DST No.

SR/SO/AS-66/2005

Project Completion Report

Department of Science and Technology (SERC)
New Delhi

Diversity of Spiders in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve

Principal Investigator Co-Investigator

Dr. V. P. UNIYAL Dr. K. SIVAKUMAR
Scientist “E” Scientist “D”
Deptt. of Landscape Level Planning Deptt. of Endangered
and Management Species Management

Researcher: Ms. Shazia Quasin

October 2011
Copyright © Wildlife Institute of India. 2011

Photo Credits
Shazia Quasin and V.P. Uniyal

Citation
Uniyal, V.P., Sivakumar, K. and Quasin, S. 2011. Diversity of Spiders in
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
(DST Project Completion Report).

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 CONTENTS

Page No.

Acknowledgements i
Summary ii-v

1. Project Title 1
2. Project Investigators 1
3. Implementing Institution 1
4. Date of Commencement 1
5. Planned Date of Completion 1
6. Actual Date of Completion 1
7. Approved Objectives of the Proposal 1
8. Deviation from Original Objectives 1
9. Details of Experimental Work
9.1 Introduction 2-3
9.2 Need for Invertebrate studies in the Himalayas 4
9.3 Role of Spiders in the ecosystem 5-6
9.4 Spider: Threats and conservation 6-7
9.5 Review of Literature
9.5.1 International studies on spiders 7-8
9.5.2 Studies on Indian spiders 8-11
9.6 Justification of study 11
9.7 Hypothesis 11
9.8 Objectives 12
9.9 Study Area
9.9.1 Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve 12-13
9.9.2 Topography, Geology and Soil 13-14
9.9.3 Climate: Temperature, Rainfall and Humidity 14-15
9.9.4 Forest types, Flora and Fauna 15-18
9.9.5 Local Communities and Land Use Practices 18-20
9.9.6 History of Forest Management 20-22
9.10 Methods
9.10.1 Collection 26-29
9.10.2 Preservation and Identification of specimens 29-30
10. Results
10.1 Systematics and Distribution of spiders from NDBR 37
10.1.1 Key to spider families documented from NDBR 37-124
10.1.2 New Records of genus and species from NDBR 125
10.1.2.1 First record of genera 125
10.1.2.2 First record of species 125
10.1.2.3 New species 125
10.2.1 Diversity and composition of spider fauna 145-146
10.2.2 Diversity along altitude and vegetation types 146-158

11. Discussion and Conservation Implications

11.1 Systematics and distributions 159
11.2 Diversity along altitude and vegetation types 159-162
11.3 Spider in future management 162-164
11.4 References 165-189
11.5 Appendix I 190-195

12. Science & Technology Benefits 195-198

13. Financial Position 198
14. Procurement/ Usage of Equipment 199

*****

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 Acknowledgements

We would like put down our sincere thanks to the following individuals and
organizations for their advice, assistance and necessary permission for
conducting the study.

Department of Science and Technology

Dr. B. P. Singh, Advisor (SERC) and Mr. Doyil T. Vengayil.

Uttarakhand Forest Department (UKFD)

Dr. R.B.S Rawat, Dr. S.K. Chandola, Mr. Paramjeet Singh, Mr. V.K.
Gangte, Dr. Dhiraj Pandey, Mr. Sharavan Kumar, Mr. S. R. Prajapati,
Mr. I .S.Negi, Mr. T.S. Bist and frontline staff of NDBR.

Wildlife Institute of India (WII)

Mr. P.R. Sinha, Director, Dr. V.B. Mathur, Dean, Dr. P.K. Mathur, Dr.
G.S. Rawat, Dr. K. Sankar, Mr.Qamar Quereshi, Dr. S.Sathyakumar,
Dr. B.S. Adhikari, Dr. K. Vasudevan, Dr. Parag Nigam, Dr. K. Ramesh,
Dr. Upamanyu Hore, Dr. Vinay Bhargava, Mr. Abesh Kumar Sanyal,
Mr. Manish Bhardwaj, Mr. Suthirtha Dutta, Mr. Indranil Mondal,
Mr. Rajesh Thapa, Mr. Virendra Sharma, Mr. Dinesh Pundir, Mr.
Harinder Kumar, Mr. M. Veerappan, Mr. Kuldeep Chauhan, Mr. P.K.
Aggarwal, Mr.A.K.Dubey, Mr. Jogender Signh, Mrs. Shakuntala Uniyal,
Mr. Y.S. Verma, Mrs. Shashi Uniyal and Mr. Santosh Kumar.

Thanks are due to Dr. Peter Jäger, Senkenberg Museum, Germany for his
guidance and valuable discussion during his visit to the study area.
Dr. Sebastion, Sacred Heart College Kochi and Dr. Sunil Jose, Deva Matha
College, Kottayam, Kerala for providing recent updates on taxonomic
identification of spiders. We also extend our thanks to Dr. B.K. Biswas and
Dr. Kailash Chandra, Zoological Survey of India, for helping in identification
and providing relevant literature. Dr. V.V. Ramamurthy, Principal Scientist,
IARI, New Delhi is also thanked for the use of his laboratory.

i
 Summary

Introduction:

Spiders (Order: Araneae) are one of the most varied and functionally
important predators regulating the terrestrial arthropod population, thereby,
making them, effective biological control agents in ecosystems. Thus, their
high abundance and high diversity in almost all microhabitats, and foraging
strategies coupled with the advantage of easy collection allow for their
effective monitoring in the environment. Spiders are gaining importance as
ecological indicators due to their extreme sensitivity to natural conditions and
disturbances (natural and anthropogenic). However, despite of their
fundamental roles in most natural ecosystem, they have largely been ignored
in conservational studies.

India being a Megadiverse country is rich in both flora and fauna; however
there exists an extremely fragmentary knowledge about the diversity and
distribution of spider fauna. Furthermore, the knowledge of Himalayan spider
diversity and distribution is sparse as compared to other regions, because of
its difficult terrain and climatic condition. The present study was carried out in
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), Uttarakhand, India, as there have
been very few studies conducted on spiders in this region of the Western
Himalaya. NDBR is located in the northern part of the Western Himalaya in
India, one of the important site of wilderness and biodiversity in the Himalayan
region.

The present study was initiated from January 2008 to July 2011.The study
was initiated with the aim to investigate and compare the spider species
composition along the altitudinal gradient along with quantification of the
relationship of habitat covariates like vegetation types, ph, litter dept, humidity
and temperature, on the spider assemblages in the intricate landscape of the
NDBR. The pattern of species diversity was explored using a set of standard
methods and ecological indexes. This study obtained the first comprehensive
representation of the spider fauna in NDBR, which will help in assessing the

ii
status of spider diversity in this region keeping in mind its conservational
value.

Systematic and Distribution of Spiders in Nanda Devi Biosphere

Reserve (NDBR):

Spiders globally include about 40700 described species (Platnick, 2008)

under 3733 genera and 110 families. In India, 1520 spider species belonging
to 377 genera of 60 families have been reported so far (Sebastian and Peter
2009). The families represented by the highest number of genera and species
in India are the Salticidae (66 genera and 192 species) followed by
Thomisidae (38 genera and 164 species). This study began with defining the
systematic position of the spiders and reviewing the available taxonomic
knowledge of the group. It also addressed the past studies in India. This study
provided a baseline inventory of the diversity of spiders including description
of anatomical features of spider in general, their relation to classification, and
genera of spiders sampled from the NDBR during three years of fieldwork.
Using contemporary systematics approaches and traditional morphological
methods new species were identified and described and classifications were
refined. Checklist and interactive keys for collected spider species were
produced and will be accessible to wide range of users in the future. It also
accelerated the rate of description, documentation and understanding of
Himalayan spider biodiversity, using an integrated approach for capturing,
assembling, analysing and managing taxonomic information. The increased
understanding of larger taxonomic and ecological frameworks can facilitate
the development of appropriate conservation objectives for spider fauna in
NDBR

Diversity of Spiders along the Altitudinal Gradient:

The patterns of distribution of insects along the elevational gradients have

long been a contentious topic. The two general patterns that emerge are the
monotonic decrease in species richness with increasing elevation or a
humped shaped relationship with a peak at intermediate elevations. It seems
that along the altitudinal gradient, there is a positive correlation between

iii
elevation and elevational ranges of species. For insects, the empirical
evidence for both peaks in species richness at low elevations and peaks in
species richness at intermediate elevations.

Several studies support that both these patterns exists in a variety of habitats
and taxa, but studies have revealed that perhaps mid elevational peaks are
more common. The mid domain effect, seems to be very robust among
different taxa. The mid domain peak in richness is generated where there is
an increasing overlap of species ranges towards the centre of the domain due
to the extent of elevational ranges of species that are bound by highest and
lowest elevation possible in the region.

The present study, assuming the relation to mid domain hypothesis, intended
to look at the pattern of spider species diversity along altitudinal gradient. The
patterns were observed for different altitude sites in NDBR. Sampling was
carried out in the three years to obtain data in different seasons across three
sites with substantial altitudinal gradient. Methods for capturing of spiders
from all possible niches included pitfall traps, sweep netting, and other semi-
quantitative approaches. A total of 244 species belonging to 108 genus and
33 families were recorded during the entire sampling period. Using the
abundance based estimator Chao1, the predicted richness for the three sites
were 153.43±0.9 (Lata Kharak), 162.75±1.24 (Malari) and 206.43±0.9
(Bhyundar Valley). This indicated that the inventory was complete at the
regional scale (91%). Family composition varied considerably in relation to the
altitudinal gradient. Comparisons of the different altitudinal zones revealed
that the family diversity was higher in the lower altitudinal zones.

This study revealed the relative importance of diverse habitat types on

diversity and composition of spider assemblages in NDBR. The habitat
heterogeneity hypothesis states that the more complex the habitat, the higher
the species diversity and structure. The present study analyzed the effect of
local habitat factors on regional spider richness and diversity. Habitat
covariates viz., pH, litter dept, humidity, temperature were found to be
important predictors for spider assemblages. The effect of these variables
varied across different mountain systems. It was found that the responses of

iv
the spider assemblages to the changes in altitude and microclimate
covariates showed that altitude and pH were negatively correlated to spider
diversity in regional scale. However, in the three sites different sets of factors
were influencing the spider diversity. As in Lata Kharak altitude played the
significant role in influencing the species diversity. In Bhyundar valley it was
pH and in Malari altitude and pH were influencing negatively while humidity
was influencing spider diversity positively.

*****

v
 PROJECT COMPLETION REPORT

1. Project Title: Diversity of Spiders in Nanda Devi

Biosphere Reserve. (DST No: SR/So/AS-66/2005)

2. Project Investigators
Principal Investigator
Dr. V.P. Uniyal Date of Birth: 30th Dec. 1962
Scientist-E

Co-Investigator
Dr. K. Sivakumar Date of Birth: 05th Jan.1972
Scientist-D

3. Implementing Institution: Wildlife Institute of India,

P O. Box # 18, Chandrabani,
Dehradun-248001, Uttarakhand

4. Date of Commencement: January 2008

5. Planned Date of Completion: December 2010

6. Actual Date of Completion: July 2011

7. Approved Objectives of the Proposal:

1. To document species diversity of spiders in Nanda

Devi Biosphere Reserve.

2. To assess diversity and distribution of spiders in

different vegetation types along altitudinal gradients.

8. Deviation made from original objectives if any, while implementing the

project reasons there of: -None-

1
9 Details of Experimental Work

9.1 Introduction

The Himalaya is the highest and one of the youngest mountain systems in the
world. The Himalayan orogenesis started about 70 million years ago with the
clash of the tectonic plates of the Indian sub-continent and the Eurasian
continent and the subsequent closing up of the Tethy’s sea (Wadia 1966).
There are broadly three zones in this region- the Outer Himalaya (upto 1500m
above msl), the Middle Himalaya (upto 5000m) and the Greater Himalaya
(from 5000m upto 8800m), which includes some of the highest peaks in the
world such as Everest, K2, Khangchendzonga (Wadia 1966, Jhingran 1981).
The Shiwaliks running parallel to the southern side of the outer Himalaya and
the Indo-Gangetic plains on the northern side have been formed by the silt
and debris deposition, by the rivers originating from the Himalaya (Wadia
1966). The Himalayan region covers approximately 18% of India’s land
surface and spreads over an area of approximately 2, 10, 626 km2.

The formation of the Himalaya ultimately resulted in new barriers and

corridors, which lead to the creation of ideal habitats for a variety of floral and
faunal species. It is situated at the transition zone between the Palearctic and
Indo-Malayan realms with species representing both the realms and is divided
into four provinces viz., North-Western, Western, Central and Eastern
(Rodgers et al., 2000), each province characterised by its distinctive flora and
fauna. It’s unique and rich biodiverse repository comprises of tropical,
subtropical, temperate, sub-alpine and alpine habitats, making it one of the
richest biogeographical zones in the world. The high species diversity and
richness is attributed to variations in climate, altitude, complex topography
and habitat types (Rau, 1975; Polunin and Stainton, 1984). IHR supports
about 18,440 species of plants (Singh and Hajra, 1996), 1748 species of
medicinal plants (Samant et al.,1998), 241 mammalian species and 979 birds
species (Ghosh, 1996). The representative biodiversity rich areas of the IHR
have been protected through a Protected Area Network (PAN) Programme. At
present there are 5 Biosphere Reserves (BRs), 31 National Parks (NPs) and

2
111 Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLS) covering 51,899.238 km2 in area (Mathur et
al., 2002).

The Western Himalaya spanning across Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal

Pradesh and Uttarakhand is distinctly different from the Eastern Himalaya. Its
gentler and wider slope, continental climatic conditions with lower humidity
and higher snowfall, lower treeline, narrow ranging krummholtz and alpine
scrub zone, and an overall lower primary productivity lends a vast difference
in the biological diversity in the two regions (Miller, 1987; Mani,1994). Of the
137 species of endangered Himalayan plants listed so far in the Red Data
book, 56 species are from the western Himalaya (IUCN, 2011). 11 species of
endemic birds including the Cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichi) and the
Western Tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus) are found in this region.
Endemic mammals like Kashmir markhor (Capra falconeri), Asiatic ibex
(Capra sibirica), Kashmir red deer (Cervus elaphus hanglu), Tibetan antelope
(Pantholops hodgsonii) and Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) are found exclusively in
the western Himalaya (Rodgers and Panwar 1988; Macdonald, 2001).

The fragile Himalayan ecosystem is undergoing rapid degradation,

fragmentation and loss of wildlife habitat with increase in human population,
unsustainable harvesting of biological resources like firewood, food timber,
large-scale developmental projects, extensive livestock grazing, illegal
extraction of rare and threatened plants and poaching of endangered animals
(Bawa, 1993).

Most of the information available for this region pertains to flora and to large
mammals and birds (Samant, 2001; Samant 1993; Kala and Rawat 1998;
Samant and Joshi 2003; Kala, 1997; Kala et al., 1997, 1998; Samant et al.,
1996 and Hazra, 1983; Schaller, 1977; Gaston et al., 1981, 1983; Green,
1985; Chundawat, 1992; Sathyakumar, 1993; Mishra, 1993; Bhatnagar, 1997;
Bhattacharya, 2005). Smaller mammals, reptiles, amphibians and fishes have
been poorly studied (ZSI, 1995), while the invertebrates have been largely
ignored, with the exception of a few studies of the Himalayan Lepidoptera
(Mani, 1986; Haribal, 1992).

3
9.2 Need for Invertebrate studies in the Himalayas

Invertebrates are the most diverse and abundant animals in most ecosystems
(New, 1995) and include 97% of all animal species. Arthropods, the largest
animal phylum, are included within invertebrates. The number of species
varies widely; one estimate indicates that arthropods have
1,170,000 described species, while another study estimates that there are
between 5 to 10 million extant arthropod species, both described and yet to
be described (Wilson and Peters, 1988). More recent literature estimate the
number of species to be closer to 10 million (Dobson, 1996). These wide
variations in the estimates arise from the variation in the method of calculation
of those estimates (Hawksworth, 1991; Solbrig et al., 1996). Samways (1993)
estimated that only 7 - 10 % of all insect species have been described and of
those, only a small percentage have been studied extensively enough to get a
glimpse of their biology.

In the past, arthropods were largely ignored in the design of conservation

management strategies. Their conservation in existing parks and reserves
has been purely incidental (New, 1999; Skerl and Gillespie, 1999). The
primary limitation in using arthropods in conservation studies is mainly
because of - 1. time constraint, 2.lack of knowledge of the taxonomy, biology
and distribution, 3. non-standardised sampling protocols, and 4. inadequate
number of taxonomists. Furthermore, arthropod surveys generate extremely
large samples which demand a substantial effort to process in terms of time
and expertise (New, 1999). Despite the above negative aspects of working
with arthropods, they represent a group of organisms that are potentially
useful when assessing the biodiversity of an area because of their – (i)
generality of distribution, (ii) trophic versatility, (iii) rapid responses to
disturbances, and (iv) ease of sampling (Holloway and Stork, 1991).

Arthropods are sensitive to disruption of their environments as well as specific

to their altitudinal gradients. They are suitable biological indicators of
ecosystem change and habitat modification due to their small body size, short
generation time (Kremen et al.,1993), high sensitivity to temperature and
moisture changes (Schowalter et al., 2003).

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9.3 Role of Spiders in the Ecosystem

Arachnids are an important albeit poorly studied group of arthropods that play
a significant role in the regulation of other invertebrate populations in most
ecosystems (Russell-Smith, 1999). Spiders, which globally include about
42,055 described species (Platnick, 2011), are estimated to be around
60,000-170,000 species (Coddington and Levi, 1991). They include a
significant portion of the terrestrial arthropod diversity, being one of the
dominant macro invertebrate predator groups in terrestrial environments (35–
95%) (Specht and Dondale, 1960; Tischler, 1965; Van Hook, 1971; Moulder
and Reichle, 1972; Schaefer, 1974; Edwards et al., 1976; Lyoussoufi et al.,
1990). Spiders are copious in both natural and cultivated environments, in
which their average annual abundance ranges from 50 to 150 individuals per
square meter but can periodically reach maximal densities of more than 1000
individuals per square meter (Pearse, 1946; Duffey, 1962; Weidemann, 1978;
Nyffeler, 1982). They occupy a wide range of spatial and temporal niches,
exhibit taxon and guild responses to environmental change, extreme
sensitivity to small changes in habitat structure, primarily vegetation
complexity and microclimate characteristics (Uetz, 1991). Furthermore, strong
associations exist between plant architecture and species that capture prey
without webs (Duffey, 1962; Uetz, 1991). Spiders respond distinctly to altered
litter depth, and structural complexity and nutrient content of litter (Uetz, 1991;
Bultman and Uetz, 1982). They employ a remarkable variety of predation
strategies. As they are generalist predators, they are of immense economic
importance to man because of their ability to suppress pest abundance in
agroecosystems. The population densities and species abundance of spider
communities in agricultural fields can be as high as that in natural ecosystems
(Riechert, 1981; Tanaka, 1989). In spite of this, they have not been treated as
an important biological control agent since very little is known of the ecological
role of spiders in pest control (Riechert and Lockley, 1984). Spiders regulate
decomposer populations (Clarke and Grant, 1968) and by doing so, they
influence ecosystem functioning (Lawrence and Wise, 2000, 2004). Their high
biomass also makes them a critical resource for larger forest predators such
as salamanders, small mammals and birds.

5
Spiders can be used as successful biological indicators to assess the ‘health’
of an ecosystem because they can be easily identified and are differentially
responsive to natural and anthropogenic disturbances (Pearce and Venier,
2006). For a species to be identified as an effective ecological indicator, it
must meet the primary criteria of being feasible and cost effective to sample,
easily and reliably identified, functionally significant, and ability to respond to
disturbance in a consistent manner. Spiders readily meet the first three
criteria. Their high relative abundance, ease of collection, and diversity in
habitat preferences and foraging strategies allow for effective monitoring of
site differences (Yen, 1995). Many studies have widely recommended the
potential of spiders as bioindicators (Duchesne and McAlpine, 1993; Niemelä
et al., 1993; Butterfield et al., 1995; Beaudry et al., 1997; Atlegrim et al., 1997;
Churchill, 1997; Duchesne et al., 1999; Bromham et al., 1999; Werner and
Raffa, 2000; Heyborne et al., 2003).

9.4 Spider: Threats and conservation

Anthropogenic impacts on spider diversity have been well documented.

Factors including habitat loss and degradation (Howarth, 1983; Stanford and
Shull, 1993), habitat fragmentation (Mclver et al., 1992), grazing regimes
(Gibson et al., 1992; Zulka et al., 1997), pollution (Clausen, 1986; Deeleman-
Reinhold, 1990) and pesticides (Martinat et al., 1993; Wisniewska and
Prokopy, 1997) severely affect the spider populations. Introduced exotic
species threaten spider populations directly through predation (Gillespie and
Reimer, 1993; Standford and Shull, 1993) or indirectly by degrading their
habitats (Fridell, 1995). Some larger species are further impacted by
collection for pet trade (Leech et al., 1994; World Conservation Monitoring
Centre, 1998).

Spiders are marginalised when it comes to mainstream conservation research

and action. Despite their documented ecological role in many ecosystems,
high diversity, and threats, spiders have received little attention from the
conservation community (Skerl, 1999). This lack of attention is further
compounded by general negative public attitude towards spiders (Kellert,
1986), and a paucity of information on spider status and distribution.

6
Additionally, the most critical and useful habitat association data is not found
in most checklists. Such data are lacking for many spider species, particularly
those with cryptic habits. However, it is important that these vulnerable
species are not left out of conservation planning efforts, as they may have
unique ecological requirements or require particular site selection and
management activities. Preservation of spider biodiversity and better land
management strategy design requires an understanding of the patterns of
spider diversity on an appropriate regional scale (Skerl and Gillespie, 1999).

9.5 Review of literature

9.5.1 International studies on spiders

The distribution and diversity of spiders has drawn attention of naturalists in

different parts of the world since the eighteenth century. A general description
of spiders from all over the world has been provided by Rod and Ken Preston-
Mafham (1984). Latreille (1804), Leach (1815), Koch (1836), Cambridge
(1885, 1892 and 1897), and Simon (1887) prepared the early taxonomic
records on spiders. The studies on the systematics of spiders had developed
rapidly with the increasing knowledge about the group. Petrunkevitch (1933)
provided an inquiry into natural classification of spiders based on study of
their internal anatomy. Catalogues of Roewer (1955) and Bonnet (1945, 1955-
59) gave an overview on the taxonomy of spiders, which covers about two
centuries work. Lehtinen (1967) prepared a comparative and phylogenetic
system of classification. Davies and Zabka (1989) provided illustrated keys

7
and notes to genera of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae) in Australia
which were helpful in identifying some 57 genera of that region. Catalogs of
Brignoli (1983) included all the genera and species of spiders described after
Roewer’s (1955). He gave a systematic list of about 7000 species described
in the literature from 1940 to 1981. Platnick (1989) added new taxa and
taxonomic references and provided synonyms of various taxa. He also
provided a bibliography of work relating to Araneae published from 1981 to
1987. Roberts (1995) published a field guide to the spiders of Britain and
North Europe. Heimer and Nentwig (1991) recorded 1100 species from
Central Europe. The distribution of spiders in rice field of South Asia has been
well recorded and illustrated by Barrion and Litsinger (1995). The Nearctic
fauna is perhaps 80% described in New Zealand and Australia Other areas,
especially Latin America, Africa and the Pacific region are much poorly known
for spider. The spider fauna of China was studies by many workers. Yin et al.,
(1997) dealt with three sub families, 33 genera and 292 species. Song and
Zhu (1997) worked on the families Thomisidae and Philodromidae from
China. They dealt with a total of 32 genera and 145 species. A compendium
of the spider fauna of North America was provided in Kaston, (1978), and
Vincent Roth’s field guide (1993). According to The World Spider Catalog,
Version 12.0 by Platnick (2011), the updated lists documented 42473 species
of spider worldwide belonging to 3849 genera and 110 families.

9.5.1 Studies on Indian Spiders

Spiders are extremely abundant throughout the country, but our knowledge of
the Indian spiders is extremely fragmentary. Studies on Indian spiders have
been done earlier by several European workers and later by Indian
Arachnologists. Two of the earliest contributions on Indian spiders were made
by Stoliczka (1869) and Karsch (1873). Simon (1887-1906) recorded many
species from the Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Blackwell
(1867), Karsch (1873), Simon (1887), Thorell (1895) and Pocock (1900) were
the pioneer workers on Indian spiders. They described many species from
India, Burma and Sri Lanka. Cambridge (1869 a-b) and Karsch (1873)
worked in the Indian, Sri Lankan and Minicoy islands. Simon’s works on Asian

8
region (1885, 1889 and 1897), Indochina (1904b) and the Indian region
(1906) provide early information on spiders of the oriental and Indian region.
Tikader (1980, 1982), Tikader and Malhotra (1980) described spiders from
India. Tikader (1980) compiled a book on Thomisid spiders of India,
comprising of 2 subfamilies, 25 genera and 115 species. Of these, 23 species
were new to science. Descriptions, illustrations and distributions of all species
were given. Keys to the subfamilies, genera, and species were provided. He
reviewed the general taxonomic characteristics with reference to Thomisidae.
Tikader and Biswas (1981) studied 15 families, 47 genera and 99 species
from Calcutta and surrounding areas with illustrations and descriptions. In the
twentieth century, Patel (1989), Narayan (1915), Gravely (1921), Reimoser
(1934) and Dayal (1935) documented several studies on Indian spiders.

Pocock (1895-1901) recorded two hundred species from India, Burma, and
Ceylon in his work ‘Fauna of British India, Araneae’ (1900a). His book
provided the first list of spiders, along with enumeration and new descriptions
in British India based on spider specimens at the British Museum, London. He
also reported on Oriental Mygalomorphs (1895a, 1899a, and 1900b), new
species of Indian arachnids (1899b and 1901) and spiders of Lakshwadeep
(1904) provides with the one of earliest information from these regions. Sheriff
(1919-1929) described numerous interesting species from southern India.
Gravely worked on mimicry in spiders (1912), mygalomorph spiders (1915
and 1935a-b) and added information to Indian spiders.

Tikader (1987) also published the first comprehensive list of Indian spiders,
which included 1067 species belonging to 249 genera in 43 families.
Contributions made by Sinha (1951-52) on Lycosidae and Araneidae are also
important. Tikader and Malhotra (1980), Tikader and Biswas (1981) and
Biswas and Biswas (1992) have described spiders from Bengal. Spider fauna
of Gujarat has been studied mainly by Patel (1973, 75), Patel and Vyas
(2001), Patel and Reddy (1988-1993) and Reddy and Patel (1991-93) have
described spiders from Andhra Pradesh. Tikader (1980, 82) described many
species from the families Thomisidae, Philodromidae, Lycosidae, Araneidae
and Gnaphosidae from all over India. Gajbe (1983-99) has prepared a

9
checklist of 186 species of spiders in 69 genera under 24 families and
described many new species of spiders from Madhya Pradesh and
Chattisgarh region. A brief account on spiders is also provided by
Vijayalakshmi and Ahimaz (1993) in the book titled ‘Spiders: An Introduction’.

Spiders of protected areas in India have received very little attention. The
main work has been conducted by Gajbe (1995a) in Indravati Tiger Reserve
and recorded 13 species. Rane and Singh (1977) recorded five species and
Gajbe (1995b) 14 species from Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh. Patel
and Vyas (2001) conducted biodiversity studies in Hingolgarh Nature
Education Sanctuary, Gujarat and described 56 species of spiders belonging
to 34 genera distributed in 18 families. Patel (2003) described 91 species
belonging to 53 genera from Parambikulum Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. Uniyal
(2006) recorded a total of 19 species of spiders belonging to 10 families from
Ladakh. Centre for Indian Knowledge System, Chennai has also conducted
ecological studies of spiders in a cotton agro ecosystem of Guindy National
Park. De (2001) listed 19 species of spider from Dudhwa Tiger Reserve in his
management plan. Uniyal (2004) studied spiders as conservation monitoring
tools for protected areas. Studies on spiders are also conducted in agro
ecosystems mainly in rice fields and coffee plantations (Sebastian et al.,
2005; Kapoor, 2008). Hore and Uniyal (2008a, 2008b) worked on the spider
assemblages and their diversity and composition in different vegetation types
in Terai Consevation Area (TCA). Hore and Uniyal (2008) worked on spiders
as indicator species for monitoring of habitat condition in TCA. Hore and
Uniyal (2008) also studied on the effect of fire on spider assemblages in TCA.
Biswas and Biswas (2004) contributed significantly to spider diversity by
rendering comprehensive lists of new recorded spider species from Manipur
and West Bengal. Siliwal, et al., (2005) prepared an updated checklist of
Indian spider and provided taxonomic re-evaluation of described species,
referred 1442 species belonging to 361 genera of 59 families from the Indian
Region. Dhali et al. 2011 reported 34 species of spiders belonging to 27
genera and 12 families from Corbett National Park. Biswas and Biswas (2010)
reported 127 species of spiders belonging to 49 genera under 17 families
from Uttarakhand state. Siliwal et al., (2005) prepared an updated Checklist of

10
Indian spider and provided taxonomic re-evaluation of described species,
referred 1442 species belonging to 361 genera of 59 families from the Indian
Region. Of the 1442 species, 1002 were endemic to the Indian mainland.

Recently, 1520 species belonging to 361 genus and 61 familles were reported
by Sebastian and Peter (2009) in the book ‘Spiders of India’. However, the
information available from the Northern part of India especially, the Himalayan
and sub Himalayan foothills region, is far from complete. The knowledge on
diversity and distribution of spiders in northern India is sparse as compared to
other regions. Thus, a serious need exists to explore spider diversity in the
Northern part of the country especially the higher altitudinal regions.

9.6 Justification of study

Himalayan spider fauna is diverse, but effective conservation is impeded by

lack of taxonomic knowledge. Few comprehensive works on spiders have
been conducted in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR) region of the
Western Himalaya (ZS1, 1995). As such, conservation of spiders on an
appropriate regional scale is necessary. Considering their role in the
ecosystem, the present study has been proposed to describe the spider
biodiversity in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR). This study attempts to
make an inventory of the spider species in different sites of the Biosphere
Reserve with respect to altitudinal gradient. It also emphasizes the need for
conservation of spider biodiversity by characterizing species diversity and
highlighting rare and endemic species of NDBR. This systematic approach will
help to pave way for better understanding of the Himalayan spider
biodiversity, leading to improvised long term ecological monitoring of the
environment that is able to detect the more subtle environmental changes
associated with human impact, consumption and climate change.

9.7 Hypothesis

Overall spider diversity or particular spider guild diversity is expected to vary

and show different trends with changes in altitudinal gradient and vegetation
types in Himalaya.

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9.8 Objectives

This study was conducted with the main objective of obtaining the first
comprehensive representation of the spider fauna in NDBR that will help in
assessing the status of spider diversity in this region keeping in mind its
conservational value.

The specific objectives of the study were:

1. To study the systematics and distribution of spiders in NDBR
2. To explore diversity patterns for spiders along altitudinal gradient.
3. To assess diversity and distribution of spiders in different vegetation types
along altitudinal gradients.

9.9 Study Area

9.9.1 Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve - A world Heritage Site

The protected area network in the Indian Himalayan region consists of seven
biosphere reserves including Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), 31
National Parks and 111 Wildlife Sanctuaries (Mathur, 2002). NDBR (30º 08’-
31º 02’N, 79º 12’- 80º 19’E) is located in the northern parts of the Western
Himalaya in the biogeographic classification zone of 2B (Rodgers et al., 2000;
Plate.1). The entire area of NDBR lies within the Western Himalayas Endemic
Bird Area (EBA) (Islam and Rahamani, 2004). NDBR comprises parts of
Chamoli district in Garhwal, Bageshwar and Pittoragarh districts in Kumaun in
the state of Uttarakhand. An important site of wilderness and biodiversity, it
harbours several habitats for rare and endemic flora and fauna. This region is
characterized by temperate forests, sub alpine forests, alpine meadows, high
altitude lakes, glaciers and snow bound mountain peaks (Sahai and Kimothi,
1996; Plate.2). NDBR is bordered by the upper catchment areas of river
Saraswati and Malari-Lapthal area in the north; village Khati in the south, Kala
glacier and catchment of river Girthi Ganga in the east; and the upper
catchment of river Alaknanda, Nanda Ghunti peak, and Roop Kund in the
west. It has an altitudinal range of 1800-7816m msl and covers an area of
6,407.03 km² (core area: 712.12 km2, buffer zone: 5148.57 km2 and transition

12
zone: 546.34 km2) which includes both the Nanda Devi National Park (NDNP)
and Valley of Flowers National Park (VOFNP) (Negi, 2002).

