.2.3 Fuzzy Set {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1483
42.2.4 Fuzzy Calculation {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1485
42.2.5 Classification Models {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488
43 Image Information Fusion {88} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
43.1 Information Fusion {33} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
43.1.1 Multi-sensor Fusion {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
43.1.2 Mosaic Fusion Techniques {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1496
43.2 Evaluation of Fusion Result {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1499
43.3 Layered Fusion Techniques {36} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1504
43.3.1 Three Layers {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1505
43.3.2 Method for Pixel Layer Fusion {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . 1507
43.3.3 Method for Feature Layer Fusion {8} . . . . . . . . . . . 1509
43.3.4 Method for Decision Layer Fusion {10} . . . . . . . . . 1509
44 Content-Based Retrieval {194} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1513
44.1 Visual Information Retrieval {66} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1513
44.1.1 Information Content Retrieval {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . 1513
44.1.2 Image Retrieval {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1515
44.1.3 Image Querying {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1518
44.1.4 Database Indexing {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1520
44.1.5 Image Indexing {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1522
44.2 Feature-Based Retrieval {28} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1525
44.2.1 Features and Retrieval {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1526
44.2.2 Color-Based Retrieval {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1529
44.3 Video Organization and Retrieval {51} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1532
44.3.1 Video Organization {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1532
44.3.2 Abrupt and Gradual Changes {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1535
44.3.3 Video Structuring {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1538
Contents xxvii

44.3.4 News Program Organization {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1539

44.4 Semantic Retrieval {49} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1541
44.4.1 Semantic-Based Retrieval {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1541
44.4.2 Multilayer Image Description {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1543
44.4.3 Higher Level Semantics {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545
44.4.4 Video Understanding {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1546
45 Spatial-Temporal Behavior Understanding {177} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1549
45.1 Spatial-Temporal Techniques {32} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1549
45.1.1 Techniques and Layers {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1549
45.1.2 Spatio-Temporal Analysis {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1552
45.1.3 Action Behavior Understanding {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . 1554
45.2 Action and Pose {45} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1556
45.2.1 Action Models {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1556
45.2.2 Action Recognition {5} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1558
45.2.3 Pose Estimation {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559
45.2.4 Posture Analysis {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1560
45.3 Activity and Analysis {28} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1562
45.3.1 Activity {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1562
45.3.2 Activity Analysis {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1564
45.4 Events {23} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1566
45.4.1 Event Detection {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1566
45.4.2 Event Understanding {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1567
45.5 Behavior and Understanding {49} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1568
45.5.1 Behavior {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1569
45.5.2 Behavior Analysis {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1570
45.5.3 Behavior Interpretation {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1572
45.5.4 Petri Net {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1574

Part V Related References

46 Related Theories and Techniques {440} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1579
46.1 Random Field {103} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1579
46.1.1 Random Variables {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1579
46.1.2 Random Process {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1583
46.1.3 Random Fields {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1585
46.1.4 Markov Random Field {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1590
46.1.5 Markov Models {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592
46.1.6 Markov Process {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1597
46.2 Bayesian Statistics {38} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1601
46.2.1 Bayesian Model {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1601
46.2.2 Bayesian Laws and Rules {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1605
46.2.3 Belief Networks {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1609
46.3 Graph Theory {109} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1611
46.3.1 Tree {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1611
xxviii Contents

46.3.2 Graph {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1614

46.3.3 Graph Representation {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1617
46.3.4 Graph Geometric Representation {10} . . . . . . . . . . 1620
46.3.5 Directed Graph {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1622
46.3.6 Graph Model {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1625
46.3.7 Graph Classification {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631
46.4 Compressive Sensing {41} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1635
46.4.1 Introduction {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1635
46.4.2 Sparse Representation {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1636
46.4.3 Measurement Coding and Decoding
Reconstruction {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1638
46.5 Neural Networks {64} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1642
46.5.1 Neural Networks {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1642
46.5.2 Special Neural Networks {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1644
46.5.3 Training and Fitting {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1647
46.5.4 Network Operations {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649
46.5.5 Activation Functions {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1651
46.6 Various Theories and Techniques {85} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
46.6.1 Optimalization {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
46.6.2 Kernels {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1656
46.6.3 Stereology {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660
46.6.4 Relaxation and Expectation Maximization {14} . . . 1662
46.6.5 Context and RANSAC {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1664
46.6.6 Miscellaneous {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1667
47 Optics {280} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1671
47.1 Optics and Instruments {33} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1671
47.1.1 Classifications {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1671
47.1.2 Instruments {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1674
47.2 Photometry {41} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1677
47.2.1 Intensity {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1677
47.2.2 Emission and Transmission {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1680
47.2.3 Optical Properties of the Surface {16} . . . . . . . . . . 1682
47.3 Ray Radiation {55} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1684
47.3.1 Radiation {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1684
47.3.2 Radiometry {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1686
47.3.3 Radiometry Standards {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1689
47.3.4 Special Lights {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1693
47.4 Spectroscopy {63} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1694
47.4.1 Spectrum {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1694
47.4.2 Spectroscopy {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697
47.4.3 Spectral Analysis {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1699
47.4.4 Interaction of Light and Matter {19} . . . . . . . . . . . 1701
47.5 Geometric Optics {58} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1705
47.5.1 Ray {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1705
Contents xxix

