Citrus Juice Plant Nigeria

FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE
P.M.B 1036 OWERRI,

IMO STATE.
PLANT DESIGN
ON
CITRUS POWDERED JUICE
BY
NAME: OLUIGBO PRECIOUS NGOZI
DEPT: FOOD TECHNOLOGY

LEVEL: HND II (EVENING)
COURSE TITLE: EQUIPMENT & PLANT PROCESS DESIGN COURSE
CODE: FST 412
LECTURER: ENGR. ARINZE & MR. CHIBUIKE NJOKU
DATE: APRIL, 2024
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DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to the almighty God for his divine grace and mercy upon my life in my
academic pursuit.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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I acknowledge the presence of God in my life, for his mercies and blessings. I say thank you Jesus. I
humbly acknowledge my lecturer, Mr. Chibuike Njoku for his teachings and instructions as regards to
engineering principles. I also acknowledge my parents for their love and care in all rounds. I will not
forget to acknowledge my brothers, sisters and friends for their love and care towards me not
withstanding all the storms of life. I pray may God continue to shower his blessings on you all Amen.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Title page
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Executive Summary
Table of contents
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Aim and objectives
1.3 Production of citrus juice
1.4 Properties and structure
1.5 Uses
1.6 Process route
1.7 Other process route
1.8 Why the process route was chosen
1.9 Scope of the design
1.10 Limitations
1.11 Process flow chart (Diagram)
1.12 Process description
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature review
2.2 History of caffeinated coffee
2.3 productions
2.4 Nutritional factors of caffeinated coffee
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Material and energy balances
3.1 Material balance
3.1 Conservation of mass
3.1.4 Material balance assumption
3.1.2 Material balance assumption
3.1.3 Material balance assumptions
3.1.4 Material balance around different units
3.2 Energy balance
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3.2.1 Energy balance assumption
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Piping and instrumentation
4.1 General overview
4.3 Instrumentation and control objectives
4.4 Control system and short down schemes
4.5 Basic start up and operational information
4.0 Safety measures
4.7 Product specifications
4.8 Environmental regulation
4.9 Economic reasons
4.10 Valve selection
4.11 Alarm and safety trips
4.1.2 Material devices
4.1.3 Pump and pipe selection
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Equipment design and specification
5.1 Major equipment use (design costing)
5.1.1 solar dryer
5.1.2 Hammer mill
6.1.5 Other economic benefits
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 Plant location and layout
7.1 Plant location
7.2 Plant layout
7.2.1 Objectives of plant layout
7.3 Environmental impact assessment
CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 Plant safety and loss prevention
8.1 Process control and hazard control
CHAPTER NINE
9.1 Conclusion
9.2 Recommendation
References and Appendix
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Orange juice can be consumed with all meals. Especially consuming the orange juice in the mornings is
helpful to diet as an anti-oxidant. Orange juice industry has continued to develop. This study
demonstrates the processing of citrus powdered juice using orange and extends its convenience use.
The experiment was carried out which include heat and mass transfer coefficient, piping and
instrumentation, material and energy balance, equipment design specification and costing of the
equipment, economic analysis and plant location and layout, on the caffeinated coffee production plant
and design. The plant will be situated at Benue state with a total investment capital N638, 620, 3299,
rate of return 90% and payback period of 7year. Detailed economic studies showed that the production
of this juice would be economically viable in Nigeria when the product is sold at N500 per 100mg
provided a minimum scale of 85% is used.
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Production and consumption of fruit juice is increasing year by year in Nigeria (FAO, 2001). In view
of this, exportation and importation rates in Nigeria are changing every year to suit consumption rates.
Powdered orange concentrate which will be produced according to food quality standards in the fixed
plant, will contribute to conscious food consumption by correct marketing techniques. Fruit juice, fruit
nectar, fruit drinks, powdered fruit concentrate and concentrated fruit juice are most preferred products
which are produced in fruit process plants. Orange is very rich in minerals and vitamins. It is also
healthy when is consumed in orange juice prepared from a powdered concentrate. Orange juice can be
consumed with all meals. Especially consuming the orange juice in the mornings is helpful to diet as an
anti-oxidant. Orange juice industry has continued to develop. But insufficient marketing techniques
and unconscious food consumption are preventing the development to speed up in Nigeria.
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Design and construction of a new food manufacturing plant or factory is a rare event in most developed
countries, and in the careers of most food professionals, because growth of overall food consumption is
relatively slow in such places. However, in developing countries, as economies improve, food
consumption in general, and that of processed or preserved food in particular, is growing, and thus the
need for new food plants is especially important in such regions. The design must consider the
technical and economic factors, various unit operations involved, existing and potential market
conditions etc.
The orange tree, reaching 7.5 m to 15 m, has a rounded crown of slender branches, twigs which are twisted
and angled when young and may bear slender, semi-flexible, blunt spines in the leaf axils. There may be
faint or conspicuous wings on the petioles of the aromatic, evergreen, alternate, elliptic to ovate, sometimes
faintly toothed "leaves"–technically solitary leaflets of compound leaves. These are between 6.5 and 15 cm
long and 2.5 to 9.5 cm wide. Borne singly or in clusters of 2 to 6, the sweetly fragrant white flowers, about
5 cm wide, have a saucer-shaped, 5-pointed calyx and 5 oblong, white petals, and 20 to 25 stamens with
conspicuous yellow anthers. The fruit is globose, 13 subglobose, oblate or somewhat oval, 6.5-9.5 cm wide.
Dotted with minute glands containing an essential oil, the outer rind (epicarp) is orange or yellow when
ripe; the inner rind (mesocarp) is white, spongy and non-aromatic. The pulp (endocarp), yellow, orange or
more or less red, consists of tightly packed membranous juice sacs enclosed in 10 to 14 wedge-shaped
compartments which are readily separated as individual segments. In each segment there may be 2 to 4
irregular seeds, white externally and internally, though some types of oranges are seedless. The sweet
orange differs physically from the sour orange in having a solid centre.
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This project is focusing mainly on the powdered concentrate form, particularly because;
 It has a relatively longer shelf-life.
 It is consumer-convenient
 It is relatively easy to transport in bulk.
The reasons mentioned above are the main factors for the establishment of this plant. However, it
should be noted that the proposed plant is to be sited close to source of raw material
1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE PLANT

The aim of the plant is to design a plant for the production of powdered citrus concentrate from orange
fruit
1.2 OBJECTIVES
The precise objectives in this project are:
 To draw a process flow diagram for the production of powdered orange concentrate
 To carry out a material and energy balance of plant and individual units therein
 To determine raw material properties to be used in business, the factory's social, economic, industrial
and legal status
 To specify the environmental issues to be mitigated against in operating the plant
 To design the majority of the various units within the plant and
 To evaluate the economic viability of the designed plant.
1.3 SCOPE OF DESIGN

The design covered market analysis, financial analysis, material balance assessment of the commercial
viability each of the equipment will be designed strictly based on the requirement of the correspondent
process in order to achieve a maximum production and working at full capacity (100%) at the end of
the day.
The design work will also show the plant location and layout, piping and instrumentation, plant safety
and loss prevention, environmental impact assessment and finally the cost estimation of the project.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