In 1988, the NDNP (30°16' to 30° 32'N and 79° 44' to 80° 02'E) formed the
core zone with the surrounding areas as the buffer zone of NDBR (2,237 km2)
and was declared a biosphere reserve under the Man and the Biosphere
(MAB) Programme of UNESCO. This was later amended in 2000 to cover a
total area of 5,860 km2 to include the VOFNP (30° 41' to 30° 48'N and 79° 33'
to 79° 46'E) as part of the core zone (88 km2). NDNP and VOFNP were
designated as ‘World Heritage Sites’ during the years 1988 and 2004
respectively. NDNP is located in the high mountain ranges of Chamoli district
in the upper catchments of the river Alakananda, the eastern tributary of the
river Ganga. Nanda Devi peak lies within the core area of NDNP and is the
second highest peak within Indian territory (7,816 m). It is considered the
world’s second toughest peak to climb (Kaur, 1982). VOFNP is located in the
west of NDNP harbouring a rich and diverse floral and faunal assemblage in a
small area of about 88 km2. These two core zones have the distinction of
being the only two PAs in the Western Himalaya that have not been subjected
to extensive livestock grazing since 1983 (Sathyakumar, 2004). They are
considered to be the least disturbed areas of the entire BR. They remain
intact primarily due to their inaccessibility on account of the surrounding high
mountain peaks (UAFD, 2004).

9.9.2 Topography, Geology and Soil

The terrain of the entire region is highly undulating with a combination of

different geological features, rugged with steep slopes (Fig.1). The elevation
ranges from 1500m to 7,817m (Nanda Devi peak in the Rishi Ganga Valley).
About 90% of the total area in the NDBR region from 3500m and above is
covered in snow and alpine meadows and 52.7% of the reserve lies in the
slope of 20° to 40° (Kandpal, 2010; WII-GIS lab). The rocks are highly
metamorphosed crystalline type of the Vaikrita group (Marou, 1979).
Furthermore, the core zones of the biosphere have been divided into four
geological formations i.e. Lata, Ramani, Kharpatal and Martoli. The geological
succession varies from the Shiwalik formations in the fringe areas to the

13
lesser Himalayan formations and the northern region (Negi, 2000). Most of the
NDNP falls within the central crystalline, a region of young granites and
metamorphic rocks. Along the northern edge, the exposed Tibetan-Tethys
consists of sandstones, micaceous quartzite, limestone and shale (Kumar and
Sah, 1986). The Tethys sediments form Nanda Devi peak along with many of
the surrounding peaks, displaying spectacular folds and evidence of thrust
movements, while other mountains like Changbang are made up of granite.
The basin displays an array of periglacial and glacial forms covering a wide
range of phases of their growth. The combinations of normal and perched
glaciers on different rock types put in more to the interest of the basin (Reed,
1988). Geologically VOFNP falls in the Zanskar range (Wadia, 1966). The
rocks are primarily sedimentary with mica schist and shale. The soil is acidic
in nature (Ph 3.8 – 6.1).

Fig.1 Milam Valley and Lata Kharak site locations in NDBR

9.9.3 Climate: Temperature, Rainfall and Humidity

The climatic trends change as one moves from North-west to South-east in

the biosphere. There are four main seasons that are experienced by the BR:
(i) winter: December to March with heavy snowfall in the months of December
- February (ii) spring: April to mid June (iii) summer: mid June to September
(iv) autumn: October to November. The major portion of the biosphere area
remains under a thick carpet of snow during winter, and it is accessible only
for a limited period from late June to early October. Generally, the snow cover
is thick on the northern slopes (Lavkumar, 1979; Lamba, 1987; Plate. 3).
About 60% of total area of the buffer zone and 81% of the core zone remains

14
snow bound or covered by glaciers (Sahai and Kimothi, 1996). During rainy
season, the climate as a whole is dry, with low annual precipitation. Average
annual rainfall is 928.81mm. About 47.8% of annual rainfall occurs over a
short period of two months (July-August) featuring a strong monsoon
influence. There is considerable inflow of warm air up the gorges, resulting in
light mist over the high meadows. The mists in the month of June keep the
soil moist, which in turn helps in supporting luxuriant vegetation (Lavkumar,
1979; Lamba, 1987). The maximum temperature ranges from 110C to 240C
and minimum from 30C to 7.50C. The elevation of the Trans-Himalayan region
ranges from 4400 to 5500 msl. It receives very scanty rainfall and exhibits all
the characteristics of typically cold-arid conditions (Rawat, 2005)

9.9.4 Forest types, Flora and Fauna

Forest Types: The forests in the study area are mainly dominated by
Quercus and Abies species forming the climax communities at various
altitudinal zones. According to Champion and Seth (1968) forests of NDBR is
divided into four major categories (Table. 1) -

(a) Temperate forests (2000m–2800 m): This type has two sub categories –
(i) Deciduous forests and (ii) Coniferous forests. (i) Deciduous forests are
dominated by Acer caesium, A. pictum, Celtis australis, Betula alnoides, Alnus
nepalensis and other associated species such as Rhododendron arboreum,
Aesculus indica, and Juglans regia. (ii) Coniferous forests are dominated by
Abies pindrow, A. spectabilis, Picea smithiana, Pinus wallichiana, P.
roxburghii, Cedrus deodara and Taxus baccata. Shrubs such as Rubus sp,
Desmodium elegans, Viburum continifolium, Deutzia staminea and
Sinarundinaria falcata occupy the middle layer.

(b) Subalpine forests (2800m–3500 m) are dominated by Abies spectabilis,

Taxus baccata, Betula utilis and Prunus cornuta forms the transition zone
near the treeline. Shubs such as Juniperus communis, J. wallichiana,
Rhododendron campanulatum, R. anthopogon, Cotoneaster spp., Rosa
webbiana are present as dominant understory vegetation.

15
(c) Alpine scrublands (3800m–4500m) are dominated by Rhododendron
anthopogon, R. lepidotum, R. campanulatum, Juniperus indica, J. recurva.

(d) Alpine meadows and moraines (>3500m) are dominated by herbs and
shrubs viz., Juniperus indica, Rhododendron anthopogon, Cassiope fastigiata,
Danthonia cachemyriana, Salix spp., Carex nubigena, C. stenophylla,
Bristorta spp. and Anaphalis spp.

Flora: The reserve supports over 1,000 species of plants including

bryophytes, fungi and lichens (Samant, 2001). About 620 species of flora has
been reported for NDNP and the list comprises of 531 Angiosperms, 11
Gymnosperms and 33 Pteridophytes. Smythe (1938) surveyed VOFNP and
the adjacent areas and reported 262 plant species. Later, Kala (1998) made a
floral inventory of vascular plants exclusively, inside the NP and recorded 521
species of vascular plants (Angiosperms, Gymnosperms and Pteridophytes)
belonging to 72 families and 248 genera. The vegetation comprises mainly of
temperate, sub alpine and alpine types. The alpine meadows are locally
known as ‘bugyals’ which harbours high value medicinal plants such as
Aconitum spp. Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Podophyllum hexandrum,
Nordostachys jatamansi, Jurinea dolomiaea, Trillidium govanianum,
Gaultheria trichophylla and aromatic plants viz., Nardostachys jatamansi,
Angelica glauca, Saussurea gossypiphora, Skimmia anquitilia, Geranium
wallichianum, Artemisia nilgirica, supporting over several alpine faunal
communities. The reserve also supports large numbers of other native,
endemic, rare, endangered and charismatic floral species viz., Saussurea
obvallata, Meconopsis aculeate, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Angelica glauca,
Podophyllum hexandrum.

The alpine meadow of NDBR supports a wide variety of flowering plants such
as Androsace, Cyananthus, Gentians, Geranium, Morina, Potentilla and
Primula etc. (Samant, 1993; Kala and Rawat, 1998; Samant and Joshi, 2003).
The sub alpine forest of birch (Betula utilis) and Rhododendron
campanulatum forms the timberline vegetation. There are about fifteen rare
and endangered plant species like Acoitum violaceum, A. heterophyllum,
Circeaster agrestis, Epipogium aphyllum, Listera spp, Meconopsis aculeata,

16
Nardostachys grandiflora, Orchis latifolia, Podophylum hexandrum,
Saussurea obvallata and Taxus wallichiana (Kala, 1997; Kala et al., 1997,
1998; Samant et al., 1996 and Hazra, 1983).

The trans Himalayan meadows are dominated by grasses, a few sedges and
stunted herbs such as Arenaria bryophylla, Chesneya nubigena,
Leontopodium alpinum, Oxytropis lapponica, Potentilla bifurca, Rheum
moorcroftianum and Waldhemia tomentosa. Other common species are
Cassiope fastigiata, Danthonia cachemyriana, Kobresia nepalensis,
Polygonum viviparum, Selinum tenuifolium and Trisetum spicatum besides
several medicinal plants such as Aconitum violaceum, Picrorhiza kurrooa,
Pleurospermum densiflorum, R. australe, Rheum moorcroftianum and
Saussurea obvallata (Rawat, 2005).

Table 1: Forest cover of NDBR

Vegetation types Geographical Percent of
area (area in total area (%)
km2)

Dense forest (crown density >40%) 234 10

Open forest (crown density 10-40%) 176 9

Scrub (crown density < 10% ) 87 4

Non-forest (including settlement, 1740 77

agriculture, wasteland, water bodies
and glaciers)
Total 2237 100
Source: Sahai and Kimothi, 1996

Fauna: Over 518 faunal species including mammal, birds, fishes, reptiles,
amphibians, molluscs, annelids and invertebrates are found in NDBR. The
vertebrate and invertebrate faunal group comprises of 29 mammals, 228
birds, 3 reptiles, 8 amphibians, 6 annelids, 14 molluscs and 229 species of
arthropods (Kumar et al., 2001). Snow leopard (Unicia unica), musk deer
(Moschus chryogaster), bharal (Pseudois nayaur), Himalayan tahr
(Hemitragus jemlahicus), serow (Captricornis sumatraensis) Himalayan black
bear (Ursus ursus) and Himalayan brown bear (Ursus arctos) are found in
NDBR (Dang, 1967; Khacher, 1978; Kandari, 1982; Lamba, 1987; Uniyal,

17
2004; Sathyakumar, 1993, 2004; Bhattacharya et al., 2006; Bhattacharya et
al., 2009 and Kandpal, 2010).

Nearly 200 species of birds are reported from the BR (Shankaran, 1993).
Some of the birds like Himalayan golden eagle (Aquila chrysactos
daphancea), eastern steppe eagle (Aquila rapax nipalensis), black eagle
(Ictinaetus malayensis perniger), Himalayan bearded vulture (Gypaetus
barbatus), and Himalayan snowcock (Tetragullus himalayansis) (Sankaran,
1993; Tak and Kumar, 1987; Reed, 1979 and Sathyakumar, 2004) have been
reported from NDBR. Galliformes like the Himalayan monal pheasant
(Lophophorus impejanus), koklass (Pucrasia macrolopha), Himalayan
snowcock (Tetraogallus himalayensis) and satyr tragopan (Tragopan satyra)
are found in this region.

However, very little information is available on the other invertebrate fauna of

the BR. Kumar et al. (1997) reported 218 forms of invertebrates from NDBR:
15 species of Mollusca, 6 species Annelida, 17 species of Arachnida, 1
species of Thysanura, 2 species of Collembola, 6 species of Odonata, 14
species of Orthoptera, 7 species of Dermaptera, 13 Hemiptera, 4 species of
Neuroptera, 80 species of Lepidoptera, 2 species of Trichoptera, 24 species
of Diptera, 24 Hymenoptera and 3 species of Chilododa. There is a rich
diversity of butterflies in the BR; some of the butterflies found in these areas
are common yellow swallowtail (Papilo machaon), common blue apollo
(Parnassius hardwickei), dark clouded yellow (Colias electo), Queen of Spain
fritillary (Issoria Iathonia), and Indian tortoiseshell (Aglais cashmirensis)
(Baindur, 1993) and Uniyal (2004).

9.9.5 Local Communities and Land Use Practices

Human habitation inside the core zones of NDBR is not permitted. There are
47 villages located in the buffer zone of the NDBR. Of these, 34 villages are in
Chamoli district, 10 villages in Pithoragarh district and 3 villages in Bageshwar
district (UKFD, 2004). The inhabitants belong to the Indo Mongoloid (Bhotias)
and Indo Aryan groups. Traditionally, the Bhotia tribesmen migrate to the
alpine pastures in the summers and come down to the lower valleys during

18
the harsh winters (Nautiyal et al., 2005). They have unique indigenous culture,
tradition, religious beliefs and tribal customs. Major sources of livelihood are
agriculture, rearing livestock and sheep; however ecotourism is also fast
becoming an important industry (UAFD, 2004).

Prior to 1962, Bhotias had a barter trade system with the Tibetans (UAFD,
2004). The traditional communities and local people depend on the different
forest types and alpine meadows for various bio-resources mostly used in
agriculture, livestock, traditional health care system, cosmetic, medicines,
food and other small industries (Maikhuri et al., 2000, 2001; Nautiyal et al.,
2001). Inaccessibility, environmental heterogeneity, biological, socio-cultural
and economic variations in the NDBR have led to the evolution of diverse and
unique traditional agroecosystems, crop species, and livestock, which help
the traditional mountain farming societies to sustain themselves (Maikhuri et
al., 2001).

Traditional crops cultivated in these regions include legumes, cereals,

pseudocereals, potato, mustard etc. (Nautiyal et al., 2003). The main herb
and fodder species found are Ficus roxburgii, F. nemoralis, Grewia optiva,
Dabregesia hypoleuea, Carpinus viminea, Celtis sp., Potentilla, Geranium,
Fritillaria, Lilium, Corydatis, Cyananthus, Anemone, Ranunculus, Impatiens
etc. (Kala et al.,1998; Silori and Badola., 1999) and the important medicinal
plants are Aconitum heterophyllum, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Nardostachys
grandiflora, Picrrohiza kurrooa, Angelica glauca, Allium spp. etc. (Maikhuri et
al.,1998; Nautiyal et al.,2001). Animal husbandry constitutes an important
component of the rural economy of the Himalayan region. Livestock feed is
derived from grazing and crop by-products. It provides a wide range of
services and products including draught power, manure, wool and
supplementary nutrition (Maikhuri and Ramakrishanan, 1990, 1991; Maikhuri,
1992, 1993, 1996). Increasing population of human and livestock (eg. cows,
goats and mules) has had a noticeable effect on the high altitude forests of
Western Himalaya. These livestock graze in the alpine meadows during
summer and is brought back to lower altitudes during mid autumn (Singh and
Singh 1987; Kala and Rawat 1998; Kittur et al., 2010). The people of the BR

19
are by and large poor with little hand holdings and the literacy rate amongst
the tribals is also poor (UAFD, 2004). Due to the difficult, inaccessible and
remote location of most villages, there have been few scopes for
development.

9.9.6 History of Forest Management

The forests came under British control after they defeated the Gorkhas in
1815. However, after independence, initial government control began only in
the last two decades of the 19th century. The reservation began in 1911 and
technical management by the Conservator of Forests in 1912 (UAFD, 2004).
The reserve was declared a sanctuary in 1939 and was given World Heritage
status in 1992 (Rao et al., 2000). Subsequently, various activities viz.,
trekking, mountaineering, biological surveys and expeditions started in this
fragile ecosystem and there was no curb on human pressure. The entire area
was declared as NDNP in 1983. Since then, the NDNP has been closed for all
human activities. Further, in January 1988 the area was notified as the
second BR of India and designated as the NDBR.

The NDBR was the second reserve in India to be established under the Man
and Biosphere Programme (MAB) launched by the UNESCO in 1970
(McGinley, 2008). In 1974, the widely acclaimed “Chipko Movement” began in
Reni village, located enroute to Nanda Devi and brought to light the efforts of
villagers in conservation of forest resources. Realizing the importance of its
biological diversity and occurrence of several rare and endangered flora and
fauna, NDBR was listed as World Heritage Site in December 1988 (McGinley,
2008). Later the area of NDBR was enlarged by Government notification in
2000. At present the buffer zone consists of reserve forests, civil forests, and
village managed panchayat forests (forests administered by the Forest
Department and Revenue Department and earmarked for a specific
panchayat, or village wherein user rights are clearly defined and managed by
an elected village council) (NDBR Management Plan, Forest Dept.,
Uttarakhand).

20
The 1983 ban covered grazing, hunting, harvesting herbs, wood-collection,
mountaineering and trekking in the core area of the then projected BR,
including the whole National Park (Sathyakumar, 2004). Thus, communities
traditionally dependent on sheep rearing and local resources had to seek
alternate pastures, change their vocations or emigrate (Silori, 2001). The
1998 ‘Jhapto Cheeno’ protests against the restrictions on grazing and
mountaineering and against official indifference, enlisted world-wide interest.
State support for potential development of the basin by national and
multinational interests paved the way for the creation of the Nanda Devi
Development Authority, by the villagers in 2001. Following this initiative, the
Protected Area management began to promote local entrepreneurship and
actively involve local communities which had previously been ignored, in
conservation activities (McGinley, 2008). These now receive a share in the
trail management fees and help to prevent fires and poaching. Support from
the MAB programme, initiatives of the Indian government and the latest
ecotourism policy of the newly created state of Uttarakhand, regulated tourism
was allowed and community-based tourism plans for the villages around the
Park (Lata, Tolma, Peng and Reni) were prepared. Under these plans,
capacity-building, the training and registration of local youths as guides,
creation of home stays for visitors, establishment of local tour operator groups
for eco and cultural tours, development of handicrafts and medical plant
cultivation and direct involvement of Women's Welfare Groups have all been
introduced. Eco-Development Committees were established in all the villages
and PRA- (Participatory Rule Appraisal) based micro-plans were prepared by
them which were supported with funds from various sources. This success
was recognized in 2004 by an ecotourism award (McGinley, 2008). In 1993 an
expedition was made to assess the biodiversity changes that might have
occurred by a team of scientists supported by the Corps of Engineers of the
Indian Army through the ‘Scientific and Ecological Expedition to Nanda Devi’.
The status of flora and fauna showed an improvement and recommended that
NDNP should remain closed (www.ndls.org). The ‘Biodiversity Monitoring
Expedition to Nanda Devi’ undertaken during June–July 2003 was undertaken
to evaluate the status of flora, fauna, and their habitats; assess changes in the
status of flora and fauna over a period of two decades; and also conduct base

21
line surveys for new aspects of study in Ecology and Geology. This expedition
also reported withers improvement in status of some species/taxa and
habitats or no change in status (www.ndls.org).

VOFNP was closed for livestock grazing in 1982 and people of Bhyundar
were no longer allowed inside the valley. With support from the Forest
Department, the local communities formed Eco-Development Committees
(EDCs). The EDCs at Bhyundhar and Govindghat provide support to the park
management and look after the waste disposal and management of visitor
facilities along the trail outside the NP. However, some families are still
economically unstable but others earn well from tourism and the pilgrimage
and are very supportive of the Park (Srivastava, 1999).

22
Map of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR)

- Plate 1 -

23
Landscape (A-H) of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve

- Plate 2 -

24
- Plate 3 -

25
9.10 Methods

The effect of altitude on biodiversity has been a topic of great interest for
many earlier and contemporary biogeographers. During the nineteenth
century latitudinal and elevational gradients in diversity were considered direct
responses to climatic changes and energy interactions in the environment
(Lomolino, 2001). Along environmental gradients changes in both climate and
structure occur, leading to shifts in composition of potential prey species (Otto
and Svensson, 1982). Concerning spiders, not many detailed studies have
been carried out focusing on the relationship between species diversity and
altitude. Spider communities existing at different locations along a gradient
could be expected to show marked differences with respect to niche
dimensions of the species involved. Thus, here we intent to investigate
patterns of the niche dimensions in spider communities along altitudinal
gradients.

Sampling was carried along the altitude gradient in NDBR for three years
(2008 - 2010) in three sites: Site 1 Lata Kharak (2000m-4000m); Site 2
Bhyundar Valley (1800m-4100m) and Site 3 Malari (3000m-4000m) Fig. 3-6.
Sampling was limited by steep and rugged terrain compounded with harsh
climatic condition and hence, the line transects were not adopted and plots
were laid along the existing trails. Randomly selected plots of 10m×10m size
(106 quadrates) in the various altitudinal categories were sampled. Plots were
selected systematically within a stratified altitudinal zone to ensure the
independent sampling protocol and minimizing spatial autocorrelation.

As spiders exploit a wide variety of niches, sampling was done in order to

collect representative samples from all habitats. Sampling required a
combination of methods, so six different collection techniques viz., pitfall
trapping, vegetation beating, litter sampling, ground hand collection, aerial
hand collection, and sweep netting (Coddington, 1996) were employed. Pitfall
sampling was operated for 6 days (in one season) and other five semi-
quantitative sampling methods were performed twice every season at the
same sampling sites and plots. The principal purpose of this sampling design
was to produce a relatively complete species list and associated abundance

26
data for a representative example of each site in the region, and of the region
as a whole. The pitfall traps were kept for three days and then the samples
were removed. The other five methods were employed for 30 minutes in the
same sampling plot, and the time was measured with a stop watch. Aerial
sampling (for upper layer spiders up to 1.5 m) involved searching leaves,
branches, tree trunks, and spaces in between, from knee height up to
maximum overhead arm’s reach. Ground collection (for ground layer spiders)
involved searching on hands and knees, exploring the leaf litter, logs, rocks,
and plants below low knee level. Beating (for middle layer spiders up to 1 m)
consisted of striking vegetation with a 1m long stick and catching the falling
spiders on a tray held horizontally below the vegetation. Litter sampling was
done by hand sorting spiders from leaf litter collected in a litter collection tray.
Sweep netting (for middle layer spiders up to 1 m) was carried out in order to
access foliage dwelling spiders. Ground dwelling spiders were collected using
the pitfall traps. Other methods were applied to collect web builders,
ambushers, and ground runner spiders. Specimens were identified up to
family, genus and species level when possible. All the above methods except
for the pitfall traps were employed during the morning and afternoons 8am -
2pm as night sampling was not possible in this area.

9.10.1 Collection

Established sampling protocols for spider collection (Sorensen et al., 2002)

were adopted in different sampling plots. The detailed descriptions of the
collection techniques are as follows (Plate. 5-7).

i) Pitfall Trapping - Pitfalls are the most widely used method for sampling
assemblages of ground or litter-dwelling arthropods (Uetz and Unzicker 1976;
Niemelä et.al., 1986; Whicker and Tracy 1987; Halsall and Wratten 1988;
Topping and Sunderland 1992; Davis 1993; Krasnov and Shenbrot, 1996;
Davis and Sutton, 1998; Ward et al., 2001; Jonas et al., 2002; Ranius and
Jansson 2002; Magagula, 2003). The pitfall traps were left open for a period
of three days, as this allowed maintenance of spider specimens in good
conditions before they could be transported to the laboratory for their
identification. However, the limitations of this method are that the number of

27
individuals trapped is affected by environmental, weather and species-specific
factors (Mitchell, 1963; Krasnov and Shenbrot 1996; Parmenter et al., 1989;
Ahearn, 1971). Despite the various limitations, pitfalls were used in this study
because they are widely used, cost effective and operate on a full time basis
(active during day and night). For this study, we used nine cylindrical plastic
bottles of 9cm diameter and 11cm depth, arranged within the quadrates in
three horizontal and three vertical rows, each at 5m distance from the nearest
neighbour, thus forming four smaller grids of 5m×5m within the sampling plot
(Fig. 2). Traps were filled with liquid preservative (69 % water, 30% ethyl
acetate and 1% detergent).

Fig 2: Design of the Pitfall trap

ii) Sweep Netting – Sweep-netting involves collection through the herb layer
swinging a sweep net through the under storey vegetation of shrubs for a
standard number of times (Coddington et al., 1996). A number of factors such
as weather, vegetation type and age, weight of net, type of mesh, and the
skills of the collection person affects sweep net collections (Marshall et al.,
2000). This sampling method was applied to collect the foliage spiders from
low level vegetation of shrubs (upto 2 m in height). The sweep net consisted
of a 90 cm long handle, 40 cm ring and the collection was made on white
canvas. The net was emptied at regular intervals to avoid loss and destruction
of the specimen. During sampling, sweep net was moved back and forth to

28
cover all ground layer herbs and shrubs till all vegetation in the sampling plots
was swept thoroughly for 30 minutes.

iii) Ground Hand Collecting – Ground Hand collection involves the collection
of spider samples from ground to knee level (Coddington et al. 1991, 1996).
This method of sampling was used to collect spiders, which were found to be
visible in the ground, litter, in broken logs, rocks etc. This method was
employed for 30 minutes for searching the ground dwelling spiders.

iv) Aerial Hand Collecting – Aerial Hand collection involves the collection of
spider samples from knee level to arm length level (Coddington et al. 1991,
1996). This method aided in the collection of web-building and free-living
spiders on the foliage and stems of living or dead shrubs, high herbs, tree
trunks etc. This method was employed for 30 minutes for searching the
foliage and web building spiders.

v) Vegetation Beating: The method is employed to collect spiders living in

the shrub, high herb vegetation, bushes, and small trees and branches
(Coddington et al., 1991, 1996). Spiders were collected by beating the
vegetation with a stick and collecting the samples on a cloth (1 m by 1.2 m).
The spiders were also collected by tapping the vegetation with a heavy stick
while holding a collecting tray underneath from which the spiders were
sampled (Coddington et al., 1996). Vegetation beating method was employed
for 30 minutes each, in all the sampling plots.

vii) Litter sampling: Litter sampling involves sorting out spiders from the litter
collection tray placed on the forest floor prior to the collection where litters
accumulate (Coddington et al. 1991, 1996). For the current study a wooden
frame of 1m x m was used for collection of the forest litter, then the sorting the
spider specimens by placing the litter on a white sheet. Two such litter
sampling quadrates were laid in each of the 10m x 10m plot.

9.10.2 Preservation and Identification of specimens

Collected specimens were transferred to 70% alcohol for later identification.

Accurate identification on the family, genus and species level is only feasible
with adult specimen. The identification of the spider relies heavily on the

29
genitalia. Thus identifying immature spiders to species level is considered
impractical as sexual characters are needed for species level identification
(Edwards, 1993). Identification and classification was also done on the basis
of morphometric characters of various body parts. The identification is also
based on salient features like, presence of two or three claws, presence or
absence of cribellum, paraxial or diaxial chelicerae, presence of one or two
pairs of book lungs. A detailed taxonomic study was carried out based on the
various keys and catalogues provided by Dayal (1935), Kaston (1978),
Tikader (1980), Tikader and Biswas (1981), Tikader (1982), Brignoli (1983),
Davis and Zabka (1989), Platnick (1989), Biswas and Biswas (1992), Barrion
and Litsinger (1995), Yin et al., (1997), Song and Zhu (1997), Biswas and
Biswas (2004, 2003), Nentwig et.al., (2003), Platnick (2011) and other
relevant literatures. Voucher specimens were deposited at Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehradun.

30
Fig. 3: Sampling Sites in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve

Fig.4: Sampling plots in Bhyundar Valley (1800m-4079)

31
Fig.5: Sampling plots in Bhyundar Valley (2089m-4013)

Fig.6: Sampling plots in Malari (3020m-4012m)

32
- Plate 4 -

33
- Plate 5 -

34
Various forms of Webs: A-B. Funnel web; C. Tangle web; D. Tube
web; E- F. Tent or Sheet web.

- Plate 6 -

35
Various forms of Webs: A-B. Ecribellate Orb - web; C - D. Sheet
web; E- F. Cribellate Orb web.

- Plate 7 -

36
10. Results

10.1 Systematics and Distribution of spiders from NDBR

A total of 244 species belonging to 108 genus and 33 families were collected
during this study (Appendix I; Plate 8-26). The most dominant family reported
was Araneidae 18% (44 species); followed by Salticidae and Thomisidae
11.5% (28 species); Linyphiidae 7.4 % (14 species); Uloboridae and
Tetragnathidae 4.5% (11 species); Theridiidae 8.6% (21 species);
Gnaphosidae, Oxyopidae, Sparassidae and Lycosidae 4.1% (10 species).
General description, distribution, habitat, keys to families and genera of spider
families sampled in NDBR have been followed description and details
provided by Murphy and Murphy, 2000; Jäger 1998, 2000; Kaston, 1978;
Mafham and Mafham, 1984; Dippenaar-Schoeman and Jocqué, 1997;
Cushing, 2001; Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001; Sebastian and Peter, 2009;
Platnick, 2011; Siliwal, et al., 2005; Hore and Uniyal 2009; Jose 2005; Song
1999; Ubick et al., 2005; and the observations in field.