47.5.2 Reflection {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709

47.5.3 Various Reflections {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1713
47.5.4 Refraction {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1714
47.6 Wave Optics {30} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717
47.6.1 Light Wave {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717
47.6.2 Scattering and Diffraction {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1719
48 Mathematical Morphology for Binary Images {81} . . . . . . . . . . . . 1723
48.1 Image Morphology {43} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1723
48.1.1 Morphology Fundamentals {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1723
48.1.2 Morphological Operations {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1726
48.1.3 Morphological Image Processing {13} . . . . . . . . . . 1729
48.2 Binary Morphology {38} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1732
48.2.1 Basic Operations {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1732
48.2.2 Combined Operations and Practical
Algorithms {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737
49 Mathematical Morphology for Gray-Level Images {53} . . . . . . . . . 1743
49.1 Gray-Level Morphology {43} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743
49.1.1 Ordering Relations {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743
49.1.2 Basic Operations {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1745
49.1.3 Combined Operations and Practical
Algorithms {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749
49.2 Soft Morphology {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1753
50 Visual Sensation and Perception {308} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755
50.1 Human Visual System {40} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755
50.1.1 Human Vision {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755
50.1.2 Organ of Vision {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757
50.1.3 Visual Process {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1759
50.2 Eye Structure and Function {37} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
50.2.1 Eye Structure {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
50.2.2 Retina {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763
50.2.3 Photoreceptor {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1766
50.3 Visual Sensation {88} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768
50.3.1 Sensation {18} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768
50.3.2 Brightness {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1771
50.3.3 Photopic and Scotopia Vision {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . 1774
50.3.4 Subjective Brightness {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775
50.3.5 Vision Characteristics {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1780
50.3.6 Virtual Vision {10} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1787
50.4 Visual Perception {102} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1789
50.4.1 Perceptions {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1789
50.4.2 Perceptual Constancy {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1794
50.4.3 Theory of Color Vision {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1796
50.4.4 Color Vision Effect {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798
50.4.5 Color Science {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801
xxx Contents

50.4.6 Visual Attention {19} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804

50.5 Visual Psychology {41} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807
50.5.1 Laws of Visual Psychology {17} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807
50.5.2 Illusion {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811
50.5.3 Illusion of Geometric Figure and Reason
Theory {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814
51 Application of Image Technology {118} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819
51.1 Television {22} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819
51.1.1 Digital Television {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819
51.1.2 Color Television {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1821
51.2 Visual Surveillance {40} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1823
51.2.1 Surveillance {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1823
51.2.2 Visual Inspection {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1825
51.2.3 Visual Navigation {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826
51.2.4 Traffic {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1828
51.3 Other Applications {56} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829
51.3.1 Document and OCR {20} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829
51.3.2 Medical Images {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1831
51.3.3 Remote Sensing {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832
51.3.4 Various Applications {11} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1834
52 International Organizations and Standards {172} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
52.1 Organizations {22} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
52.1.1 International Organizations {15} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
52.1.2 National Organizations {7} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1839
52.2 Image and Video Coding Standards {62} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1840
52.2.1 Binary Image Coding Standards {6} . . . . . . . . . . . . 1841
52.2.2 Grayscale Image Coding Standards {12} . . . . . . . . 1842
52.2.3 Video Coding Standards: MPEG {17} . . . . . . . . . . 1843
52.2.4 Video Coding Standards: H.26x {19} . . . . . . . . . . . 1846
52.2.5 Other Standards {8} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848
52.3 Public Systems and Databases {40} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
52.3.1 Public Systems {16} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
52.3.2 Public Databases {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1851
52.3.3 Face Databases {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853
52.4 Other Standards {48} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1856
52.4.1 International System of Units {9} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1856
52.4.2 CIE Standards {13} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1857
52.4.3 MPEG Standards {12} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1860
52.4.4 Various Standards {14} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1862

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1869
Another random document with
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 The Milanaus occupy the mouths of the Rejang, the Ova, the
Muka, the Bintulu, and various lesser streams.
The tattooed races, as the Kanowits, Pakatans, Punans, and
others, live towards the interior of the districts lying between the
Rejang and the Bintulu, and border on the Kayans, who occupy the
Balui country as the interior of the Bintulu and the Rejang is called.
All these groups of tribes speak separate languages, and each
has also various dialects.
It is very difficult to obtain even an approximate estimate of the
amount of population, but I will state it at the most moderate rate.
The home districts, as Lundu, Sarawak, Samarahan, Sadong, and 80,000
Sibuynu, may be reckoned at
The Sea Dayak districts, including Batang Lupar, Seribas, Kalaka, and 120,000
those on the left bank of the Rejang, at
The districts lying between Rejang Mouth and Bintulu 40,000
Total 240,000