It is hoped that the market analysis, financial analysis, material balance assessment of the commercial
viability of the equipment properly designed will result in the production of plant that are less
expensive, acceptable than those produced from in the market all ready.
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1.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE DESIGN
The primary limitations were time, finance and scope of the project again combining resources to
achieve set objective. The design of the required proprietary equipment (extractor press etc) is beyond
the scope of this work. They were only specified here after carrying out a simple calculation which
showed forth the basis of the specification. On the long run, the basis of the design might be modified
to suit prevailing conditions.
1.6 PRODUCTION STEPS
Atomization: Atomization is the most important stage in spray-drying process, which converts the fluid feed
into tiny droplets/particles (Murugesan and Orsat, 2012). Due to the subsequent reduction in particle size and
dispersion of the particles in the drying gas, the surface area of the particles increases exponentially. This
increment in surface area of the particles helps to dry the feed in seconds. With the small size of droplets and the
even distribution of the fluid feed, the moisture removal occurs without disturbing the integrity of the material.
The atomization is achieved by atomizers which are generally classified as rotary atomizers, pressure nozzles,
pneumatic nozzles and sonic nozzles (Cal and Sollohub, 2010). Atomizers are selected based upon the feed
which needs to be dried and targeted final properties of the dried product as well as the particle size (Murugesan
and Orsat, 2012).
Droplet-hot air contact and moisture evaporation: Atmospheric air is generally used as a drying medium in
spray-drying process. During the spray-drying process, the atmospheric air is filtered through a filtering system
and subsequently preheated according to the operating parameters. Sometimes, nitrogen or other inert gases are
also used based upon the feed being dried and its instability, or sensitivity to oxygen (Cal and Sollohub, 2010).
The drying of feed droplets after they come in contact with drying medium in a spray-drying process is a result
of simultaneous heat and mass transfer. The heat from the drying medium is transferred to droplets by
convection and then converted to latent heat during the evaporation of the droplet’s moisture content. The rate of
heat and mass transfer depends upon the droplet diameter and the relative velocity of the air and droplets
(Murugesan and Orsat, 2012). The initial drying period starts in spray-drying once the droplet comes in contact
with the drying medium. This is followed by the falling rate period where the rate of drying begins to decrease,
and the period ends once the droplets reach their critical moisture content (Filkova et al., 2007).
Separation of dry product from the exit air: Separation is often done through a cyclone placed outside the
dryer who minimizes product losses in the atmosphere. Most dense particles are recovered at the base of the
drying chamber while the finest ones pass through the cyclone to be separated from the humid exit air
(Gharsallaoui et al., 2007).
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1.7 PROCESS AND EQUIPMENTS ROUTE
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1.8 CHOICE OF PROCESS ROUTE
Reasons for Choosing Orange over other Citrus Fruits
- They thrive very well in the subtropics like Benue state and most neighbouring states.
- They last longer than many other citrus fruits when they are stored.
- They are easily transported because each orange comes with its tough skin.
- They are commonly available source of vitamin C.
The equipment chosen amongst other types of equipment is because of their flexibility and ease of operation.
They have a minimal loss of product and is comparatively cheaper to the other types. There is an increase in time
between the juice and the steam and therefore increase efficiency. The tray-type de-aerator has a spray nozzle that
sprays the juice into droplets increasing the surface area of contact between the juice and the steam. These types of
equipments are therefore the most suitable for this project.
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PROPERTIES OF THE CITRUS FRUIT CHOSEN FOR THIS PROJECT
ORANGE
Description
The orange tree, reaching 7.5 m to 15 m, has a rounded crown of slender branches, twigs which
are twisted and angled when young and may bear slender, semi-flexible, blunt spines in the leaf axils.
There may be faint or conspicuous wings on the petioles of the aromatic, evergreen, alternate, elliptic to
ovate, sometimes faintly toothed "leaves"– technically solitary leaflets of compound leaves. These are
between 6.5 and 15 cm long and 2.5 to 9.5 cm wide. Borne singly or in clusters of 2 to 6, the sweetly
fragrant white flowers, about 5 cm wide, have a saucer-shaped, 5-pointed calyx and 5 oblong, white
petals, and 20 to 25 stamens with conspicuous yellow anthers. The fruit is globose,subglobose,
oblate or somewhat oval, 6.5-9.5 cm wide. Dotted with minute glands containing an essential oil, the
outer rind (epicarp) is orange or yellow when ripe; the inner rind (mesocarp) is white, spongy and non-
aromatic. The pulp (endocarp), yellow, orange or more or less red, consists of tightly packed
membranous juice sacs enclosed in 10 to 14 wedge-shaped compartments which are readily separated
as individual segments. In each segment there may be 2 to 4 irregular seeds, white externally and
internally, though some types of oranges are seedless. The sweet orange differs physically from the sour
orange in having a solid centre.
COMPOSITION OF ORANGE
Table 2.2 Composition of the edible portion of orange
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Component Amount (g)
Carbohydrates (g/l) 67-122
Niacin (µg/kg ) 7000-3000
Thiamine (µg/kg ) 300-600

Table 2.3 Composition of
Water ( % ) 82.7-89.3
sweet orange (~100 g)
Protein (g/l) 8-11
Acidity of titration (g/l) 12.1-15.9
Ascorbic acid (mg/l) 50-152
Potassium (mg/l) 1900-3700

Calcium (mg/kg) 120-200
Phosphorus(mg/kg) 180-230
Magnesium (mg/kg) 70-140
Beta carotene (µg/kg ) 4500-35000
Component Amount (g)
Water 86.6
Protein 0.7-1.3
Oil 0.1-0.3
Fiber 0.5
Ash 0.5-0.7
Calcium 0.04-0.043
Phosphorus 0.017-0.022
Iron 0.0002-0.0008
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Carotene 200 IU (vitamin A)
Thiamine 0.00010
Riboflavin 0.00004
(Source: TSE 34, 2007)
Table 2.2 and Table 2.3 show a combination of orange in the edible portion. Orange fruit nutritional value as
determined by the TSE.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Citrus species are small to medium-size shrubs or trees that are cultivated throughout the tropics
and subtropics (Hepfer, 2010). They are native to parts of India, China, Northern Australia, New
Caledonia and North and South of Africa and partly West Africa. Attesting to how citrus has been
embraced by native cultures, most species have been given names in many native languages. Citrus is
primarily valued for the fruit, which is either eaten alone (e.g. sweet orange, tangerine, grapefruit, etc.)
as fresh fruit, processed into juice, or added to dishes and beverages (lemon, lime, etc.). All species
have their respective traditional medicinal values (Kimball, 1999). Citrus has many other uses
including animal fodder, craft and fuel wood. Although commercial production for export markets has
not been significant in Ghana, there is potential for farmers to supply local markets with fresh fruit
and unique varieties. Orange is the most common of citrus fruits. The other types of citrus are lemon,
tangerine, lime, kumquat, pummelo and grapefruit, just to mention a few. Citrus are grown between 36
degrees north and south parallel, middle and North America, Mediterranean countries in the northern
hemisphere, South Africa in the southern hemisphere and West African countries.
2.1 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF CITRUS
Citrus is a common term and genus (Citrus) of flowering plants in the rue family, Rutaceae, originating
in tropical and subtropical southeast regions of the world. The most well known examples are the
oranges, lemons, grapefruit and limes. The generic name originated in Latin, where it specifically
referred to the plant now known as Citron (C. medica). It was derived from the ancient Greek word for
cedar, “kεδρος” (kedros). Some believe this was because Hellenistic Jews used the fruits of C.
medicaduring Sukkot (Feast of the Tabernacles) in place of a cedar cone (Kimball, 1999), while others
state it was due to similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar (Pinchas and
Goldschmidt, 1996). Collectively, Citrus fruits and plants are also known by the Romance loanword
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agrumes (literally "sour fruits"). The taxonomy and systematics of the genus are complex and the precise
number of natural species is unclear, as many of the named species are clonally propagated hybrids, and
there is genetic evidence that even some wild, true-breeding species are of hybrid origin (Nicolosiet al.,
2000). Cultivated Citrus may be derived from as few as four ancestral species. Natural and cultivated
origin hybrids include commercially important fruit such as the oranges, grapefruit, lemons, some limes,
and some tangerines. Research suggests that the closely related genus Fortunella (kumquats), and
perhaps also Poncirus and the Australian Microcitrus and Eremocitrus, should be included in Citrus;
most botanists now classify Microcitrus and Eremocitrus as part of the genus Citrus (Nicolosiet al.,
2000).
2.3 TYPES OF CITRUS FRUITS
According to Purseglove (1974), there are innumerable types of citrus fruits ranging from small to large
ones. It is not possible to list all of them, but the most common ones are listed below based on their
colour, shape, size, mineral content and modes of consumption.
Orange (Citrus sinensis): It is round in shape, reddish-yellow in colour with a thick skin when ripe but
green at initial fruiting stage. It is high in citric acid and vitamins. Oranges can be consumed fresh or in
soft drinks.
Lime (Citrus aurantifolia): It is an oval-shaped, small bright green fruit rich in acid and vitamins. It is
also used in many drinks.
Leech Lime: It is an oval-shaped, yellow or green coloured depending on fruit maturity. Generally, the
fruit is slightly bigger than lime. Leech lime juice can be drunk by mixing it with water and sugar.
Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi): It is a round-shaped, large yellow citrus fruit with acid juicy pulp. It can be
eaten raw or used in preparing genuine marmalades.
Tangerine (Citrus tangerine): It is a type of mandarin orange having an orange-red colour and citrus
taste.
Process Description for Production of Powdered Orange Concentrat
Upon maturity the ripped fruit are harvested for the production of the powdered concentrate to begin.
The following processes as presented in the order below converts the harvested orange fruit to the
powdered concentrate product.
Transportation and Unloading
Orange’s maturity is related to several factors, including colour, sugar content, acidity, and juice content.
Packing oranges for transport should be gentle and sanitary. The harvested fruit is handpicked into
harvesting sacks that are manually dumped into bins in the grove. These bins are lifted by small trucks
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and taken to the edge of the grove where they are dumped into a semi-trailer. Each semi-trailer can haul
about 22 MT of fruit to the processing plant that can be many kilometres away.Refrigerated Trailers For
optimum transport temperature management, refrigerated trailers need insulation, a high capacity
refrigeration unit and fan, and an air delivery duct. The condition of the inside of a refrigerated trailer
affects its ability to maintain desired temperatures during transport. Handlers should therefore inspect the
trailer before loading.Unloading A loading dock can ease the work associated with handling horticultural
produce at destination. Containers can be transferred more rapidly and with less bending and lifting. For
large trucks, a loading dock 117 to 122 cm high (46 to 48 inches) functions well, while for small trucks
or pickups a height of 66 to 81 cm (26 to 32 inches) is recommended.
Unloading via Dry or Water Flume System
The harvested oranges may also be unloaded by trucks into storage either via a dry or water-flume
systems. The dry system includes aerated silos with sloping planes on which the product is placed in
layers to protect integrity of orange. The water system involves large concrete tanks at ground level; the
product is discharged directly into these tanks and moved by means of water circulation which conveys
the product to a special elevator. Any time produce is dumped from one container into another, care
should be taken to reduce mechanical damage to the commodity. When dumping produce from field
bins or from transport vehicles into the packinghouse, dry or wet dumping can be practiced. When using
dry dumping practices, the field container should be emptied slowly and gently onto a tilted ramp with
padded edges.
Dumping is sometimes used to reduce mechanical damage, either by dumping into water rather than onto
a dry ramp, or by immersion and floatation. If the specific density of the produce, such as orange is lower
than that of water the produce will float
Storage Under normal weather conditions, fruit store better on the tree than in cold storage. Cold storage
should not be attempted if the fruit storage potential has been expended by prolonged tree storage. Once
harvested, fruit quality will not improve. Before placing into storage, fruit should be pre-cooled to slow
respiration and treated with an approved fungicide to reduce decay. Oranges can be stored for up to 12
weeks under optimum storage conditions. Ultimate storage-life depends on cultivar, maturity, pre-harvest
conditions, and postharvest handling. Oranges begin to freeze in storage at about -1 °C (Whiteman,
1957). During storage, fruit should be inspected often for signs of decay or disorders. Such problems will
advance rapidly once the fruit are removed from cold storage. Only fruit which have not been damaged
in harvest are used for storage, although it is difficult to harvest fruit without some minor damage.
Sometimes a chemical treatment is applied to the fruit before storage, to reduce the incidence of
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postharvest diseases. Commercial growers and handlers can store orange for three to eight weeks when
refrigerated at 3oC to 9oC, depending on the initial condition of the fruit. Optimum humidity for storage
of oranges is 90 to 95%.
Plastic crates or boxes are used for storing fruit. Sweet oranges such as Valencia or Liucheng should be
stored with three or four layers per box. Too many layers in one box may cause bruising of the fruit.
Boxes should be stacked inside the storage room in a way that maintains good ventilation. For the first
few weeks of storage, ventilation windows should be left open. Throughout the storage period, the
windows should be left open at night or in cold weather, in order to cool the fruit. When temperatures
are high in the day time, the ventilation windows should be closed. Sunlight should not be able to
penetrate inside the storage room. Storage rooms should be constructed in places
where cold air can flow into the room at night. The storage room should have a high roof, to allow better
circulation of cold air at night. Ventilation windows should be small but there should be a large number
of them, to allow better air circulation. It is recommended that some ventilation pipes should be buried
under ground, to bring in cool air through the floor of the room. The roof and walls should have good
heat insulation, to keep temperatures as cool as possible. The storage room should be insect- proof and
rat-proof. A good storage room is the key for extending the shelf life while maintaining fruit quality. The
room should be kept clean, and all rotting fruits should be removed. Before storage, the room should be
sanitized by washing the walls and floor with 5%formalin.
Sorting
Following harvesting, the preparation of fruits for processing involves reducing and/or eliminating
external contamination by visual inspection and sorting of the incoming fruits (colour, size,
maturity).Direct hand contact is a common practice during inspection and sorting. During the sorting
process, the washed fruits are inspected as a check for quality assurance. In view of this immature,
fragmented, corrupt and rotten fruits are sorted and picked out of the lot before they are transferred to the
main extraction line.
Post harvest sorting and grading of fruits is a difficult and labour intensive component of the
commercial fresh fruit market. Although mechanical equipments are available to perform operations like
sorting and grading of fruits, manual effort is still indispensable. Typically people are positioned along
the packing lines, sorting by visual inspection as the fruit passes on a conveyor belt and mechanical
sorting is limited to size sorting. Manual sorting is costly and unreliable since human judgment in
identifying the multiple varying parameters is inconsistent, subjective and slow. For tomato, apple, pear,
peach, persimmon, orange, plum and so on orbicular fruits classification is by weight.
Automatic Fruit Sorting and Grading Machine
Automatic fruit grading and sorting has not been implemented widely for all types of fruits. In the
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present scenario manual sorting is more popular but slow in process and grading is done by visual
inspection that could be error prone. Grading is done on the basis of various criteria like weight, shape,
colour, size. In this kind of machine these factors are taken care by image processing and weight
measurement through load cell. In this type the sorting and grading is done principally by photographing
the entire surface of the fruit and subsequently by processing the image. The main advantages of this
type of machine is its ability to facilitate automatic grading and sorting of apple in a non destructive
method. The whole machine is cheap compared to other existing machines where robotic arms are used.
It also increases sorting and grading of fruits as it can process large volume in short time.
Washing: Washing is an essential part of good hygiene and health. A high pressure washing system may
be used to remove scale insects and debris. This technology allows more fruit to meet quality standards
and quarantine requirements as insect bodies and other heavy film deposits from mould growth are
removed. It also improves fruit appearance and facilitates identification and removal of unsound fruit at
the grading stage. At this point unwholesome fruit and other fruit that do not meet external quality
standards are removed. Washing oranges in a sink filled with water is not recommended since the
standing water can spread contamination from one orange to another. The use of soap or detergent is
also not recommended or approved for washing oranges because the fruits can absorb some detergent
residue. Therefore the oranges is pulled from the surge bin into a brush washer, washed, sanitized and
graded again before juice extraction takes place. Steel drums can also be used to make a simple washing
stand. The drums are cut in half, fitted with drain holes, and all the metal edges are covered with split
rubber or plastic hose. The drums are then set into a sloped wooden table.
Extraction Extraction of juice would be carried out by means of an extractor on a large scale. Thus the
mode of extraction would depend on the type of extractor. Nevertheless, the extraction process would
ensure the separation of fruit juice from seeds and peels.
Types of Extractors
There are almost endless lists of juice extractors to choose from. This can make the process
overwhelming; the reality is that all these juice extractors fit neatly into just three basic kinds centrifugal
juice extractor, masticating juice extractors and triturating juice extractors, and Centrifugal Juice
Extractors
Centrifugal juice extractors:
Are the most popular of juicer machines because they are, generally speaking, the cheapest. These juicers
are easy to spot because of their “upright” appearance. Their feed chute is a vertical tube through which
fruits and vegetables are dropped down so that they come in contact with the centrifugal style blade
below. The blade spins at very high a speed that rapidly chops down fruits in small pieces that are
then thrown outwards from the blade by centrifugal force against a mesh filter that surrounds the blade.
The force then pushes juice out of the small pieces of fruits and vegetables. The main advantages of
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centrifugal juice extractors are that they make juice very quickly, they are relatively inexpensive, the
feed chutes are usually large and can accommodate large pieces of fruits and vegetables which cuts
down preparation time, and they are usually easy to clean up. On the negative side, the heat generated by
the high-speed operation does kill some nutrients (but just some, they still deliver a nutritious drink) and
they extract less juice from fruits than the other extractors.
Separation of Pulp from citrus
During extraction, juice-laden tissue burst up to release juice from the fruits. The juice flows from the
extractor outlet with the drained soft tissue mass pulp dispersed within it. This introduces the need for
separation of the pulp material from the juice product.
Types of Separation
The separation process can be accomplished via several means as discussed below;
Centrifugation or Cyclonic Separation

Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of the centrifugal force for the separation of mixtures
(fruit juice), used in the citrus industry and in laboratory settings. More-dense components of the mixture
migrate away from the axis of the centrifuge, while less-dense components of the mixture migrate
towards the axis. Chemists and biologists may increase the effective gravitational force on a test tube so
as to more rapidly and completely cause the precipitate (pulp) to gather on the bottom of the tube. The
remaining solution which is the juice also called the "supernatant liquid". The juice is then either quickly
decanted from the tube without disturbing the pulp, or withdrawn with a Pasteur pipette. The rate of
centrifugation is specified by the acceleration applied to the sample, typically measured in revolutions per
minute (RPM) or g. The pulp's settling velocity in centrifugation is a function of their size and shape,
centrifugal acceleration, the volume fraction of pulp present, the density difference between the pulp and
the juice, and the viscosity. In the chemical and food industries, special centrifuges can process a
continuous stream of particle-laden liquid (juice).
Decantation
Decantation is a process for the separation of mixtures. This process is generally used to separate a liquid
(fruit juice) from an insoluble solid (pulp). This is achieved by carefully pouring the extracted fruit juice
from a container in order to leave the pulp in the bottom of the original container. Usually a small amount
of the fruit juice must be left in the container, and care must be taken to prevent a small amount of pulp
from flowing with the juice out of the container. Another practical application of decantation in the
process industry is in red wine, where the wine is decanted from the potassium bitartrate crystals.
Filtration
Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids (pulp) from
liquid (juice) by interposing a medium through which only the fluid can pass. In this case however,
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oversize pulp in the fluid are retained, but the separation is not complete; pulp will be contaminated with
some fluid and filtrate (juice) will contain fine particles depending on the pore size and filter thickness.
Equipment for Separation of Pulp from Fruit
A centrifuge may be useful in successfully decanting a solution. The centrifuge causes the pulp to be
forced to the bottom of the container; if the force is high enough, the pulp may form a compact solid.
Then the juice can be more easily poured away, as the pulp will likely remain in its compressed form. A
filter centrifuge and a hydrocyclone are the types of centrifuges that can be used. Filtering centrifuges are
able to apply up to over 3,000 G-forces on the liquid/solids mixtures, which separates the heavier solids
from the lighter solids. Additionally, high G-forces separate fine solids from liquid which implies that the
higher the G-forces applied, the higher the efficiency.
Theory and Design of Decanter Centrifuge