10.1.1 Key to spider families documented from NDBR

1a. With cribellum and calamistrum…………………………………...…………..2

1b. Without cribellum and calamistrum……………….…………………………. 7

2a.Anal tubercle large, anterior margin of Prosoma with nose-like

extension…………………………………………………………....Oecobiidae
2b.Anal tubercle narrow, anterior margin of Prosoma without such
extension………………………………………………………………………...3

3a. Tarsi furnished with ungual tufts and inferior claw…………..….Psechridae

3b. Tarsi without ungual tufts and inferior claw……….………………..……….4

4a. Labium long and fused to sternum. Chelicerae fused together at base.
Spinnerets at ventral side of opisthosoma……………………....Filistatidae
4b. Labium wide and free. Chelicerae not fused at base. Spinnerets at the
end of opisthosoma………………………………......………………………...5

37
5a. Tarsi with dorsal row of trichobothria. ……………………..…Amaurobiidae
5b. Tarsi without trichobothria……..………….……………….………..…………6

6a. Metatarsus IV compressed and concave dorsally………………Uloboridae

6b. Metatarsus IV not modified…………………………….…….…….Dictynidae

7a.Tibia and metatarsus I and II with a prolateral row of long

spines………………………………………………………….…..…Mimetidae
7b. Tibia and metatarsus I and II without prolateral row of spines……………..8

8a. Sternum much wider than long, coxae IV widely

separated……………………………………………….……..Trochanteriidae
8b. Sternum not much wider than long, coxae IV not widely separated………9

9a. Posterior spinnerets absent or much shorter than anterior ones………...10

9b. Posterior spinnerets present, not shorter than anterior ones…….….……12

10a. Legs short and equal in length, without scopulae. …….……...Zodariidae

10b. Legs I and II enlarged and with scopulae on tarsi and metatarsi……….11

11a. Leg I strongly enlarged and modified; patella distinctly elongated,

metatarsus shorter than tarsus ………….…………………..Palpimanidae
11b. Leg I not modified; Patella and metatarsus different…………………….12

12a. Posterior spinnerets strongly elongated…………………………………...13

12b.Posterior spinnerets not strongly elongated…………………………….…15

13a. Spinnerets usually in a single transversal row………………....Hahniidae

13b. Spinnerets arrangement different…………………..……….……………..14

14a. Tibia I with 2-3 pairs of ventral spines ……………....…………Agelenidae

14b. Tibia I without ventral spines…………………………..…………Hersiliidae

15a. With less than eight eyes………………………………..…..………………16

15b. With eight eyes………………………………………………….…..………..17

16a. Eyes in two well separated triads……………………………..….Pholcidae

38
16b. Six small eyes arranged in three well separated contiguous
diads……………………………………………………….………Scytodidae

17a. Eyes usually in three rows (4, 2, 2); anterior median eyes very large,
second row of eyes very small, often minute; third row of two eyes of
medium size…………………………………………...…….……...Salticidae
17b. Eyes arranged differently…………………………………………………...18

18a. Legs laterigrade, directed towards side or forwards……………………..19

18b. Legs prograde, directed forwards and backwards……………………….21

19a. Tarsi and metatarsi without scopulae, legs I and II usually much longer
than legs III and IV ………………………………………….......Thomisidae
19b.Tarsi and sometimes metatarsi with scopulae, legs
different……………………………………………………………………….20

20a. Distal metatarsus dorsally with unilobate rigid structure…Philodromidae

20b. Distal metatarsus dorsally with trilobate soft membrane……Sparassidae

21a. Tracheal spiracle situated at the middle of the opisthosoma

……………………………………………………………….…Anyphaenidae
21b. Tracheal spinnerets situated directly in front of spinnerets……..…….…22

22a. Posterior median eyes flat and round, without dome shaped lens,
maxillae obliquely depressed, anterior spinnerets conical, not widely
separated, without setae on spigots, anterior lateral spinnerets one
segment with enlarged piriform gland spigots, sometimes spinnerets
long and cylindrical, far apart…………………….………..…Gnaphosidae
22b. Posterior median eyes with dome-shaped lens, maxillae usually not
obliquely depressed, tarsi without auxiliary claws, sternum mostly longer
than wide, eyes in two rows………………………………………..………23

23a. Opisthosoma with scutum; posterior spinnerets with two large cylindrical
gland spigots……………….……………………………………...Corinnidae
23b. Opisthosoma without scutum; posterior spinnerets of female without
such spigot ……………….……………………………..……….Clubionidae

39
 24a. Eyes either in three or four rows or in three groups………………….…..25
24b. Eyes in two rows, posterior spinnerets not particularly long or with one
segment only, trochanters often notched…………………………...….....28

25a.Eyes in three groups 4:2:2; Carapace broad, raised towards the

back………………………………….………………………….….Pisauridae
25b. Eyes in three rows or four rows 2:2:2:2, 4:2:2 or 2:4:2; posterior eyes not
much larger than anterior ones, trochanters notched………...……...….26

26a. Clypeus high, posterior eyes and anterior lateral eyes forming a
hexagonal group in front of small anterior median eyes, numerous long
spines on tibiae and metatarsi…………………..……...…...…..Oxyopidae
26b. Clypeus not as high as in Oxyopidae, eye position and setae on legs
different………………………………………..…………………………..….27

27a. Eyes sessile, not on tubercles, opisthosoma oval, smoothly rounded

posteriorly, male palpal tibiae without retrolateral apophysis, cocoon
attached to spinnerets, anal tubercle with one segment………Lycosidae
27b. At least one pair of eyes on shallow tubercles, opisthosoma almost
always elongated, tapered to back, male palpal tibia with retro lateral
apophysis, anal tubercle biarticulate, labium hardly longer than wide
anterior lateral eyes normal….………………....………………..Pisauridae

28a. Paracymbium being a separate sclerite, tarsi usually cylindrical or

sometimes fusiform; chelicerae often with stridulating files; spiders
without dentate process on male palpal cymbium….…………………... 29
28b. Paracymbium fused to cymbium or rudimentary, chelicerae without
stridulating files, tarsi variable………...…………………………...……….30

29a. Small spiders without dentate process on male palpal

cymbium…………………………………………………………..Linyphiidae
29b. Larger spiders with dentate process on male palpal
cymbium…………………………………………………………..…Pimoidae

30a. Tarsi IV with ventral comb of serrated hairs………………...…Theridiidae

40
30b.Tarsi without ventral comb of serrated hairs............................………….31

31a.Chelicerae divergent from base, usually long and

strong………………………………………………………....Tetragnathidae
31b. Chelicerae not divergent from base………………………....………….....32

32a. Tarsus and metatarsus together longer than patella and tibia; small to
large orb web building spiders…………………………..………..Araneidae
32b. Tarsus and metatarsus together not longer than patella and tibia; large to
very large spiders building huge webs…….………..Nephilidae (Nephila)

Systematic Account of Spiders from NDBR

Family Agelenidae C.L. Koch 1837 (Funnel- web Weavers)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace oval

attenuated in front, long and narrow in the eye region. Fovea longitudinal,
plumose hairs present, sternum slightly long or longer than wide. Eight eyes in
two rows equal in size. Cheliceral furrow is provided with 3 pro-marginal teeth
and 2 to 8 retro marginal teeth. Labium as long as wide; gnathocoxae slightly
convergent. Legs long, fairly slender and armed with numerous spines; tarsi
with trichobothria increasing in length towards tip; trochanters I and II lacking
notches; macrosetae conspicuous; plumose hairs present; tarsi without
scopulae and three clawed. Opisthosoma narrowly oval and tapering
posteriorly. Posterior spinnerets two-segmented, long and slender with apical
segment narrowing towards tip; colulus paired; anterior spinnerets widely
separated. Epigynum is variable in structure; male palp with tibial apophysis;
embolus usually long and patella and femur sometimes with apophysis. They
build typical non adhesive funnel webs, consisting of a flat, slightly concave
silk sheet with a funnel shape retreat at one end. Webs are usually built on
grass or shrub or under logs.

Agelenidae have a worldwide distribution, mainly in Holarctic, Neotropical and

Australian biogeographic realms (Ubick, et al., 2005). They are represented

41
by 42 genera, 512 species occurring worldwide (Platnick, 2011). In India it is
represented by 2 genera and 10 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Genus Agelena Walckenaer 1805

The species of the genus Agelena have often several clearly marked
chevrons on the dorsal opisthosoma. The posterior spinnerets are distinctly
long. The members of this genus builds large, sheet-like web with a funnel
retreat made close to the substrate. They usually make their webs in low
vegetation such as grass or shrubs and are widely distributed in Europe,
Africa and Asia.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Agelena sp.1

Family Amaurobiidae, Bertkau 1873 (Hackled mesh web weavers)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, cribellate, entelegyne, drab brown or grey ground

dwelling spiders. Carapace longer than wide; usually pyriform; fovea
longitudinal; cephalic region slightly elevated. Eyes eight, usually in two
transverse rows; AME may be reduced, or absent. Chelicerae with boss and
margins toothed; usually longer and slender in males. Labium is subquadrate
in shape; gnathocoxae rectangular, almost parallel and linear serrula is
present. Legs moderately long especially in males; ventral spines usually
weak or absent; tarsi three clawed and claw tufts usually absent or indistinct.
Opisthosoma is oval and with dense layer of setae; usually with chevron
markings on opisthosoma. Six spinnerets; anterior and posterior spinnerets
two segmented; PLS moderately elongated; calamistrum present; colulus
absent. Epigyne usually with posterior median lobe separated from lateral
lobe by sutures; male palpal tibia with simple, sclerotised retrolateral and
dorsal tibial apophyses.

Commonly found in dark and damp places, under leaf litter, decomposing logs
and under rocks. They are represented by 50 genera, 276 species occurring
worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India this family is up to now represent by 2
genera and 4 species (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

42
Key to genera

1a. Conductor with dorsal apophysis.....………………………..…..Draconarius

1b. Conductor lacking dorsal apophysis………………………..………………..2

2a. Cheliceral promargin and retromargin each with 5–8

teeth………………………………………………….………..Himalmartensus
2b. Chelicerae with less teeth usually stout, bearing short tooth-like branches;
epigynum lacking stabilizing pit………………………………..Amaurobius

Genus Amaurobius C.L. Koch 1837

Spiders of the genus Amaurobius are mostly Holarctic in distribution; building
irregular sticky webs, at low vegetation and plant foliage usually extended to
crevices of the soil. They are dark in colour and covered with hairs. Legs are
heavily spined and calamistrum is present on metatarsus IV. Tibial tarsus is
with dorsal prong usually stout, bearing short tooth like branches. Female
rests in webs with the spherical cocoon.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Amaurobius sp.1
Amaurobius sp.2

Genus Draconarius Ovtchinnikov 1999

Spiders of the genus Draconarius is mainly Holarctic in distribution. It is a
large genus of Coelotinae. It is distinguished by the presence of has two
retrolateral cheliceral teeth. Male with posteriorly originating copulatory ducts
along with the presence of a dorsal apophysis on the conductor, and the
cymbial furrow more than half the cymbial length. Females exhibit large
copulatory ducts and long spermathecae (Wang, 2003).
Species recorded from NDBR:
Draconarius sp. 1

Genus Himalmartensus Wang & Zhu 2008

Spiders of the genus Himalmartensus, are described from Nepal, and include
three species: the type species H. martensi new species, H. ausobskyi new
species, and H. nepalensis new species. They are distinguished by the other

43
genera of Amaurobiidae by the presence of colulus, a single chillum, smooth
trichobothria bases, and simple tracheal tubes. Both promargin and
retromargin of chelicerae have 5–8 teeth. The female epigynum is modified
with long and looping copulatory ducts.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Himalmartensus sp. 1

Family Anyphaenidae Bertkau 1878 (Tube spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small sized to medium, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace is ovoid or

pyriform, longer than wide; fovea longitudinal; sparsely covered with setae.
Eight eyes close together in two recurved rows; small, round and equal in
size. Chelicerae long and slender; furrow with two rows of teeth; fangs strong.
Labium oval; gnathocoxae well developed; both labium and gnathocoxae
longer than wide; serrula with one row of teeth. Leg long and prograde; Leg I
longest, leg formula 1423 or 4123; anterior tarsi and metatarsi scopulate; tarsi
with two claws and lamelliform claw tufts; trochanters of legs are notched.
Opisthosoma is usually oval or elongated; dorsum with distinct patterns of
chevrons; venter without pigmentation. Six spinnerets close together;
cylindrical gland spigots absent; ALS two segmented, conical and nearly
contiguous at base; median spinnerets well developed posterior pair tubular
as long as anterior pair. Colulus are a group of conspicuous setae. Epigyne is
variable and complex with a large angular plate or a membranous area; male
palp often with large tegular extensions. Embolus is slender and spiniform.

Anyphaenids are nocturnal, wandering spiders, usually found in forest litter,

foliage of trees, dead leaves, logs and under stones. They hide in tubular
silken sac-like retreats. They are represented by 56 genera, 514 species
occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011) especially in the Neotropical regions. In
India it is represented by 1 genera and 1 species so far (Sebastian and Peter,
2009).

44
Genus Anyphaena Sundevall 1833
Spiders of the genus Anyphaena are wandering spiders, found in leaf litter
and plant foliages; the tropical species belonging to this genus are usually
small occurring at ground level, in litter and under logs and stones, on foliage.
They are distinguished by the more posterior position of the tracheal spiracle,
the lack of concavities on the lateral margins of the palp-coxal lobes. Also
possessing one or more macrosetae on prolateral and retrolateral surfaces of
tarsus I. Carapace usually with two dark paramedian bands; leg segments
nearly concolours. Eyes are in two rows, small, circular and uniform in size;
PE row slightly larger than the AE row.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Anyphaena sp.1

Family Araneidae Simon 1895 (Orb- Weavers)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to large sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace often flat

sometimes swollen; cephalic region separated from the thoracic region by
oblique depression; fovea distinct to absent; clypeus low. Eight eyes in two
rows; lateral eyes widely separated from median eyes. Chelicerae is powerful,
with proximal boss, freely movable with lateral condyle; cheliceral furrow with
two rows of teeth; fang relatively short and stout. Labium is long and wide;
distal margin swollen. Leg strongly spined, short and relatively stout; three
claws, trichobothria present in all leg segments except tarsi; tarsi furnished
apically with thickened serrate bristles. Opisthosoma is large but variable in
form, usually globose, overhanging carapace; often with spines; dorsum
frequently with distinct pattern and humps, covered with serrated setae. Six
spinnerets sub-equal, simple, short, forming a compact cluster are present.
Colulus present. Spinnerets have aggregate glands spigots which produces
viscid silk. Epigyne partially or completely sclerotised, epigynal plate with
transverse furrow; male palpal complex; paracymbium usually has a
sclerotised hook, it is attached to the proximal end of cymbium; median
apophysis present, bulbus rotated within cymbium. Sexual dimorphism is
prominent in this group.

45
They are known as true orb weaving spiders, also very a diverse group
occupying a wide range of habitats. It is one of the largest families of spiders
and is distributed worldwide. They are represented by 168 genera, 3006
species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 29
genera and 154 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Key to genera

1a. Posterior row of eyes strongly procurved; anterior lateral eyes smaller
than posterior lateral eyes ………………………………………...……..……2
1b. Posterior row of eyes nearly straight or recurved, lateral eyes subequal in
size.............................................................................................................3

2a. Dorsum with transverse bands; shoulder humps absent; Distance

between PME less than distance from PLE………….…..…..Argiope
2b. Dorsum without transverse bands; usually one shoulder hump present;
Lateral eyes separated …..…………………..………….……Cyrtophora

3a. Opisthosoma wider than long; integument of opisthosoma leathery;

dorsum strongly convex ...…………………………….…Cyrtarachne
3b. Opisthosoma longer than wide…………..…………………….…..…………4

4a. Carapace strongly convex, anterior roundish; cephalic region strongly

elevated than thoracic region; opisthosoma provided with a few
tubercles………………………………………………………....…Chorizopes
4b. Carapace may or may not be convex, anteriorly narrowing; cephalic
region not elevated than thoracic region …………………………….…..…5

5a. Posterior median eyes very close, nearly touching; carapace with a U
shaped junction between cephalic and thoracic region………...Cyclosa
5b. Posterior median eyes not very close; Prosoma not having a U shaped
junction between cephalic and thoracic region…………………...…….6

6a. Prosoma with cephalic region bulging behind the ocular area, also
provided with granules; anterior row of eyes procurved; epigyne with
short beak like scape …………………………………………..….Parawixia

46
6b. Prosoma with cephalic region not building and without granules; anterior
row of eyes recurved; epigyne may or may not be procurved with scape,
when present not beak like……………...………………………………...…7

7a. Opisthosoma flattish, with a tail like extension to the rear………..Eriovixia

7b. Opisthosoma without a tail like extension at the rear……………………....8

8a. Cephalic region provided with a median bulge; abdominal spines very
short…………..………………………………………………..... Thelecantha
8b. Cephalic region without a median bulge; abdominal spines
absent……………………………………………………………………...…...9

9a. Opisthosoma round light yellowish, pink or green with two or three pairs of
discrete round black spots on rear….…….……...………………Araniella
9b. Opisthosoma usually not round; black spots on opisthosoma
absent…..………………………………………………………………….….10

10a. Scape of epigynum with tip reaching more than halfway to spinnerets;
palpus with two patellar setae and paramedian apophysis; opisthosoma
sub-spherical……..…………………………..………....................Eriophora
10b. Scape of Epigyne and opisthosoma otherwise………….………..………11

11a. Thoracic groove transverse; epigyne with distinct scape, often wrinkled
and or with lateral lobes……………………………………...……...Araneus
11b. Thoracic groove longitudinal; epigyne with unwrinkled scape and with
one or more pairs of lateral lobes…………….....……….…….Neoscona

Genus Argiope Audouin 1826

Spiders of the genus Argiope are diurnal hunters, easily distinguished by the
large females building huge orb web, often in open fields and grasslands,
meadows, and forest. Sexual dimorphism is prominent in this genus with the
male’s size strikingly smaller as compared to the female. Posterior row of
eyes strongly procurved; the posterior median eyes are closer to each other
than to the posterior lateral eyes. Anterior lateral eyes are smaller than
posterior lateral eyes. Lateral eyes borne on a conspicuous tubercle and close
together. Median ocular quadrangle is longer than wide, wider behind than in

47
front, forming a trapezium. Carapace is flat and clothed with thick layer of
short white hairs. Chelicerae is small, weak, and with a small boss. Legs long
and strong, combined length of patella and tibia shorter than metatarsus and
tarsus. Opisthosoma usually flat with variable shape; dark bands present on
the dorsum. Epigynum bears a thin or thick median septum. Webs provided
with a zigzag stabilimentum or two crossing stabilimenta and closely spaced
radial threads.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Argiope anasuja Thorell 1887; Argiope sp.1; Argiope sp.2

Genus Cyclosa Menge 1866

Spiders of the genus Cyclosa possess prominent angular abdominal tubercle,
which is often accompanied by additional humps anterolaterally or beside the
posterior tubercle; paramedian apophysis stout is hooked, and ventrally
directed. Body is drably colored with patterns of, yellow, grey, black on white
or silvery backgrounds. Carapace strongly narrowed in front and opisthosoma
bulging extending posteriorly beyond the level of the spinnerets in an angular
tubercle; an anterior narrow cephalic area markedly separated from the
thoracic area by an oblique groove forming a U-shape. Median ocular
quadrangle is trapezium-like, distinctly narrower behind than in front. Anterior
median eyes are usually larger than posterior median eyes. Posterior median
eyes very close and almost touching each other. LE situated in a prominent
tubercle and very close to each other. AE and PE recurved. Patella of male's
pedipalp with one large strong and curved spine. Opisthosoma elongate to
subglobular with humps usually paired except in the median. Epigynum small,
scape weak and variable in shape viz., straight, bent, wrinkle, pointed, or
circular. The web, which is occupied during the day and left vacant at night,
has relatively few frame threads. A stabilimentum composed of the bodies of
dead prey and other debris, also sometimes with the female's egg sacs,
passes vertically through the hub and the spider often sits camouflaging in it.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Cyclosa insulana Costa 1834; Cyclosa confraga Thorell 1892;
Cyclosa hexatuberculata Tikader 1982; Cyclosa sp.1;
Cyclosa sp.2; Cyclosa sp.3

48
Genus Neoscona Simon 1864
Spiders of the genus Neoscona are distinguished by the small compact
cluster formed by the embolus, median apophysis, conductor, and terminal
apophysis, and the broad spoon shaped epigynal scape. Carapace is with
longitudinal thoracic groove. Median ocular quadrangle is slightly longer than
wide, forming a trapezium. Anterior median eyes the largest or subequal in
diameter to the posterior median eyes. Lateral eyes close to each other and
not borne on prominent tubercles. Posterior lateral eyes smallest. Both rows
recurved. Coxa I of male is provided with a ventral hook in the distal end.
Tibia II has strong prolateral spines. Opisthosoma is variable in shape viz.,
ovoid, sub ovoid, triangular, or sub triangular with different abdominal
patterns. Epigynum simple and spoon like; scape completely fused to the
base and bears one or two pairs of lateral lobes; Epigynal openings
underneath the scape. Patella of male's pedipalp with two strong, curved, and
long spines. Cymbium of male's pedipalp broad. Web is usually vertical, with
an open hub except for a few cross threads. There may be 18-20 radii and 30
or more sticky spirals. They are nocturnal, and remain in a retreat, usually
within a curled leaf, near the web during daylight hours.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Neoscona achine Simon 1906; Neoscona mukerjei Tikader 1980;
Neoscona nautica L. Koch 1875; Neoscona theisi Walckenaer 1841
Neoscona vigilans Blackwall 1865; Neoscona shillongensis Tikader & Bal
1981; Neoscona sp.1; Neoscona sp.2

Genus Araniella Chamberlin & Ivie 1942

Spiders of the genus Araniella are small diurnal, colourful orb weavers of
trees, shrubs, or tall grass. Carapace is wide and high at anterior end. Eyes
small; posterior row of eyes straight or somewhat recurved. Legs yellow to
brown, sometimes with distal segments darker toward tips; The opisthosoma
broadly elliptical or ovoid, having 3 or more pairs of small black spots
posterolaterally; 3 sometimes 2 dorsal macrosetae present on the male palpal
patella, median apophysis slender hooklike; tegulum large, forming much of
prolateral and ventral surfaces of genital bulb; spermathecae second part
small dark. embolus long, slender, tapered to fine tip; conductor broad, often

49
with 1 or more points; terminal apophysis long, broad, arched over distal end
of bulb, overlying conductor and embolus; paracymbium lobe like. Epigynum
with short broad scape; scape appearing distinctly wrinkled, often broadly
attached at base; spermathecae in two parts, a large, round or ovoid ventral
part and a smaller darker dumbbell-shaped dorsal part. The web is often built
across the depression formed by a single leaf on a deciduous tree or shrub,
and may be horizontal. The spider remains at the hub of its web throughout
the day and does not build any retreat.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Araniella sp.1; Araniella sp.2

Genus Araneus Clerck 1757

Spiders of the genus Araneus are widely distributed throughout the world.
Carapace and opisthosoma usually covered with hairs; Carapace moderately
convex with no horny out growths; fovea transverse in the female and
longitudinal in the male, often with lateral prolongations. Median ocular
quadrangle is not much longer than wide and forming a trapezium. Median
eyes unequal in size. Lateral eyes close and situated on tubercles, anterior
and posterior median eyes slightly unequal in size, and both rows of eyes
recurved. Males with hook on coxa I and a groove on femur II, tibia II armed
with spines on prolateral side and often bent. Metatarsus and tarsus of the
first leg together not longer than the patella and tibia. Shape of the
opisthosoma variable, in some species, provided with prominent humps,
generally longer than wide. Epigynum with a prominent scape of variable form
viz., long, wrinkled and winding, short and straight. Male palp with a large
terminal apophysis, patella of the palp provided with two strong, long, curved
spines and cymbium narrow, strip-like. These spiders are orb web builders
usually rest in the silken retreat constructed with leaves in the side of the web
during the day; at rest, the tips of their front legs are in contact with a signal
thread, which runs directly to the centre of the web.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Araneus bilunifer Pocock 1900; Araneus ellipticus Tikader & Bal 1981
Araneus mitificus Simon 1886; Araneus nympha Simon 1889
Araneus sp.1; Araneus sp.2

50
Genus Chorizopes O. Pickard-Cambridge 1870
Spiders of the genus Chorizopes are found in leaf litter usually they do not
build their web. Carapace is often broadest anteriorly with highly convex and
roundish cephalic region, thoracic region descending sharply behind and low.
Ocular quadrangle forms a trapezium slightly wider than in front, labium
transversely triangular, maxilla short, broad, converging towards inside,
sternum angular, posteriorly tapering but tip is blunt, coxae IV subcontiugous,
leg short, and slender. Opisthosoma is overlapping anteriorly on the carapace
and provided with a few paired or unpaired conical or blunt tubercles. Epigyne
is with or without a short blunt scape. Most are found in India and China, with
several others found in locations ranging from Madagascar to Japan.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Chorizopes sp.1

Genus Cyrtophora Simon 1864

Spiders of the genus Cyrtophora, often builds more or less horizontal tent like
orb webs in shrubs. Carapace nearly flat dorsally with long cephalic region;
Median ocular quadrangle slightly longer than wide, lateral eyes sub equal
and slightly separated from each other. Legs are moderately long and stout.
Opisthosoma very high anteriorly and provided with distinct paired tubercles.
Opisthosoma of females usually have pointed or rounded shoulders.
Sometimes there are pairs of additional tubercles along the dorsal side of the
opisthosoma. They do not build true orb webs instead construct, specialized
tent-like, highly complex non-sticky web. These webs are aligned horizontally,
with a network of supporting threads above them, remain hanging downwards
from the apex.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Crytophora moluccensis Doleschall 1857;
Crytophora sp.1; Cyrtophora sp.2

Genus Eriophora Simon 1864

Spiders of this genus, Eriophora are true orb-weaver. Carapace is convex
with horny outgrowths. Thoracic groove is transverse in both male and
female. Ocular quadrangle is longer than wide, anterior median eyes smaller

51
than posterior medians, lateral close and situated on prominent tubercles;
both row of eyes recurved, anterior row strongly recurved. Chelicerae are
strong with boss. Epigyne is with a long scape. These spiders are orb web
builders and usually rest under the leaves attached to the web during daytime.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Eriophora himalayensis Tikader 1975; Eriophora sp.1
Eriophora sp.2; Eriophora sp.3

Genus Parawixia O. Pickard-Cambridge 1904

Spiders of the genus Parawixia, are widely distributed genus characterized
primarily by the carapace with granulate and swollen cephalic region posterior
to the ocular area. Carapace longer than wide; clothed with pubescence, hairs
and spines. Anterior eye row procurved when viewed frontally. Opisthosoma
is triangular, with paired and unpaired humps; often with a single prominent
posterior hump. Epigynum is simple with a prominent beak-like scape borne
on a swollen base. They construct vertical orb webs with an open hub.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Parawixia dehaani Doleschall 1859; Parawixia sp.1; Parawixia sp.2
Parawixia sp.3; Parawixia sp.4

Genus Eriovixia Archer 1951

Spiders of the genus, Eriovixia, have flat opisthosoma with a pronounced tail
like extension to the rear; usually light coloured, often seen resting in
characteristic pose on the upper side of a green leaf. Ocular quadrangle is
slightly longer than wide and situated on an elevation. They construct vertical
orb webs usually among plants and shrubs.
Species collected from NDBR:
Eriovixia sp.1

Genus Cyrtarachne Thorell, 1868

Spiders of the genus, Cyrtarachnae, build specialized webs in grass or on
shrubs. Carapace is convex and unarmed without hairs. Ocular quadrangle
usually wider than long; lateral eyes contiguous and sub equal in size, not
situated on prominent tubercles. Opisthosoma is large, strongly convex
dorsally and wider than long, integument leathery and provided with large

52
sigilla on the dorsal surface of the opisthosoma. Webs are built with sticky silk
and with a few radii.
Species collected from NDBR:
Cyrtarachne sp.1; Cyrtarachne sp.2

Genus Thelecantha Hasselti 1882

Spider of the genus Thelecantha, are closely related to the genus
Gasteracantha. Cephalic region provided with median bulge like conical
elevation; Opisthosoma with very short spines. Mainly tropical in distribution
ranging from Madagascar, India, Philipines to Australia.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Thelecantha brevispina Doleschall 1857

Family Clubionidae Wagner 1888 (Sac Spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Medium sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace is ovoid, distinctly

longer than wide; cephalic region slightly narrower than thoracic region; fovea
shallow to absent. Eight eyes arranged in two rows, small sub-equal in size;
posterior row slightly longer than anterior row. Chelicerae are rather long,
slender, or stout; margins toothed, promargin with 2-7 teeth, retromargin with
2-4 small teeth. Labium and gnathocoxae is longer than wide. Legs
moderately long, prograde; anterior tibiae with fewer than 4 pairs of ventral
spines and metatarsi with one, two or more pairs of macrosetae ventrally;
trochanters with or without notches; legs formula 4132 or 1423; two claws with
dense claw tufts and scopulae. Opisthosoma is oval; males sometimes with
small dorsal scutum. Anterior spinnerets is longest, conical or cylindrical and
contiguous; median spinnerets cylindrical in both sexes; PLS with short,
rounded apical segment; PMS cylindrical in male. Epigynal plate convex and
weakly sclerotised; median apophysis absent and embolus short in males.

Clubionids are free living, nocturnal wandering hunting spiders. Commonly

found on vegetation, foliage, beneath loose barks, in leaf litter and under
rocks. They are aggressive and use their front legs to detect and grab prey.
Sac like retreats are constructed in rolled up leaves, folded blades of grass or

53
under loose bark. They are represented by 15 genera, 570 species occurring
worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India, this family is represented by 3 genera and
23 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Key to the genus

1a. Legs long; leg I considerably longer than leg II; posterior eye row not
longer than anterior eye row; prosoma dorsally without
furrow…………………………………………….…………... Cheiracanthium
1b. Legs short and stout; leg II longer than leg I; posterior eye row clearly
longer than anterior eye row; prosoma dorsally with median
furrow………………………………………………………....…….….Clubiona

Genus Clubiona Latreille 1804

Spiders of the genus Clubiona are small, nocturnal moving about the stems
and foliage of plants, leaf litter or under bark, often hide themselves in silken
sacs during the day. Small to medium sized; usually white, cream, pale grey
or yellow in colour. They are distinguished by the presence of the
conspicuous dorsal groove, more than two teeth on the promargin of the
cheliceral fang furrow. Carapace rather long, somewhat narrowed in front and
slightly convex; covered with fine, sometimes silky hair, with a few large hairs
on anterior part; thoracic groove present. Fovea usually short; faint radiating
striae sometimes originate from it and occasionally form a pattern of darker
veining. Eyes are in two parallel rows, nearly straight or very slightly
procurved; posterior row markedly the longest. Anterior medians are closer
together than posteriors medians. Chelicerae are robust and convex and
usually nearly vertical; more cylindrical sometimes in males and narrower,
occasionally projecting. Legs are unicolourous and bearing scopulae;
absence of an unpaired ventral macrosetae near the tip of tarsus I; lack of
modified macrosetae on femur and tibia II of the male. Cluster of long curved
erect setae present at the anterior end of the opisthosoma. Shorter stouter
embolus in the male palpus; lack cymbial spur, and large, anteriorly located
spermathecae present in females.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Clubiona drassodes O. Pickard-Cambridge 1874; Clubiona sp.1;Clubiona sp.2

54
Genus Cheiracanthium C.L. Koch 1839
Spiders of the genus Cheiracanthium are swift nocturnal hunters moving on
plant foliage or on buildings. Eyes are usually smaller, relative to distance
between them. Posterior row of eyes are scarcely longer than anterior row of
eyes. Eyes of lateral pairs very close. Legs relatively longer, and more
slender; first leg longer than fourth. Only two teeth on the promargin of the
Cheliceral fang furrow, the presence of an unpaired ventral macrosetae near
the tip of tarsus I. Dorsal spines on femur I and II are absent; ventral spines
on tibia III absent. Posterior spinnerets are prominently longer than anterior
pair. Palpal tibial apophysis well developed long, slender and basal
retrolateral spur on the cymbium in males; epigynum in females with central or
posterior depression and funnel shaped openings leading into dark copulatory
ducts which often wind around the spermathecae before entering them. They
commonly make silken retreats in plant foliage. The females deposit and take
care of her egg sac in a breeding nest constructed by rolling leaves or
grasses.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Cheiracanthium gyirongense Hu & Li 1987; Cheiracanthium sp.1
Cheiracanthium sp.2

Family Corinnidae Karsch 1880 (Ant-mimicking sac spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, ecribellate, ant like (appearance in some species),

entelegyne spiders. Carapace is pyriform to ovoid; elongated in ant mimics,
sometimes heavily sclerotised. Eight eyes are in two rows widely spaced or
closed; grouped or bulging anteriorly; posterior eye row procurved, recurved
or straight. Chelicerae margins toothed, sturdy, convex; upper edge with
strong curved setae. Labium is slightly convex, usually depressed
transversely. Legs long and slender in ant mimics, strong with variable setae
on front legs; ventral spines may be present or absent; tarsi with two claws,
claw tufts may or may not be present; tarsal trichobothria present.
Opisthosoma is ovoid in shape. Six spinnerets are clustered together; anterior
spinnerets sturdy, conical and contiguous; PMS enlarged in females; posterior

55
ones slightly further apart than anterior pair; median spinnerets with three and
posterior spinnerets with two large cylindrical gland spigots; spigots absent in
males; Colulus triangular in shape, sclerotised.

Corinnids are free living ground spiders, usually found in woody debris, litter
or humus, under rocks some also occur on foliage. They are represented by
84 genera, 962 species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is
represented by 9 genera and 36 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Key to the genus

1a. With conical hump on clypeus in front of AME.....................….Oedignatha

1b. Clypeus without such hump………….………………………..……..………..2

2a.Legs spine present …………………………………………….…..Castianeira

2b. Legs spine absent…………………………………………………...Trachelas

Genus Castianeira Keyserling 1879

Spiders of the genus Castianeira are usually found in leaf litter in shady
deciduous forests; sometimes found under logs and stones in open habitats;
also found commonly in association with ants. The carapace and opisthosoma
are heavily sclerotised and shiny; dorsum of the opisthosoma often shows
transverse bands of white scalelike setae. Carapace is oval to convex; well
marked median furrow present. Lower margin of chelicerae is with two teeth.
Labium is usually wider than long. Legs long and thin; tibia I and II have two
or three pairs of ventral spines. Opisthosoma ringed or sometimes marked
with white or other shiny colours. The egg sacs are shiny disks with adhering
crumbs of soil, stuck to the undersides of logs or stones
Species recorded from NDBR:
Castineira zetes Simon 1897

Genus Trachelas C. L. Koch 1872

Spiders of the genus Trachelas are commonly found at the base of plants, in
grasses and in ground debris. They are wandering hunting spider making no
web but silk retreats spun in rolled leaves, under loose bark, or on objects on
the ground; carapaces shiny red and sterna that contrast strikingly with their

56
pale opisthosoma. Carapace is longer than wide, with enlarged chelicerata.
Opisthosoma is oblong, with darker markings on the dorsal side. Lateral
constrictions in the palp-coxal lobes absent, they lack the procurved posterior
eye row and trochanteral notch; posterior row of eyes recurved rather than
straight. Leg macrosetae and ventral prominence on the male palpal femur
are absent. Sometimes its bite and the venom cause local swellings and
lesions with severe pain.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Trachelas sp.1; Trachelas sp.2; Trachelas sp.3

Genus Oedignatha Thorell 1881

Spiders of the genus Oedignatha are ground dwellers that inhabit mainly in
leaf litter, dry grass or under rocks and often in disturbed habitat. Carapace is
usually punctuate oblong; ventral fovea short; cephalic shield present.
Chelicerae are large, prominent, and geniculate with inner margin provided
with 5-9 teeth. Leg I and II with ventral spines on tarsi and metatarsi. The
opisthosoma part is oblong covered with sclerotised dorsal shield ornamented
by white spots. Female constructs a flat, white, disc-shaped egg sac of brittle
silk, usually placed under a fallen log or under a piece of bark on a tree. A
brush of dark hair present on the posterior lateral spinnerets. They are
commonly parasitized by wasps.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Oedignatha sp.1

Family Dictynidae O. Pickard-Cambridge 1871 (Mesh web spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Very small, cribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace pyriform; cephalic region

is usually relatively high, with longitudinal rows of white setae; fovea
longitudinal. Eight eyes in two rows and AME often reduced or absent.
Chelicerae vertical; margins usually toothed; gnathocoxae slightly to
moderately converging. Legs moderately long; tarsi either without or with one
or two trichobothria; tarsi three clawed; legs usually without spines.
Calamistrum is uniseriate, usually long. Opisthosoma sub oval to oval; slightly

57
overlapping carapace; bearing dense layer of seate; usually pale with dark
pattern or chevrons. Six cylindrical spinnerets; anterior and posterior
spinnerets are two segmented, distal segment short. PLS is as long as ALS or
longer sometimes. Cribellum is bipartite or entire or absent. Epigyne is
variable; weakly sclerotised; male palp without median apophysis, embolus
long and slender.