In stating these numbers I am convinced that I am very much

underrating them, as the more inquiries we make the thicker appears
the population of the Sea Dayak districts.
The capital of Sarawak is Kuching, and, considering the
circumstances of the country, the rise of this free port has been
rapid. When Sir James Brooke first reached the spot, there were few
inhabitants except the Malay rajahs and their followers, who
subsequently for the most part removed to Brunei, the residence of
the sultan. I saw Kuching in the year 1848, when it was but a small
place, with few Chinese or Kling shops, and perhaps not over 6,000
Malay inhabitants; there was little trade, the native prahus were
small, and I saw some few of them. The jungle surrounded the town
and hemmed in the houses, and the Chinese gardeners had
scarcely made an impression on the place. As confidence was
inspired, so the town increased, and now, including the outlying
parishes, its population numbers not less than 15,000.
The commerce of the place has kept pace with it, and from a rare
schooner finding its way over to return with a paltry cargo, the trade
has risen till an examination of the books convinced me that it was in
1860 above 250,000l. of exports and imports.
The articles constituting the exports are for the most part the
produce of the jungle; the principal exception is sago, which is
imported from the districts to the east of Cape Sirik, to be
manufactured at Kuching into the sago-pearl and flour of commerce.
The trade in this article has for many years been injured by the
constant disturbances, ending in a state of chronic civil war, which
desolated the producing districts. Now, however, that they have been
ceded to Sarawak, and a firm government established, a great
development should take place in this branch of trade.
An article which might become of great value is cotton: it is
cultivated among many of the tribes residing within the Sarawak
territories, particularly by the Dayaks of Seribas and Sakarang, who
manufacture from it a durable cloth. The Cotton Supply Association
is sending out some Egyptian seed, which, if it arrive in good
condition, may tend to increase the produce. I am convinced,
however, that no cultivation will have great success in Borneo which
does not at first depend on imported labour, and as China is near,
the supply could be easily and regularly obtained.
The amount of rice produced will also greatly depend on imported
labour; at present the natives but rarely export any, and during some
seasons scarcely produce sufficient for the consumption of the
people. There is one thing to be observed, however, that as the
country is becoming year by year more settled, the inhabitants in the
same ratio give greater attention to acquiring wealth. The Sea
Dayaks are very acquisitive, and would soon imitate the Chinese
methods of cultivation. I have elsewhere remarked that the
agriculture to the north of the capital is far superior to anything found
in Sarawak or its neighbourhood, and this has most probably arisen
from the large number of Chinese who formerly inhabited that
country.
The use of the plough, the harrow, or the buffalo in cultivation is,
except by report, entirely unknown in Sarawak; the natives will, I
believe, be much surprised at the results produced by a good
English plough, which is about to be tried on some fields of sugar-
cane in the neighbourhood of Kuching, and it may do much good by
showing them the methods employed by other nations. At present
the Malays and Dayaks use no other instruments than a long
chopper, an axe, and a pointed stick.
The soil and the varied heights on the hill-sides, would render
Sarawak a fine country for coffee; which grows freely, and so do
pepper, tapioca, arrowroot, and almost every product cultivated in
the neighbouring islands; but these things are not yet grown in
sufficient quantities to render them worth mentioning as articles of
export. Of the jungle produce I may name the principal: they are fine
timber of many varieties, gutta-percha, india-rubber, wax, and
rattans, and the last are to be obtained in the very greatest
abundance and of the best quality in the districts lately ceded by the
sultan to the government of Sarawak.
Sarawak has a very great advantage over many countries, having
water communication from the far interior, down to her coasts, and
inner channels communicating with many of the outlying districts.
The mineral products known to exist in sufficient quantities to be
worth working are not numerous; they are coal, antimony, and gold.
Coal seams have long been known to exist, but in situations that
necessitated a considerable outlay; within the last few months,
however, coal has been discovered close to the water’s edge in the
districts lately ceded, but I have not yet heard of the result of the
examinations which have just been made. Antimony of the best
quality can be procured in sufficient quantities to supply any
demand, and a new mine has been secured to the Sarawak
government by the cession of Bintulu.
Gold is only worked by the Chinese, who wash the surface earth
in a way which I will afterwards describe. No deep sinkings have
been attempted, nor has quartz yet been discovered in large
quantities, and it is not likely to be while nine-tenths of the country
are still clothed with forest.
Indications of many minerals exist, but until found in greater
quantities they are scarcely worth referring to, except to encourage a
careful examination of the mountain and hilly districts. Sufficient
silver has however been found to render it probable that a mine
exists not far from the Bidi antimony works. The Dutch beyond the
border are said to be working a copper mine to great profit; and in
Sarawak indications of that mineral, as well as of lead, have been
several times discovered: but no great importance can be attached
to them at present. Manganese and arsenic have been found in
considerable quantities, but they are not yet worked.
The most remarkable thing connected with Sarawak is the change
which has come over the aborigines; from all the accounts I could
gather they were twenty-five years ago in a much more miserable
condition than the Muruts and Bisayas in the neighbourhood of the
capital. The country was in a state of complete anarchy, and Malays
were fighting against Malays and Dayaks against Dayaks. Even
before the civil war broke out the condition of the latter was
miserable in the extreme; they were exposed to every exaction, their
children were taken from them, their villages attacked and often
sacked by the Seribas and Sakarang, and hunger approaching to
famine added to their troubles.
Even when Sir James Brooke succeeded to the government and
peace was restored, it took years to eradicate the belief, founded on
long established practice, that the Dayaks were persons to be
plundered by every means. When it could not be done openly, it was
carried on by a system of forced trade. Sir James Brooke’s attention
was constantly directed to this subject, and he found that as long as
the Malay chiefs were paid their salaries by receiving half the rice-
tax, some of them had an excuse for continuing the old practice. I
have mentioned the tours of inspection undertaken under his