Decanter centrifuge design consists of a solid container, called a bowl, which rotates at high speed. Inside
the bowl tube, a screen conveyor rotates in the same direction, but at a slightly different speed. A
differential gear is typically used to adjust speed.
- The decanter centrifuge slurry is fed through a stationary pipe, which is inside a hollow
shaft connected to a screw conveyor or scroll.
- The slurry enters a feed compartment located inside of the conveyor and is forced through
discharge nozzles to the bowl section.
- Once inside the bowl, centrifugal force causes the material to separate.
- The screw conveyor moves the solids to the tapered end where they are discharged.
- Clear fluid flows out the other end.
Preservation Methods
The presence of micro-organisms in the powdered concentrate may reduce product shelf-life to a
considerable extent, the least; three to four weeks. The term shelf-life refers to the time that a food takes
to decline to an unacceptable level. In extreme cases of microbial activity, it may lead to the deterioration
of product even before hitting the market. Food deterioration is however not limited to the presence of
micro-organisms alone; reactions of certain food enzymes may as well cause the same fate. To curb this;
the processing would be done so as to eliminate micro-organisms or any such enzyme or reduce them to
the barest minimum possible. The processing technique chosen would be based on the final properties
such as flavour and taste. In view of this the following preservative methods in food processing were
examined for scrutiny before selection.
De-Aeration
The term de-aeration refers to the removal of oxygen from the juice product. In juice processing
operations the fruit and juice are subjected to considerable aeration. The inclusion of oxygen can promote
20
enzymatic browning, destroy nutrients, modify flavour and otherwise damage quality. Therefore, the de-
aeration stage in the processing would mainly seek to reduce levels of dissolved oxygen in addition to the
following;
- Reduces flavour deterioration
- Prevents degradation of ascorbic acid as well as
- Reduction of frothing
De-aeration can be carried out by means of a de-aerator. The de-aerator works in a process that expels
oxygen from the juice by reducing pressure, hence solubility of the gas (Henry’s Law).
De-aerators fall under two main types namely;
- The tray type and The spray type
- Tray-type De-aerator
Pasteurization
The pasteurization stage during the juice processing involves heating the juice to a given temperature
for a length of time that will destroy all organisms and natural enzymes that can develop to cause
deterioration of the product (Bates, Crandall and Morris, 2001). At sufficiently high temperatures in the
range of 80- 95oC, most micro- organisms( E. coli and Salmonella) and natural enzymes( pectolytic
enzymes) that cause deterioration in food become inactive; the residence time for pasteurization would
depend on the process temperature – the residence time increases with decreasing temperature.
Pasteurization is grouped under six different types based on the process technique. These are listed
below;
- Batch holder process
- Continuous Holding process
- In – bottle process
- Flash process
- High temperature, short time
- Ultra-high temperature
Homogenisation:
The pasteurized juice product would be mixed or agitated for homogeneity to ensure even distribution of
colour, aroma and taste flavours. The word, homogenize means causing two or more phases, such as a
fluid and a powdered solid, or two or fluids, and causing them to be randomly distributed through one
another. Homogenizing effects can also significantly reduce the amount of additives required. This step is
essential in keeping all products at the same level of component dosage.
Types of Homogenisers: Generally, liquids are agitated in a cylindrical vessel which can be opened or
closed to the air. An impeller is mounted on a shaft and is driven by an electric motor that powers the
blades to move in a circular motion causing even distribution of the contents of the tank. There are
21
different types of homogenizers or agitators used in the process industries, which includes; Three-Blade
Propeller Agitator, Paddle Agitator, Turbine Agitators, Helical-ribbon, Agitators.
Food Concentration
After the juice has been extracted and pasteurized, the next chemical process is to produce a concentrate
and powder from the orange juice. All this is done with the idea to meet customers’ expectations of
appealing and appetizing product; colouring is a prerequisite to compensate process-related losses to
improve overall appearance (Newsome, 1986).
Juice concentrates and fruit powders are produced by evaporation, drying and crystallisation. The water
part of the juice can be removed by evaporation under vacuum and heat to remove most of the water
before it is frozen and crystallised. As pressure is reduced in a vacuum, the boiling point for the water in
the juice will be reduced, thus requiring lower temperatures to evaporate the mixture. This process
however cannot be used to reduce all the moisture to the point that it turns powder. This is
because exposure to heat may damage the sugars in the concentrate and may also affect visual
appearance of the product. Orange juice is famous for the high content of vitamin C and provides a
number of health benefits. However, vitamin C is water soluble and that it is easily destroyed by cooking
and freezing. Hence this process would require the removal of essences and oils separately during the
evaporation and added back after obtaining the concentrated juice.
EVAPORATION
Evaporation can be defined as the process where liquid water is transformed into a gaseous state.
Evaporation can only occur when water is available. It also requires that the humidity of the atmosphere
be less than the evaporating surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no more evaporation). The
evaporation process requires large amounts of energy. For example, the evaporation of one gram of water
requires 600 calories of heat energy. Evaporation plants are used as a thermal separation technology, for
the concentration or separation of liquid solutions, suspensions and emulsions. A liquid concentrate that
can still be pumped is generally the desired final product. Evaporation may however also aim at
separating the volatile constituents, or distillate, as would be the case in a solvent separation system.
During these processes, it is usual that product qualities are maintained and preserved. These, together
with many other requirements result in a wide variety of evaporator types, operating modes and
arrangements.
Multiple-stage Evaporators
These evaporators can be made of up to seven evaporator stages or effects. Putting together several
evaporators saves heat and thus requires less energy and adding another evaporator to the original
22
decreases the energy consumption to 50% of the original amount and so on.
Rising Film Evaporators
In this type of evaporator, boiling takes place inside the tubes, due to heating made by the steam outside
the tubes. This equipment is quite efficient, the advantage being prone to quick scaling of the internal
surface of the tubes. This design is usually applied to clear, non-salting solutions. On a large scale,
concentration can be carried out using a multiple-stage column evaporator under a vacuum. The obtained
semi-concentrates and the final concentrates are rapidly cooled to 0oC and then frozen at a low
temperature (about -26oC) prior to drying. Yield at each stage can be calculated as:
Apparent yield, % = …………………………..(1) Where;