They build nest like web retreats and are widely distributed in the world. They
are represented by 50 genera, 565 species occurring worldwide (Platnick
2011). In India it is represented by 8 genera and 11 species so far (Sebastian
and Peter, 2009).

Genus Dictyna Sundevall 1833

Spiders of the genus Dictyna are widely distributed in the world. The entire
body is covered with long hairs, longest in the carapace. Carapace markedly
elevated in front, rows pf light hairs run anterior from the fovea to the front of
the head and converge slightly anteriorly and posteriorly. Well marked cervical
groove divides the cephalic from the thoracic region. Eyes are even and
widely spaced. Clypeus is wide. Chelicerae are long in male. Calamistrum is
borne on the middle half of two thirds of the entire length of metatarsus IV.
Tarsi and metatarsi are without trichobothria. Opisthosoma is ovoid; almost
have different patterns, broad, median stripes running the length of the dorsal
side. Epigynum is with more or less distinct posterolateral atrial grooves and
lacking a spatulate scape. Tibia of male palp is provided with a conical lateral
projection. They spin cribellate webs on plants, often in dry and dead
vegetation.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Dictyna sp.1; Dictyna sp.2

Family Filistatidae Ausserer 1867 (Crevice weavers)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, ecribellate, haplogyne spiders. Carapace oval, flat

with anterior projection; cephalic region distinctly narrowed anteriorly; clypeus
long; fovea indistinct to absent; usually covered with fine setae. Eight eyes

58
clustered in a compact group, situated on a small tubercle or a central mound.
Chelicerae small with laminae; basally fused which differs this family from the
other cribellate spider familles; no lateral condyle; fang short, fang furrow
without teeth; gnathocoxae inclined inwards, strongly converging together in
front of labium; labium as wide as long and fused with sternum. Legs are fairly
long, especially in males; prograde with numerous spines, paired setae
ventrally on tibiae and metatarsus; three dentate claws; autopasy at patella-
tibia joint. Opisthosoma cylindrical to slightly flattened, posteriorly rounded;
covered with soft, short dense hairs. ALS three segmented with three
ampullate glands spigots; cribellum small, divided, sub-triangular to narrowly
transverse; indiscernible by covered hairs; bearing claviform spigots;
calamistrum short; spinnerets set slightly forward; median spinnerets two
segmented with large basal spigot. Female gonopore region is not modified
externally; male palp with cymbium; bulb simple and attenuated.

Filistatids are nocturnal, living in tubular silken lined retreats in crevices in

rocks or walls. They are represented by 17 genera, 113 species occurring
worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 3 genera and 10
species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Genus Pritha Lehtinen 1967

Spiders of the genus Pritha are sedentary, wandering nocturnal and usually
found in crevices. Prosoma and opisthosoma elongated; well defined cluster
of hairs present on the Prosoma; Thoracic groove absent. Eyes close together
in a group and occupy about one third of the width of the carapace. Tarsal
claws without spines. Eyes are clumped together. Cribellum is triangular and
divided; calamistrum bisegmented.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Pritha sp.1; Pritha sp.2

59
Family Gnaphosidae Pocock 1898 (Mouse spider)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, ecribellate entelegyne spiders. Carapace is pyriform

to oval, smoothly convex at sides, gradually or abruptly narrowed toward front,
rather low usually with distinct thoracic groove; fovea distinct. Eyes are small,
arranged in two transverse rows of 4 each. Anterior or median eyes round,
and remaining eyes round, ovoid, or angular, depending on genus; PME
modified, oval to flatten; irregular in shape. Chelicerae short; margins with
teeth, keels, lobes or carinae rarely smooth, robust, tapered from base to tip,
and hairy in front. Gnathocoxae is with distinct oblique depression on the
ventral surface and with serrula at tip. Legs prograde, moderately to slightly
spined, usually rather short and stout, hairy; tarsi two clawed; tarsi I and II
often with dense scopulae; tarsi occasionally with claw tufts; macrosetae
rather short and sparse. Leg IV longest and leg III shortest; each tarsus with
pair of toothed claws. Opisthosoma elongated, cylindrical, usually with dorsal
scutum in adult males and with cluster of erect curved setae at anterior end;
anterior scuta present in some males. Spinnerets one segmented; anterior
spinnerets parallel, large and cylindrical; ALS cylindrical and widely separated
at base; pyriform glands spigots of anterior spinnerets greatly enlarged.
Epigyne is variable; slightly sclerotised; spermathecae round, ovoid, elongate.
Male palp are usually stout pointed retrolateral tibial apophysis; genital bulb
usually convex, with conductor, terminal apophysis and median apophysis.

Gnaphosids are free living, nocturnal spiders found on the soil surface, with
only a few living on plants. Most ground dwelling species constructing a silk
retreat under stones or surface debris within which they remain during non
active period. They do not spin a web. They are represented by 115 genera,
2111 species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by
28 genera and 139 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Keys to genera

1a. PME usually round, rarely oval, barely larger than PLE; PE nearly
equidistant; PER straight, occasionally slightly procurved…………Zelotes

60
1b. Eyes arrangement otherwise…………………………….………………..…..2

2a. Cheliceral retromargin with a serrated teeth; gnathocoxae usually rounded

laterally……………………………………………………………….Gnaphosa
2b. Chelicerae otherwise……………………………..……………………………3

3a.Trochanters deeply notched…………….………………..…….….Drassodes

3b.Trochanters otherwise………………………………………………………….4

4a. Male palpus with embolus bearing enlarged base, median apophysis
elongated, inconspicuous; female with spermathecae lacking terminal
bulb……………………………………………………..……………..Herpyllus
4b. Male palpus with embolus; sinuous lacking enlarged base, median
apophysis hooked; female with spermathecae bearing terminal
bulbs………………………………………….…………………...Scotophaeus

Genus Gnaphosa Latreille 1804

Spiders of the genus Gnaphosa are predominantly ground dwelling and
nocturnal remaining under stones and logs during the day. Carapace is dark
in colour; cephalic area sightly elevated; thoracic groove longitudinal. Eyes
eight heterogenous and arranged in two rows. Body is depressed
dorsoventrally. Opisthosoma oval, flattened, dark grey to black and covered
with hairs but not greatly larger than the carapace. Legs are moderately short
and spinose. Six spinnerets are present; anterior spinnerets are cylindrical,
longer and more heavily sclerotised than posterior and widely separated from
each other. They spin delicate silken sacs, within which they moult or mate;
mature females are most often found guarding their characteristically flattened
egg sac.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Gnaphosa poonensis Tikader 1973; Gnaphosa sp.1
Gnaphosa sp.2

Genus Herpyllus Hentz 1832

Spiders of the genus Herpyllus are small to large, commonly found in
grasslands, riverbanks, forest floor also sometimes occurring in houses and

61
old buildings. Carapace is elongated to oval, narrow in the anterior end; short
recumbent setae present. Anterior eye row is slightly recurved, while posterior
row is straight. Dorsal trichobothria are present. Males have long broad
embolus and straight rod-like or hair-like median apophysis.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Herpyllus sp.1

Genus Drassodes Westring 1851

Spiders of the genus Drassodes are of medium size occurring under stones in
alpine grasslands, pine forests and vegetation. Carapace is flat, broad in front
with a fovea and covered with pubescence. Anterior eye row is procurved;
medians slightly larger than laterals; posterior eye row longer, procurved,
medians oval, slightly larger than laterals. Chelicera is strong, inner margin
normally with two teeth each on inner and outer margin. Distinct ventral notch
at the tip of each leg trochanter is present. Two dorsal spines on tibia IV; tibia
I and II sometimes bear one ventral spine on the apical half. Opisthosoma
longer than wide, narrow behind, covered with pubescence. Male palpal tibia
is elongated and slender; short retrolateral apophysis and small hooked
median apophysis present; embolus slender; spermathecae subdivided.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Drassodes sp.1

Genus Scotophaeus Simon 1893

Spiders of the genus Scotophaeus are medium to large and brown or reddish
brown. Carapace is much narrower in font; fovea present. Eyes of the anterior
medians larger than the laterals, the median are circular and anterior lateral
elliptical. AME larger than ALE; posterior eye row slightly longer than anterior
row, slightly procurved, eyes equal in size and equidistant from each other.
Legs are without preening comb and trochanters with shallow notch; tibia IV
with one or no dorsal macrosetae, chelicerae with a retromarginal tooth.
Median apophysis hooked, and epigynum with paired median ducts.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Scotophaeus sp.1; Scotophaeus sp.2

62
Genus Zelotes Gistel 1848
Spiders of the genus Zelotes are nocturnal agile and difficult to capture, often
found in association with ants, commonly occurring in litter, around water
bodies, under rocks and grasses. Carapace oval prominently narrowed in
front and covered with fine hairs. Dorsum bears widening striae diverging from
the short longitudinal fovea. Eyes grouped closely, posterior eye row a little
longer than the anterior eye row. AE row slightly procurved viewed frontally,
ALE larger than the AME. PE row straight, PME irregular in shape, sometimes
larger than PLE and as far from adjacent PLE as from each other, or equally
spaced. Chelicerae are moderately strong, vertical, with hairs in the inner part
of the promargin. Promarginal teeth vary from three to six, commonly three
and retromargin has two or three occasionally one. Legs moderately long
tibiae and metatarsi III and IV with or without ventral spines. Opisthosoma
dark to black, covered with fine short hairs, and three pairs of spots or
impressions dorsally. Presence of a preening comb on tarsi III and IV; and
intercalary sclerite in the male palpus. They build transparent, lustrous webs.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Zelotes sp.1; Zelotes sp.2; Zelotes sp.3

Family Hahniidae Bertkau 1878 (Comb-tailed spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace generally pyriform, longer

than wide light to dark brown with dark pattern margined with black; narrowed
in cephalic region; fovea longitudinal. Eight eyes of equal size arranged in two
transverse row; both rows pro-curved. Chelicerae margins toothed with teeth
on each side of the cheliceral furrow; basal boss present or absent; lateral
side of the chelicerae with stridulatory organs. Labium is wider than long;
gnathocoxae slightly convergent. Legs short robust with few setae; ventral
scopulae usually absent; tarsi three claws, claws tufts absent; tarsal with 2-3
dorsal trichobothria more or less reduced; trochanteral notches absent.
Calamistrum is in one row. Opisthosoma is usually oval. Six spinnerets in a
single transverse row, posterior spinnerets long and two segmented; colulus

63
present. Epigyne is complex; male palp long and curved, patella usually with a
basal hook; embolus thin, median apophysis reduced.

They are widely distributed, usually found in leaf litter and under dead logs
mostly in forested areas. They spin delicate sheet webs, usually hiding
beneath it. They are represented by 26 genera, 241 species occurring
worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 3 genera and 4
species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Genus Hahnia CL Koch 1841

Spiders of the genus Hahnia are well distributed in the world and commonly
found in dry leaf litter. Carapace longer than wide, varying from light to dark
brown, with grey to black pattern, and margined with black; cephalic region
narrow. Eyes eight, in two rows, eye rows slightly procurved. AME is smaller
than ALE and significantly reduced. Opisthosoma ovoid and slightly pointed
posteriorly. It is overall grey with two elongated yellow areas alongside the
cardiac mark and with five transverse, chevron shaped yellow bands
posteriorly. Legs short with annulations. Lateral side of chelicerae with a
stridulating organ. Opisthosoma is with oblique and transverse light markings
on a gray background; femur of pedipalp almost as long as tarsus in the
female. Tracheal spiracle is closer to spinnerets than to the epigastric furrow.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Hahnia sp. 1

Family Hersiliidae Thorell 1869 (Long-spinneret spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Medium sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Body colour varies golden

brown to pure white, or almost black and mottles. Carapace ovoid and
flattened; ocular area raised; longitudinal fovea narrow and radiating striae;
densely covered with plumose setae. Eyes eight are in two strongly recurved
rows. Chelicerae is weak; lacking boss, three promarginal teeth, series of
denticles on retromargin, usually more than four. Labium rebordered;
gnathocoxae inclined obliquely on the labium and strongly convergent. Legs
prograde, very long and slender, especially in males; legs III shortest; tarsi

64
three clawed; few macrosetae; trichobothria present. Opisthosoma flat;
densely covered with plumose setae; wider behind than in front. Anterior
spinnerets are cylindrical, slightly tapering distally; posterior spinnerets very
long; inner surface with a series of long tubules providing thin silk threads.
Colulus present. Female epigynum is with broad central septum; male palp
lacking tibial apophysis.

Hersilids are extremely active hunters living on tree trunks, old walls or under
stones sometimes building irregular webs. They are represented by 15
genera, 171 species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is
represented by 3 genera and 6 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Genus Hersilia Audouin 1826

Spiders of the genus Hersilia are well distributed in the tropical and
subtropical regions of the world. Carapace flat and laterally angulated;
prominently high clypeus Ocular quadrangle parallel sided. Head flat, angular
laterally. Clypeus is usually very high and prominent. Metatarsi II, III and IV
bisegmented; tarsi of legs I, II, and III double-segmented; posterior spinnerets
very long, much longer than opisthosoma; distinct colulus separates the
anterior pair of spinnerets; and strongly recurved AE and PE rows. They do
not build webs, while facing away from the prey, they circle and fix it to the
bark with bands of silk emanating from the long spinnerets, which they rotate
rapidly so as to encapsulate the prey. Egg sacs are attached to the bark and
are camouflaged with bits of bark and debris.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Hersilia sp.1

Family Linyphiidae Blackwall 1859 (sheet web spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace is variable; longer than

wide; clypeus height usually exceeding that of the median ocular region. Eight
subequal eyes arranged in two rows; anterior median eyes slightly darker.
Chelicerae robust; margins toothed; usually with strong teeth on cheliceral
furrow. Gnathocoxae is usually parallel. Lateral condyle absent; legs usually

65
long, slender and provided with macrosetae especially on tibiae and
metatarsi; tarsi usually cylindrical three claws. Opisthosoma is longer than
wide; usually ovoid to elongate; with or without patterns dark or shiny; scutum
present in some males. Anterior and posterior spinnerets are short and
conical, concealing median pair. Colulus present. Epigyne is simple and
highly variable; male embolus complex.

Linyphiids occur worldwide especially they are well represented in the

temperate and cooler regions of the world. They spin delicate sheet webs
between branches of trees or shrubs in tall grass and sometimes close to the
ground. They are sometimes also found in litter and debris. They are
represented by 586 genera, 4378 species occurring worldwide (Platnick
2011). In India it is represented by 16 genera and 28 species so far
(Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Key to genera

1a.Lateral margin of carapace and front of chelicerae armed with

teeth……………………………………………………………………….Erigone
1b. Lateral margin of carapace and front of chelicerae without teeth………….2

2a.Posterior eyes not closely set; Median ocular area not longer than
wide…………………………...………………………………..Linyphia (in part)
2b.Posterior eyes closely set. Median ocular area longer than
wide…...…………………………………………………………………..……….3

3a. Carapace pale with dark stripe bifurcating anteriorly…………….……..…..4

3b. Carapace markings otherwise…………………………………………………5

4a. Dorsal stripes wider; terminal apophysis not spiral; palp with larger patellar
apophysis…………………………………...…………………..Pityohyphantes
4b.Dorsal spine on carapace narrow; terminal apophysis of palp twisted in a
thick, tight spiracle; palp without patellar apophysis……………..…Linyphia

5a. Epigyum with both dorsal and ventral scapes; ventral scape may be very
short or long but always with terminal pit…………...…....……Bathyphantes

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5b. Epigynum otherwise……………………………………………..……………..6

6a. Cephalic region with dorsal prominence…………………………….Atypena

6b. Cephalic region otherwise………………………………………..……………7

7a. Terminal apophysis of palp twisted in a thick spiral…………………Neriene

7b. Terminal apophysis not spiral………………………………………………….8

8a. Embolus long and threadlike, making loop beyond confines of cymbium;
carapace elongated in cephalic region; chelicerae elongated, angled
posteriorly………………………………………….…………….Microlinyphia
8b. Embolus division with radix, embolus and lamella not fused/ Palp bulb
with distinct arrangement of embolus and radix……..……………..Agyneta

Genus Bathyphantes Menge 1866

Spiders of the genus Bathyphantes closely resemble Lepthyphantes in
appearance. Black markings present on the dorsal surface of the abdominal.
Legs are long and thin; femora I-III each with a small dorsal spines; tibiae I-IV
with two dorsal spines and one each of retrolateral and prolateral in tibiae I
and II, metatarsi spineless and IV without a trichobothrium. Male palpal
variable; female epigynum often elongated with a scape.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Bathyphantes sp.1

Genus Agyneta Hull 1911

Spiders of the genus Agyneta are distinguished by the distinct arrangement of
a palpal bulb with embolus and radix; embolus and radix not fused.
Opisthosoma is unicoloured or patterned.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Agyneta sp.1

Genus Atypena Simon 1894

Spiders of the genus Atypena are commonly found in grasslands, and low
vegetation. Carapace is slightly high in the cephalic region and broadest
between coxae II and III. Lateral eyes contiguous, AE row slightly recurved
and PE row straight, PME largest and AME smallest, MOQ usually wider

67
behind than in front. Clypeus is high. Epigynum simple; males have elevated
head forming a transverse lobe bearing the PME, pit present in PME and
PLE, area between PME and AME hairy, palpal organ complex with embolic
portion rather wide apically. Tibia III and IV of both sexes bear single spines
each. The eggs are usually covered with a thin layer of silk, laid in masses on
dried leaf sheaths. They do not receive any maternal care.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Atypena adelinenae Barrion & Litsinger 1995; Atypena sp.1

Genus Erigone Audouin 1826

Spiders of genus Erigone are distributed worldwide and readily separated
from the other members of the family by the presence of teeth in the margin of
carapace and anterior of chelicerae; often dark brown or black spiders with
smooth and shiny carapaces, male head elevated with no definite lobe; male
maxillae with warts; metatarsus IV without trichobothrium; patella of male
pedipalp bears a terminal ventral process, and tip of tibia deeply excavated,
producing a deep pit; embolic division consists of a more or less elongate
central body armed with three teeth; female epigynum simple, usually with a
procurved rebordered posterior edge. They are often found near water where
they place their square webs between the grasses.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Erigone sp.1; Erigone sp.2

Genus Linyphia Latreille 1804

Spiders of the genus Linyphia is distributed worldwide mainly occurring in the
temperate regions. Eyes are small, widely spaced; Opisthosoma with dorsal
patterns. Legs are usually long, metatarsi almost twice as long as tarsi.
Paracymbium of male palp is very slender and conspicuous. They construct a
web with a horizontal mat under which the spider hangs upside down. The
sheet hangs on random vertical threads. Insect flying against these threads
tumble down on the horizontal sheet web and are caught by the spider.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Linyphia sp. 1; Linyphia sp. 2; Linyphia sp. 3; Linyphia sp. 4

68
Genus Pityohyphantes Simon 1929
Spiders of the genus Pityohyphantes are distinguished by the presence of
wide dorsal stripe on the carapace. Terminal apophysis is not spiral and large
patellar apophysis on palp.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Pityohyphantes sp. 1

Genus Neriene Blackwall 1833

Spiders of the genus Neriene usually construct sheet webs in shrubs and low
vegetation. Opisthosoma has a distinct waist and protruding rear. Terminal
apophysis of palp twisted in a thick tight spiral.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Neriene sp.1; Neriene sp.2

Genus Microlinyphia Gerhardt 1928

Spiders of the genus Microlinyphia are distinguished by the elongated
carapace in the cephalic region. Chelicerae elongated and angled posteriorly.
Males usually have a tubular black opisthosoma with sometimes two white
spots at the front end. Embolus long and thread like, making loop beyond
confines of cymbium.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Microlinyphia sp.1

Family Lycosidae Sundevall 1833 (Wolf spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to large spiders, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace is longer

than wide; usually covered with short recumbent setae. Eyes eight all dark in
colour; the posterior row of eyes recurved strongly; eyes arranged in 3 rows;
anterior eyes small other eyes large. Chelicera long, robust, often hairy; with 3
prolateral and 2 to 4 retro lateral marginal teeth. Legs are long, usually strong
with spines; tarsi bearing 3 claws, IV leg longest. Six spinnerets present;
Colulus absent. Epigyne with well sclerotised median septum; male palp
lacking tibial apophysis; females of this family carries the egg sac along with
them attached to the spinnerets.

69
Lycosids are mostly free living ground wandering spiders that are well
distributed in the world. They are represented by 118 genera, 2374 species
occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 17 genera
and 126 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Keys to genus:

1a.Posterior spinnerets distinctly longer than anterior, with apical segments

conical and as long as the basal………………….....………..……….Hippasa
1b. Posterior spinnerets only slightly longer than the anterior; apical segments
hemispherical and very short…….….…………………………….…...……….2

2a.Carapace with paired dark longitudinal streaks in pale area anterior to

dorsal groove……………………………………………………...……Trochosa
2b. Carapace otherwise…………………………………………………………….3

3a.Clypeus vertical; metatarsus IV longer than or as long as tibia and patella

IV together..……………………………………….……………...……...Pardosa
3b.Clypeus slanting; metatarsus IV shorter than tibia and patella
together...………………………………………………………..……..….Lycosa

Genus Hippasa Simon 1885

Spiders of the genus Hippasa commonly occurs in slopes, vegetation and
often found in disturbed habitats. Carapace longer than wide; cephalic region
pronouncedly narrowed in front. AE row is slightly wider than the PME row;
ocular quadrangle wider than long. Chelicerae is strong and retromargin with
three teeth. Legs long thin and covered with spines and hairs. Leg IV
exceptionally long while opisthosoma longer than wide with dorsal markings.
Posterior spinnerets considerably longer than the anterior spinnerets and the
apical piece of the posterior are as long as the basal piece. Epigyne is usually
with a distinct process; and male pedipalp slender, like the cymbium. They
make sheet-like webs with a funnel retreat over which they escape or run,
similar to the family Agelenidae.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Hippasa agelenoides Simon 1884

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Genus Trochosa C.L. Koch
Spiders of the genus Trochosa are widely distributed in the world. Possess
rather thick bodies and legs. Carapace with paired dark longitudinal streaks
between dorsal groove and posterior row of eyes; AE row straight or slightly
procurved and as long as or shorter than PME row; AME distinctly larger than
ALE; clypeus height less than one AME diameter; chelicerae with twa or three
retromarginal teeth; female fang is without excrescence; femur I with two
spines; dorsal base of tarsus I is without trichobothrium. The males are easily
distinguished by the presence or absence of palpal claw and sickle-shaped
terminal apophysis. A marginal line present on the genital openings of
epigynum. They are seldom seen in the open, as they apparently move little
and prefer the relatively dark and moist spaces in deep grass or under surface
litter. Females tend to make shallow nest holes in the top layers of soil to hold
their round white egg sacs until hatching occurs.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Trochosa sp.1

Genus Lycosa Latreille 1804

Spiders of the genus Lycosa are commonly found to build open vertical
burrows, often in rocky outcrops, under rocks or logs. It is a very large genus
that includes a majority of species of wolf spiders. Carapace long, dark brown
with a light wide longitudinal median stripe, facial area vertical and the sides
of the face slanting four posterior eyes larger and arranged in a quadrangle,
slightly wider behind than in front the labium is always longer than wider and
the basal excavation is prominent, usually one third or more of the length of
the labium. Clypeus is not vertical. Tibiae I and II armed with three pairs of
ventral spines. Metatarsus IV is never longer than tibia and patella together.
Opisthosoma is overall greyish with a dark median stripe, often breaking into
chevrons, bars or dots. They do not spin a web. The larger forms live in a silk
lined burrow and under stones, with the entrance covered by a thin sheet of
silk. The female carries the cocoon attached covered by a thin sheet of silk.
The female carries the cocoon attached to its spinnerets and after hatching
the young ones swarm onto the mothers back.

71
Species recorded from NDBR:
Lycosa tista Tikader 1970; Lycosa sp.1; Lycosa sp.2

Genus Pardosa C.L. Koch 1847

Spiders of the genus Pardosa are one of the largest wolf spider genera. They
are small to medium in size. Cephalic region elevated; clypeus vertical.
Labium is usually wider than long with basal articular notches. AE is
procurved row distinctly shorter than PME row while AME longer than wide,
pale or dark. Legs moderately long, slender, pale or dark; scopulae sparse;
femur I bears three dorsal and two prolateral spines, prolateral spines close to
each other distally; tibia with two dorsal bristles, one or two prolateral, one or
two retrolateral and six ventral spines; metatarsus I has a dorsal bristle, two or
three prolateral, and two or three retrolateral, and seven ventral spines.
Opisthosoma is generally ovate, dark to pale in colour. Cymbium of male
pedipalp has one to three short stout spines apically, terminal apophysis
tooth-like, projected towards tip of embolus and conductor; embolus long to
short, epigynum with distinct hoods. They are generally found in wet ground
near ponds and steams. The egg sac is lenticular, usually greenish when
fresh, changing to dirty grey when older.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Pardosa sumatrana Thorell, 1890; Pardosa minuta Tikader & Malhotra, 1976
Pardosa pseudoannulata Bösenberg & Strand, 1906
Pardosa sp.1; Pardosa sp.2

Family Mimetidae Simon 1881 (Pirate Spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace oval to

pyriform; head region not distinct; sometimes with rows of long spines.
Cephalic region varies from long and attenuated to short and sharply convex
near middle. Eight eyes in two rows; anterior median eye usually largest;
lateral eyes equal in size, contiguous and raised on a small common
protuberance; well separated from median eyes; anterior median eyes
frequently raised on small, square protuberance. Chelicerae relatively long;

72
directed vertically; fused at base; inner side separated by a narrow, triangular,
elongated, membranous fissure, cheliceral promargin with pep teeth. Labium
as wide as long as or longer than wide. Gnathocoxae is long and almost
parallel, ventrally with fairly short sub marginal teeth. Legs are long and
slender with strong spines. Legs I and II are slightly longer; tibiae and
metatarsi I and II with modified prolateral spination consisting of series of
long, slightly curved spines. Opisthosoma varies in shape; sometimes with
paired projections; integument usually with very strong isolated setae. Six
spinnerets present; with peculiarly enlarged, rounded and incised cylindrical
gland spigots; Colulus distinct. Epigynum distinct, usually covered by a broad
flat sclerotised plate but relatively simple, usually with lobed posterior
extension. Male palp is fairly long with strongly developed paracymbial
process; bulb with strongly curved embolus.

Most mimetids are araneophagous, specialized predators of web living

spiders. They are encountered in debris on the ground, in low vegetation or
on the webs of other spiders. They are represented by 13 genera, 156
species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 2
genera and 3 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Genus Mimetus Hentz 1832

Spiders of the genus Mimetus are specialised spider predators well distributed
in the world. Carapace convex and attenuated towards front, with smooth and
shiny surface, two longitudinal rows of long, black setae run along the top of
the carapace. The distance between the anterior edge of the carapace and
the anterior medial eyes is about one-third to one-half of the distance between
the anterior and posterior medial eyes. Opisthosoma long, oval, and convex,
yellowish in colour and with four longitudinal rows of setae. Legs are spiny
with the noticeable curved first tibiae and metatarsi, both carrying long erect
spines and a row of numerous small spines, pale yellow in colour with light
brown spots and annulations. Epigynum without lateral lobes; palpus without
sickle- shaped terminal apophysis, if terminal apophysis, if terminal apophysis
sickle-shaped, then cymbium lacking apical projection. They do not spin webs
and are slow moving, stalking or ambushing their prey. They feed on insects

73
directly or prey on insects ensnared in webs belonging to other spiders. They
also feed on eggs of other spiders.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Mimetus sp.1

Family Nephilidae Simon 1894 (Golden Orb Weavers)

Diagnostic Characters:

Carapace is longer than wide, general colour dark brown to grey. Eight eyes
are in two rows, lateral eyes contiguous. Chelicerae are stout and strong,
vertical, with finely striated boss, with teeth on both margins. Labium is wider
than long. Les long slender, tarsi three clawed with spines; trichobothria
present on tibiae only, tarsus IV with sustentaculum. Opisthosoma are
variable, elongated, flat or cylindrical or round to ovoid, in some species
extending caudally beyond spinnerets, with sigilla; males with dorsal scutum.
Anterior and posterior spinnerets are dissimilar in size. Epigyne is simple with
completely or partially sclerotised genital plate. Male paracymbium usually flat
and rectangular, sub-tegulum well developed, tegulum large and globular,
embolus usually elongated with well developed embolic conductor. The
members of this family occupy a variety of habitats in most tropical and
subtropical regions of the world. Sexual dimorphism is extremely prominent;
the females are many times larger than the males.

Genus Nephila Leach 1815

Spiders of the genus Nephila are commonly found in the tropical and sub
tropical regions of the world. Cephalic region convex more elevated than
thoracic region and usually armed posteriorly with one pair of tubercles.
Labium longer than broad, ocular quadrangle nearly square or slightly wider
behind, legs very long and strong with spines, tarsi and metatarsi together
longer than tibia and patella together. Epigyne is heavily sclerotised. Usually
builds huge orb webs in forests and grasslands.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Nephila clavata L. Koch 1878

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Family Oecobiidae Blackwall 1862 (Star legged spider)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace sub-

circular, wider than long; fovea longitudinal, may be indistinct or absent; sides
round. Eyes 6-8, heterogenous in two rows in a close group near the centre of
the carapace; AME subcircular others oval to triangular; PME variable;
circular or sub-circular or may be reduced in some genera. Chelicerae is
short, slender, without fang groove or teeth; contiguous for full length; without
lateral condyle or scopula; fang simple, curved, sharp. Labium free, wider
than long. Gnathocoxae well developed, distal end convergent; without
scopula. Legs sub equal in length, covered with plumose hairs; pectinate,
spines few or lacking; tarsi three clawed; calamistrum biserrate in proximal
half (lacking in male). Opisthosoma more or less flattened oval to round;
slightly overlapping carapace. ALS and PMS contiguous; two segmented;
anterior spinnerets short. Epigynum is simple but variable; male palpus
lacking tibial apophyses.

Oecobiids are commonly found either under small star shaped mesh webs or
multi-layered webs under stones. They are represented by 6 genera, 105
species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 3
genera and 4 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Genus Oecobius Lucas 1846

Spiders of the genus Oecobius are commonly found living in silken retreats or
small flat webs over crevices in walls. Carapace with sides rounded; legs
long, tibia I about 6-7times longer than wide; calamistrum extending 2/3 length
of metatarsus IV; PLE largest, PME separated by 1-2 diameters Opisthosoma
oval, whitish, with cardiac region dark. Legs lighter with dark patches. Anal
tubercle is highly conspicuous by the presence of a fringe of long curved
hairs.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Oecobius sp.1

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Family Oxyopidae Thorell 1870 (Lynx Spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to large sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace is narrow, sub

acuminate, longer than wide and convex anteriorly, distinct frontal vertical
sloping. Clypeus is very high, vertical, usually with conspicuous stripes and
spots. Integument clothed in thin setae and sometimes in iridescent scales.
Eight eyes forming a compact sub circular group; AER recurved and PER
procurved, producing the typical hexagonal arrangement; AME minute.
Chelicerae basal segment long, not prominent, acuminate; fang short; fang
groove unarmed or weakly armed. Gnathocoxae and labium are very long.
Legs prograde, long, slender, armed with long spines, not scopulate; tarsi with
three claws; trochanters notched. Opisthosoma generally oval to elongate,
tapering to a point posteriorly. Spinnerets short sub-equal; small colulus
present. Epigyne well sclerotised; varies between genera, median depression
with scape like process or a deep pit in front with paired projections or long-
like processes. Male palp is usually with tibial apophysis and paracymbium.