direction by his nephew, Captain Brooke; shortly after these were
concluded a new system was introduced, and the chiefs had their
salaries paid to them in money. Since which time few complaints
have been made by the Dayaks.
As far as material comfort adds to the happiness of man, the
Dayaks have reason to be thankful: whatever they earn, they enjoy;
a tax of four shillings on every family is the amount levied on them by
government: after that is paid they are free from every exaction. Not
only have they the produce of their industry, but the wealth derived
from their forests of fruit-trees, a market for which can always be
found among the Chinese and Malays. Many of the caves likewise
produce the edible bird’s nest, which is another source of profit.
The Malays, however, have benefited equally with the Dayaks by
the change of system. Formerly the chiefs employed a crowd of
relations and followers to collect their taxes and to oppress the
aborigines; and, as at Brunei now, if the master asked for a bushel of
rice, the man demanded two more for himself. The system had a
debasing influence on all; no doubt many suffered a little by the
change, but as a rule all these men turned to legitimate trade, as
soon as they found that to oppress the Dayaks entailed fines and
punishments.
The impetus given was great, trading prahus were built, and
voyages undertaken which their fathers had not thought of.
Singapore, Java, the Malay Peninsula, and even a portion of
Sumatra were visited. This brought wealth and increased activity,
which was shown in the improved dwellings, the larger prahus, the
gayer dresses, and the amount of gold ornaments that became
common among their women.
There is one thing I must particularly mention, the remarkable
honesty shown by these traders in all their intercourse with
Europeans. An Englishman, who greatly facilitated their commercial
transactions by loans of money at a rate of interest which in the East
was considered remarkably moderate, told me that, in all his
experience, he had only found one Malay who attempted to cheat
him. He never demanded receipts, but simply made an entry in his
book, and his loans with that one exception were all repaid him.
He told me a story of a Malay trader that singularly illustrates their
character. The man borrowed a small sum and went on a voyage; in
a month he returned, stating he had lost both prahu and cargo, and
asked to be entrusted with double the amount of his former debt; it
was given him. Again he returned, having been wrecked close to the
mouth of the river. He came to this Englishman and clearly explained
his misfortune, but added—“You know I am an honest man, disasters
cannot always happen to me, lend me sufficient to go on another
voyage, and I will repay all I owe you.” My informant said he
hesitated, but at last lent him the whole amount demanded. The
trader was away three months, and his smiling face, when he came
back to his creditor, showed he had been successful; he paid off the
principal portion of the debt, and afterwards cleared off the
remainder, and was, when I heard the story, one of the most
flourishing traders in Sarawak. I thought the anecdote was
honourable to both, and illustrates the kindly feeling that exists in
that country between the European and native.
This confidence, however, was the growth of some years, and the
result of the system of government which I will now describe. In
treating of the capital, I have shown the practice established there. In
all the former dependencies of Brunei there were local chiefs who
administered the internal affairs of their own districts. In Sarawak
there were originally three, and that number Sir James Brooke
continued in their employment, and permitted and encouraged them
to take part in everything connected with the government of the
country, obtaining their consent to the imposition of any new tax or
change in the system of levying the old, consulting them on all
occasions and allowing their local knowledge to guide him in those
things with which they were necessarily better acquainted than he
could possibly be.
It was not to be expected that his teaching and influence should
suddenly change these men, accustomed to almost uncontrolled
sway, into just and beneficent rulers, and he failed in moulding the
datu patiñggi, the principal chief. As long as Sir James Brooke was
himself present in Sarawak, he could keep him tolerably straight; but
no amount of liberality could prevent him oppressing the Dayaks on
every possible occasion. His rapacity increasing, he took bribes in
his administration of justice, and it was at last found necessary to
remove him. The third chief behaved much better, and the second,
patiñggi Ali, was killed during one of Captain Keppel’s expeditions.
The last named left many sons, two of whom would have adorned
any situation in life; the eldest, the late bandhar of Sarawak, was a
kind, just, and good man, respected in his public capacity, and
beloved in all social intercourse: his only fault was, a certain want of
decision, partly caused by a rapid consumption that carried him off
about two years since. His next brother succeeded him, and appears
to have all his brother’s good qualities, with remarkable firmness of
character. In fact, a generation is springing up, with new ideas and
more enlarged views, who appear to appreciate the working of their
present government, and have a pride in being connected with it.
By associating these men in the administration, and thus
educating them in political life, and by setting the example of a great
equality in social intercourse, Sir James Brooke laid the foundation
of a government which stood a shock that many of his best friends
expected would prove fatal. I mean the Chinese insurrection. None
of the predicted results have followed. Trade and revenue have both
actually increased, and a much better system of management has
been introduced.
The example set in the capital is followed in all the dependent
districts, and the local rulers are always associated with the
European in the government. The effect has been to prevent any
jealousy arising; and the contempt of all natives, which appears a
part of our creed in many portions of our empire, is not felt in
Sarawak. Nothing appears more striking to those who have resided
long in Sarawak than the extraordinary change which appears to
have been effected in the character of the people, and also in that of
individuals. There is no doubt that Sir James Brooke was working in
soil naturally good, or these results could not have taken place, but
yet when we know the previous history of men, how lawless and
savage they were, and yet find they have conducted themselves in
an exemplary manner for twenty years, the whole circumstances
appear surprising.
I will tell an anecdote of one of the very oldest of the chiefs, to
show the apparently stubborn materials which had to be moulded.
The man relating the story himself, said that about thirty-five years
ago he was cruising near Datu Point when he observed a small
trading boat passing out at sea. He immediately gave chase, and
when near her noticed the crew were all armed, and preparing to