Mjc = mass prior to concentration
Mconc = mass after concentration.
DRYING
After obtaining the concentrate, it is then dried. Drying is a method of food preservation that works by
removing water from the food which prevents the growth of microorganisms and decay. Drying can be
done with drying agents to minimize the stickiness of the powder. Natural hygroscopic and
thermoplastic property of fruit juice is the basic problem in transport and handling of fruit juice powder
(Chegini, ghobadian, 2007).
Forms of drying include freeze-drying, spray drying, pulse combustion drying and tunnel drying.
Among these, spray dying may be more economical. Spray drying has become the most important
technique for dehydrating fluid foods such as milk, coffee and egg powders, and is used extensively in
the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. This is the preferred method of drying of many thermally-
sensitive materials such as foods and pharmaceuticals. Fruit juice powder obtained by spray drying
favors the yield of high sugar content solids, most of them present in amorphous state.
There are many different types and variation of dryers, and selecting the proper dryer is crucial to
achieving the desired results.
Different types of Dryers are required depending on factors such as: Capacity, Product quality, Product
size, Product consistency, Hours of operation, Amount of water to be evaporated, Acidity of the product,
Operational environment.
Flash Dryers: A Flash Dryer uses ductwork, which acts as a container for the uniform transfer of
thermal energy from a hot gas stream to a moisture laden product, for the purpose of moisture reduction
in the product. For proper drying the particle size must be uniform and relatively small. Wet product is
introduced in the gas stream where the moisture is flashed off, and then the dried product is removed
from the gas stream.
Rotary Dryers: A rotary dryer uses a rotating cylindrical drum, which acts as a container for the
23
uniform transfer of thermal energy from a hot gas stream to a moisture laden product, for the purpose
of moisture reduction in the product. Wet product is introduced into the inlet of the drum where it is dried
as it is conveyed to the drum’s outlet. The drum is equipped with flighting to disperse the product into the
drying gas stream as the drum rotates. The product can either be conveyed pneumatically or it can be
conveyed by gravity if the drum is on a slope. There are several different types of rotary dryers and they
can be used in many different applications. The two common types of rotary drying systems are single
and triple pass; however, there are several other types and hybrids of these designs.
Spray Dryer: A spray dryer is a device used in spray drying. It takes a liquid stream and separates the
solute or suspension as a solid and the solvent into a vapor. The solid is usually collected in a drum or
cyclone. The liquid input stream is sprayed through a nozzle into a hot vapor stream and vaporized.
Solids form as moisture quickly leaves the droplets. A nozzle is usually used to make the droplets as
small as possible, maximizing heat transfer and the rate of water vaporization. Droplet sizes can range
from 20 to 180 μm depending on the nozzle. Spray dryers can dry a product very quickly compared to
other methods of drying. They also turn a solution or slurry into a dried powder in a single step, which
can be advantageous for profit maximization and process simplification.
Freeze-dryers: Freeze dryers are devices used in Freeze-drying. Freeze drying is a dehydration process
typically used to preserve a perishable material or make the material more convenient for transport.
Freeze-drying works by freezing the material and then reducing the surrounding pressure and adding
enough heat to allow the frozen water in the material to sublime directly from the solid phase to the gas
phase.
2.4 PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND SELECTION
Unloading via Dry System
The harvested oranges may also be unloaded by trucks into storage via a dry system. The dry system
includes aerated silos with sloping planes on which the product is placed in layers to protect integrity of
orange. Any time produce is dumped from one container into another, care should be taken to reduce
mechanical damage to the commodity. When using dry dumping practices, the field container should be
emptied slowly and gently onto a tilted ramp with padded edges.
Storage
Since most processors cannot use the whole harvest they receive as they receive it, some fruit is stored,
short term, as they come in, not refrigerated. The harvested fruits can also be stored in storage bins, made
of wood and metal prior to further processing. These bins are designed with baffles in zigzag
arrangement to minimize impact as fruit descends through to the base of the bin avoiding bruising of
bottom fruits. Unwholesome fruits are removed during unloading before the oranges are conveyed to
storage bins. From the storage bins the fruits is rolled out into conveyor belts and transported to the main
extraction line via a bucket elevator and on to a surge bin. This surge bin would serve as a buffer to
24
control and maintain an adequate fruit flow for the extraction line.
Sorting
During the sorting process, the washed fruits are inspected as a check for quality assurance. In
view of this immature, fragmented, corrupt and rotten fruits are sorted and picked out of the lot before
they are transferred to the main extraction line. Direct hand contact is a common practice during
inspection and sorting. Although mechanical equipments are available to perform operations like sorting
and grading of fruits, manual effort is still indispensable. Typically, people are positioned along the
packing lines, sorting by visual inspection as the fruit passes on a conveyor belt and mechanical sorting is
limited to size sorting.
Washing
The sorted orange fruits are sent to a washing bin. Warm water is sprayed with pressure onto the fruits.
The pressure of the water aids in the washing of the orange fruits.
Centrifugal Juice Extraction
Extraction of juice would be carried out by means of an extractor on a large scale. Thus the mode of
extraction would depend on the type of extractor. Nevertheless, the extraction process would ensure the
separation of fruit juice from seeds and peels. Centrifugal juice extraction is the most popular mechanism
used because it is the cheapest. Juicers are easy to spot because of their “upright” appearance. Their
feed chute is a vertical tube through which fruits and vegetables are dropped down so that they come in
contact with the centrifugal style blade below. The blade spins at very high a speed that rapidly chops
down fruits in small pieces that are then thrown outwards from the blade by centrifugal force against a
mesh filter that surrounds the blade. The force then pushes juice out of the small pieces of fruits and
vegetables. The main advantages of centrifugal juice extractors are that they make juice very quickly and
are usually easy to clean up.
Centrifugation or Cyclonic Separation:
Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of the centrifugal force for the separation of mixtures
used in the citrus industry and in laboratory settings. More-dense components of the mixture thus the
pulp, migrate away from the axis of the centrifuge, while less-dense components of the mixture migrate
towards the axis. The juice is then either quickly decanted from the tube without disturbing the pulp, or
withdrawn with a Pasteur pipette. In the chemical and food industries, special centrifuges can process a
continuous stream of particle-laden liquid (juice).
Tray-type De-aeration
Air is removed from the juice product because of quality problems such as colour, taste and aroma.
Vitamin C has high sensitive to oxygen. This is also a very important step because it prevents the loss of
the food nutrient Vitamin C. The typical horizontal tray-type de-aerator has a vertical domed de-aeration
section mounted above a horizontal feed storage vessel. The feed enters the vertical de-aeration section
25
above the perforated trays and flows downward through the perforations. Low- pressure de-aeration
steam enters below the perforated trays and flows upward through the perforations. Some designs use
various types of packing material, rather than perforated trays, to provide good contact and mixing
between the steam and feed. The steam strips the dissolved gas from the feed and exits via a vent at the
top of the domed section. Some designs may include a vent condenser to trap and recover any water
entrained in the vented gas. The vent line usually includes a valve and just enough steam is allowed to
escape with the vented gases to provide a small and visible telltale plume of steam.
Pasteurization
Pasteurization is developed to inactivate both microorganisms and natural enzymes, thus increasing
shelf-life of the fruit juice. This is an extension of the batch system, by which juice is heated and
subsequently cooled by a plate heat exchanger outside the actual holding vessel of which there may be
four or more and each of which may have a capacity of up to five hundred litres. The heated juice, at say
65oC is run into the first holding vessel, where its temperature is maintained by a hot-water jacket or
other means. When the first holder is full, which takes perhaps 10-15 minutes, the filling of the second
holder begins automatically and so on. By the time the first holder has been held for 30 minutes, the last
is just being filled. A virtually continuous flow of pasteurized juice can be obtained. Large volumes can
be treated in few hours.
Homogenisation: The pasteurized juice product would be mixed for homogeneity to ensure even
distribution of colour, aroma and taste flavours. This step is essential in keeping all products at the same
level of component dosage. There are several types of agitators commonly used. A common type is the
three-blade marine-type propeller similar to the propeller blade used in driving boats. The propeller can
be a side-entering type in a tank or be clamped on the side of an open vessel in an off-center position.
These propellers turn at high speeds and are used for liquids of low viscosity.
Multiple-stage Evaporation: These evaporators can be made of up to seven evaporator stages or effects.
Putting together several evaporators saves heat and thus requires less energy and adding another
evaporator to the original decreases the energy consumption to 50% of the original amount and so on.
Spray Drying: Having obtained a concentrated juice product, the proceeding stage would be to form
powdered juice particles from this concentrate. The most suitable means there of would be to spray
droplets of the concentrate onto a plate for drying by contacting with a stream of hot air – a process
referred to as Spray Drying. A spray dryer is a device used in spray drying. It takes a liquid stream and
separates the solute or suspension as a solid and the solvent into a vapour. The solid is usually collected
in a drum or cyclone. The liquid input stream is sprayed through a nozzle into a hot vapour stream and
vaporized. Solids form as moisture quickly leaves the droplets. A nozzle is usually used to make the
26
droplets as small as possible, maximizing heat transfer and the rate of water vaporisation. Spray dryers
can dry a product very quickly compared to other methods of drying. They also turn a solution or slurry
into a dried powder in a single step, which can be advantageous for profit maximization and process
simplification.
Packaging: Having obtained the desired product, there was the need to store in packet or containers to
enhance the containment. Packaging is done to enhance the shelf life and to aid transporting of finished
goods. It also directs the end user on how to use the product.
27
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
3.0 Material Balance
Sorting Unit
Unsorted oranges Sorted oranges (3)

(1)
Crushed, spoilt, unriped oranges (2)
Table 4.1 Compositions of various streams on the sorting unit.
Component Stream 1 Stream 2 Stream 3
Mass Mass, % Mass flowrate, Mass, % Mass flow rate, Mass, %

Flowrate, kg/hr kg/hr
kg/hr
Good Orange 3541.63 99.9 0 0 3541.63 100
fruits
Crushed , spoilt or 3.55 0.1 3.55 100 0 0

unripe orange
Total 3545.18 100 3.55 100 3541.63 100
28
Washing Unit
Wash water (2)
Unclean orange fruits (1) washed orange fruits (3)
Dirty water (4)
Table 4.2 Compositions of various streams on the washing unit
Componen Stream 1 Stream 2 Stream 3 Stream 4

t
Mass Mass Mass Mass Mass Mass Mass Mass
flowrate flowrate flowrate flowrate
,% , kg/hr ,% , kg/hr ,% , kg/hr ,% , kg/hr
Water 0 0 100 7083.26 0 0 99.95 7083.26
Dirt 0.1 3.54 0 0 0 0 0.05 3.54
Orange 99.9 3538.09 0 0 100 3538.09 0 0
fruits
Total 100 3541.63 100 350 100 3538.09 100 7086.8
29
Peeling Unit
Orange fruits (1)
Peeled orange fruits (3)
Orange peels (2)
Table 4.3 Compositions of various streams on the Peeler
Mass, % Mass Mass, % Mass Mass, % Mass

flowrate, flowrate, flowrate,
kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
Orange 50 1769.05 0 0 55.56 1769.05
juice
Orange 10 353.81 100 353.81 0 0
peels
Orange 40 1415.24 0 0 44.44 1415.24
pulp
Total 100 3538.09 100 353.81 100 3184.29
30
Extraction Unit
Peeled orange fruits (1) orange juice (3)
Chuff (pulp) with entrained juice (2)
Table 4.4 Compositions of various streams on the Extractor


kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
Orange 55.56 1769.05 2.56 35.38 96.08 1733.80

juice
Orange 44.44 1415.24 97.44 1344.34 3.92 70.75

pulp
Total 100 3184.29 100 1379.72 100 1804.56
31
Table 4.5 Compositions of various streams on the Centrifuge

kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
Orange 96.08 1733.80 0 0 99.80 1733.80
juice
32
Orange 3.92 70.75 100 67.22 0.20 3.54
pulp
Total 100 1804.56 100 67.22 100 1737.34
De-aerator
O2 removed (2)
Centrifuge overflow (juice) (1) feed output without O2 (3)
Table 4.6 Compositions of various streams on the De-aerator.

kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
Orange 99.9 1735.60 0 0 100 1726.92
juice
O2 0.1 1.74 16.70 1.74 0 0
Water 0 0 83.30 8.68 0 0

33
vapour
Total 100 1737.34 100 10.42 100 1726.92
Pasteuriser
Water lost as vapour (2)
Feed input from de-aerator (1) feed output rate (3)
Table 4.7 Compositions of various streams on the Pasteurizer

kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
Orange 100 1726.92 0 0 100 1554.23
juice
Water 0 0 100 172.69 0 0
34
vapour
Total 100 1726.92 100 172.69 100 1554.23
Homogenisation
Feed input from pasteurizer (1) feed output with even distribution (2)
of components
Table 4.8 Compositions of various streams on the Homogenizer.
Component Stream 1 Stream 2
Mass, % Mass Mass, % Mass

flowrate, flowrate,
kg/hr kg/hr
Orange juice 100 1554.23 100 1552.68
Total 100 1554.23 100 1552.68
Evaporator
Water vapour from feed (2)
Feed input from homogenizer (1) concentrated orange juice paste (3)
Table 4.9 Compositions of various streams on the evaporating unit.