Oxyopids are mainly plant dwelling hunting spiders commonly found on grass,
shrubs and trees. They are diurnal or nocturnal hunters with good vision,
enabling quick detection of prey. The egg sac is fastened to a twig or leaf, or
suspended in a irregular web. The eggs are guarded by the female. Oxyopids
are represented by 9 genera, 430 species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011)
while in India it is represented by 4 genera and 69 species so far (Sebastian
and Peter, 2009).

Keys to genera

1a. Posterior cheliceral margin without teeth; ALE row wider than PME row;
posterior eye row only slightly procurved; living specimens bright green
in colour……..……………………………………….…..…………...Peucetia
1b.Posterior cheliceral margin with a single tooth; ALE row subequal to PME
row or PME row much wider than ALE row; Posterior eye row strongly
procurved living specimens not green in colour…………..….……………...2

76
2a.Legs IV robust, clearly longer than legs III; distance between PME
subequal to distance between PME and PLE……………………...Oxyopes
2b.Legs IV small, subequal to or shorter than leg III; distance between PME
much greater than distance from PME to PLE…………..…….Hamaltatliwa

Genus Peucetia Thorell 1869

Spiders of the genus Peucetia are called green lynx spiders. Carapace narrow
in the cephalic region, widening considerably posteriorly; face vertical, with
sides of carapace and thoracic cavity is not very steep; eyes occupy a
comparatively smaller area, ALE is the largest and AME smallest while PME
and PLE subequal in size and are larger than AME. Labium is longer than
wide; Retromargin of chelicerae without teeth. Legs are very long with
numerous black spines. Opisthosoma is very elongate, nearly cylindrical,
tapering gradually behind to the spinnerets male pedipalp with a prominent
paracymbium process; epigyne highly variable in females. Predominant colour
of integument is green or shades of green in the living spider which changes
rapidly in alcohol.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Peucetia sp.1

Genus Oxyopes Latreille 1804

Spiders of the genus Oxyopes are diurnal, usually found among the stems of
woody plants such as pine, juniper, and sagebrush. Body covered with short
scale-like recumbent iridescent setae. Carapace with nearly vertical anterior
and lateral margins; cephalic area slightly elevated, sloping sharply at the
thoracic declivity and laterally.; strongly procurved PE row, equidistant from
each other; PLE and PME subequal in size, larger than AME but slightly
smaller than ALE; AME smallest. Chelicera with one promarginal and
retromarginal tooth each. Legs very long, spinous, and usually with
longitudinal gray bands in venter of femora, spines long and thick.
Opisthosoma elongate, widest behind base and tapering to the spinnerets.
The egg sac is discoidal, flat, and attached to twigs and the female guards it
until the young emerge.

77
Species recorded from NDBR:
Oxyopes javanus Thorell 1887; Oxyopes shweta Tikader 1970
Oxyopes sp.1; Oxyopes sp.2; Oxyopes sp.3; Oxyopes sp.4

Genus Hamaltatliwa Keyserling 1887

Spiders of the genus Hamaltatliwa are widely distributed in the world. Legs III
and IV are subequal in length or III longer than IV. Mostly the median eyes are
closer to the laterals than to each other in the posterior row.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Hamataliwa sp. 1; Hamataliwa sp. 2

Family Palpimanidae Thorell 1870 (Palp footed spider)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace sub-oval in

outline anteriorly slightly narrowed or truncated. Cephalic region evenly
rounded, sloping gently towards thoracic region; fovea usually distinct,
covered with a hard coriaceous, granular epidermis. Usually eight eyes in two
rows; position varies between genera; lateral eyes either contiguous or widely
separated, posterior median eyes small or large and irregular in shape.
Chelicerae short and stout; cheliceral furrow weakly developed, true teeth
may be present or retro margin but never numerous; promargin with pep teeth
opposite tip of fang, which is short and stout. Labium is triangular;
gnathocoxae converging and almost touching; serrula strong. Femur I usually
expanded dorsally; patella about as long as tibia length; tibia, metatarsus and
tarsus of leg I with scapulae on promargin but on tarsus scapulae limited to
distal or middle part of the segment. Claws of anterior legs are small but those
of posterior legs are normal in size. Opisthosoma oval, cuticle often
coriaceous with epigastric region heavily sclerotised, forming a ring shaped
scutum extending dorsally to encircle pedicel; scutum absent sometimes.
Epigastric region is heavily sclerotised; internal structure of epigyne simple;
male palp with an elaborate conductor and tibia frequently bulbous.

Palpimanids are free living ground dwellers occurring mostly in tropical and
sub tropical regions. They are represented by 15 genera, 131 species

78
occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 3 genera and
4 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Genus Palpimanus Dufour 1820

Spiders of the Genus Palpimanus are usually found in litter or under stones
sometimes in old houses. Prosoma is more or less dark red and oval in
shape. Eyes six, arranged in two rows on the front margin, first row strongly
procurved and the second slightly recurved. Legs I are very strong.
Opisthosoma is oval, light brown, with a ventral scutum covering the
epigastric area.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Palpimanus sp.1

Family Philodromidae O. Pickard-Cambridge 1871 (Running Crab

Spider)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium-sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace slightly

flattened; as long as wide or elongated; clothed in soft recumbent setae. Eight
eyes usually uniform in size and arranged in two transverse rows. Both rows
of eyes recurved and posterior row strongly longer than wide. Chelicerae are
short, slender, retromargin lacking teeth. Legs laterigrade; legs I, II, II and IV
almost equal in length, leg II usually longer, sometimes much longer; tarsi
three claws, usually with scopulae and claw tufts. Opisthosoma elongated to
oval, heart-shaped mark and a series of chevrons. Spinnerets is simple;
Colulus absent. Epigyne small, usually with median septum; male palp with
retrolateral tibial apophysis varying in shape, with or without ventral tibial
apophysis; embolus short or long, usually curved along distal end of tegulum.

Philodromus are free living hunters commonly found in soil, plants or forested
areas. Usually occurs on tree trunks, in low bushes and on herbages. They
move about rapidly on plants, usually capturing prey by lying in ambush with
legs extended. They are represented by 29 genera, 536 species occurring
worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 7 genera and 48
species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

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Genus Philodromus Walckenaer 1826
Spiders of this genus Philodromus are extremely agile, commonly found on
plant stems, foliage, and forest floor. Carapace flattened, smoothly convex at
lateral sides, as long as wide to slightly longer than wide. Small eyes, uniform
in size, PME closer to PLE than to each other. Laterigrade legs, long and
slender, leg II usually the longest, I, III, and IV subequal in length and
thickness; pedipalp of male with RIA and VIA; embolus hairlike, slender, and
variable in length; female epigynum bears a flat median septum, lateral
margins distinct, atrium modified to a small pair of depressions on the
anterolateral of the median septum, spermathecae variable in shape,
depending on the species; opisthosoma is oval and usually angulate laterally,
moderately flat but dorsally it often bears heart-shaped markings and
chevrons.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Philodromus chambensis Tikader 1980
Philodromus sp.1; Philodromus sp.2

Family Pholcidae C.L.Koch 1851 (Cellar spiders or Daddy long legs)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, ecribellate, haplogyne spiders. Carapace as long as

wide; domed towards the thoracic region; oval narrow in front and rounded
posteriorly with complex markings; cephalic region usually elevated on the
sides with deep striations, thoracic region with deep median longitudinal
fovea. Six to eight eyes present. ALE and posterior eyes forming triads; AME
may be present or absent; fovea absent. Chelicerae without lateral condyle,
fused at basal part, fang small. Labium as wide as long, fused to sternum,
with slightly concave anterior margin; gnathocoxae converging. Legs long and
slender, light covering setae; tarsi usually pseudosegmented, with three
claws; spines absent; metatarsi longer than tarsi. Opisthosoma is broad,
cylindrical to globular or oval; with light covering of dark setae; venter with
chitinous depressions behind genital groove. Anterior spinnerets contiguous,
slightly larger than other spinnerets; colulus large pointed with numerous
setae. Female genitalia usually with sclerotised plate covering the internal

80
genitalia; vulva paired with multiple spermathecae and scattered glands. Male
palps are usually large; embolus basically slender; paracymbium often large
and complex.

They occur in trees and rocks, leaf litter or plant debris, under stones and in
dark places and ceilings of the houses or caves. They often construct webs
that are irregular with long threads criss-crossing in an irregular fashion, more
compactly sin the centre sometimes. They hang upside down in the webs and
when disturbed, vibrate so vigorously that they blur themselves in the eyes of
the intruder. The females always carry the eggs in her chelicerae. They are
represented by 84 genera, 1111 species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011).
In India it is represented by 6 genera and 9 species so far (Sebastian and
Peter, 2009).

Key to genera

1a. Opisthosoma cylindrical and elongated………………………….…..Pholcus

1b. Opisthosoma short, oval, pointed dorso ventrally; with posterior
prominence above the spinnerets……………...………....…….Crossopriza

Genus Crossopriza Simon 1893

Spiders of the genus Crossopriza are widely distributed and usually found in
corners of the houses. Carapace is circular with slightly raised and forwardly
projected eye region; ocular quadrangle as long as wide and the posterior
median eyes separated by space exceeding the diameter of an eye.
Opisthosoma is short, ovate, posteriorly prominent and sloping abruptly away
to the spinnerets and looks like a box. Opisthosoma is with dark patches and
yellow spots. Legs spotted and streak. Male chelicerae with two pairs of
distinctive apophysis; female genital plate with distinctive median sclerotised
area.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Crossopriza lyoni Blackwall 1867

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Genus Pholcus Walckenaer 1805
Spiders of the genus Pholcus are cosmopolitan, usually found in old caves,
forests, inside houses and old buildings. Carapace circular; slightly longer
than broad; two triads of eyes are slightly raised. The distinguishing
characters are extremely long legs with false segmentaion in the tarsi; median
ocular area much broader than long and AME are closer to each other than to
the ALE. The opisthosoma is cylindrical and elongated, approximately three
as long as wide. Spinnerets are far removed from the epigastric fold. The
male palpal tibia is swollen.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Pholcus phalangioides Fuesslin 1775; Pholcus sp.1; Pholcus sp.2
Family Pimoidae Wunderlich 1986 (False Linyphiids)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, ecribellate, nocturnal entelegyne spiders. Carapace is

pyriform, longer than wide; thoracic furrow a conspicuous ovate pit. Eyes
eight, usually surrounded by pigment. Chelicerae are large, stridulatory striae
on the ectal side; labium free, wider than long. Legs long, often annulated,
setose with many macrosetae; tarsi three clawed; autopsy at the patella-tibia
junction; opisthosoma oval. Colulus is large and fleshy, with setae. Male palp
with retrolateral integral paracymbium, a retrolateral cymbial sclerite
articulated by means of membrane, and a dorsoectal cymbial process with
cuspules and an alveolar sclerite. Conductor and median apophysis are
present in most species. The embolus is continuos with the tegulum and has
an elongated filiform or lamelliform embolic process. The epigynum protrudes
more than its width, has a dorsal to lateral fold or groove with the copulatory
openings at the distal end. The fertilization ducts are anteriorly oriented.

They are probably closest related to the family Linyphiidae and are Holarctic in
distribution. They build large sheet webs close to the ground in hollow tree
trunks, or under corners of banks, or caves. They are represented by 4
genera, 37 species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is
represented by single genera and 3 species so far (Sebastian and Peter,
2009).

82
Genus Pimoa Chamberlin and Ivie 1943
Carapace is longer than wide with a conspicuous thoracic fovea. Anterior
median eyes are very close together, larger than rest, which are roughly of the
same diameter, anterior laterals and posterior laterals juxtaposed. Sternum
longer than wide, pointed in the posterior region, slightly projecting between
coxae IV. Chelicerae are large with three prolateral and three or four
retrolateral teeth, stridulatory setae absent. Legs are slightly longer and
slender in the adult male, femora through metatarsi usually with dark annuli.
Male metatarsi I proximal third enlarged and sinuous, with a row of enlarged
macrosetae. Tibiae I-IV with two dorsal spines, prolateral and retrolateral tibial
spines present varying from one to two, ventral tibial spines varying from four
to six; femora I-IV with dorsal spine in variable numbers, Metatarsal spines
present in all legs. Opisthosoma ovoid, longer than wide, dark brown or grey
with lighter marks and some guanine spots. Colulus is large and fleshy with
setae. Male palp with retrolateral cymbial sclerite; palpal tibia usually round
and lacking embolic flap.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Pimoa sp.1

Family Pisauridae Simon 1890 (Nursery Web Spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Medium sized to large, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace is longer

than wide; cephalic area distinct and often elevated. Eight eyes arranged in 2,
3 or 4 rows; at least one pair of eyes on low tubercles. Cheliceral is lacking
boss; fang furrow margins with teeth. Labium is longer than wide. Legs
prograde, relatively long, sometimes laterigrade; with pairs of macrosetae on
patellae, femora, tibiae and meta-tarsi; tarsi with trichobothria on the dorsal
side; trochanters deeply notched and three clawed. Opisthosoma is oval to
elongated, moderately high, tapering towards back; usually with plumosetae;
with longitudinal bands or spots. Six spinnerets present. Epigyne is complex
consisting of two integument folds, forming two lateral elevations with median
area; Male tibial apophysis of palp prominent, cymbium usually elongated
anteriorly.

83
They apparently have diverse lifestyle from being active hunters that are web
building to free living. Some species can walk on water as well as land.
Females carry the spherical egg sacs in their chelicerae. They are
represented by 52 genera, 333 species occurring worldwide (world spider
catalogue, 11.0). In India it is represented by 9 genera and 20 species so far
(Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Keys to genera:

1a. Patella I-1V each with two dorsal spines …………………………….Pisaura

1b. Patella I-IV each with one prominent dorsal spine……….……..Perenethis

Genus Perenethis C.L. Koch 1878

Spiders of the genus Perenethis are distributed in the Oriental, Australian,
Ethiopian and Palearctic regions of the world. The genus is easily recognized
from other genera in the family by the distinctly procurved AME and strongly
recurved PLE; retromargin of chelicera with two teeth and promargin with
three teeth; Prosoma and opisthosoma each with a distinct, moderately broad,
and continuous longitudinal band.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Perenethis sp.1; Perenethis sp.2

Genus Pisaura Simon 1885

Spiders of the genus Pisaura are distributed worldwide. They are easily
recognised by their slightly recurved anterior eye row; PME usually larger than
anterior eyes; MOQ much wider behind than in front; dorsomedian band of
Prosoma, if present, divided by a longitudinal narrow white stripe in the
middle; chelicerae with three retromarginal and promarginal teeth each;
patellae I-IV with two dorsal spines; tibia I bears four pairs of ventral spines;
tibial apophysis of male's pedipalp distinctly developed.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Pisaura mirabilis Clerck 1757; Pisaura sp.1; Pisaura sp.2

84
Family Psechridae Simon 1890 (Jungle cribellate spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Medium to large sized, cribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace pear shaped,

with strongly narrowed cephalic region separated by the thoracic region. Eight
eyes are arranged in two rows; both rows strongly procurved; posterior eye
row wider than anterior eyes. Chelicerae is strong with distinct lateral condyle,
boss prominent; promargin with three, retromargin with four strong teeth;
promarginal teeth with a longitudinal line of thin setae. Labium wider than
long; gnathocoxae elongated; serrula present. Legs are long, leg formula
1423, longer in male; tarsi wider towards tip; with three toothed claws and a
claw tufts; tarsi with a row of trichobothria; no scopulae. Opisthosoma is
elongated, cylindrical; covered with setae. Six spinnerets, contiguous, two
segmented, posterior pair longest; cribellum present, narrow and divided;
calamistrum consists of three or four rows of equal, short, distally bent setae.
Epigyne is simple, with median plate; male palpus tibia with apophysis or with
modified setae; embolus present.

Psechrus are web building spiders, distributed from the south East Asia to the
Australian region. They construct a horizontal sheet web provided with a
funnel shaped retreat, moving on the under surface of the web. They are
represented by 2 genera, 30 species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In
India it is represented by 2 genera and 5 species so far (Sebastian and Peter,
2009).

Genus Psechrus Thorell 1878

Spiders of the genus Psechrus are large, nocturnal, constructing horizontal
cribellate webs, often found in caves in the pacific regions of the world.
Cephalic region is narrower, more prominently anteriorly. Eyes of anterior row
recurved, median smaller than lateral, posterior row recurved, considerably
behind the anterior row, quadrangle longer than wide. Legs long elongated,
and with dark annulations. Ventrum of opisthosoma is provided with a median
white line. Colulus present.

85
Species recorded from NDBR:
Psechrus himalayanus Simon 1906

Family Salticidae Blackwall 1841 (Jumping spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. They are recognised

by unique anterior end of body broadly truncated, with 2 pairs of eyes on the
face (anterior surface): large anterior median (AME), and smaller by half
anterior lateral (ALE). Remaining two pairs of eyes (of II and III row) located
on dorso-lateral edges of prosoma, restricted long quadrangle called eye field
almost covering half of the prosoma. Body compact; carapace longer than
wide, square-fronted; length varies from short to long; cephalic region high in
some genera. Eye area frequently decorated with clusters of long setae. Eight
eyes usually in three to four rows, occupying entire width of carapace; anterior
four eyes directed forward, anterior median eyes very large; anterior laterals
slightly smaller; posterior median eyes sometimes extremely small.
Chelicerae are small to large, stout, Promargin with one tooth or several teeth;
sometimes enlarged and projecting in males. Labium is rectangular or
rounded and narrowed in front. Gnathocoxae fairly long, broadened distally
with well-developed scopula and serrula. Legs short or slightly longer;
prograde, I or IV leg longest; with two claws and usually with claw tufts. Short
to oblong or elongated in some genera. Spinnerets are short, anterior and
posterior pairs similar in length. Epigyne is variable; male palp with tibial
apophyses; embolus variable in shape.

Salticids are diurnal, cursorial, hunting spiders with well developed vision and
move by jumping and running; active hunters with complex behaviour. They
are the largest family of spiders, abundant in tropics, occurring in a wide
variety of habitats. Most salticids do not spin capture webs or use silk to catch
prey. Silk is only used to build sac like retreats in which to moult, oviposit and
sometimes mate. They are represented by 573 genera, 5337 species
occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 66 genera
and 192 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

86
Salticidae are taxonomically extremely difficult group to study. The majorities
of the salticid subfamilies have not been properly defined, or diagnosed, and
have undergone little or no change since they were first proposed by Simon
(1901-03). However, his work possessed an extensive knowledge of the
family Salticidae as he discussed the characters of his groups in details. Later
on, Proszynski (1976) formulated modern keys to the salticids genera,
especially of the Holarctic genera. The importance of Proszynski's study lies
in its attempt at grouping these salticid genera solely on genitalic features.
Further, his study emphasized the point that salticid groups based on special
genitalic features show little concordance with Simon's classification. Modern
taxonomy of Salticidae regards classification based on genitalic features more
authentic than non-genitalic features. The reliance on genitalic features in
modern salticid systematics is exemplified by such currently recognized taxa
as 'euophryines', 'dendryphantines', etc., which are defined exclusively on
genitalic features. Here, I provide keys to the genera that have been collected
in NDBR (mainly the Holarctic genera) and are described by Proszynski
(1976) based on the genitalic characteristics.

Keys to genera

1a. Opisthosoma constricted, pedicel long and not hidden behind anterior part
of opisthosoma (ant like body)……….……..……….……...…Myrmarachne
- In male, small coil of seminal receptacle in anterior half of round
bulbus, embolus making 2 or more loops around the bulbus, tibial
apophysis very small and hook like bent. Female epigynum with white
membranous area located posteriorly, divided medially by internal
sclerotized channels, prominently visible through membrane.
1b. Opisthosoma not constricted…………………………………………………..2

2a. Prosoma long and low; Legs I strikingly larger than II and IV particularly in
males………..……………………………………………………….Pseudicius
- A row of stridulatory spines on tubercles under eyes lateral and
corresponding micro-spines prolaterally on femur I, tibia I swollen

87
 medially with reduced rudimentary spines or devoid of them, and with
several long a thin, usually bent sensory hairs, small spider.
2b. Prosoma high, if leg I larger, it is not very striking………..….……..Phlegra
- Male bulbus relatively large oval, flattened - at least apically, embolus
hidden beneath it with only tip protruding from under anterior edge,
palpal tibia apophysis always bifurcated. In Females posterior
openings are large and prominent located posteriorly, either medially
or near posterolateral angle of epigynum and coiled spermathecae
2c.Prosoma giving no clear impression of being either high or low...………....3

3a. Opisthosoma uniformly coloured, with or without white patterns………….4

3b. Opisthosoma with broad median light longitudinal streak……....Plexippus
- Male bulbus expanded laterally with short bent embolus anteriorly;
Female epigynum sclerotized with posterior median groove; large or
medium size spider.

4a. Abdomen uniformly black iridescent blue, violet or green, light reflecting
due to colourless scales, in some species one or more pairs of small
white marginal spots and a semi-crescent anterior line, legs often yellow,
medium - small spiders………………………………….…..…..Heliophanus
- Male pedipalpal femur with large horn like protuberance is single,
bifurcated or trifurcated. Female epigynum with either single or two
separate sclerotized depression round or transversally oval, sometimes
partially or entirely surrounded by an elevated rim, copulatory openings
usually located laterally or, more rarely postero-marginally, or hidden
under rim, with channels and spermathecae short and simple.
4b. Abdomen dark with pairs of transversal or diagonal white stripes or their
rudiments but no median line, in male chelicerae overgrown……Salticus
- Male palpal organ with large and broad apophysis, bag shaped bulbus
and short embolus. Female epigynal depression extended by posterior
elongate part, sometimes anteriorly hidden under a roof like rim,
channels and spermathecae complex.
4c. Abdomen black with contrasting white line, continuous or interrupted, in
some species there are one or two pairs of diagonal white lines marginally

88
 and thick anterior line, on cephalothorax in some species white spots
behind eyes III and median white line..………………..…………....Pellenes
- Male bulbus oval with embolus usually bifurcated, tibial apophysis
supported on some kind of swelling of cymbium. Female epigynum
sclerotized with median ridge separating two semicircular grooves,
location of vaginal opening varies from anterior to posterior in various
species.

Genus Carrhotus Thorell 1891

Spiders of the genus Carrhotus are widespread mainly occurring in the
Palaearctic, oriental and the tropical regions of the world. Usually they are
small to medium sized spiders with a conspicuous, longer than wide prosoma
with distinctly sloping posterior. Ocular quadrangle is wider than long with
posterior median eyes midway between anterior lateral and posterior laterals.
Legs are long and slender. Opisthosoma is perfectly oval, blackish general
colouration with chevron pattern in some. Unident chelicerae present with two
teeth on promargin and one on retromargin.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Carrhotus sp.1; Carrhotus sp.2; Carrhotus sp.3; Carrhotus sp.4

Genus Hyllus C.L. Koch 1848

Spiders of the genus Hyllus are widespread and their range stretches from
Africa through the tropics to Australia, some Pacific islands, as well as China
and Japan mainly occurring in the tropical regions of the world. Stout and
hairy with dull coloured body. Carapace oval, broad, slightly longer than broad
and truncated at the rear end; fairly high with long sloping thorax and steep
sides; cephalus is relatively smaller and slightly convex. Ocular is quadrangle
with virtually parallel sides, posterior eyes of moderate size, separated from
the small eyes of the second row by more than the width of one posterior eye;
small eyes of the second row. Legs long, stout dark in colour, with spines and
hairs; front legs usually covered with dense fringes to thin black hairs; legs I
longest. Opisthosoma oval, rounded at the front.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Hyllus sp.1; Hyllus sp.2

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Genus Phintella Strand 1906
Spiders of the genus Phintella are wide spread mainly occurring in the
paleartic region and from India and Srilanka to java and philipines. Prosoma
and opisthosoma covered with scales. Opisthosoma is either dark with
medium light streak or spotted, sometimes with contrasting transverse belts.
Anterior edge of opisthosoma is in some species divided by a shallow furrow.
Palpal organs with two prolonged tibial apophysis, both of which may be
developed and reduced in different degree in which they resemble
Pseudicius. Bulbous is simple, embolus fleshy extension of main body of
bulbus, gradually tapering, and its narrow part usually very short. Epigyne is in
a form of simple depressed weakly sclerotised plate with simple straight or
gently bent channels and spherical spermathecae. Femur I and tibia I are
increased in length without distinct swelling of any other segment. Femur also
provided with darkened ventral prolateral surface in a form of line or spots.
Spination of tibia I consists of 2-3 pairs of ventral spines. Hairs on tibia I is
normal in some specimen with sparse ventral brush of very thin short setae
extending along patella.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Phintella sp.1

Genus Phlegra Simon 1876

Spiders of the genus Phlegra are widespread in the Palaearctic and in Africa.
In South East Asia it is known only from Vietnam and Hong Kong. Prosoma is
brown with the eye field black brown. There are two, parallel, longitudinal
lines, pale whitish grey streaks on the thorax and along the lateral margins.
The opisthosoma is grey brown to dark grey in colour with orange spots
anteriorly. These gradually change to grey, posteriorly and vanish. Legs are
greyish dark brown in colour and carry numerous light brown spines. Usually
they occur in warm, stony or bare areas. Female’s posterior openings are
large and prominent located posteriorly, either medially or near posterolateral
angle of epigynum and coiled spermathecae, medial, with internal convoluted
chambers. In male, bulbus relatively large oval, flattened - at least apically,
embolus hidden beneath it with only tip protruding from under anterior edge,
palpal tibia apophysis always bifurcated.

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Species recorded from NDBR:
Phlegra sp.1

Genus Pseudicius Simon 1902

Spiders of the genus Pseudicius is very widespread but according to
Proszynski is absent from the New World. Carapace is more or less oblong,
about twice as long as wide. The sides are slightly curved and the rear margin
is wide and truncate. The long opisthosoma has similar proportions to the
carapace, with the sides rather more curved, truncated and wide anteriorly
and curving to a point near the spinnerets. A row of stridulatory spines on
tubercles under eyes lateral and corresponding micro-spines prolaterally on
femur I, tibia I swollen medially with reduced rudimentary spines or devoid of
them, and with several long and thin, usually bent sensory hairs. The femora,
patella and tibia of legs I are enormously swollen compared with all the other
leg segments. The legs of the female are not particularly long, but legs I of the
male are very long compared with its other legs. Femur, patella and tibia of
legs I are enormously swollen compared with all the other leg segments. Legs
have reduced, variable spines, with one short, robust spine and two minute
strong spines on the inside of tibiae I and a few weak spines here and there
on the other legs.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Pseudicius sp.1; Pseudicius sp.2

Genus Siler Simon 1889

Spiders of the genus Siler is commonly found from Malaysia and Sumatra to
Japan and Papua New Guinea in the east. Carapace has flat cephalus, with
the long thorax sloping steadily from the rear eyes to the posterior edge and
almost vertical sides. In plan the carapace U Shaped, briefly flared near the
front lateral eyes and has moderately truncate posterior margin. The
opisthosoma is elongated oval, widest in the rear half and truncated anteriorly.
The moderately spiny legs are quite long and slender, with legs I more robust
than the other and legs IV noticeably the longest. The femora and patella of
legs I are squarish yellow and tibia are brown. Above and below the tibia I

91
there are dense fringes of black hairs and to a lesser below femora I and
patella I.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Siler sp.1; Siler sp.2

Genus Plexippus C.L. Koch 1846

Spiders of the genus Plexippus are distributed in the belt bounded by
southern Central Asia to Japan in the north and by Africa to Papua New
Guinea in the south. Most of the species recorded in the New World and
Australia have been transferred to other genera. Body colour in female dull
sand yellow; male dark brown to brownish black in general background
colouration. Carapace oblong, longer than wide, truncate at posterior and
curved upwards towards the front row of eyes. Ocular quadrangle is wider
than long, dark brown. Anterior row of eyes moderately recurved. Males are
usually with a conspicuous white or dull white dorso-median band from the
lower margin of ocular quadrangle to posterior end of Prosoma. Legs spiny,
light brown with tibia and metatarsi of legs I darker. Opisthosoma is
elongated, roughly oval, with hunched shoulders anteriorly; broad median light
longitudinal streak and posteriorly with a pair of lateral spots and a few
chevrons. Palpal organ in male thick, sclerotised, dark brown with almost
rectangle bulbus and sharply pointed, slightly curved inwards; bulbus
expanded laterally with short bent embolus anteriorly. Tibia with tufts of long
hairs. Cymbium is broad, flat and hairy. Epigyne appears as with a transverse
base and median upward canal; sclerotized with posterior median groove
Species recorded from NDBR:
Plexippus paykulli Audouin 1826; Plexippus sp.1; Plexippus sp.2

Genus Rhene Thorell 1869

Spiders of the genus Rhene are widespread occurring mainly in the Oriental
regions of the world from Africa to Japan, Philippines and Sulawesi. There are
a few species recorded from Central America and Brazil. They are often found
on low vegetation and plant foliage. Carapace is oblong, wider than long,
posterior portion of prosoma wider than anterior; Clothed with conspicuous
thick hair. Small conspicuous eyes Posterior eyes situated far behind the

92
anterior row of eyes, with. The sides and most of the thorax are vertical, with
the rear margin very wide and truncate. The opisthosoma is oval, small, with
broad base and blunt tip; slightly truncate at the front and slightly pointed at
the rear. The legs are fairly sturdy with the femora, patellae and tibiae
noticeably swollen. Legs are small, sturdy, tibia of first pairs broad and flat.
Leg I more robust and hirsute than legs II-IV. Palpal organ is with swollen
bulbus and short curved conductor. Epigyne is not very conspicuous.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Rhene flavigera C.L. Koch 1846; Rhene danielli Tikader 1973; Rhene sp.1

Genus Myrmarachne MacLeay 1839

Spiders of the genus Myrmarachne are ant mimics, well distributed in the
world. Myrmarachne occurs in the tropical belt from Africa to Australia, but
several species also occur in the warmer parts of the Old World and in the
tropics and warmer parts of the New World. Body, long and narrow; colour
varies from reddish orange, to brown and black. Carapace elongated roughly
rectangular with a flat ocular quadrangle, separated from the thoracic region
by a constriction. Ocular trapezium is nearly as along as broad and distinctly
elevated above opisthosoma. Chelicerae with several teeth on inner margin;
chelicerae very long and strong developed in male. Chelicerae are swollen
and generally elongated. Opisthosoma is also elongated, oval or spherical
according to the ant model. Legs are slender with long segments. Palpal
organs are with round and swollen bulbus and long coiled embolus. Cymbium
is roughly oval in shape. Epigyne sclerotised with usually kidney shaped
spermathecae and anteriorly projecting copulatory ducts; white membranous
area located posteriorly, divided medially by internal sclerotized channels,
prominently visible through the membrane. In male, small coil of seminal
receptacle in anterior half of round bulbus, embolus making 2 or more loops
around the bulbus, tibial apophysis very small and hook like bent.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Myrmarachne orientales Tikader 1973; Myrmarachne sp.2;
Myrmarachne sp.3

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Genus Stenaelurillus Simon 1885
Spiders of the genus Stenaelurillus are widespread in Africa while single
species recorded from Tibet, India, Myanmar and China. Carapace is oblong,
slightly narrower in front and slightly curving to broadly truncated rear; two
white longitudinal stripes on the carapace. Basically black in colour with a
dense black pubescence, the cephalus is rust coloured and there is a whitish,
curved, wide stripe on each side. The opisthosoma has a wide transverse
whitish band in front and a narrower one near the spinnerets. In between, the
opisthosoma is clothed with black pubescence, surrounding two whitish,
circular spots and some other white marks. The legs are black except for the
tarsi. Ocular area is with strong bristles, present in both sexes. Male palp with
a short, more or less straight, not coiled, visible embolus. Tegular apophysis
is visible, simple, finger-like, and situated some distance from embolus
Species recorded from NDBR:
Stenaelurillus sp.1

Genus Thiania C.L. Koch 1846

Spiders of the genus Thiana are widespread occurring from India and Sri
Lanka, throughout our region and on to Papua New Guinea. Carapace flat,
rather broad but still rather longer than broad. In plan sides are almost
straight, converging very slightly to very wide anterior and curving to a wide
truncated posterior. The opisthosoma elongated, rounded at front and
converging steadily to the spinnerets. Typically the cephalus is black or dark
brown and followed by broad, crescent shaped band of iridescent, bronze
coloured squamose hairs, the sides and the rest of the thorax are brown. Leg
I swollen and larger than others. Legs I and II are brown while III and IV are
yellow except for brown femora.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Thiania sp.1
Thiania sp.2

Genus Salticus Latreille 1804

Spiders of the genus Salticus are largely Palaearctic in distribution with some
species reaching the Mediterranean region and southern Asia. Usually found

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on rocks and tree trunks in the open where the sun can reach. Prosoma is
dark with pairs of transversal or diagonal white stripes or their rudiments but
no median line. Carapace is fairly flat, long and U-shaped. In male the
chelicerae is overgrown. The legs may have long black and white stripes.
Metatarsi I is without macrosetae. The opisthosoma is oval and about twice as
long as broad. It is greyish-white in colour. Opisthosoma is of are typically
marked with a black and white pattern. Mature males have characteristically
long and stout, forward pointing chelicerae on which they rest their long, thin
palps. Female epigynal depression extended by posterior elongate part,
sometimes anteriorly hidden under a roof like rim, channels and
spermathecae complex. Male palpal organ with large and broad apophysis,
bag shaped bulbus and short embolus.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Salticus sp.1

Genus Pellenes Simon 1876

Spiders of the genus Pellenes are commonly found on warm walls, rocks and
tree trunks in the open. Opisthosoma usually black with contrasting white line,
continuous or interrupted, in some species there are one or two pairs of
diagonal white lines marginally and thick anterior line. In some species
prosoma has white spots behind eyes III and median white line. Male embolus
short, hidden by tegular apophysis; latter never elbowed, arising laterally to
distally. Distal cymbial groove not transverse; lacking conspicuous courtship
ornaments. Female epigynum with copulatory openings on surface posterior
to surface; sclerotised bars absent; also sclerotized with median ridge
separating two semicircular grooves.
Species recorded:
Pellenes sp.1; Pellenes sp.2

Genus Heliophanus C. L. Koch, 1833

Spiders of the genus Heliophanus are dark brown to black in colour, often with
a metallic sheen. Carapace is moderately high and, in plan, is an elongate,
broad oval, widest towards the rear and slightly truncated at the front. Legs
short, stocky lighter in colour, sometimes being bright yellow, and contrast

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markedly with the dark body; few spines present. There is often a white
narrow band running along the anterior edge of the opisthosoma and often
two smallish white spots set transversely across the opisthosoma near the
spinnerets. Opisthosoma elongated, broad oval, rounded anteriorly and
somewhat tapering posteriorly. Spinnerets are small and located at the
extreme tip of the opisthosoma. Large femoral apophysis present on palps.
Epigynum with either single or two separate sclerotized depression round or
transversally oval, sometimes partially or entirely surrounded by an elevated
rim, copulatory openings usually located laterally or, more rarely postero-
marginally, or hidden under rim, with channels and spermathecae short and
simple. In male, pedipalp femur large horn like protuberance which are single,
bifurcated or trifurcated present.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Heliophanus curvidens Pickard-Cambridge O., 1872

Family Scytodidae Blackwall 1864 (Spitting spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Very small to medium sized, ecribellate, haplogyne spiders. Carapace

convex, short, broad and almost circular, domed towards the thoracic region;
fovea absent; cephalic region usually raised. Six eyes are arranged in three
groups, strongly recurved; the anterior median small and black, forming a
group; the rest large and white. Chelicerae is chelate, weak, basally fused and
cylindrical in shape; fangs very short; conspicuous chitinous lamina. Legs are
long and slender; metatarsi longer than tarsi; spines absent; three claws.
Opisthosoma shape is variable, broad, oval with large, pointed with numerous
setae. Six spinnerets, small, contiguous with reduced spigots; anterior
spinnerets long and cylindrical; colulus large. Epigyne simple, with sclerotised
modifications posterior to epigastric furrow; male palpal tarsus apically
attenuated; bulb spherical with simple or with apical projection embolus.