defend themselves, so his own followers advised him to sheer off,
but he made them push alongside, and springing on board the
trading prahu with a drawn kris so effectually alarmed the hostile
crew that they all ran below. There were six of them, but he killed
them all, and added, one only did he pity, as in their distress five
called on their mothers, but one only begged mercy of God. And yet
that man has behaved well for the last twenty-five years, and much
better, in my opinion, than many others of far greater pretensions. It
never appears to strike him that he had committed a bloodthirsty and
wicked action, perhaps he considered that to conceal his piratical act
any means were justifiable; but however that may be, he has
completely changed his conduct, has been faithful under great
temptations, and has always proved himself a brave and trustworthy
man since a regular government has been established in Sarawak.
Few would have undertaken the responsibility of ruling a country
with such materials, but to render the task easier, there were some
excellent men to leven the multitude, and a retired pirate is generally
a good servant, if you can turn the energies that led him to a roving
life into a legitimate channel.
It is obvious, however, that where a government depends for its
stability on the individual character of its officers, and where a
change in the system may be introduced by the head of the
government not following in the footsteps of his predecessors, men
will not risk their capital in the development of the country.
I have watched the gradual development of Sarawak with the
greatest interest; I have seen districts once devoted to anarchy
restored to prosperity and peace by the simple support of the orderly
part of the population by a government acting with justice, and it is
not surprising that all its neighbours appeal to it, when their own
countrymen are seen to exercise so great an influence in its
councils.
The experiment so happily begun might be carried on with great
results, had the Sarawak government more material force to back it.
At present nine-tenths of the country are forest; I believe the largest
portion of that may be cultivated with great success, but population is
wanting. There is but one people who can develope the islands of
the Eastern Archipelago, and they are the Chinese.
They are a most industrious and saving nation, and yet liberal in
their households, and free in their personal expenses. They are the
only people to support an European government, as they are the
only Asiatics who will pay a good revenue. In Sarawak there are not
above 3,000 Chinese, and yet they pay in indirect taxes more than
the quarter of a million of Malays and Dayaks pay altogether. There
is room within the Sarawak territories for half a million of Chinese
cultivators, without in any way inconveniencing the other inhabitants;
and these Chinese could pay without feeling the pressure 2l. a head
in indirect taxes: as those levied on opium, spirits, tobacco, and
other articles.
There must be soundness in the system pursued in Sarawak, or it
could not have stood alone for so many years, exposed as it has
been to successive storms. A similar, or a modified system,
supported by our national power, would produce great results. No
one can judge of the consuming power of the Chinese abroad, by
the Chinese in their own country. Abroad he clothes himself in
English cloth, he uses English iron; he sometimes takes to our
crockery; he when well off drinks our beer, and is especially partial to
our biscuits. He does nothing in a niggardly spirit, but, as I have said,
is liberal in his household.
I believe if England were to try the experiment of a Chinese
colony, where they had room to devote themselves to agriculture, to
mining, and to commerce, the effects would be as great in proportion
as those displayed in our Australian colonies. The Indian Isles are
not far distant from China, and emigrants from them are always
ready to leave on the slightest temptation.
I have lived so many years in the Archipelago that I hope my
information may be found correct. I certainly expect much from the
future of Borneo, if the present experiment should be aided or
adopted, as it possesses the elements of wealth and prosperity, and
can obtain what is essential to success, a numerous and industrious
population.
 The Chinese have no difficulty in amalgamating with the native
inhabitants, and to a certain extent can always obtain wives, as
Borneo, like England, appears to possess a redundant female
population. The men are, of course, exposed to many more dangers
than the women, and these latter are so fond of their own homes that
they seldom remove far from their parents. But now there appears to
be no difficulty in procuring female emigrants, and if the present
rebellion continue to desolate China we might remove all the
inhabitants of a village together. I have heard men say that they have
seen as much misery in some of the provinces of that vast empire as
they saw in Ireland during the famine, and when that is the case,
there will be no difficulty in inducing these people to emigrate. A
calculation has been made that, if Borneo were well cultivated, it
would suffice for the support of a hundred millions of Chinese.
The administration of justice is a subject of vital importance in all
countries, but especially so in an Asiatic and a mixed population.
The simple forms adopted in Sarawak are admirably suited to the
country, and the care displayed in inquiries has won the confidence
of the people. There are three courts established in Sarawak: a
general court, a police court, and a native religious court. The last
has charge of all cases in which a reference is required to the laws
of the Koran, as in marriages and divorces; an appeal lies, however,
in certain cases to the general court. Ten years ago the native judges
gave no satisfaction to the people and inspired no confidence, as it
was known the principal chief took bribes, but since his removal, it is
rare indeed to hear of a decision giving dissatisfaction, as both the
late bandhar and his brother, the present bandhar, really take a pride
in their court, and look into the cases. They also regularly attend the
general court, and have thus been educated by the example set by
the English magistrates of the most patient investigation. The
general court takes cognizance of all the principal cases both civil
and criminal, and in serious trials there is a kind of jury of the
principal English and native inhabitants.
Cheap, and above all, speedy justice is what is required in the
East, where they never can understand our wearisome forms. It
reminds me of the Malay tried for murder in one of our English
courts; he was asked the question, Guilty or Not guilty, and
answered immediately, Guilty. He was advised to withdraw it and
plead not guilty, but he steadily refused, saying, “Why should I plead
not guilty, when I know I committed the murder; when you all know
that as well as I, and mean to hang me, so don’t make a long fuss
about it.” They very often confess even the most heinous crimes.
The police court has cognizance of the same cases as would come
before similar courts elsewhere, with a little mixture of the county