35
Mass, Mass flow rate, Mass, Mass flow rate, Mass, Mass flow rate,
% kg/hr % kg/hr % kg/hr
Water Moisture 80.24 1245.90 0 0 20.97 81.39
Juice concentrate 19.76 306.78 0 0 79.03 306.78
Water 0 0 100 1164.51 0 0

vapour
Total 100 1552.68 100 1164.51 100 388.17
Drying Unit
Moisture from feed (2)
Feed input from evaporator (1) powdered orange concentrate (3)
36
Table 4.10 Compositions of various streams on the Dryer.
Mass, Mass flowrate, Mass, Mass flowrate, Mass, Mass flowrate,

Water / 20.97 81.39 0 0 0.59 1.82
moisture
Powdered 79.03 306.78 0 0 99.41 306.78
concentrate
Water 0 0 100 79.57 0 0
vapour
Total 100 388.17 100 79.57 100 308.60
ENERGY BALANCE
Sorting Unit
Unsorted oranges (1) Crushed, spoilt, unriped oranges (2)
37
Sorted oranges (3)
Table 4.11 Compositions of various streams on the sorting unit.
Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
kJ/hr % kJ/hr % kJ/hr %

Good Orange 13210.30 99.90 0.00 0.00 13210.30 100.00
fruits
Crushed, spoilt 13.22 0.10 13.22 100.00 0.00 0.00
or unripe
orange
Total 13223.52 100.00 13.22 100.00 13210.30 100.00
Temperature : 25oC
Pressure: 101.23 kPa
Washing Unit
Wash water (2)
38
Dirty water (4)
Table 4.12 Compositions of various streams on the washing unit
Component Stream 1 Stream 2 Stream 3 Stream 4
Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
kJ/hr % kJ/hr % kJ/hr % kJ/hr %

Water 0.00 0.00 740200.67 100.00 329926.89 100.00 740200.31 0.06
Dirt 407.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 407.39 99.94
Orange 329926.74 99.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
fruits
Total 330333.74 100.00 740200.67 100.00 329926.89 100.00 740607.70 100.00
Temperature : 25 o C
Pressure : 101.23 kPa
PEELING UNIT
Orange fruits (1) Peeled orange fruits (3)
Orange peels (2)
39
Table 4.13 Compositions of various streams on the peeling unit.

Orange 329926.89 100 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
fruits
Orange 0.00 0.00 33346.59 0.00 0.00 0.00
peels
Peeled 0.00 0.00 0.00 296935.04 100.00
orange
fruits
Total 329926.89 100.00 33346.59 0.00 296935.04 100
Temperature : 25 oC
Extractor
40
Table 4.14 Compositions of various streams on the Extractor.

Orange 296934.11 100.00 3294.57 2.56 163344.69 96.08
juice
Orange 0.00 0.00 125399.64 97.44 6664.35 3.92
pulp
Total 296934.11 100.00 128694.21 170009.04 100.00
Temperature : 25 oC
Centrifuge
Feed input (1) Overflow (juice) (3)
41
Underflow (pulp) (2)
Table 4.15 Compositions of various streams on the centrifuge.

Orange 163412.65 96.08 0.00 0.00 163416.81 99.80
juice
Orange 6667.13 3.92 6268.27 100.00 327.49 0.20
pulp
Total 170079.78 100.00 6268.27 100.00 163744.30 100.00
Temperature : 25 oC
De-aerator
O2 Removed
42
Table 4.16 Compositions of various streams on the De-aerator.

Orange 163580.56 99.90 0.00 0.00 325524.42 100.00
juice
O2 163.74 0.10 80.27 0.04 0.00 0.00
Water 0.00 0.00 20676.63 99.96 0.00 0.00
vapour
Total 163744.30 100.00 20756.90 100.00 325524.42 100.00
Pressure : 0.1233 bar
Pasteuriser
43
Feed input from de-aerator (1) feed output rate (3)
Table 4.17 Compositions of various streams on the pasteuriser.

Orange 325524.42 100.00 0.00 0.00 380864.06 100
juice
Water 0.00 0.00 405078.93 100.00 0.00 0.00
vapour
Total 325524.42 100.00 405078.93 100.00 380864.06 100.00
Temperature : 65 oC
Mixer
Feed input from pasteurizer (1) feed output with even distribution (2)
44
Table 4.18 Compositions of various streams on the mixer.
Component Stream 1 Stream 2
Enthalpy, kJ/hr Enthalpy, % Enthalpy, Enthalpy, %
kJ/hr
Orange juice 5859.48 100 5853.60 100
Total 5859.48 100 5853.60 100
Evaporator
Water vapour from feed (2)
Feed input from homogenizer (1) concentrated orange juice paste (3)
Table 4.19 Compositions of various streams on the evaporator.

Water/ 140907.95 80.24 0 0 12275.01 20.97
moisture
Water 0 0 195055.43 100 0.00 0.00
vapour
45
Juice 34700.16 19.76 0 0 46261.03 79.03
concentrate
Total 175608.11 100.00 195055.43 0 58536.04 100s
Temperature : 40 oC
Dryer
Feed input from evaporator (1) powdered orange concentrate (3)
Table 4.20 Compositions of various streams on the Dryer.
Enthalpy, ,% Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,
kJ/hr kJ/hr % kJ/hr % kJ/hr %

Powdered 12275.01 20.97 0.00 0.00 0 0 28913.96 99.41
concentrate
Water 46261.03 79.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 171.60 0.59
(moisture)
Water 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 187618.1 100.00 0.00 0.00
46
vapour 0
Hot air 187618.1 100.00
0
Total 58536.04 100 187618.1 100.00 187618.1 100 29085.56 100.00
0 0
Temperature : 65 oC
47
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 PUMP SPECIFICATION PIPE SCHEDULING AND INSTRUMENTATION
Process flow diagram shows the orientation of equipment in a plant and how they are linked. It is
usually used in the interpretation of the process. Piping and Instrumentation diagram shows the
engineering details of the equipment, instruments, piping, valves and fittings; and their arrangement.
PIPELINE SPECIFICATIONS
Fluids are transported mostly by pipes. Pipes are completely enclosed conduit, usually cylindrical,
used to transport fluids from point to another point. There is invariably discrete number of sizes of
pipes. They are usually identified by their nominal diameters in inches. Optimum diameters, which is
the diameter of the pipe that gives the least total cost for annual pumping charges is the criterion used
in pipe specifications. The design parameters considered are:
- The nominal size
- Schedule number
- Material of construction
- Wall thickness
Also, fluid density, capacity and viscosity of the fluid are some of the basis for estimating the optimum
diameter of pipes.
5.2.1 Sample Calculation for Pipe Specification
Pipe Location: From Deaerator to pasteurizer Mass flow rate = 0.480 kgs-1
Density of feed = 1048 kgm-3 and it is assumed to be constant throughout the process.
The optimum pipe diameter for turbulent flow using stainless steel pipe is given as:
dopt = 260G0.52ρ-0.37 1 (Sinnott, 1999)
Where: G = mass flow rate of feed ρ = density of slurry
It implies, dopt = 260(0.480)0.52(1048) -0.37
= 13.538 mm, 0.530 in
Using 19.05 mm (0.75 in) since it is the most nearest commercial steel pipe. From the above calculation,
a 19.05 mm (0.75 in) pipe diameter can be used.
Reynolds number, Re 2 (Sinnott, 1999)
4G
d
48
5.3.2 Summary of Chemical Engineering Design of a Centrifugal Pump between de-
aerator and pasteurizer
Design parameters Value
Specific speed 775.184 rpm
Net positive suction head (NPSH) 0.047 m
Total head required 8.609 m
Useful Power 40.537 W
Flow rate 0.458 m3/s
PUMP SELECTION
Centrifugal pumps will be assumed to be used throughout the process. Centrifugal pumps are
characterised by their specific speed. Different types of pumps have different efficiency envelopes
according to their specific speed. Specific speed is a parameter that defines the speed at which the
impellers of geometrically similar design have to be run to discharge one gallon per minute against
one-foot head. The value of specific speed represents the ratio of the pump flow rate to the head at the
speed corresponding to the maximum efficiency point. It depends primarily on the design of the pump
and impeller. The specific speed can be used to avoid cavitations or to select the most economical
pump for a given system layout. Pump selection are made based on the head required, flowrate, state
of the feed and the chemical reaction of the feed with the pump. The pressures developed by
centrifugal pumps depend on:
Fluid density
Diameter of the pump impeller
The rotational speed of the impeller
Volumetric flow rate through the pump
4.1 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL OBJECTIVES
The primary objectives of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control schemes are:
49
Safe plant operation: To keep the process variables within known safe operating limits, to detect
dangerous situations as they develop, to provide alarms and automatic shut-down systems and to
provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures. Production rate: To achieve
the design product output Product quality: To maintain the product composition within the specified
quality standards Cost: To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other
objectives. These are not separate objectives and must be considered together. The order in which
they are listed is not meant to imply the precedence of any objective over another, other than that of
putting safety first. Product quality, production rate and the cost of production will be dependent on
sales requirements. For example, it may be a better strategy to produce a better-quality product at a
higher cost.
In a typical chemical processing plant these objectives are achieved by a combination of automatic
control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.
Automatic-control schemes
The detailed design and specification of the automatic control schemes for a large project is usually
done by specialists. Only the first step in the specification of the control systems for a process will be
considered: the preparation of a preliminary scheme of instrumentation and control, developed from
the process flow-sheet. This can be drawn up by the process designer based on his experience with
similar plant and his critical assessment of the process requirements. Many of the control loops will be
conventional and a detailed analysis of the system behaviour will not be needed, nor justified.
Judgement, based on experience, must be used to decide which systems are critical and need detailed
analysis and design.
A typical control system consist of Measuring Device/Sensor, Controller, Final Control Element,
Transmittors. The variables monitored here include pressure, pH/concentration, temperature, flowrate
and level.
The types of control include the following; Feedback (Post-facto), Feed forward (Pre-facto), and
Cascade, Ratio, Internal Model Control (Baah-Ennumh, 2011).
In this project however, the Post-facto control with a PID controller is employed. The traditional way
to control a process is to measure the variable that is to be controlled, compare its value with the
desired value (the set point to the controller) and feed the difference (the error) into a feedback
controller that will change a manipulated variable to drive the controlled variable back to the desired
value. Information is thus “fed back” from the controlled variable to a manipulated variable.
Consistency Control System: In this control system, sensor measures consistency in the stock line
and transmits an appropriate signal to the controller. The controller then compares the incoming signal
50
to the set point and transmits an error signal to the dilution valve in the case of an error and a biase
signal when there is no error. Error signal is sent through the transmitter to a controller. An actuating
signal from the controller then causes a variance in the orifice of the valve. From the process flow
diagram, it is realized that the control valve plays a significant role in the process of paper making.
Finally, the dilution valve opening is then attenuated in the direction of correcting the error (Baah-
Ennumh, 2011).
Flow rate Control: Flow rate is checked by the help of a valve and flow meters. Overflowing is
undesirable in any chemical plant hence the control valve and flow meters are to ensure that the set
flow of material moves from one equipment to another. The flow meters in this case acts as the
measuring device which measures the errors in the flow. A control valve is essentially, a variable
orifice used to regulate the flow process fluid in accordance with the requirement of the process.
Some of the types of control valves used in industries are diaphragm, ball plug, lubricated plug,
gate, globe and butterfly valves.
Temperature Control: Temperature control is quite essential in process design for some equipment
such as the pasteurizer, evaporator and the spray-dryer. The spray-dryer happens to be the equipment
with the highest heat consumption at a temperature of 100 oC and hence temperature control is deemed
very necessary so as to achieve this temperature.
Most of the equipment in the process flow diagram like the washing unit and the pusher centrifuge are
operating under room temperature and will not require any control system.
Pressure Control
Pressure is also another manipulated variable in the production of orange juice concentrate. The
evaporator, de-aerator and spray-dryer extensively use huge pressures in their modes of operation to
expel some amount of air and water. Pressure control devices are thus needed to control the
pressures in the various units. The pressure control system will keep operating pressures within
design limits so that any excessive pressure that builds up will be relayed to pressure relief valves to
open in order to offset the deviation.
Other control devices such as alarms, safety trips and interlocks will be employed where necessary to
ensure safe operations and these instruments may be controlled by a central computer.
Alarms, Safety trips and Interlocks
Alarms are used to alert operators of serious and potentially hazardous deviations in process
conditions. Key instruments are fitted with switches and this relays to operate audible and visual
alarms on the control panels and annunciation panels. Where there is a delay or lack of response by the
operator, it is likely to lead to the rapid development of a hazardous situation.
51
CHAPTER FIVE
THE DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS
5.1 FRUIT WASHING MACHINE