They are unique, nocturnal, cursorial, wandering spiders, in their prey capture
methods, as they spit strands of glue from their fangs on the prey. Females
build silken retreats for laying eggs. They are represented by 5 genera, 228

96
species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 1
genus and 9 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Genus Scytodes Latreille 1804

Spiders of the genus Syctodes are nocturnal, usually found under bark, and
leaf litter. They widely distributed in the temperate and tropical regions of the
world. Carapace high lacks fovea or thoracic impressions, hump posteriorly,
pale yellow with numerous black mottles forming irregular lines or patterns.
Eyes six, small are arranged in three widely spaced diads, all AME pair much
ahead of the laterals eyes. Labium fused to sternum. Chelicerae chelate with
very short squat fang and conspicuous chitinous lamina on the outer margin
of the basal segment. Legs annulated, long and slender with hind coxae
widely separated. The opisthosoma is ovoid to subglobular, mottled like
carapace, venter with an indistinct median tracheal spiracle nearer to the
spinnerets than to the epigastric furrow. Spinnerets are small; colulus slightly
conical. Epigyum absent, represented by oblique sclerotised pits. Female
carries its spherical egg cocoons in its chelicerae held against the sternum.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Scytodes thoracica Latreille 1802; Scytodes sp.1

Family Segetriidae Simon 1893 (Tube web spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Medium sized, ecribellate, haplogyne spiders. Carapace is rectangular to

elongate and nearly cylindrical; longer than wide. Fovea is a small depression.
Six eyes are in three groups, all white; PER in straight to slightly procurved
row. Chelicerae free, long and slender, fang small; cheliceral furrow with few
teeth; promargin with three teeth and retromargin with one or two teeth.
Labium much longer than wide; gnathocoxae parallel, longer than wide, well
developed. Serrula well developed in a single row. Legs I, II and III directed
forward; tibiae and metatarsi I with double row of spines ventrally; no
trichobothria; curved with series of 6-8 teeth. Opisthosoma is longer than
wide, cylindrical or elongated; without pattern or with pattern, or with pattern.
Six spinnerets present; anterior lateral spinnerets conical and contiguous;

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posterior spinnerets small. Colulus present. Female gonopore region is
swollen with some sclerotised anterior margin; male palpal tarsus short and
long.

Segistriids are nocturnal, sedentary hunters. Most spiders are living under
stones, in trees, holes and rocks crevices, making tube with both ends open.
They are represented by 3 genera, 111 species occurring worldwide (Platnick
2011). In India it is represented by 2 genera and 2 species so far (Sebastian
and Peter, 2009).

Genus Segestria Latreille 1804

Spiders of the genus Segestria are distinguished by the presence of median
dark stripes on the opisthosoma which are broken into chevrons and with
lateral and ventral spots. Legs banded, relatively long; chelicerae retromargin
with two teeth; male palpus with tarsus long and apically attenuated; male
metatarsus I straight and lacking lateral processes
Species recorded from NDBR:
Segestria sp.1

Family Selenopidae Simon 1897 (Flat bodied spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to large, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace dorsoventrally

flattened, sub circular; cephalic region distinct, thoracic region laterally
convex; fovea longitudinal. Eyes are eight in two rows wide with six eyes near
edge of carapace, posterior row with two fairly large eyes, one on each side.
Chelicerae is geniculate, robust, with teeth on both margins of the furrow;
fangs large. Labium is usually wider than long; gnathocoxae straight with
dense scopulae and fine serrula. Legs laterigrade; anterior legs provided with
strong, paired setae on tibiae and metatarsi I and II; two smooth claws; tarsi
two clawed and scopulae present; trichobothria present on all the leg
segments. Opisthosoma flattened, round to oval; mottled, clothed in dense
setae; slightly truncated posteriorly. Six spinnerets present; anterior pair
adjacent, short, in compact group; Colulus absent. Epigyne is complex with
central septum, spermathecal openings at the caudal end of the median

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guide; male palp with retrolateral tibial apophysis, rigid conductor, and short
embolus.

They are free living, agile spiders found on rocks, tree trunks and trunks, and
walls of houses. They are able to move into narrow crevices because of their
extremely flattened bodies. They are represented by 5 genera, 196 species
occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 1 genus and
6 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Genus Selenops Latreille 1819

Spiders of the genus Selenops are nocturnal, wandering spiders found in
forest floor in litter or near habitations. Body is extremely flat and move
sidewise. Prosoma almost circular with cephalic part projecting forwards and
the wide posterior margin smoothly indented. Six eyes in the front row spread
out in the edge of the projected area. Posterior eyes located just behind the
extreme eyes of the anterior row. Opisthosoma flat, as wide as long and it is
widely truncated at the front and then gently curving and divergent until near
the rear where it curves in abruptly towards the spinnerets. Legs long, strong
and laterigrade with strong spines mostly on the ventral surface, scopulae
underneath tarsi I to III and under metatarsi I and II.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Selenops radiatus Latreille 1819

Family Sparassidae Bertkau 1872 (Huntsman spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Medium to very large sized, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace is

broadly oval, as long as wide, narrower in front. Fovea is present, longitudinal,
covered with dense layer of fine setae. Eight eyes in two rows; size of anterior
eyes varies between genera, median eyes usually largest; posterior eye row
evenly spaced; eyes equal in size with two rows of teeth; condyle present.
Labium is free, short, never beyond the half length of gnathocoxae;
rebordered distally; gnathocoxae with thick scopulae; serrula present. Legs
long, laterigrade; trochanters notched; apex of metatarsi with soft trilobate
membrane; metatarsi and tarsi with scopulae; two claws with dense tufts.

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Opisthosoma longer than wide, dorsoventrally flattened, round to oval, often
with dark, median, heart shaped mark; clothed in dense layer of fine setae.
Colulus is absent. Epigyne is sclerotised and conspicuous; usually with
anteriorly bordered atrium. Male palp is with strong tibial apophysis.

Sparassids are free living, nocturnal, wandering and ambushing spiders with
diverse life styles. They do not spin webs, only build silk retreats. The female
of some species carry their egg sac underneath the body by clasping it with
their pedipalp. They are represented by 85 genera, 1109 species occurring
worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 11 genera and 85
species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Keys to subfamilies

1a. Possess three anterior and four posterior teeth with denticles on the
margins of cheliceral furrow, and the teeth of female palpal claw are long and
curved.....……………………………………………………………Heteropodinae
1b. Possess two cheliceral teeth on the promargin…………….....Sparassinae

Subfamily Heteropodinae Thorell 1873

Key to genera:
1a. Male palp with membranous conductor, embolus at least in its proximal
part broadened, tegulum as long as bulb, RTA arising in a mesial or basal
position……………………………..…………….…………………….Pseudopoda
1b. Male palp with sheath like conductor, embolus filiform, RTA arising in a
distal position ………………………………………………….……….Heteropoda

Subfamily Sparassinae Bertkau 1872

Diagnostic Characters:

Key to genera

Presence of a retro-lateral tegular apophysis and distal loop of embolus in

male; posterior row of eyes procurved; lateral eyes not very prominent; tibia I
with 2 pairs of ventral macrosetae...…………………………………….…...Olios

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Genus Heteropoda Latreille 1804
The genus Heteropoda is pantropical in distribution. Carapace nearly as long
as wide, upper surface nearly flat or sometimes very high posteriorly; cephalic
part slightly depressed in front. Posterior row of eyes recurved, the lateral
eyes larger and prominent; eyes of anterior row straight or little procurved,
anterior lateral larger than median. Ocular quadrangle longer than wide,
narrow in front. Femora not provided with fringed bristles. Opisthosoma
mostly longer than wide, dorsum with marks more prominent posteriorly.
Epigynum provided with a pair of lobes usually separated by a median
septum; male pedipalp with developed RTA, embolus short or long, tegulum
without apophysis; sheath-like conductor present; ejaculatory duct prominent
and iliick; female epigynum with a pair of lobes, separated by a median
septum.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Heteropoda venartoria Latreille 1804; Heteropoda sp.1; Heteropoda sp.2

Genus Pseudopoda Jäger 2000

Spiders of the genus Pseudopoda are distributed mainly in the mountain
areas of Asia; usually occurring in leaf litter, forest floor, bark of trees, under
logs and rocks. Opisthosoma dorsally mostly with bright transversal band in
the posterior half, opisthosoma ventrally mostly with dark patch in front of the
spinnerets. Femora with spines. Epigynum is with lateral lobes extending
distinctly beyond the epigastric furrow and covering the median septum. Male
palp with membranous conductor, embolus at least in its proxima part
broadened, mostly whole embolus broadened and flattened tegulum as long
as bulb.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Pseudopoda prompta O. Pickard-Cambridge 1885
Pseudopoda sp.2; Pseudopoda sp.3; Pseudopoda sp.4

Genus Olios Walckenaer 1837

Spiders of the genus Olios are mostly distributed in the Australasian and
Neotropical regions also found in Southern Europe and Africa. Olios species
have anterior median eyes as large as or larger than the anterior laterals;

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clypeus lower than the diameter of an anterior median eye; and tibia I usually
with only two pairs of ventral spines, none at the distal end of the segment.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Olios sanguinifrons Simon 1906
Olios sp.1; Olios sp.2

Family Tetragnathidae Menge 1866 (Long jawed orb weavers)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to very large, cribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace is longer than

wide; cephalic region narrow. Eight eyes arranged in two rows, lateral eyes
contiguous or apart. Chelicerae variable, short and stout or long and well
developed with rows of large teeth and projecting spurs. Labium longer than
wide, gnathocoxae longer, narrower, distally widened. Legs long and slender,
with or without spines; leg I longest; tarsal three clawed. Opisthosoma is
variable, elongated and cylindrical or rounded to ovoid. Spinnerets are six in
number, with aggregate glands producing viscid silk; anterior and posterior
spinnerets similar in size. Colulus present. Epigastric is furrow nearly straight;
spinnerets unmodified, anterior and posterior pairs similar in size.

Tetragnathids are orb weavers occupying a variety of habitats constructing

their webs in moist areas of vegetation near or above streams or ponds.
Occurring sometimes also in ground litter, hollow stems, under stone, dead
wood or leaves. They are represented by 46 genera, 951 species occurring
worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 10 genera and 47
species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Keys to genus

1a.Opisthosoma cylindrical or tapering; more than twice as long as

wide……………...…………………………………………….……………….….2
1b.Opisthosoma oval or globular……….…………….………..Dyschiriognatha

2a.Chelicerae enlarged with 5-9 teeth; gnathocoxae divergent; epigynum

absent………………………………………………………….........Tetragnatha

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2b.Chelicerae and epigynum otherwise………………………………………….3

3a.Epigyne with no scape having spiral openings on ventral

side……………………………………………………...…………….Guizygiella
3b.Epigyne with scape having spiral openings on ventral
side……………….………………………………………………………………..4

4a.Opisthosoma with or without humps; anterior part not overhanging the

carapace………………….………………..……………………..…....Leucauge
4b.Opisthosoma widest anteriorly; chelicerae retromargin with three
teeth…………………………………….…………………………..……Metellina

Genus Metellina Chamberlin & Ivie 1941

Spiders of the genus Metellina build their small to moderately large orb webs
in open shrubs, fields, forest or gardens. They are distinguished by the
presence of the large paracymbium; small slender embolus apophysis, and by
the moderately large, bilobed and well-separated spermathecae. The web
varies in orientation, even within species, from nearly vertical to nearly
horizontal and has an open hub. When hunting, the spider often wraps its
prey, hangs it in the web, and returns for an interval of time to the hub before
feeding.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Metellina sp.1

Genus Dyschirognatha Simon 1893

Spiders of the genus Dyschirognatha are distributed in Palaearctic, Ethiopian,
Neotropical and Oriental regions of the world. They are distinguished by their
globose silvery opisthosoma with or without dorsal spots; cephalic region
higher than thoracic region, heavily sclerotised sternum extended posteriorly
between coxae IV; rough and moderately stout chelicerae with teeth, sub
equal eyes except small PLE. MOQ often a square, AME slightly projected
anterior to clypeus, legs without spines, female tracheal spiracle between
epigastric fold and spinnerets, male palp with a strongly rounded bulb, slender
paracymbium without or with a reduced prolateral process, embolic division
with sclerotised and membranous structure apically with serrated row of teeth.

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Species recorded from NDBR:
Dyschirognatha sp.1

Genus Leucauge White 1841

Spiders of the genus Leucauge are builders of large webs in low shrubs, plant
foliage, trees, and open habitats, in damp places such as marshes or
rainforests. They can be distinguished by the cluster of long trichobothria on
femur IV; broadly elliptical silvery opisthosoma and the transverse depression
anterior to the dorsal groove. Carapace constricted laterally towards the
cephalic area, producing a prominently broad thoracic area, and truncate
anteriorly. Fovea is deep and directed posteriorly. Legs are I and II long and
slender, femora IV with a double fringe of hairs or trichobothria prolaterally in
the basal one half. Opisthosoma is twice as long as wide, blunt at both ends
and ornamented with bands or spots of silvery pigment with or without pairs of
tubercles. Epigastric plate is without any furrow. Small hooklike paracymbium
is present. Males and females differ little in size. Spins webs that are often
large vertical to almost horizontal also occasionally reusing the frame and
anchor lines.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Leucauge decorata Blackwall 1864; Leucauge celebesiana Walckenaer 1841
Leucauge sp.1; Leucauge sp.2

Genus Tetragnatha Latreille 1804

Spiders of the genus Tetragnatha are moderately large inhabitants of trees,
shrubs, and tall grass in meadows; often constructing orb webs usually in
vegetation near or above steams and ponds. Body prominently long and
narrow, several times longer than wide. Carapace oval, widest near the
middle, flattened above, with a conspicuous thoracic groove. Prosoma is
longer than wide, eyes two rows, lateral eyes nearly contiguous; chelicerae
very long, especially in the male. Opisthosoma long and narrow and bears the
spinnerets near its end. Eye rows either parallel or converge diverge, but
lateral eyes never contiguous, each eye surrounded by a black ring.
Chelicerae well developed, especially in the males, margins of fang furrow
provided with numerous teeth. Males have a strong projecting clasping spur

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that may or may not be bifid at its tip. Maxillae parallel, long and dilated at the
distal ends. Opisthosoma at least twice as long as wide, in females often
swollen at base, often base is slightly bifid and overhangs the Prosoma.
Epigynal slit posterior to lungs slits in the procurved epigastric furrow,
spinnerets usually terminal or almost so. Legs and palpi very long and thin,
but proportion differs in various species. These are orb weaving spiders;
common on grass and on low plants. The webs are usually inclined from the
vertical, sometimes horizontal, hub is often open.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Tetragnatha maxillosa Thorell 1895
Tetragnatha sp.2; Tetragnatha sp.3

Genus Guizygiella Zhu Kim & Song 1997

Spiders of the genus Guizygiella are nocturnal orb webs builders, usually
found on shrubs, tree trunks, and plant foliage. They are distinguished from
those of other orb-weaver genera by the plump ornamented smooth, elliptical
opisthosoma, also by the flattened paracymbium. Carapace is usually higher
than the thoracic region with very few hairs. Anterior median eyes large;
Ocular quadrangle as long as it is wide in front and slightly narrower behind
than in front. Legs are usually with annulations. Opisthosoma is with no
humps and with patterns of paired dark patches. Epigyne variable with a
posterior median depression may or may not have scape, scape when
present not wrinkled. Palpal patella of male is with a single larger spine like
hair, femur of palp lacking proximal ventral teeth. They build vertical orb webs
with many radii which feature a vacant sector in the upper half a signal line
extends from the hub through the vacant sector to the retreat. Usually hides in
a curled leaf retreat, with its front legs on a signal thread running to the centre
of the web.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Guizygiella sp.1; Guizygiella sp.2; Guizygiella sp.3

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Family Theridiidae Sundevall 1833 (Cob web weavers)

Diagnostic Characters:

Very small to medium, sized ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace

variable, usually longer than wide, clypeus is usually high. Eight eyes are in
two rows usually encircled by brownish rings. Chelicerae are weakly
sclerotised, usually without retromarginal teeth. Anterior margin of labium not
thickened, gnathocoxae are longer than wide and converging distally. Legs
variable, moderately long to very long; tarsi three clawed, usually tapering
towards tip. Tarsi IV is with a series of serrated bristles forming a comb on its
ventral side. Opisthosoma is variable in shape from oval to round. Six
spinnerets, colulus often absent. Epigyne is variable; 1 or 2 pairs of
spermathecae; male palpal tibia conical, often short; palp with or without
paracymbium.

They are widely distributed, constituting a diverse group of spiders occurring

in a variety of habitats, building space-webs radiating in different direction.
Aggregate silk glands are present in Theridiids. Sticky silk is used to wrap
prey. They are represented by 113 genera, 2310 species occurring worldwide
(Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 19 genera and 58 species so far
(Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Key to genera

1a. Colulus and paired setae absent………………………………….……..……2

1b. Colulus large to small or reduced to pair of seate only………….………….4

2a. Opisthosoma longer than wide, high with distinct, long spines postero
dorsally above spinnerets, sometimes sub-triangular in lateral
vie…………………………………………………………………….…...Chrysso
2b. Opisthosoma without distinct long spines posterodorsally……..........….…3

3a. AME diameter greater than PME; PE row usually straight to slightly
recurved…..……………...……………………………….…….… Parastaetoda

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3b. AME diameter equal to or smaller than PME; PE row commonly straight
and LE contiguous……………...………………………..……………Theridion

4a. Carapace bears a deep and transverse groove in the thoracic area;
opisthosoma extended above and posterior to spinnerets, placing
spinnerets almost midway between pedicel and distal end of
opisthosoma………………………………………………………......Argyrodes
4b. Carapace without transverse groove in the thoracic area…………...……..5

5a.Opisthosoma with tubercle on each side…………………….…….Theridula

5b. Opisthosoma without distinct tubercle…………….………….…………..…..6

6a. Opisthosoma longer than wide, widest posteriorly with median posterior or
lateral humps……………………………..…………………………..Episinus
6b. Opisthosoma sub-triangular, pointed behind…….…………..…... Euryopis

7a.Opisthosoma divided into diluted transverse spots of white

lines………………………………………………….………….……Phylloneta
7b. Opisthosoma otherwise……………………………………………...…………8

8a. Female without teeth on cheliceral retromargin; male chelicerae as in

female; paracymbium dorsal in cymbium, usually hidden behind
bulb…..….....................................................................................Steatoda

8b. Female with tooth on cheliceral retromargin; male chelicerae larger than
females; palpal paracymbium on margin of cymbium; coloration
various….………………………………………….………..….Enoplognatha

Genus Phylloneta Archer 1950

Spiders of the genus Phylloneta are mainly Holarctic in distribution and prefer
usually dry and open areas for building its web. Opisthosoma is round, light
yellow in colour with dark brown bands and white stripes with black dots at the
sides and prominent dark yellow colour in the centre. Dark bands on the
opisthosoma divided into diluted transverse spots of white lines. Females
measure about 4-4.5mm in length while the males are smaller about 3-3.5mm
length. Prosoma is brownish yellow in colour margined with black lining and a

107
black central band. Legs are thin, slender with dark patches at the joints.
Webs of this genus are typical of Theridiidae tangle web, with the egg sac in
the centre and irregular threads spun around it. The egg sacs are round and
dirty grey in colour. Each egg sac may contain about 50-100 eggs. Female
guards the cocoon and remains in the centre of the web hidden in the
irregular mesh of silk. When the spiderlings emerged out they were initially
cared by the mother and after staying for sometime in the web they are
dispersed from the web.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Phylloneta impressa C.L. Koch 1881; Phylloneta sp.1

Genus Enoplognatha Pavesi 1880

Spiders of the genus Enoplognatha are medium sized usually found on shrub-
or foliage. Carapace slightly longer than wide; male carapace bears a
stridulating area on the lateral sides of the pedicel; cephalic region slightly
raised and narrower than thoracic region. Eyes subequal in size or anterior
medians slightly smaller; AE row straight viewed frontally and PE row straight
as seen from above; coxae IV separated by about one half their diameter.
Chelicerae well enlarged in male and female chelicerae each with teeth in
promargin and a tooth in the retromargin; leg I as long as IV and longest, III
shortest; opisthosoma globular slightly flattened dorsoventrally, male
opisthosoma with a rasp of setae on a more or less sclerotised carina above
pedicel; colulus between anterior spinnerets, two setae at base or sides of
colulus. Male pedipalp has a distinct ventral radix supporting embolus; non-
functional conductor projecting above radix; female epigynum heavily
sclerotised with a pair of seminal receptacles. They are usually white or light-
colored, while the ground or litter forms are dark-colored building irregular
webs near to the ground level vegetation.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Enoplognatha sp.1; Enoplognatha sp.2

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Genus Euryopis Menge 1868
Spiders of the genus Euryopsis are widely distributed in world. Opisthosoma
usually triangular, widest anteriorly male palpus without median apophysis;
male carapace not modified ; fourth leg commonly longer than first dorso-
ventrally flattened ; fourth legs longer than first, lacking comb setae; two pairs
of seminal receptacles in female.

Species recorded from NDBR:

Euryopis sp.1; Euryopis sp.2

Genus Parasteatoda Strand 1829

Spiders of the genus Parasteatoda are cosmopolitan in distribution. AE row
slightly procurved; PE row slightly recurved or straight; subequal eye
diameter; median ocular area square in shape; opisthosoma higher than long;
colulus and paired setae absent; moderately long legs with spines and many
hairs. The web appears as irregular networks of fine threads built commonly
in hidden or sheltered habitats amongst trees and along walls. Their webs
sometimes contain a leaf or other debris that is used as shelter. The male and
female may occupy the same web for some time before mating occurs. After
mating the female constructs up to eight pear-shaped papery brown egg-sacs.
These spiders feed on all kind of insects, even on ants.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Parasteatoda sp.1; Parasteatoda sp.2

Genus Argyrodes Simon 1864

Spiders of the genus Argyrodes occur world-wide. Carapace flat ; low
posteriorly in the thoracic area; transverse fovea present; high clypeus and
ocular region; Chelicerae bears two or three promarginal teeth and one or two
in the retromargin, tarsus IV bears no tarsal comb, replaced by few serrated
bristles; middle claw longer than outer claws. Opisthosoma bears tubercles,
extended, sub triangular to very long, higher than long, and rarely globular,
anterior border with stridulating ridges in both sexes. Colulus small, bears
short setae. Male pedipalp with poorly sclerotised median apophysis; radix,
sometimes arm-like sclerite between embolus and cymbium, or prominent
ventral plate above median apophysis and conductor present; embolus varies

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in shape from a complex sclerite, sub triangular, or with a distal thread-
shaped portion; cymbium spoon-shaped to truncate. Female epigynum a
sclerotised plate covered with resinous material; two ovoid to globose
receptacles, tube-shaped in some groups. Spins tiny webs of their own but
they are more found in the webs of other spiders. While hanging in these
webs with their legs closely drawn to their body, they resemble debris, like
twigs, straws, scales, bits of leave, and are so camouflaged that they are
completely lost.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Argyrodes gazedes Tikader 1970; Argyrodes sp.1; Argyrodes sp.2

Genus Chrysso O. Pickard-Cambridge 1882

Spiders of the genus Chrysso are well distributed. Carapace longer than wide;
AE row slightly procurved, PE row straight or slightly procurved or recurved;
AME separated from each other by one AME diameter or more, and set closer
to ALE than to each other; PME moderately closer to each other than to
laterals. Eyes subequal in size or AME slightly larger or smaller than the rest;
clypeus height and shape of carapace variable: chelicera} length almost as
long as clypeus height, anterior margin of chelicerae with two large teeth:
sternum truncate between posterior coxae. Leg I longest; patellae I-IV with a
retrolateral tubercle; tarsus IV bears a tarsal comb; opisthosoma longer than
width and height, extended beyond spinnerets, laterals with furrows or stripes
and dorsolateral spines, usually sub triangular in lateral view; female
epigynum a sclerotised plate with no distinct orifice; sacs present ventrally.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Chrysso sp.1; Chrysso sp.2

Genus Theridion Walckenaer 1805

Spiders of the genus Theridion is well distributed worldwide. Carapace longer
than wide; without stridulating structures; fovea indistinct; AE row straight or
procurved as viewed frontally; PE row straight as seen dorsally; eyes
subequal in size, with AME either slightly larger or smaller than others.
Chelicerae enlarged in males; female chelicerae each with one or two teeth in
the promargin and retromargin bears no teeth. Legs long; patella I and tibia I

110
longer than carapace; leg II longer than IV in males. Opisthosoma is usually
spherical; longer than high, sub triangular, without plates or tubercles; colulus
absent. Epigynum in females weakly sclerotised with indistinct openings; one
pair of seminal receptacles present; male pedipalp with distinct median
apophysis, conductor, and radix, though vary in positions.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Theridion sp.1; Theridion sp.2; Theridion sp.3

Genus Steatoda Sundevall 1833

Spiders of the genus Steatoda are moderately large Theridiids. Lateral eyes
contiguous; AME the largest, larger than ALE, and MOQ slightly broader in
front than behind or a square; clypeus height about as wide as ocular area;
sternum pointed behind, produced between coxae IV; males with punctated
carapace and sternum, punctations slight in female sternum; retromargin
toothless; opisthosoma with well-developed stridulating organ in males; legs
relatively short. Male chelicerae are never large. Paracymbium hook not on
edge of male palpal cymbium. They build irregular tangle web of sticky silken
fibres.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Steatoda sp.1; Steatoda sp.2

Genus Episinus Latreille 1809

Spiders of genus Episinus can be easily identified from the peculiar triangular
shape of their opisthosoma with two horny projections at the posterior end of
the opisthosoma. Carapace is usually oval and slightly longer than wide.
Clypeus is usually projecting. Eyes eight, arranged on tubercles with distinct
black markings around them. Eyes region roundly elevated or projected
anteriorly. Chelicerae are usually small, anterior margin of fang furrow with or
without tooth while the posterior margin is always without tooth. Opisthosoma
longer than wide, dorso-ventrally flattened, widest posteriorly with median
posterior or lateral posterior humps Colulus replaced by two setae. Legs are
long and slender. They are often found on bare twigs under bushes. Usually
dusty in colour (dirty grey to pale brown). They make very simple H or Y-

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shaped web near ground level. The sticky ends of the threads are attached to
the ground and plants above the spider and are held by the spider.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Episinus affinis Bösenberg and Strand 1906
Episinus sp.1; Episinus sp.2

Family Thomisidae Sundevall 1833 (Crab Spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to large, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace varies from convex

or semicircular, ovoid to elongated; usually with scattered, simple or clavate,
erect setae; some species with strong protuberances or eye tubercles. Eight
eyes in two rows, both rows recurved, posterior row curved strongly; lateral
eyes usually situated at eye tubercles, much larger than medians. Chelicerae
free, boss usually present, cheliceral teeth absent, sometimes cusps or small
denticles on promargin, retromargin indistinct and unarmed, scopulae poorly
developed. Legs strongly laterigrade; legs I and II much longer than III and IV;
femora I and II considerably stouter than those of legs III and IV and often
with several strong erect macrosetae; tarsi two clawed, lacking claw tufts and
scopulae. Opisthosoma oval or rounded slightly flattened dorsoventrally, with
colulus. Epigyne is with deep atrium, often with a round and deep vestibulum,
usually with hook; intromittent canal usually short; male palp with retrolateral
tibial apophysis and ventral tibial apophysis; embolus variable.

Thomisids occur more commonly wandering or ambushing themselves on

plants, flowers and foliages, sometimes under rocks. They are represented by
117 genera, 2146 species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is
represented by 38 genera and 164 species so far (Sebastian and Peter,
2009).