court.
The Malays, except the followers of the Brunei nobles, are found
on the whole to be very truthful, faithful to their relatives, and
devotedly attached to their children. Remarkably free from crimes,
and when they commit them it is generally from jealousy. Brave
when well led, they inspire confidence in their commanders; highly
sensitive to dishonour, and tenacious as to the conduct of their
countrymen towards them, and remarkably polite in their manners,
they render agreeable all intercourse with them. Malays are
generally accused of great idleness; in one sense they deserve it;
they do not like continuous work, but they do enough to support
themselves and families in comfort, and real poverty is unknown
among them. No relative is abandoned because he is poor, or
because an injury or an illness may have incapacitated him for work.
I like the Malays, although I must allow that I became weary of
having only them with whom to associate.
Sarawak appears to the natives of the western coast of Borneo
what an oasis must be to the wandering Arab, and it is often visited
by the people of the neighbouring countries to examine as a sort of
curiosity. A party of Bugau Dayaks from the upper Kapuas once
arrived in Kuching after fifteen days’ journey, merely to discover
whether or not it were true that the Dayaks of Sarawak were living in
comfort; but a more curious incident was the arrival of a chief from
the Natunas to lay his case before the Sarawak government. A near
relative of the Sultan of Linggin had yearly visited that group, which
was subject to his authority, under the pretence of collecting taxes,
but instead of confining himself to that, commenced a system of
gross extortion. The natives submitted patiently, but not content with
that, he seized their young girls, and when his passions were
satisfied, sent them again ashore, and forbad them to marry, under
the pretence that they must consider themselves in future as his
concubines.
At last he proceeded so far as, during a chiefs absence, to take
up his residence in his house and to seize on his wife and family. On
the orang kaya’s return, he was received with shots from his own
batteries. His wife, evading the watch kept on her, rejoined him; but
after vainly endeavouring to recover the rest of his family, he brought
his complaints to Sarawak. As the Sultan of Linggin was under the
suzerainty of the Dutch, it was impossible to interfere actively in their
defence; but as there was no doubt of the truth of these
representations, as they merely confirmed the accounts which had
been previously received from the officers of one of our vessels
which had surveyed that group, the whole case was laid before the
Dutch authorities at Rhio, with an apology for the apparent
interference in their affairs; but although naturally disposed to think
that there was much exaggeration in the native accounts, they acted
promptly, sent a vessel of war to the Natunas, whose captain fully
confirmed the report forwarded, and giving the young noble an order
to restore all his plunder, and come on board within an hour, they set
sail with him to one of the fortresses to the eastward, where he
remained several years. This energetic action had a most beneficial
effect, and, although many years have passed since, I have not
heard of any complaints from the inhabitants of that very lovely
group.
The relatives of the Sultan of Linggin acted in the same way as
the Bornean nobles, who really appear to be convinced that they
have a right to treat the poorer natives as they please, and do not
understand any other method, but Makota’s cruel nature delighted in
it for its sake. He used to say, “I know that the system of government
pursued in Sarawak is the right system, and that in the end we
should obtain much more from them by treating them kindly; but I
have been accustomed all my life to oppress them, and it affords me
unmixed satisfaction to get even their cooking-pots from them;” and
he chuckled over the remembrance.
 As the Malays increase in wealth, they are gradually taking more
to the fashion of making pilgrimages to Mecca, though the sufferings
they undergo in the crowded ships are almost equal to those
endured in the middle passage. Some of the Arab ships are so
crammed, that each pilgrim is only allowed sufficient space for a
small mat on the deck, and there he remains during the whole
voyage, except when he cooks his meals. One year, of the twelve
who started from Sarawak on the pilgrimage, but five returned,
though now it is not so fatal, as our authorities in the east are
preventing the over-crowding of those vessels which leave our ports.
They have a custom in Sarawak which is rather curious: to insure
good hair to their girls, they throw gold dust on it, and then send the
child out among the crowd, who with scissors endeavour to snip out
the precious metal.
It has often been noticed that the Malay language is very concise,
and as a proof, I have heard the following anecdote related. I have
not yet seen it in print, though it may be. An English judge was
condemning a man to death for a barbarous murder, and earnestly
dwelling on the dreadful nature of the crime, he lengthened his
discourse to twenty minutes. Then turning to the court interpreter he
told him to translate what he had said into Malay. The official looked
sternly at the prisoner, and addressed him thus: “The judge says you
are a very wicked man; you have committed a great crime, therefore
you must be hung. Sudah (I have done),” and then quietly retired to
his place, to the astonishment of the judge, who could not
comprehend how his learned and affecting discourse had been so
briefly translated; he could only ejaculate, “Certainly the Malay is the
most epigrammatic language.”
As I am concluding this chapter with miscellaneous remarks, I will
tell a short anecdote told me by a Spaniard of a Balignini pirate. After
the expedition from Manilla, in 1848, had captured the islands of
Tonquil and Balignini, they removed most of the prisoners to an
island to the north; among others, there was the wife and children of
a well known buccaneer, who had been absent on a cruise during
the attack, and returning home, found his house burnt and his family
gone. He immediately went to Samboañgan and surrendered to the
authorities, saying he was tired of the wandering life he had led, and
was anxious to live as a quiet agriculturist with his wife. The
governor trusting his story, sent him to the north, where he joined his
family, and set to work with great energy cultivating the soil; the
authorities kept a strict watch over him, knowing his enterprising
character, but just before the rice harvest was ready to be gathered,
they became less vigilant, as they thought no one would abandon
the result of a year’s labour; but at dead of night, with a few
companions to whom he had imparted his secret, he fled with his
family to the shore, where, surprising a boat, he pulled off to his old
haunts and reached them in safety.
I have already treated of the Land and Sea Dayaks, and will not
dwell further on the subject, but give a short account of the Chinese
on the North-west coast of Borneo.
 CHAPTER XII.
THE CHINESE IN BORNEO.