Equipment Description
The orange fruit washing machine is made up of mainly stainless steel which has a high
resistance of corrosion and abrasion and helps to meet food sanitary. The machine is composed
mainly of brush rollers, water jets, electric motor and water basin. The brush rollers are made up
of stainless steel tube and brush. The brush is also made up of polyethylene and makes
revolution as the mild steel chain moves, thereby driving the orange fruits to circumvolve and
being washed by the brush. The water jets which are also situated above the brush rollers also
sprays water under high pressure on the orange fruits to also wash the orange fruits as they rotate
on the brush rollers. The water basin below the brush rollers then collects the waste water which
is then drained off.
Nozzle: Solid (full) cone spray type of nozzle is used in the water jets. It sprays with uniform
distribution throughout the entire spray pattern. Stainless steel is the material used in its
construction because of its excellent resistant to both abrasion and corrosion. The spray angle of
the water jets is 550 and is placed at a distance of 0.2540 m above the fruit washer. This gives a
theoretical coverage distance of 0.2616 m for every water jet.
(http://www.steinen.com/industrial/usa/english/spray-calculator.php) Nozzles have three main
functions:
- Nozzles regulate spray liquid emission rates
- Nozzles break the liquid into droplets
- Nozzles ensure the spray is distributed as intended
Fig 1.diagram of nozzle exit

Process Description: Before an orange juice is extracted from an orange fruit it is very important
to pass it through the washing unit which is a fruit washer to be precise as this project is
concerned. The orange fruit after entering the fruit washer is moved forward by a series of brush
rollers which is powered by an electric motor. The orange fruits circumvolve around the brush
52
rollers and move forward as the brush rollers rotates thereby allowing the brush around the brush
rollers to start the washing process by the friction between the brush and the orange fruit.
As the orange fruits move forward, pressurized water is sprayed by water jets which are lined
above the brush rollers. This pressurized water together with the brush rollers gives a high
washing efficiency by removing all dirt and stains on the orange fruits.
The waste water from the orange fruits then passes through the small spaces in between the brush
rollers into the water basin bellow the brush rollers and is drained off through a drain pipe. The
washed oranges are then propelled forward by the brush rollers into the next unit for extraction to
take place. Lengthen fruit moving distance, speed fruits turning and strengthen water flushing are
the parameters that give a high washing efficiency. Also Increasing flexible counter flow between
the fruits gives a more thorough cleaning of the orange fruits.
5.2 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION

Stainless steel is used for the construction of the fruit washer. This type of metal was used because
it is a corrosion resistant material in the chemical industry.
Table 1: Equation Symbols
TSHP Total Shaft H.P.
FHP Friction H.P.(H.P. required to drive the conveyor empty)
MHP Material H.P. (H.P. required to move the material)
L Conveyor Length
S Conveyor Speed
DF Conveyor Diameter Factor
HBF Hanger Bearing Factor
CFH Conveyor Capacity
W Weight per cu. Ft
CP Capacity, lbs. per hr
MF Material H.P Factor (From the Materials Table)
53
Summary of chemical engineering calculations
Parameter Calculated value
Volumetric flowrate 1 × 10 –3 m3/s
Area of pump nozzle 5.067 × 10–4 m2
Pump discharge nozzle velocity 1.974 m/s
Exit velocity of Water Jet 14.38 m/s
Friction H.P of roller conveyer 0.0013 hp
Material H.P roller conveyer 0.9666 hp
Total shaft horse power of motor 0.9679 hp
Roller conveyer length 2.0 m
Velocity of the brush rollers 0.0540 m/s
Water basin nozzle exit velocity 5.9 m/s
Residence Time 37.0370 s
Summary of mechanical engineering calculations

Parameter Calculated value
Brush roller diameter 0.0508m
Conveyer brush roller width 0.8000m
Total no. of brush rollers 33
Torque on brush roller conveyer 22.1433 KN
Total weight of series of brush rollers 4.0488 N
Dead weight of water basin 196.4717 KN
Length of water basin nozzle 0.1100m
Weight of orange fruit 34.7400 KN
Area of the support 0.36 m2
54
Normal Stress on the Support 653.5108 KPa
Bending Stress on support 31551.8207 MPa
Surface area(s) of brush roller 0.1277 m2
volume (brush roller), 1.6242 x 10–3 m3
Volume water basin 2.6010m3
5.3 FILTRATION EQUIPMENT

Filtration can be defined as the separation of solids from liquids by passing a suspension or slurry
through a permeable medium which retains the particles (Darkwah, 2010). Centrifugation is a form
of filtration, involving the use of centrifugal force for the separation of mixtures, both in industry
and in laboratory settings. The rate at which particles settle in a gas or liquid stream can be
generally increased if centrifugal rather than gravitational forces are employed. The rate of
centrifugation is specified by the acceleration applied to the sample, typically measured in
revolutions per minute (rpm). The particles' settling velocity in centrifugation is a function of their
size and shape, centrifugal acceleration, the volume fraction of solids present, the density difference
between the particle and the liquid and the viscosity.
Equipment Selection
Centrifuges are classified according to the mechanism used for solids separation namely:
Sedimentation centrifuges: In such units, the separation is dependent on a difference in density
between the solid and liquid phases.
Filtration centrifuges: Such devices separate the phases by filtration. The walls of the centrifuge
basket are porous and the liquid filters through the deposited cake of solids and is removed.
The performance criteria for the selection of a centrifuge for a particular application depends on the
55
purity of centrate (sedimenting centrifuge) or filtrate (filtering centrifuge), cake dryness or moisture
content, total solids recovery, polymer dosage, size recovery and yield, volumetric and solids
throughput, solid purity and wash ratio and power consumption (Darkwah, 2010).
A filtration centrifuge is found to be the appropriate for this project, simply because of the small-
size, soft and the light-weight nature of the pulp.
A pusher centrifuge is chosen amongst other types of centrifuge simply because of its continuous
mode of operation and the fact that it incorporates the process of filtration in its separation. This
makes it suitable for separating the pulp of size, 125 µm since pusher centrifuges separate
slurries with particles as small as 0.08 µm. The G-factor of pusher centrifuges ranges from 300 to
2000 and its maximum retention time is 60 s (Purchas, 1977). They dewater and wash 0.3 to 25
tons/hr of solids containing no more than about 10% by weight (McCabe et. al, 1985). This makes
the pusher centrifuge the most suitable type of centrifuge for this project.
Summary of Chemical Engineering Design
Parameter Value
Feed mass flow rate 1,804.56 kg/hr