Key to genera

1a. Lateral eyes on strong conical protuberance………………………………...2

1b. Lateral eyes not on conical protuberance……………...…………………….3

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2a. Opisthosoma as wide as or wider than long; protuberance between ALE
and PLE well-developed……………………..………………………Thomisus
2b. Opisthosoma much longer than wide; protuberance between ALE and
PLE small……………………….…...……………………………..……Runcinia

3a. Integument clothed with clavate setae……………..………………..Ozyptila

3b. Integument not clothed with clavate setae…………………………………..4

4a. Cephalic region as wide as thoracic region……….…………..…Camaricus

4b. Cephalic region narrower than the thoracic region………………………….5

5a. Anterior eyes nearly equidistant…………………………….……..Misumena

5b. Anterior eyes not equidistant………………………………………….……….6

6a. Body covered with conspicuous spines…………………..………….....Diaea

6b. Body not covered with conspicuous spines…………….……………………7

7a. Anterior median eyes closer to the lateral eyes than to each
other…………………...………………………………………………....Xysticus
7b. Anterior median eyes not closer to lateral eyes……………………………..8

8a. Tarsal claws of leg I with 6-12 teeth………………………………….Synema

8b. Tarsal claw of leg I without teeth…………………………………………..….9

9a.Clypeus with a distinct, white transverse carina; carapace

flat……………………………………………………………….…... Henriksenia
9b.Clypeus without white transverse carina; carapace not flat………………10

10a. Anterior lateral eyes larger than the median eyes……….….Misumenops

10b. Anterior lateral eyes not larger than the median eyes……….……….….11

11. Opisthosoma longer than wide; embolus of male palp short and thick;
spermathecae of female epigynum large…………………………….Lysiteles

Genus Camaricus Thorell 1887

Spiders of the genus Camaricus are mostly found in the tropical countries of
the world. Carapace moderately high, square like parallel sided, wider apart

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and closer to LE than to each other; MOQ wider behind than in front; clypeus
height distinctly large; sternum longer than wide; labium slightly longer than
broad; legs moderately short with less developed spines; opisthosoma oblong
to subglobular with dorsal markings.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Camaricus sp.1

Genus Misumena Latreille 1804

Spiders of the genus Misumena are distributed widely in the world. Small to
medium sized spiders Carapace smooth, moderately low and convex along
lateral margins and bears few erect setae dorsally; eyes in two transverse
recurved rows, PE more recurved than AE row. Legs long, powerful, and
laterigrade; Legs I and II longer and more robust than III and IV, without
dorsal spines, with few prolateral spines and several ventral spines; all legs
without scopulae. Opisthosoma is broad, moderately flat, yellowish white with
median and paired longitudinal bands. Male embolus is short and twisted;
female epigynum slightly sclerotised, with shallow atrium and small hood, and
widely ovoid spermathecae. The females usually stand guard with their egg
sacs. The egg sacs are fastened to the vegetation and are usually flat.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Misumena menoka Tikader 1963; Misumena sp.1; Misumena sp.2

Genus Runcinia Simon 1875

Spiders of the genus Runcinia occur worldwide. Carapace flat, nearly as long
as wide lined with short hairs and head with short setae. Eyes small; laterally
projected tubercle present between LE;. MOQ is wider than long, narrower in
front than behind. Labium is longer than wide; chelicerae without teeth. Leg I
more than twice the length of leg IV, spines present but weak; tibiae I and II
bear no lateral spines; tarsal claws with two or three teeth. Opisthosoma is
longer than wide, truncated to tapered posteriorly beyond spinnerets. Male
pedipalp bears a long RTA with sclerotised tip and very small VTA; bulb
simple without apophysis; tegulum rounded; embolus moderately long and
filiform; epigynum in female with short intromittent canal, a small central hood,
and ovoid to globular spermathecae.

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Species recorded from NDBR:
Runcinia sp.1

Genus Thomisus Walckenaer 1905

Spider of the genus Thomisus are distributed mainly Palaeotropical regions.
Carapace truncated in front, with upper corners strongly diverging; as long as
wide without setae. Eyes small, subequal in size, and poorly developed, ALE
largest; MOQ wider than long; wider behind than in front; clypeus almost as
wide as AME. Labium is longer than wide and chelicerae without teeth. Legs
long, I and II longer than III and IV. Leg spines not strongly developed and
tibiae I and II bear ventral spines. Opisthosoma is wider than long. Male
pedipalp with RTA, ITA and VTA, RTA long and developed, ITA strongly
sclerotised; simple bulb without apophysis; short embolus, filiform or
spiniform; female epigynum simple, less developed, without hood, and bears
short intromittent canal, and globular spermathecae with a gland. The
members are sexually dimorphic, with male darker than female.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Thomisus onustus Walckenaer 1805; Thomisus sp.1

Genus Ozyptila Simon 1864

Spiders of the genus Ozyptila are commonly found in plant litter, under
surface soil, crevices beneath stones and rocks, and. Carapace flattened;
legs are rather short, stout, and laterigrade. These spiders have been said to
resemble diminutive toads. Eyes in two transverse rows, with the lateral eyes
on large conjoined tubercles; distance from anterior lateral eye to posterior
lateral eye on one side equal to, or slightly less than, distance from anterior
median eye to posterior median eye. Legs rather short, stout, colored like
carapace, without scopulae or claw tufts, with legs I and II longer and stouter
than legs III and IV, and usually with femur I distinctly swollen on prolateral
side; tibia I with one short dorsal clavate macroseta, and with two pairs of
nonclavate ventral macrosetae (neither pair terminal); distitarsus I with two or
three (rarely four) middorsal trichobothria in distal half; tarsi with two claws.
Opisthosoma rotund, flattened, often transversely wrinkled, covered dorsally
with curved rows of short clavate setae. Palpal tibia of male with retrolateral,

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ventral and sometimes intermediate apophysis is present. Embolus short,
usually arising simply on distal or prolaterodistal margin of tegulum, usually
pressed to margin of cymbium; tegulum rather flat, nearly circular, usually with
hard apophysis at or near its centre. Epigynum of female usually with hood
and shallow atrium, and with transversely wrinkled area posterior to hood;
copulatory openings located laterad in atrium. Spermathecae is usually in two
parts with the posterior part bulbous, but occasionally without divisions. By
having a carapace that is distinctly higher at the level of coxa II than at the
level of the posterior row of eyes, and usually less than four mid-dorsal
trichobothria on basitarsus I
Species recorded from NDBR:
Ozyptila sp.1; Ozyptila sp.2

Genus Xysticus C.L. Koch 1835

Spiders of the genus Xysticus are common inhabitants of forest litter, open
fields, and meadows. They are hard-bodied, rather bristly, slow-moving with
typical crablike in appearance and locomotion; widely distributed in the world.
Their powerful forelegs are used to grab prey at close range, and their colours
blend with the dull yellows, browns, and reds of the ground cover in which
most of them live. Carapace is almost as long as wide, moderately convex
and not flattened, wide head with strong setae and thoracic part with short
setae. Posterior eyes are nearly equidistant; median eyes smaller than lateral
eyes; MOQ wider than long; clypeus height large; chelicerae toothless;
sternum and labium longer than wide. Legs with strong spines, claw tufts and
scopulae less developed; tarsal claw with five or six isolated teeth.
Opisthosoma is as wide as long in the female, longer than wide in male, often
prominent markings. Male pedipalp tegulum simple without apophysis;
epigymum heavily sclerotised, lacks guide pocket, often with median septum,
short intromittent canal present, and large spermathecae.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Xysticus joyantius Tikader 1966; Xysticus kali Tikader & Biswas 1974
Xysticus minutus Tikader 1960; Xysticus croceus Fox 1937
Xysticus sp.1; Xysticus sp.2

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Genus Diaea Thorell 1869
Spiders of the genus Diaea are mostly found in Africa, Asia and the Australian
regions of the world. Carapace is slightly longer than wide; long setae
present. Eyes prominent; LE developed on tubercles; MOQ longer than wide,
wider behind than in front. Labium and sternum are both longer than wide;
chelicerae without teeth. Legs are with well developed spines. Opisthosoma is
ovoid, longer than wide and lined with strong hairs. Male pedipalp bulb is
simple without apophysis; embolic division long; female epigynum with a
guide pocket borne on a soft median protuberance; intromittent canal long
and winding; spermathecae small and ovoid to globular. They usually hide
between vegetation, especially in or nearby a flower as their colour is well
adapted to its surrounding.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Diaea sp.1; Diaea sp.2

Genus Synema Simon 1960

Spiders of the genus Synema is cosmopolitan in distribution but commonly
found in temperate and tropical zones. Carapace is with long setae, almost as
long as wide; Eight eyes small; LE on separate tubercles; MOQ wider than
long; sternum and labium both longer than wide. Legs with strong spines and
claw tufts poorly developed. Opisthosoma globular in female and ovoid in
male; long hairs present in both sexes and abdominal dorsum with or without
markings. Male pedipalp bulb is simple, without apophysis; embolus long,
filiform; female epigynum with a sclerotised median plate, median hood
present beneath the plate; soft intromittent canal distinct; spermathecae small.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Synema decoratum Tikader 1960

Genus Lysiteles Simon 1895

Spiders of the genus Lysiteles typically found inhabiting grasses, low
vegetation, shrubs, tree foliage and leaf litter. Carapace is longer than wide,
high and bearing long setae. Eyes are arranged in two rows with PE more
recurved and longer than AE row; median ocular quadrangle wider than long
and narrower in front than behind; clypeus height large. Labium is longer than

117
wide. Chelicerae with two promarginal teeth and zero or one weak
retromarginal tooth. Leg spines strong; tarsal claw tufts weakly developed.
Opisthosoma is longer than wide with dorsal markings. RIA and VIA present
in male's pedipalp, RIA strongly sclerotised, apophysis absent in the bulb,
short, thick, and twisted embolus present; epigynum of the female bears a
sclerotised fold housing the intromittent orifices; and spermathecae
subglobular.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Lysiteles brunetti Tikader 1962; Lysiteles niger Ono 1979
Lysiteles sp.1; Lysiteles sp.2; Lysiteles sp.3

Genus Misumenops F.O. Pickard-Cambridge 1900

Spiders of the Misumenops are composition in distribution. This genus is
closely related with Misumena but differs from it by having large and
prominent spines on the femora I and II and on the upper surface of tibia I and
II. ALE is larger than AME. LE larger than the ME, tubercles of lateral eyes
united; MOQ wider than long, narrow in front but wide behind; sternum and
labium longer than wide. Tarsal claws with two to five teeth; spines
developed, tibiae I and II often without lateral spines. Small spines present on
the surface of the carapace and opisthosoma; opisthosoma pear-shaped, as
long as wide in female; longer than wide in male, with long hairs. Male
pedipalp often with a dorsal tooth; tegular apophysis absent; embolus filiform,
short, and sometimes curved apically; female epigynum with central hood,
intromittent orifices at both sides of the hood; small spermathecae, tubular;
Species recorded from NDBR:
Misumenops sp.1; Misumenops sp.2

Genus Henriksenia Lehtinen 2005

Spiders of the genus Henriksenia are found in India to Philippines, Sulawesi,
New Guinea. Carapace relatively flat; clypeus vertical, with a white carina;
smoothly convex towards lateral margins, and bears a few setae. Eyes in two
transverse recurved rows, PE more recurved than the AE row; lateral eyes
with strong projecting processes. Legs I and II are much longer and robust
than III and IV, without prolateral or dorsal spines but bearing ventral spines;

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tarsi I and II without prolateral spines; tarsi with two claws. Opisthosoma is
broad lacking erect setae. Male pedipalp is with short embolus; epigynum of
female slightly sclerotised with shallow atrium, broadly elevated hood, and
broader than long spermathecae.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Henriksenia hilaris Thorell 1877

Family Trochanteriidae Karsch 1879 (Scorpion spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized spiders, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Body dark

brown to grey; opisthosoma is uniform or with pale markings. Carapace
flattened, much wider than long in some species; strongly narrowed in the
ocular area. Eight eyes in two rows, posterior row wider than the anterior row,
both rows almost straight; posterior median eyes flattened, irregular, all eyes
except posterior median eyes encircles with black pigment. Chelicerae is
weakly armed; enlarged, laterally divergent, with long curved fangs; dentition
variable. Labium longer than as long as wide; narrowed and rebordered
distally; gnathocoxae obliquely depressed serrula absent or present. Legs
completely laterigrade, coxae of legs long, the posterior widely separated; leg
I short than the rest; II longest, no scopulae or ungual tufts; anterior legs
armed with erect spiniform bristles; claws two in number and toothed.
Opisthosoma is ovoid and flattened. Anterior spinnerets sclerotised, conical
and widely separated at base; Colulus consists of a few setae. Epigyne is
variable; male palp with retrolateral apophysis; embolus of variable length.

Trochnteriids are free living wanderers. Mainly living in narrow crevices under
bark, on rocks or in old buildings. They are represented by 19 genera, 152
species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 1
genera and 5 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Genus Plator Simon 1880

Spiders of this genus Plator are represented by only a five species from India,
usually found in old buildings in cracks and crevices. They are distinguished
by their semicircular carapace; rectangular eye region projecting forwards for

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a short distance. No fovea, thoracic part appears to be circular, four linear
depressions on each side, radiating to the lateral margins. Long and slender
legs are about equal in length. Opisthosoma is circular with an oval pattern
and three transverse dark lines.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Plator indicus Simon 1897

Family Uloboridae O. Pickard-Cambridge 1871 (Hackled-Orb-web

spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to medium sized, cribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace is variable,

long and narrow, pear shaped or triangular. Eyes are usually eight but
sometimes four in some genera. Chelicerae is without prominent condyle;
cheliceral furrow with cluster of small teeth or with one or more large teeth;
venom glands absent. Labium and gnathocoxae long and distally pointed.
Legs I and IV are longer than other, femora of legs dorsal trichobothria;
metatarsus IV ventrally with straight, long setae; curved, laterally compressed,
calamistrum present; tarsi three clawed. Opisthosoma shape variable, from
oval to peaked to cylindrical, with 1 to 4 pairs of dorsal humps. Anterior
spinnerets having 3 segments; a large basal segment; median spinnerets
unsegmented and posterior spinnerets with two cylindrical segments;
cribellum undivided in front of spinnerets. Female epigyne with paired or
unpaired caudal projections; Female palp with denticle claw; male with palpal
tibia modified, short, disc to conical; embolus, circular; cymbium with 2 apical
setae.

Uloborids are distinguished by all other spiders by the lack of poison glands,
constructing orb webs which may be complete or reduced ranging from a
section of an orb to a single line. They are represented by 18 genera, 265
species occurring worldwide (Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 5
genera and 22 species so far (Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

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Key to genera:

1a.Carapace pear shaped or oval; Eight eyes of similar size distributed in two
rows, PLE not on prominent tubercles, constructs orb webs that are usually
horizontally oriented…………………….……..……………………………..….2
1b.Carapace rectangular or with an abruptly narrowed cephalic region,
constructs triangular webs or irregular webs of a few strands; PLE on
tubercles that extend to carapace margin, ALE very small or entire anterior
eye row absent.....………………………………………………………………..3

2a. First tibia with prominent setae; epigynum with two weakly sclerotised
posterior lobes Opisthosoma with two prominent humps…………Uloborus
2b.First tibia without conspicuous setae, epigynal lobes with distal
sclerotization; humps on opisthosoma may or may not be present; Female
has a single much flatter hump on the opisthosoma; epigynum with broad
median lobes, conductor in males absent …...………….………...…….Zosis

3a. Carapace trapezoidal with abruptly narrowed cephalic region, anterior eye
row present, but ALE very small, opisthosoma nearly round, female
calamistrum extends along proximal half of metatarsus IV, leg I short and
stout, male tibia I with or without dorsal macrosetae, constructs triangular
webs……………………...……………………………………………..Hyptiotes
3b. Carapace rectangular, anterior eye row absent, opisthosoma cylindrical,
female calamistrum restricted to proximal one-third of metatarsus IV, legs
elongated, male tibia I with dorsal macrosetae, spider constructs an
irregular web of a few strands …………………………..……Miagrammopes

Genus Miagrammopes O. Pickard-Cambridge 1870

Spiders of the genus Miagrammopes are twig like feather leg spider, usually
found in bushes and shrubs. They have a prominently longer than wide
Prosoma and elongated opisthosoma; four eyed in a transverse row with PLE
on a lateral tubercle; the first row may be poorly developed, thus giving the
impression that they have only four eyes. AE row absent; sternal suture
developed; coxa II closer to I than to III; cribellum and calamistrum present;
tarsi shorter than metatarsi and tarsus IV bears ventral row of macrosetae;

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pedipalps of female with tarsal claw and males have tibial projection.
Opisthosoma is very long and thin, almost tubular and five times as long as
wide. Miagrammopes spiders do not spin orb-webs; they build webs made up
of one or more sticky threads connected to a non sticky resting thread. They
build a single-line snare made of woolly silk which is fastened to a twig on one
end and held taut by the first pair of legs at the other end. When an insect
lands and hits the thread, the spider releases the line which springs back and
entangles the insect.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Miagrammopes sp.1; Miagrammopes sp.2; Miagrammopes sp.3

Genus Zosis Walckenaer 1842

Spiders of the genus Zosis, are a small group of feather legged spiders. Eight
eyes in two rows, PE slightly recurved and PLE not on tubercles; cribellum
and calamistrum present; femora II and III with trichobothria; tibia I without
brush of hairs; Tarsus IV with ventral row of macrosetae and sternum
undivided. Epigynum has no ventral atrium or paired lobes. Male pedipalp
without a conductor but with a long, broad and flat tegulum spur functioning as
an embolus guide; paracymbium absent; cymbial setae developed; femoral
tubercle visible.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Zosis geniculatus Opell 1979

Genus Uloborus Latreille 1806

Spiders of the genus Uloborus build fully developed horizontal orb webs
having a sticky spiral, usually built in low bushes, in crack of houses and
rocks. Carapace broader in dorsal view, but slightly longer than wide with
moderately curved sides, anterior end narrowed. Eight small eyes are
present. Leg I is much longer and more robust than others. Male tibiae of I
with six to seven dorsal spines, almost in the form of teeth while dorsal and
ventral surface of tibia I of the female have substantial fringes of hairs.
Laterally, the opisthosoma of female has a hunch-backed appearance.
Opisthosoma longer than broad, spear shaped, rounded at front and pointed
at rear. At the widest part, there are two substantial but well separated humps

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giving the impression of shoulders. Anal tubercle prominent in the female,
diminished in male. Egg sacs are suspended in the web. Most species occur
in the tropics and subtropics.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Uloborus krishnae Tikader 1970; Uloborus sp.1; Uloborus sp.2; Uloborus sp.3

Genus Hyptiotes Walckenaer 1837

Spiders of the genus Hyptiotes are distinguished by their abruptly narrowed
carapace, the straight anterior eye row, and the short first femur. Carapace
approximately as wide as long, rather low, abruptly narrowed anteriorly,
deeply indented at posterior margin; front broadly convex. Anterior row of
eyes nearly straight with lateral eyes minute dorsally; posterior row of eyes
strongly recurved, with median eyes situated near lateral margins of carapace
and lateral eyes situated on conspicuous tubercles, also at lateral margins of
carapace. Chelicerae are small; promargin of fang furrow with 3 teeth, and
retromargin with 2 teeth. Legs short, rather stout, in males with strong
macrosetae; femur I equal to or shorter than carapace length; leg IV with
calamistrum; calamistrum composed of single row of curved bristles.
Opisthosoma convex dorsally, overhangs carapace, in females often with
paired dorsal setose tubercles, with large undivided cribellum. Male palpus is
with cymbium small, hairy; tegulum large; conductor and median apophysis
large, extending full length of genital bulb; conductor with long curved hornlike
distal process. Epigynum is broad, rectangular, with rounded or angulated
median tubercle. They build triangular webs with four radii, in the lower
branches of coniferous trees, often among dead twigs, may be found in the
under brushes or rocks.
Species recorded from NDBR:
Hyptiotes sp.1; Hyptiotes sp.2

Family Zodariidae Thorell 1881 (Armoured spiders)

Diagnostic Characters:

Small to large, ecribellate, entelegyne spiders. Carapace generally oval or

pyriform, narrow in front; Cephalic region and clypeus high; fovea usually well

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developed and deep, sometimes absent. Eyes eight, in two rows; anterior eye
row slightly procurved, posterior eye row straight to strongly procurved.
Chelicerae usually strong and with a lateral condyle; margins sometimes
lacking teeth or with distal cusps; fangs very short. Labium longer than wide;
gnathocoxae convergent, lacking serrula; Legs prograde, with or without
spines, spination usually well developed if present; legs formula 4123 or 4132;
trichobothria in rows; scopulae replaced by dense short spines; tarsi three
clawed. Opisthosoma usually ovoid, sometimes twice as long as wide; or
higher at back than in front; scutum present in some genera. Anterior
spinnerets long, median and posterior spinnerets reduced. Epigyne is
variable, often a central plate with copulatory ducts originating medially.

Zodariids are typically ground dwelling spiders and mostly burrowing spiders.
They are represented by 69 genera, 820 species occurring worldwide
(Platnick 2011). In India it is represented by 7 genera and 20 species so far
(Sebastian and Peter, 2009).

Genus Zodarion Walckenaer 1826

Spiders of the genus Zodarion are small spiders usually found in ground litter
and forest floor. AME twice diameters to others; PER strongly procurved;
gnathocoxae elongated; legs without spines; opisthosoma dark. From the
side, the opisthosoma is more oval, protrudes forward covering the pedicel
and part of the thorax. Legs are long and slender with legs IV being the
strongest. Zodarion feed on ants. They catch their prey during the cool of the
day when ants are active.

Species recorded from NDBR:

Zodarion sp.1

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10.1.2 New Records of genus and species from NDBR

Himalayan spider fauna is diverse but poorly documented especially in NDBR.

There were several new records of spiders possibly few new species to
science have been collected from this region. Most of these new records are
Palearctic genera that confirm that NDBR has affinities both with Palearctic
and Oriental region. Here, we documents 10 genera and four species that are
new records to India and four species that are new to science.

10.1.2.1 First record of Genera from India reported from NDBR

• Draconarius Ovtchinnikov 1999
• Himalmartensus Wang and Zhu 2008
• Agyneta Hull 1911
• Pityohyphantes Simon 1929
• Pseudicius Simon 1902
• Stenaelurillus Simon 1885
• Metellina Chamberlin and Ivie 1941
• Phylloneta Archer 1950
• Episinus Latreille 1809
• Zodarion Walckenaer 1826
10.1.2.2 First record of Species from India reported from NDBR
• Cheiracanthium gyirongense Hu and Li 1987
• Heliophanus curvidens Pickard-Cambridge O. 1872
• Phylloneta impressa C.L. Koch 1881
• Episinus affinis Bösenberg and Strand 1906
• Lysiteles niger Ono 1979
10.1.2.3 New species reported from NDBR
• Trachelas sp.nov
• Pseudicius gen nov. sp.nov.
• Draconarius sp.nov
• Himalmartensus sp.nov

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

Photo credit: Peter Jäger

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

Photo credit: Shubi

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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Species account of spiders across the study area

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10.2.1 Diversity and Composition of spider fauna

For assessing the adequacy of the sampling effort was assessed using
species accumulation curves in program Estimate S Version 7.5.0 (Colwell,
2005). Diversity of spiders across altitudinal gradient was estimated by
Shannon Wiener index, which is sensitive to changes in abundance of rare
species in a community and utilizes the number of species in a taxa and the
total number of spiders in a sample (Magurran, 1988). We estimated species
richness of each site using 100% and 50% of the sample plots by Chao 1,
Chao2, Jacknife 1 and Jacknife 2 estimators, based on the consistency of the
estimator across sub samples. To examine the effects of altitude on spider
community composition, we used a non-metric multidimensional scaling
(NMS) ordination with the software program PC-ORD version 4.17 (McCune
and Mefford, 1999). As spider families are very diverse, they have different
ecological niches and exhibit different predation strategies along with different
environmental requirements. Thus, to examine the affect of altitude on the
specific niche occupying families, we classified them into three major guilds
(PW-plant wanderers; GW-ground wanderers; WB-web builders). To examine
response of different spider guilds to changes in elevation, we plotted them
against altitude and also along with herb and shrub diversity. Tree diversity
was not quantified for this study.

A total of 244 species belonging to 108 genus and 33 families were collected
during entire sampling period. The species accumulation curve (pooled for
each site) reached an asymptote for both Chao1 and Jacknife 2 estimators
indicating that sampling efforts was adequate at regional level for all the three
sites to catch most of the species that occur there (Fig. 7). The estimated
total species richness using abundance based Chao1, the predicted richness
for the three sites were 153.43±0.9 (Lata Kharak), 162.75±1.24 (Malari) and
206.43±0.9 (Bhyundar Valley). This indicated that the inventory was complete
at the regional scale (91%). The ratio of observed to estimated (Chao1)
number of species was 91% suggesting that at least 9% more species are to
be expected in the area than were actually collected. During the study period
it was observed that the families with the highest number of total species were

145
Araneidae 18% (44 species); followed by Salticidae and Thomisidae 11.5%
(28 species), Linyphiidae 7.4 % (14 species), Uloboridae and Tetragnathidae
4.5% (11 species), Theridiidae 8.6% (21 species), Gnaphosidae, Oxyopidae,
Sparassidae and Lycosidae 4.1% (10 species) (Fig. 8).

10.2.2 Spider Diversity along altitude and vegetation types

The estimated Shannon-Weiner index of spider family diversities were

2.49Mean ± 0.01SE in low altitude zone and 1.45 Mean ± 0.01SE in high altitude
zones of NDBR. Diversities of the spider families were found to be highest
(2.63 Mean ±0.01SE;) in the cool temperate zone (2000m - 3000m) while lowest
(1.45 Mean ± 0.01SE) in the Alpine zone (3500m - 4100m) (Fig. 9). From the
results of the Non- Metric Dimensional Scaling it was suggested that the high
and lower altitudinal classes were forming unique/non-overlapping
homogenous family assemblages, while the mid altitudinal zones had more
heterogenous family assemblages that were overlapping with the two extreme
elevation zones (Fig.10). Thus, spider families are more dispersed as they
move towards higher elevation.

We predicted that spider diversity would be affected by elevation, and that

they would generally decrease with increasing elevation. Because spiders are
adapted to a rather narrow set of abiotic parameters (e.g., temperature,
humidity, and habitat), we also predicted that composition would differ
significantly among different elevational ranges. Thus, we pooled the data for
the families in all the three sites and tested the pattern of distribution along the
altitude and it was observed that the overall number of spider decreased with
the increase of altitude (R2=0.46, p<0.001; Fig. 11). Similar trends were
observed when the number of families for each site was tested against
altitude separately (Fig. 12).

Spiders live in a well defined environment with limitations set by both physical
conditions and biological factors; they can be grouped into specific functional
groups or guilds. These guilds are grouped based on available information on
their habitat preferences and predatory stategies. An advantage of describing
the spider diversity in terms of these guilds allows for greater insight into how

146
habitat factors affect the structure of each guild community. We tested the
patterns for spiders in three guilds viz., web builders (WB), plant wanderers
(PW) and ground wanderers (GW). It was observed that species diversity (H)
decreased gradually with altitude in ground wanderers in Lata Kharak (LK),
Bhyundar Valley (BV) and Malari (MA) (Fig. 13-16). However, the patterns of
the web builders and plant wanderes differed among three sites. Plant
wanderers and web builders did not observe to follow any specific pattern in
Bhyundar Valley. But in Lata Kharak the pattern of WB and PW was similar to
GW and all the three guilds decreased gradulally with an increase in altitude,
forming a hump shape. Moreover, the patterns of decrease in the PW and WB
were also similar in Malari but the decline was not as gradual as in GW. It
will be increasingly important to understand patterns of species diversity in the
the high altitudinal regions of Indian Himalayas and obtain baseline data with
which to compare future changes resulting from spatial shifts in climate and
habitat. Our study quantifies spider assemblages and shows that spiders
partition space, and probably habitat, along elevational gradients. However,
the role of biotic factors cannot be ruled out, as food availability and
processes such as dispersal may also significantly influence the dynamics
and structuring of spider assemblages.

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Fig. 7: Species-Accumulation curve and estimation curves Chao1 and Jacknife
1, for A. Lata Kharak, B. Malari and C. Bhyundar Valley (all samples pooled for
each site) dataset.

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Fig. 8: The composition of families of spiders (>4.0%) in NDBR in terms of
total number of genus and species.

Response of spider assemblages to the changes in altitude and

microclimatic covariates

Habitat covariates (altitude, temperature, Ph, humidity, litter depth and bare
ground %) were sampled to investigate determinants of spider diversity.
Pearson Correlation was used to check the correlation among habitat
variables and spider species diversity. It was found that altitude (r=-0.48;
p<0.001) and pH (r=-0.24; p<0.001) were negatively correlated at the regional
scale (sites combined). Table.2

Table 2. Pearson Correlation matrix for the habitat covariates and

regional species diversity (sites combined) as the dependent variable
Diversity Altitude Temp Ground Humidity Litter pH
(km) (°C) cover% depth
Variables (mm)
Diversity 1 -0.476 -0.04 0.056 -0.113 -0.029 -0.244
Altitude (km) -0.476* 1 -0.011 -0.171 0 0 0
Temp (°C) -0.04 -0.011 1 -0.193 0.033 -0.031 0.152
Ground cover % 0.056 -0.171 -0.193 1 -0.11 0.069 -0.014
Humidity -0.113 0 0.033 -0.11 1 -0.223 0.074
Litter depth (mm) -0.029 0 -0.031 0.069 -0.223 1 0.097
pH -0.244** 0 0.152 -0.014 0.074 0.097 1
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level

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In linear regression model, altitude and pH were used as explanatory variable
and spider species diversity as dependent variable. It was found that both
altitude (ß=-0.27±0.04; p<0.001) and pH (ß=-0.53±0.18; p<0.05) were
negatively related to spider species diversity [R2=0.29]. (Table. 3 and Table.
4)

Table 3. Parameter estimates of the best fit model

Variable ß SE t P-value
Altitude (km) -0.27 0.05 -5.7 <0.001

pH -0.53 0.18 -2.9 <0.05

Table 4. ANOVA
Model Sum of df F Sig.
Squares
Regression 3.63 2 1.813132 <0.00
Residual 9.04 103 0.087796

The habitat variables were then tested in the three sites separately. It was
found that altitude (r=-0.45; p<0.001) was strongly negatively correlated in site
1 (Lata Kharak). Table 5.

Table 5. Pearson Correlation matrix for the habitat covariates and

regional species diversity (sites 1: Lata Kharak) as the dependent
variable

Diversity Altitude Temp Ground Humidity Litter pH

(km) (°C) cover% depth
Variables (mm)
Diversity 1 -0.45 0.27 0.153 0.283 0.004 0.342
Altitude (km) -0.45* 1 -0.233 0.017 -0.517 -0.002 -0.454
Temp (°C) 0.27 -0.233 1 -0.284 0.082 0.003 0.018
Ground cover % 0.153 0.017 -0.284 1 0.079 -0.143 -0.171
Humidity 0.283 -0.517 0.082 0.079 1 -0.213 0.358
Litter depth (mm) 0.004 -0.002 0.003 -0.143 -0.213 1 0.091
pH 0.342 -0.454 0.018 -0.171 0.358 0.091 1
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level

In linear regression model using altitude as explanatory variable and spider

species diversity as dependent variable, it was found that altitude (ß=-
0.16±0.05; p<0.005) was negatively related to spider species diversity
[R2=0.20]. (Table. 6 and Table. 7)

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 Table 6. Parameter estimates

Variable ß SE t P-value
alt_km -0.16 0.05 -3.06 <0.005

Table 7. ANOVA
Sum of df Mean F Sig.
Model Squares Square
Regression 0.31 1 0.31 9.4 <0.005
Residual 1.21 37 0.032

In site 2 (Bhyundar Valley) it was found that pH (r=-0.21; p<0.05) was

negatively correlated. Table.8

Table 8. Pearson Correlation matrix for the habitat covariates and

regional species diversity (Site 2: Bhyundar Valley) as the dependent
variable
Diversity Altitude Temp Ground Humidity Litter pH
(km) (°C) cover% depth
Variables (mm)
Diversity 1 -0.187 0.022 -0.111 -0.099 -0.01 -0.215
Altitude (km) -0.187 1 0.013 -0.336 -0.022 -0.041 0.041
Temp (°C) 0.022 0.013 1 -0.216 -0.029 -0.111 0.297
Ground cover % -0.111 -0.336 -0.216 1 -0.065 0.172 -0.018
Humidity -0.099 -0.022 -0.029 -0.065 1 -0.344 0.012
Litter depth (mm) -0.01 -0.041 -0.111 0.172 -0.344 1 0.043
pH -0.215* 0.041 0.297 -0.018 0.012 0.043 1

In linear regression model using pH as explanatory variable and spider

species diversity as dependent variable, it was found that pH (ß=-0.45±0.31;
p<0.005) was negatively related to spider species diversity in site 2 (Bhyundar
Valley) [R2=0.05]. (Table. 9 and Table. 10)

Table 9. Parameter estimates

Variable ß SE t P-value
pH -0.451 0.31 -1.5 <0.05

Table 10. ANOVA

Model Sum of df F Sig.