Intercourse between China and the Northern Part of Borneo—

References to the Chinese—Names of Places and Rivers—Sites
of Gardens and Houses—One of the original Settlers—The
Sultan’s Recollections—Chinese numerous in his Youth—
Reasons for their Disappearing—Anecdote of a Murut Chief—
Aborigines speaking Chinese—Mixed Breed—Good Husbands—
Chinese at Batang Parak—At Madihit—Pepper Planters—Origin
of the Borneans—Chinese Features observed also among the
Aborigines—Careful Agriculture—A remnant of Chinese Teaching
—Traditions of a Chinese Kingdom—Effect of Treaty with Brunei
—Unsuccessful attempt to revive Pepper Planting—Chinese
scattering on the North-west Coast—A Spark of Enlightenment—
Attempt to prevent Intercourse between the Chinese and
Aborigines—Decay of Junk Trade—Cochin Chinese—Conduct of
the Chinese—Papar—Anecdote—Fatal Result of Insulting a
Woman—Skirmish—Misrepresented in Labuan—Question of
British Protection to the Chinese—Their Insolence—Anecdote—
Unpleasant Position—A Check—Difficulty of obtaining
Information—Cause of former Disputes—Insurrection of the
Chinese of Brunei—Sarawak—Early efforts of the Chinese to
establish themselves there—Lawless Malays—A Murder—
Retaliation—Defeat of the Chinese—Arrival of Sir James Brooke
—Mixed Breed in Sambas—Form Self-governing Communities—
Defeat of the Dutch Forces—Subjugation of the Chinese—The
Pamangkat Agriculturists—Flight into Sarawak—Change in the
appearance of the Country—Mission School—Visit the Interior—
Kunsis, or Gold Companies—Appearance of the Country—
Method of Gold-working—The Reservoir—The Ditch—The Sluice
—Wasteful method of working—Abundance of Gold—Impetus—
Failure of first Agricultural Schemes—A great Flood—
Troublesome Gold-workers—Successful Scheme—Disturbance
in Sambas—Flight of Chinese—Illiberal Regulation—Tour through
the Chinese Settlements—Agriculture—Siniawan—Chinese
workings—Hot Spring—Gold at Piat in Quartz—Antimony Works
—Extensive Reservoirs—Arrival of Chinese from Sambas—
Denial by the Kunsi—Hard Work at the Gold Diggings—Scenery
 —Path to Sambas—Chinese Station—Numbers of the Chinese
before the Insurrection.
The first thing that strikes an inquirer into the intercourse which
was formerly carried on between China and the northern part of
Borneo, is the prevalence of names referring to these strangers.
They are called in Malay, Orang China; by the Land Dayaks of
Sarawak, Orang Sina; and by the Borneans, Orang Kina, men of
China; and north of the capital, we find Kina Benua, the Chinese
land, in Labuan; Kina Balu, the Chinese widow, the name of the
great mountain; Kina Batañgan, the Chinese river, on the north-east
coast; and we have Kina Taki, the name of a stream at the foot of
Kina Balu and Kina Bañgun, a name of a small river of the north
north eastern coast. Around Brunei we continually come across
terraces cut on the sides of the hills, where the pepper-plant was
grown, particularly on the eminence below the Consulate: and the
places where the Chinese had levelled the ground on which to build
their houses are often to be met with; one of the most distinct was in
my own garden. Their graves are also numerous, and may easily be
traced on the slopes of the hills, though time has worn down their
edges, and left but a slightly swelling mound.
My object is not to write a history of the Chinese intercourse with
Borneo, but to notice what impress it has left on the manners and
thoughts of the people, and what remembrances of them may still be
gathered. At present there are scarcely any of the original settlers
left. I only remember one very old man, who cultivated a garden a
few miles above the town; and although he had lived there for sixty
years, arriving as a child, he had not mastered the language of the
country, and could only say that in old days the Chinese were
numerous.
The reigning sultan used often to converse on the subject, and
told me that his own father was the nobleman appointed to
superintend the Chinese; and that about fifty years ago they were
very numerous to the westward of the town, and that when he was a
youth, he was fond of strolling in their pepper and vegetable
gardens. He did not know “how many there were, but there were
many.” He accounted for their almost total disappearance by saying
that for the last sixty or seventy years they had received no recruits
from China, and that the Chinese gardeners near the town seldom
had wives, but those up the country and in the neighbouring districts
lived among the Murut and Bisaya tribes, and that their descendants
had mixed with the native population and adopted their dress and
habits.
An occurrence which took place whilst I was in Brunei tended to
confirm this. A Chinese pedlar, married to a Murut girl, came to me
one day to complain of the conduct of a Bornean nobleman who had
been oppressing the aborigines. I sent him with the Malay writer
attached to the Consulate to explain his case to the sultan, as I could
not interfere myself.
The following week the chief of the Murut tribe arrived to support
the complaint, and went with the pedlar into the shop of the principal
Chinese trader in Brunei, baba Masu, who began questioning him in
Malay. The man answered in a stupid manner, as if he scarcely
understood him, upon which the baba turned to the pedlar and said
in Hokien Chinese, “What is the use of your bringing such a fool to
support your case?” The chief’s face brightened directly, and he
observed, in good Chinese, “I am not such a fool, but I don’t
understand Malay well.” The trader, very much surprised to be thus
addressed in his own language by a Murut, made particular inquiries,
and found that this was the grandson of an immigrant from Amoy,
who had settled among the aborigines, and had taught his children
his own language, and his eldest son marrying the daughter of an
orang kaya, their son had succeeded to the chieftainship of the tribe.
Subsequently, I questioned some of the Chinese pedlars who
were accustomed to trade in the districts on the coast to the north of
the capital, which are known by the general name of Saba, and they
found there were many of the Bisayas and Muruts of Kalias, Padas,
Membakut, and Patatan, who could speak Chinese very fairly, and
who acknowledged their mixed descent from the Chinese and the
aborigines. Wherever the former settle, they always seek wives
among the people, though few comparatively have the good fortune
to procure them. However, when they do, the women soon become
reconciled to them as husbands, and find a manifest improvement in
their condition, as the Chinese do not like to see their wives do more
than the real domestic work of the house, performing all the more
laborious duties themselves, even to cooking the dinner.
My friend, the orang kaya of the village of Blimbing, on the
Limbang, said he remembered the Chinese living at a place called
Batang Parak, about eighty miles from the mouth of the river. He
himself could only call to mind seven who were cultivating pepper-
plantations in his time, but his father had told him that before the
insurrection the whole country was covered with their gardens. Of
this insurrection, I could obtain few particulars, though they pointed
out a hill at the mouth of the Madalam where the Chinese had built a
fort, but had been defeated by the Bornean forces.
A hundred and fifty miles up the Limbang, on the banks of the
Madihit branch, and beyond all the worst rapids, the Muruts told us
the Chinese formerly had very extensive pepper-plantations; but
within the remembrance of their oldest men, they had all died away,
no new recruits joining them, and their descendants were lost among
the surrounding tribes.
There is but one objection to the theory that the Borneans derive
their origin in great part from the former Chinese settlers: it is that
they are even darker than the other Malays; otherwise, the
squareness and heaviness of feature, particularly observable among
the lower classes, would seem to mark them as descendants of the
labouring Chinese who form the bulk of the emigrants from China,
though I have often observed that many of the children of the
undoubtedly mixed breed were very dark. I have noticed in my
account of our first expedition to Kina Balu the fact of the young girls
at the village of Ginambur having the front of their heads shaved
after the manner of the Chinese. I do not remember having seen any
female of the other tribes of aborigines disfigured in the same way.
When we were at the village of Kiau, at the base of Kina Balu, we
continually remarked faces which showed distinct indications of
being descended from the celestials.
I have before noticed the superior style in which the natives to the
north of Brunei carry on their agricultural operations. I find my
description of the method pursued by the Bisayas of Tanah Merah in
cultivating pepper exactly agrees with that of the Chinese mentioned
by Forrest in his account of Borneo Proper. And the natives of
Tawaran and Tampasuk cultivate their rice as carefully as the
Chinese, following their example of dividing the fields by low
embankments, so as to be able to regulate the supply of water; and
in no other part of Borneo are to be found gardens as neat as those
we saw on the plain of Tawaran. It is evident they have not yet
forgotten the lessons taught to their forefathers by the Chinese,
though their improved agriculture appears to be almost the only
impress left on the people. Instead of their following the more
civilized race, the latter appear to have completely blended with and
become lost among the numerous population around.
The tradition is still well known among the natives, of the whole
country being filled with those immigrants; and they say that in very
ancient days there was an empire ruled by one of the strangers, and
the Sulus have still the tradition current among them that in former
days these islands formed a part of a great Chinese kingdom, whose
seat of government was in the north of Borneo. Forrest having
mentioned that the Sulus in his day had such a tradition, drew my
attention to it, and it may refer to the time subsequent to the invasion
of the country by Kublai Khan’s general. The following is an extract
from the genealogy of the sovereigns of Borneo, which is in the
possession of the pañgeran tumanggong:—“He who first reigned in
Brunei, and introduced the religion of Islam, was his Highness the
Sultan Mahomed, and his Highness had one female child by his wife
the sister of the Chinese rajah, whom he brought from Kina
Batañgan (Chinese river), and this princess was married to Sherif
Ali, who came from the country of Taib, and who afterwards
governed under the name of his Highness Sultan Barkat (the
Blessed), and it was he who erected the mosque, and whose
Chinese subjects built the Kota Batu, or stone fort.” This appears to
refer to some kind of a Chinese kingdom.
In 1846 there was scarcely a Chinese left in the capital; but no
sooner was our treaty made in 1847, than traders from Singapore
began to open shops there. At first, it appeared as if a valuable