Squares
Regression 0.18 1 2.14 <0.05
Residual 3.69 44

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In site 3, it was found that altitude (r=-0.68; p<0.001) and pH (r=-0.62;
p<0.001) were negatively correlated at the regional scale to spider species
diversity, while positively correlated to humidity (r=-0.021; p<0.001). Table.11

Table 11. Pearson Correlation matrix for the habitat covariates and
regional species diversity (sites 3: Malari) as the dependent variable
Diversity Altitude Temp Ground Humidity Litter pH
(km) (°C) cover% depth
Variables (mm)
Diversity 1 -0.684 -0.281 0.332 0.021 -0.014 -0.623

Altitude (km) -0.684* 1 0.324 -0.606 0.55 -0.046 0.287

Temp (°C) -0.281 0.324 1 -0.109 0.072 -0.208 0.082
Ground cover % 0.332 -0.606 -0.109 1 -0.357 0.284 0.202
Humidity 0.021** 0.55 0.072 -0.357 1 -0.036 -0.202
Litter depth (mm) -0.014 -0.046 -0.208 0.284 -0.036 1 0.203
pH -0.623** 0.287 0.082 0.202 -0.202 0.203 1
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level

In linear regression model altitude, humidity and pH were used as explanatory

variable and spider species diversity as dependent variable. It was found that
both altitude (ß=-0.27±0.01; p<0.001) and pH (ß=-0.53±0.18; p<0.05) were
negatively related to spider species diversity while humidity was positively
related (ß=-0.03±0.04; p<0.05) [R2=0.79]. (Table. 12 and Table. 13)

Table 12. Parameter estimates

Variable ß SE t P-value
alt_km -1.07 0.21 -5.1 <0.001
Humidity 0.03 0.01 2.6 <0.05
pH -1.17 0.53 -2.2 <0.05

Table 13. ANOVA

Model Sum of df F Sig.

Squares
Regression 2.56 3 18.1 <0.001
Residual 0.80 17

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 Fig. 9 Spider family diversity and richness in four vegetation types in NDBR

Fig.10 : Non-Metric Dimensional scaling of Altitudinal samples × Spider family

composition matrix based on Bray-Curtis distance matrix, representing the
four vegetational classes. (o= Alpine meadows; = Subalpine; = Cool
Temperate and ∆ = Warm temperate)

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Fig. 11: Patterns of spider family (sites combined) Distribution along the
altitudinal gradient

Fig. 12: Patterns of spider family (sites separate) Distribution along the
altitudinal gradient (p<0.001)

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Fig. 13: Guild Diversity Patterns in the three sites: A. Lata Kharak; B.Malari; C. Bhyundar Valley

155
Fig. 14: Patterns of Guild Diversity of Spiders (PW-Plant wandering and WB-Web Building spiders) along with herb
and shrub diversity in Site. 3 (Malari)

156
Fig. 15: Patterns of Guild Diversity of Spiders (PW-Plant wandering and WB-Web Building spiders) along with herb
and shrub diversity in Site. 1 (Lata Kharak)

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Fig. 16: Patterns of Guild Diversity of Spiders (PW-Plant wandering and WB-Web Building spiders) along with herb
and shrub diversity in Site. 2 (Bhyundar Valley)

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11. Discussion and Conservation Implications

The present study is the first comprehensive documentation of the spider

fauna in NDBR. A total of 244 species belonging to 108 genus and 33 families
were recorded during the entire sampling period. It represents 16.1% of total
species, 28.6 % generic and 56.7% family diversity reported from India
(Sebastian and Peter, 2009). The most dominant family reported was
Araneidae 18% (44 species); followed by Salticidae and Thomisidae 11.5%
(28 species); Linyphiidae 7.4 % (14 species); Uloboridae and Tetragnathidae
4.5% (11 species); Theridiidae 8.6% (21 species); Gnaphosidae, Oxyopidae,
Sparassidae and Lycosidae 4.1% (10 species). Some rare spiders such as
Plator indicus (Family: Trochanteriidae) and Eriophora himalayensis
(Araneidae) were collected during the study. As the Himalayan region falls in
the transition zone of both Palearctic and Indo-Malayan realms, I recorded
some families that represent the Paleartic genera viz., Heliophanus,
Pseudicus, Pellenes and Phlegra (Family: Salticidae); Phylloneta and
Episinus (Family: Theridiidae); Draconarius and Himalmartensus (Family:
Amaurobiidae) and Pityohyphantes (Family: Linyphiidae). Five species and
ten genera were recorded as new records from Indian region. Four species
were confirmed by experts as new species to science. However, there are a
good number of species that probably are new species but cannot be
described due to lack of full literature on these genera. The high number of
species recorded indicates the rich spider diversity of this region.

NDBR is interestingly diverse in spider fauna. It is also important to note that

spider fauna is ubiquitous in nature and their diversity does depend on many
other factors apart from altitudinal variation and habitat structure. Therefore,
looking into these factors will be interesting and also can be relevant to the
maintenance and management of its diversity in NDBR.

11.2 Diversity along altitude and vegetation types in NDBR

It is becoming increasingly important to understand patterns of species

diversity in the high altitudinal regions of Indian Himalayas and obtain
baseline data with which to compare future changes resulting from spatial

159
shifts in habitat due to climate change. This study quantifies spider
assemblages and shows that spiders partition space and habitat according to
the niche they occupy along elevational gradients. Though, I observed some
of these families and species in restricted zones, it is not that these individuals
of the familles are rare. They may be cryptic or have patchy distribution and
thus may not have been adequately sampled.

The results showed that the number of families recorded from the sampling
sites, linearly decreased with the increasing altitude and also found that the
family diversity showed a consistent negative correlation with altitude. As
spiders are sensitive to even small changes in the environment especially
vegetation, topography and climatic changes, patterns of linear decline may
also be probably related to more severe climatic conditions, terrain and
landscape of NDBR, leading to species decline and absence of the more
tolerant species. Similar results of spider abundance declining linearly with
elevation were observed in the studies of Otto and Svensson (1982) and Mc
Coy (1990). Along the altitudinal gradient of NDBR two main patterns are
evident firstly a linear decline in family diversity and then a hump shaped
decline of species. Species are gradually filtered out depending on their
tolerance and appropriate habitats and in most cases they are not replaced by
others. From the results of the guild across the elevation, it was observed that
the ground dwelling spiders showed a hump shaped decline in all the three
sampling site. Chatzaki et al. (2005) also found similar results in Crete that
along a broad elevational gradient, ground dwelling spider richness showned
a hump-shaped response to changes in elevation. However, we found similar
relationships of plant wanderers and web builders in Lata Kharak and Malari,
but no response of elevation on these guilds in Bhyundar Valley was
observed. The hump shape relationship could be possibly being the result of
greater habitat diversity and stability of environmental factors as compared to
higher altitudinal zones.

For ground dwelling spider timberline does not play any major role (Chatzaki
et al., 2005). Because they live on the ground, the changing vegetation above
the timberline does not affect them directly but only through the decline of

160
food availability which results from the reduction of habitat diversity and
complexity. However, in other spider families which are probably dependent
on the vegetation type of their habitat due to their way of life and foraging, the
vegetation plays significant role in shaping these communities. Pattern of
species diversity decline and species composition are probably result of more
harsh climatic conditions (like extremes of temperature, humidity,
precipitation, wind intensity) and to the landscape, leading to species decline
and absence of more tolerant species. Species richness is supposed to peak
at mid-elevation via primary productivity, which is considered to peak at mid
elevations. However, Jimenez-Valverde and Lobo (2007) found that spider
richness was more strongly correlated with habitat complexity and maximum
temperature than with elevation at a regional scale of investigation. Earlier
works suggest that species diversity is correlated with structural complexity of
habitat (Uetz, 1979; Mac Arthur, 1964; Pickett et al.1991; Androw, 1991;
Hawksworth and Kalin - Aroyo, 1995; Rosenzweig, 1995). As habitat structure
and complexity changes with increasing altitude, shift in composition of
potential prey species is also expected to occur; supporting a dual process
that is probably determining spider assemblages in the area. However some
families like Lycosidae which are more tolerant and overcome harsh
conditions were also collected from higher elevations.

Changes along spatial gradients associated with changes in habitat can have
significant effects on the structure of spider assemblages, but responses vary
among different altitudinal sites. Studies conducted by Samu et al. (1999) in
agricultural ecosystems found that spider abundance/diversity and
environmental (including microclimate, habitat, and disturbance) diversity
were, in general, positively and variably correlated at different scales. In Terai
Conservation Area, Hore and Uniyal (2010) found that habitat heterogeneity is
mediated largely by structural diversity of the vegetation rather than
microclimate variation. Structural changes in vegetation tend to override
imminence much before any microclimatic change takes effect in space.
Studies have confirmed that residence time is related to disturbance or web
destruction (Enders, 1976), microhabitat features such as temperature or
humidity (Biere and Uetz 1981), growth of the spider and an appropriate

161
change in the structural requirements of web construction (Lubin et. al., 1993),
and prey capture success (Bradley, 1993; McNett and Ryptra 1997).

From the ordination analysis using NMS, it was revealed that the families that
were occupying the higher altitudinal zones were more dispersed while those
at the lower altitudinal zones were forming clumps. It may be possible that
with the increase in altitude resource gets limited and only the tolerant species
are able to cope with the changes with altitude. NMS has been used as a tool
for descriptive multivariate data analysis, and the principles and mechanics
have been well documented (McCune and Grace, 2002). NMS is well suited
to community data, particularly when β diversity is high (i.e., the data matrix
contains many zeroes) (Faith et. al., 1987) and provides robust analysis of
many data types. In analyses of simulated data with known gradients, NMS
has shown superior ability to recover underlying data structure compared to
principal components analysis, principal coordinates analysis, reciprocal
averaging, and detrended correspondence analysis (Fasham, 1977; Minchin,
1987).

There are several other environmental factors that may also affect spider
species diversity apart from altitude and seasonality viz., spatial
heterogeneity, competition, predation, habitat type, environmental stability and
productivity (Rosenzweig, 1995). Other factors are important in influencing
spider diversity and richness in the Himalayan ecosystem viz., intra - and
interspecific competition, surrounding habitats and climatic factors. However,
the role of biotic factors cannot be ruled out, as food availability and
processes such as dispersal may also significantly influence the dynamics
and structuring of spider assemblages. Shifts in vegetation structure are also
expected to assist changes in diversity and abundance of arthropods as
spiders depend heavily on arthropod prey, dynamic shifts in the prey base are
likely to limit the spider assemblage.

Nanda Devi Biosphere reserve is interestingly diverse in spider fauna. Similar

research in other parts of the Biosphere Reserve will surely supplement
information in this direction. It is also important to note that spider fauna is
ubiquitous in nature and their diversity cannot be explained by quantifying one

162
aspect of the environment. It does depend on many other factors or a
combination of factors, apart from altitudinal variation and habitat structure.
Looking into these factors would surely bring in more interesting results which
can be relevant for maintenance and management spider diversity of this
region.

11.3 Spiders in Future management in NDBR

Management practices promote changes in community structure and

composition of different animal groups (Gram et al., 2001; Dunn, 2004; Drever
et al., 2008), including invertebrates (Finch and Szumelda, 2007; Pohl et al.,
2007) by the modification of forest structure that causes changes in
environmental conditions, nesting sites and food resource availability. Forest
management practices determine different forest structures. Thus, typical
practices such as cleanings or plantations reduce the predominance of old-
growth structures characterized by vertical and horizontal heterogeneity, wide
range of age classes, presence of large trees and dead wood. Compared to
naturally regenerating forests, succession in managed forests includes
accelerated successional cycles and decreased vegetation heterogeneity
(Essen et al., 1992; Buddle et al., 2006). Conservation issues mostly focus on
the ecological impact of management practices, as their aim is to provide
practical background for sustainable management (Spence, 2001; Aubert et
al., 2003; Oxbrough et al., 2005). To achieve this purpose, an understanding
of how management practices affect forest biodiversity is a necessary
condition (Bengtsson et al., 2000).

Among arthropods, spiders are the most abundant predators in many

terrestrial ecosystems, playing an important role in ecosystem functioning
throughout habitats (Van Hook, 1971). While spiders in forest ecosystems
contribute to the maintenance of insect community equilibrium, the distribution
of species and the composition of assemblages are significantly influenced by
environmental conditions (Ziesche and Roth, 2008). Spiders seem well suited
to discriminate habitat type and quality, since play important role as diverse
and abundant invertebrate predators in terrestrial ecosystems. Despite their
ecological role in many ecosystems, high diversity, documented threats and

163
the known imperilment of some species, spiders have received little attention
from the conservation community (Skerl, 1999). While this lack of attention
may be related to negative public attitudes towards spiders (Kellert, 1986), a
paucity of compiled information on spider conservation status and distribution
may be a more important issue. However, it is important that imperilled and
vulnerable spiders and other invertebrates are not left out of conservation
planning efforts, as they may have unique ecological requirements or require
particular site selection and management activities.

Without knowledge of their locations in conservation databases, it is possible

that habitats with vulnerable spider species would not otherwise be selected
for conservation attention. The inclusion of spiders in conservation planning
will depend on the amount of compiled information on their distribution and
conservation status. Additionally, the most critical and useful habitat
association data is not found in checklists. Such data are lacking for many
spider species, particularly those with cryptic habits. Resources including all
records and specific habitat associations will be most useful and spider survey
in NDBR may serve as a model for future efforts. Nevertheless, there exists a
growing body of work on spiders as they relate to conservation issues both as
conservation tools and as explicit targets for conservation action. Efforts to
characterize the ecological value of spiders, examine their potential as
ecological indicators, document threats to spider diversity, and develop
effective conservation programmes, are taking place around the globe.
Considering the high spider diversity, efforts should be continued to ensure
that the area is conserved, not only for the large vertebrates (which attract
considerable attention), but also for the invertebrates.

*****

164
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188
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Yin, C.M., Wang, J.F., Zhu, M.S., Xie, L.P., Peng, X.J. and Bao, Y.H. 1997.
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Ziesche, T. and Roth, M. 2008. Influence of environmental parameters on

small-scale distribution of soil-dwelling spiders in forests: What makes
the difference, tree species or microhabitat? Forest ecology and
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India, Northern Regional Station, Dehra Dun, 175pp.

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*****

189
11.5 Appendix I
Species and morphospecies of spiders captured during entire field work
according to Sebastian and Peter (2009)

Family Genus Species

Agelenidae C.L. Koch 1837 Agelena Walckenaer 1805 Agelena sp.1
Amaurobiidae Bertkau 1873 Amaurobius C.L. Koch 1837 Amaurobius sp.1
Amaurobius sp.2
Draconarius Ovtchinnikov
1999 Draconarius sp. nov
Himalmartensus Wang & Zhu
2008 Himalmartensus sp. nov
Anyphaenidae Bertkau 1878 Anyphaena, Sundevall 1833 Anyphaena sp.1
Araneidae Simon 1895 Argiope Audouin 1826 Argiope anasuja, Thorell 1887
Argiope sp.1
Argiope sp.2
Cyclosa Menge 1866 Cyclosa insulana, Costa 1834
Cyclosa confraga, Thorell 1892
Cyclosa hexatuberculata
Tikader1982
Cyclosa sp.1
Cyclosa sp.2
Cyclosa sp.3
Cyclosa sp.4
Neoscona Simon 1864 Neoscona achine Simon 1906
Neoscona mukerjei Tikader 1980
Neoscona biswasi
Neoscona nautica L. Koch 1875
Neoscona theisi Walckenaer 1841
Neoscona vigilans Blackwall 1865
Neoscona shillongensis Tikader &
Bal, 1981
Neoscona sp.1
Neoscona sp.2
Araniella Chamberlin & Ivie
1942 Araniella sp.1
Araniella sp.2
Araneus Clerck 1757 Araneus bilunifer, Pocock 1900
Araneus ellipticus, Tikader & Bal
1981
Araneus mitificus, Simon 1886
Araneus nympha, Simon 1889
Araneus sp.1
Araneus sp.2
Chorizopes O. Pickard-
Cambridge 1870 Chorizopes sp.1, Tikader, 1975
Crytophora moluccensis, Doleschall,
Cyrtophora Simon 1864 1857
Crytophora sp.1
Cyrtophora sp.2
Eriophora himalayensis Tikader
Eriophora Simon 1864 1975
Eriophora sp.1
Eriophora sp.2
Eriophora sp.3
Parawixia O. Pickard-
Cambridge 1904 Parawixia dehaani Doleschall 1859

190
 Family Genus Species

Parawixia sp.1
Parawixia sp.2
Parawixia sp.3
Parawixia sp.4
Eriovixia Archer 1951 Eriovixia sp.1
Cyrtarachne Thorell, 1868 Cyrtarachne sp.1
Cyrtarachne sp.2
Thelecantha brevispina, Doleschall
Thelecantha Hasselti 1882 1857
Clubiona Drassodes O. Pickard-
Clubionidae Wagner 1888 Clubiona Latreille 1804 Cambridge, 1874
Clubiona sp.1
Clubiona sp.2
Cheiracanthium C.L. Koch Cheiracanthium gyirongense Hu & Li
1839 1987
Cheriacanthium sp.1
Cheriacanthium sp.2
Corinnidae Karsch 1880 Castianeira, Keyserling 1879 Castineira zetes Simon 1897
Trachelas C. L. Koch, 1872 Trachelas sp.nov
Trachelas sp.2
Trachelas sp.3
Oedignatha Thorell 1881 Oedignatha sp.1
Dictynidae O. Pickard-
Cambridge 1871 Dictyna Sundevall 1833 Dictyna sp.1
Dictyna sp.2
Filistatidae Ausserer 1867 Pritha Lehtinen 1967 Pritha sp.1
Pritha sp.2
Gnaphosidae Pocock 1898 Gnaphosa Latreille 1804 Gnaphosa poonensis Tikader 1973
Gnaphosa sp.1
Gnaphosa sp.2
Herpyllus Hentz 1832 Herpyllus sp.1
Drassodes Westring 1851 Drassodes sp.1
Scotophaeus Simon 1893 Scotophaeus sp.1
Scotophaeus sp.2
Zelotes Gistel 1848 Zelotes sp.1
Zelotes sp.2
Zelotes sp.3
Hahniidae Bertkau 1878 Hahnia CL Koch 1841 Hahnia sp. 1
Hersiliidae Thorell 1869 Hersilia Audouin 1826 Hersilia sp.1
Linyphiidae Blackwall 1859 Bathyphantes Menge 1866 Bathyphantes sp.1
Agyneta Hull 1911 Agyneta sp.1
Atypena adelinenae Barrion &
Atypena Simon 1894 Litsinger 1995
Atypena sp.1
Erigone Audouin 1826 Erigone sp.1
Erigone sp.2
Linyphia Latreille 1804 Linyphia sp. 1
Linyphia sp. 2
Linyphia sp. 3
Linyphia sp. 4
Pityohyphantes Simon 1929 Pityohyphantes sp. 1
Neriene Blackwall 1833 Neriene sp.1
Neriene sp.2
Microlinyphia Gerhardt 1928 Microlinyphia sp.1

191
 Family Genus Species
Lycosidae Sundevall 1833 Hippasa Simon 1885 Hippasa agelenoides, Simon, 1884

Trochosa C.L. Koch Trochosa sp.1

Lycosa Latreille 1804 Lycosa tista Tikader, 1970
Lycosa sp.1
Lycosa sp.2
Pardosa C.L. Koch 1847 Pardosa sumatrana Thorell, 1890
Pardosa minuta Tikader & Malhotra,
1976
Pardosa pseudoannulata Bösenberg
& Strand, 1906
Pardosa sp.1
Pardosa sp.2
Mimetidae Simon 1881 Mimetus Hentz 1832 Mimetus sp.1
Nephilidae Simon 1894 Nephila Leach 1815 Nephila clavata L. Koch 1878
Oecobiidae Blackwall 1862 Oecobius Lucas 1846 Oecobius sp.1
Oxyopidae Thorell 1870 Peucetia Thorell 1869 Peucetia sp.1
Oxyopes Latreille 1804 Oxyopes javanus Thorell, 1887
Oxyopes shweta Tikader, 1970
Oxyopes sp.1
Oxyopes sp.2
Oxyopes sp.3
Oxyopes sp.4
Oxyopes sp.5
Hamaltatliwa Keyserling 1887 Hamataliwa sp. 1
Hamataliwa sp. 2

Palpimanidae Thorell 1870 Palpimanus Dufour 1820 Palpimanus sp.1

Philodromidae O. Pickard- Philodromus chambiensis Tikader
Cambridge 1871 Philodromus Walckenaer 1826 1980
Philodromus sp.1
Philodromus sp.2
Pholcidae C.L.Koch 1851 Crossopriza Simon 1893 Crossopriza lyoni Blackwall 1867
Pholcus phalangioides Fuesslin
Pholcus Walckenaer 1805 1775
Pholcus sp.1
Pholcus sp.2
Pimoidae Wunderlich 1986 Pimoa Chamberlin & Ivie 1943 Pimoa sp.1
Pisauridae Simon 1890 Perenethis C.L. Koch 1878 Perenethis sp.1
Perenethis sp.2
Pisaura Simon 1885 Pisaura mirabilis Clerck 1757
Pisaura sp.1
Pisaura sp.2
Psechridae Simon 1890 Psechrus Thorell 1878 Psechrus himalayanus Simon 1906
Salticidae Blackwall 1841 Carrhotus Thorell 1891 Carrhotus sp.1
Carrhotus sp.2
Carrhotus sp.3
Carrhotus sp.4
Hyllus C.L. Koch 1848 Hyllus sp.1
Hyllus sp.2
Phintella Strand 1906 Phintella sp.1
Phlegra Simon 1876 Phlegra sp.1
Pseudicius Simon 1902 Pseudicus sp.1
Pseudicus sp.2

192
 Family Genus Species
Siler Simon 1889 Siler sp.1
Siler sp.2
Plexippus C.L. Koch 1846 Plexippus paykulli Audouin 1826

Plexippus sp.1
Plexippus sp.2
Rhene Thorell 1869 Rhene flavigera C.L. Koch 1846
Rhene danielli Tikader 1973
Rhene sp.1
Myrmarachne orientales Tikader
Myrmarachne MacLeay 1839 1973
Myrmarachnae sp.1
Myrmarachnae sp.2
Stenaelurillus Simon 1885 Stenaeurillus sp.1
Thiania C.L. Koch 1846 Thiania sp.1
Thiania sp.2
Salticus Latreille 1804 Salticus sp.1
Pellenes Simon 1876 Pellenes sp.1
Pellenes sp.2
Heliophanus curvidens C.L. Koch
Heliophanus C.L.Koch 1883 1833
Scytodidae Blackwall 1864 Scytodes Latreille 1804 Scytodes thoracica Latreille 1802
Scytodes sp.1
Segetriidae Simon 1893 Segestria Latreille 1804 Segestria sp.1
Selenopidae Simon 1897 Selenops Latreille 1819 Selenops radiatus Latreille 1819
Sparassidae Bertkau 1872 Heteropoda Latreille 1804 Heteropoda venatoria Latreille 1804
Heteropoda sp.1
Heteropoda sp.2
Olios Walckenaer 1837 Olios sanguinifrons Simon 1906
Olios sp.1
Olios sp.2
Pseudopoda prompta O. Pickard-
Pseudopoda Jäger 2000 Cambridge 1885
Pseudopoda sp.1
Pseudopoda sp.2
Pseudopoda sp.3
Metellina Chamberlin & Ivie
Tetragnathidae Menge 1866 1941 Metellina sp.1
Dyschirognatha Simon 1893 Dyschirognatha sp.1
Leucauge decorata Blackwall 1864
Leucauge celebesiana Walckenaer
Leucauge White 1841 1841
Leucauge sp.1
Leucauge sp.2
Tetragnatha Latreille Tetragnatha maxillosa Thorell 1895
Tetragnatha sp.1
Tetragnatha sp.2
Guizygiella Zhu Kim & Song
1997 Guizygiella sp.1
Guizygiella sp.2
Theridiidae Sundevall 1833 Phylloneta Archer 1950 Phylloneta impressa C.L.Koch 1881
Phylloneta sp.1
Enoplognatha Pavesi 1880 Enoplognatha sp.1
Enoplognatha sp.2
Euryopis Menge 1868 Euryopis sp.1
Euryopis sp.2

193
 Family Genus Species
Parasteatoda Strand 1829 Parastaetoda sp.1
Parastaetoda sp.2
Argyrodes Simon 1864 Argyrodes gazedes Tikader 1970
Argyrodes sp.1

Argyrodes sp.2
Chrysso O. Pickard-Cambridge
1882 Chrysso sp.1
Chrysso sp.2
Theridion Walckenaer 1805 Theridion sp.1
Theridion sp.2
Theridion sp.3
Steatoda Sundevall 1833 Steatoda sp.1
Steatoda sp.2
Episinus affinis Bösenberg &
Episinus Latreille 1809 Strand, 1906
Episinus sp.1
Episinus sp.2
Thomisidae Sundevall 1833 Camaricus Thorell 1887 Camaricus sp.1
Misumena Latreille 1804 Misumena menoka Tikader 1963
Misumena mridulai Tikader 1962
Misumena sp.1
Misumena sp.2
Runcinia Simon 1875 Runcinia sp.1
Thomisus Walckenaer 1905 Thomisus onustus Walckenaer 1805
Thomisus sp.1
Ozyptila Simon 1864 Ozyptila sp.1
Ozyptila sp.2
Xysticus C.L. Koch 1835 Xysticus joyantius Tikader, 1966
Xysticus kali Tikader & Biswas 1974
Xysticus minutus Tikader 1960
Xysticus croceus Fox 1937
Xysticus sp.1
Xysticus sp.2
Xysticus sp.3
Diaea Thorell 1869 Diaea sp.1
Diaea sp.2
Synema Simon 1960 Synema decoratum Tikader 1960
Lysiteles Simon 1895 Lysiteles brunetti Tikader 1962
Lysiteles niger Ono 1979
Lysiteles sp.1
Lysiteles sp.2
Lysiteles sp.3
Misumenops F.O. Pickard-
Cambridge 1900 Misumenops sp.1
Misumenops sp.2
Henriksenia Lehtinen 2005 Henriksenia hilaris Thorell 1877
Trochanteriidae Karsch 1879 Plator Simon 1880 Plator indicus Simon 1897
Uloboridae O. Pickard- Miagrammopes O. Pickard-
Cambridge 1871 Cambridge 1870 Miagrammopes sp.1
Miagrammopes sp.2
Miagrammopes sp.3
Zosis Walckenaer 1842 Zosis geniculatus Opell 1979
Uloborus Latreille 1806 Uloborus krishnae Tikader 1970
Uloborus sp.1

194
 Family Genus Species
Uloborus sp.2
Uloborus sp.3
Uloborus sp.4
Hyptiotes Walckenaer 1837 Hyptiotes sp.1
Hyptiotes sp.2
Zodariidae Thorell 1881 Zodarion Walckenaer 1826 Zodarion sp.1

*****

195
12. S&T benefits accrued:

(i) List of Research publications arising out of the Project:

Paper published:

S. Quasin and V.P. Uniyal. 2011. Spider diversity along altitudinal gradient
in Milam Valley Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Western Himalaya. Indian
Forester. Vol. 137. No. 10. 1207-1211 pp.

S. Quasin and V.P. Uniyal. 2010. Preliminary investigation of Spider

diversity in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttarakhand, India. Indian
Forester. Vol. 136. 1340-1344pp.

Popular Article:

V.P.Uniyal and Shazia Quasin. 2010. Spiders: Bio-Indicators for Monitoring

Biodiversity. Wildlife Institute of India. Newsletter, Vol. 17 No. 3.

Paper accepted/communicated:

First report of Episinus affinis (Araneae: Theridiidae) from India. Records

of Zoological survey of India, 2010. (Accepted)

New Record of Phylloneta impressa L. Koch, 1881 (Araneae: Theridiidae)

from India. Biosystematica, 2010. (Comunicated)

Abstracts Published in Conferences/Symposiums/Congress

Quasin Shazia and V.P. Uniyal. 2011. Spider Diversity in response to

vegetation and microclimate along the altitudinal gradient in
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Uttarakhand. Annual Research
Seminar, Wildlife Institute of India.

Quasin Shazia and V.P. Uniyal. 2011. Spider Diversity and Composition in
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Western Himalayas, India. National
Symposia-cum-workshop ‘Arachnology with reference to Spider:
Ecology, Biology and Taxonomy’.

Quasin Shazia and V.P. Uniyal. 2011. Altitudinal gradient structuring spider
assemblages: A study in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (Western
Himalayas), Uttarakhand, India. National Conference on ‘Biodiversity
vis-à-vis Enviromnetal Degradation in Hilly Terrains’.

196
Uniyal, V.P and Shazia Quasin. 2010. Patterns of Spider Assemblages along
the Altitudinal Gradient in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve,
Uttarakhand. Internal Research Seminar, Wildlife Institute of India.

Uniyal, V.P. and Shazia Quasin. 2010. Community structure and composition
of Spiders (Araneae) in Western Himalayas, India. 18th International
Congress of Arachnology, Siedlce, Poland.

Quasin Shazia and V.P Uniyal. 2010. Species composition of Spider

(Araneae) in the Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest habitat, Nanda Devi
Biosphere Reserve, Western Himalayas, India. 18th International
Congress of Arachnology, Siedlce, Poland.

Quasin, S. and V.P. Uniyal. 2010. Role of altitudinal gradient in structuring

spider family assemblages: A study in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
of Western Himalayas (India). Students Conference on Conservation
Science (SCCS), Bangalore

Quasin, S. and V.P. Uniyal. 2009. Diversity of spiders in High Altitude

Ecosystem, Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve - World Heritage Site,
India. 25th European Congress of Arachnology, Alexandroupoli,
Greece.

Quasin, S. and V.P. Uniyal. 2009. Diversity of Spiders (Araneae) along the
altitudinal gradient, Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Uttarakhand,
India. Internal Research Seminar, Wildlife Institute of India.

Quasin, S. and V.P. Uniyal. 2009. Spider (Araneae) diversity along altitudinal
gradient, Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Uttarakhand, India. IV
National forestry Conference, Dehradun.

Uniyal V. P. and Shazia Quasin. 2009. Insect and Spider Diversity of Nanda
Devi Biosphere Reserve. Research Seminar on Nanda Devi & Valley of
Flowers World Heritage Site. Birahi, Chamoli, Uttarakhand. Under the
Wildlife Institute of India-UNESCO Project ‘Building Partnerships to
Support World Heritage Programme in India.

197
 ii) Manpower trained in the project

(a) Research Scientists or Research Associates: -------------Nil---------

(b) No. of Ph.D. Registered – One

Thesis title “Systematics and Diversity of Spiders (Araneae) in Nanda

Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR), Uttarakhand, India” at Saurashtra
University (Reg. no.4219) under supervision of Dr. V.P. Uniyal (Supervisor) at
Wildlife Institute of India.

(c) Other Technical Personnel trained: Four

(iii) Patents taken, if any: Nil

13. Financial Position

Financial Position/ Funds % of Total

S.No Budget Head Expenditure
Sanctioned cost
I Salaries/ Manpower costs 850000 850000 100

II Consumables 180000 180000 100

III Travel 400000 400000 100

IV Contingencies 200000 200000 100

V Equipment 127000 127000 100

VI Overhead Expenses 300000 300000 100

Total 2057000 2057000 100%

198
 14. Procurement/ Usage of Equipment

Sl. Sanctioned Procured Cost Working Utilization Rate

No List (Yes/ No) (Rs in (Yes/ (%)
Model & lakhs) No)
make

1. Camera Sony Cyber 20,000 Yes 100%

shot.
2. Laptop DSC H50 64,802 Yes 100%
HP

a._________________________ (Principal Investigator)

b._________________________ (Co-Investigator)

199