Feed volumetric flow rate 4.74×10-4 m3s-1
Discharge mass flow rate 1,737.34 kg/hr
Average Density of juice with pulp 1,056.70 kg/m3
Average Viscosity of juice with pulp 0.08 Pa.s
Basket Diameter 300 mm
Basket Height 300 mm

Rotational Speed 1,046.01 rpm
Rotational Velocity of the Basket 109.54 rads-1
Pulp size 125 µm

Centrifuge Efficiency 95%
Settling Velocity of Pulp 2.36×10-5 ms-1
Linear Velocity of the Juice 3.35×10-3 ms-1
Retention time 28.51 s
56
V1 V2 V3
1552.68 kg/hr
Xf = 0.2
Tf = 500C
P = 0.123bar
S, 3bars
Ts1=133.50C Ts1 Ts2 TS3
L 1,X1 L 2,X2 L3,X3
Table 10.11 Summary of dead weight stress on support
EFFECT W, N DS, m tS, m ,N/mm2
1 6507.20 0.19 0.007 1.49
2 4955.67 0.16 0.007 1.34
3 5920.87 0.18 0.007 1.43
57
Table 10.12 summary of mechanical engineering design calculation
PARAMETERS SYMBOL UNIT EFFECT 1 EFFECT 2 EFFECT 3
Bundle Diameter M 0.190 0.160 0.180
Shell Diameter M 0.191 0.161 0.181
Shell Thickness mm 4 4 4
Ellipsoidal Head M 0.052 0.045 0.049
Height of evaporator Ht M 8 8 8
Number of Baffles 63 75 66
Baffle Diameter M 0.189 0.159 0.179
Nozzle thickness tn M 0.004 0.004 0.004
Nozzle height Hn M 0.34 0.123 0.131
Thickness of channel T M 0.002 0.002 0.002
cover
Shell Weight N 1379.870 1158.600 1305.93
Insulation Weight N 688.660 580.540 652.650
Weight of Tubes N 4140.900 2990.650 3680.800
Weight of Feed N 297.770 225.870 281.490
Dead Weight of N 6507.200 4955.670 5920.870
Evaporator
Longitudinal Stress kN/m2 1298.080 560.780 154.980
58
Circumferential kN/m2 2596.160 1121.570 309.960
Stress
Direct Stress kN/m2 2589.420 2390.060 2546.800
Dead Weight Stress kN/m2 1490 1340 1430
on the Skirt
59
CHAPTER SIX
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
The purpose of every chemical process is to make profit. An understanding of process economics
is therefore critical in plant design. An acceptable plant design, thereof must present a process that
is capable of operating under conditions which will yield profit (Peters and Timmerhaus, 1991).
Process economics has three basic roles in process design:
- Evaluation of design
- Options Process optimization
- Overall project profitability
In this chapter, however the economics of the overall project would be evaluated to assess whether
the project is economically viable or not. The economic potential of this project would be evaluated
based on the two main parameters; total capital investment and the production cost. The two provide
a fore knowledge of the funding needed for start up and running of the plant, and the cost of
producing a unit product. With the above parameters established, and a projection of the expected
earnings, the overall profitability can then be easily assessed.
6.1 Total capital investment
This refers to the total funds needed to start up a chemical plant. Before the plant can be put into
operation, a large sum of money must be supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery
and equipment. Land and service facilities must be obtained, and the plant must be erected complete
with all piping, controls, and services. In addition, it is necessary to have money available for the
payment of expenses involved in the plant operation (Peters and Timmerhaus, 1991). The total capital
investment is the sum of the fixed capital investment and the working capital.
6.2 Fixed capital investment
Fixed capital is the total cost of the plant ready for start-up. It is the capital needed to supply the
necessary manufacturing and plant facilities. The fixed capital can either be direct cost or indirect
cost. Direct cost comprises all expenses that are necessary for the installation of process equipments
with all auxiliaries that are needed for complete process operation e.g. purchased equipment cost,
equipment installation cost, instrumentation and control cost, piping cost, electrical installations and
material cost, building (including services) cost, yard improvement cost, service facilities cost, land
cost etc. Indirect cost on the other hand comprises all expenses that are not directly related to plant
operation e.g. engineering and supervision cost, construction expenses, contractor’s fee, contingency
fees, warehouse, laboratories, transportation, utility.
60
6.3 Equipment Cost Estimation
The equipment cost was evaluated based on information from the SIS engineering services, Ayigya,
Kumasi. Equipment costs are evaluated as a total of the cost of parts and cost of manufacturing (shape
moulding, welding, finishing, etc.). The table below shows the unit equipment costs and the total
equipment fixed capital assets description cost(GHC) costs of the plant.
direct cost
plant equipments costs

Equipment Unit(PEC)
cost Quantiy 163,041.00 Total equipment
equipment installation 40% of PEC 65,216.40 cost
piping 70% of PEC 114,128.70

washer 3,645.00 1 3,645.00
processing building 15% of PEC 24,456.15
conveyor 12,753.00 2 25,506.00
land calculated 4,800.00
peeler 2,400.00 1 2,400.00
site development 5% of PEC 8,152.05
extractor 13,845.60 1 13,845.60
storage facilities 15% of PEC 24,456.15
centrifuge 10,878.00 1 10,878.00
instrumentation and controls 20% of PEC 32,608.20
deaerator 14,690.40 1 14,690.40
auxilliary building 15% of PEC 24,456.15
PHE 7,081.20 1 7,081.20
electricals 10% of PEC 16,304.10
homogenizer 7,898.40 1 7,898.40
utilities 50% of PEC 81,520.50
boiler 22,032.00 1 22,032.00
total direct cost (A) 559,139.40
evaporator 9,000.00 1 9,000.00
indirect cost
dryer 35,024.40 1 35,024.40
engineering and design 30% of TDC 167,742
packaging unit 11,040.00 1 11,040.00
construction expenses 34% of PEC 55,434
Total Equipment 163,041.00
contractors fee 5% of TDC 27,957
Cost
contingency 10% of TDC 55,914
total indirect (B) 307,047
total fixed (A+B) 866,186.07
working capital (WC) 10% of TFC 86,619
total capital investment (TFC+WC) 952,804.68
61
6.4 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCTION COST
The production cost entails the cost of the producing a unit of the product. The production cost is
basically the sum of the manufacturing cost and general expenses. Manufacturing cost and general
expenses
MANUFACTURING COST: The manufacturing cost is further sub-divided into three categories,
the direct costs, the fixed charges and the plant overheads (Silla, 2003). The direct cost entails those
expenses that directly associated with the manufacturing operation. This type of cost involves
expenditures for raw materials (including transportation, unloading, etc.,); direct operating labor;
supervisory and clerical labor directly connected with the manufacturing operation, plant
maintenance and repairs, operating supplies, power, utilities and royalties.
The fixed charges refer to the expenses which remain practically constant from year to year and do
not vary widely with changes in production rate. Depreciation, property taxes, insurance, and rent
require expenditures that can be classified as fixed charges.
PLANT-OVERHEAD COSTS: are similar to the basic fixed charges in that they do not vary
widely with changes in production rate. Examples of these include expenses for hospital and
medical services; general plant maintenance and overhead; safety services; payroll overhead
including pensions, vacation allowances, social security, and life insurance; packaging, restaurant
and recreation facilities, salvage services, control laboratories, property protection, plant
superintendence, warehouse and storage facilities, and special employee benefits(Timmerhaus,
1999)
LABOUR COSTS: Labour involves the human resource required to man the plant operations.
Labour is either direct or indirect. Direct labour comprise those that directly results in the
production of a chemical or product (Silla, 2003). Indirect labour on the other hand
The tables below provide a detail of the general plant staff and supervisory heads
pay scheme.
Table of Direct labour cost
62
Personnel Number Annual salary per Total annual
head(GHC) salary(GHC)
plant manger 1 18000 18000
production manger 1 18000 18000
quality control
manager 1 18000 18000
quality control
analyst 2 10800 21600
maintenance
manager 1 18000 18000
maintenance
labourers 6 3600 21600
prouction assistants 6 10800 64800
Workers on
plant(unskilled) 51 3600 183600
Total cost of direct
labour 69 363600
Table of Indirect labour cost
Personnel Number Annual salary per Total annual

head(GHC) salary(GHC)
Managing Director 1 27000 27000
accountant 1 16200 16200
Personnel manager 1 5400 5400
receptionist 1 7200 7200
GM's secretary 1 2700 16200
cleaners 6 2700 16200
security officers 6 27000 27000
total 17 88200
63
Total operating
labour
(direct+indirect) 86 451800
Raw Materials
The raw materials for orange are orange fruits. These would be purchased directly from a farm site at
the set farm price.
Amount of raw material = feed flow rate × annual plant hours
= 3541.63kg/hr × 7889.4 hrs
= 27,941,335.72 kg oranges /annum
The average mass of orange is 0.35 kg and cost an average of N 0.15 per fruit on the local market
vis-a-vis the average wholesale (farm) price being N 0.08 per fruit (N 8 per 100 fruits).
Therefore the unit price of raw material would be N 0.08/ 0.35 kg orange
Annual cost of raw material = 27,941,335.72 kg oranges /annum × N 0.05/

0.35 kg orange
= 6,386,591.02 N / annum
Power and Utilities
These includes the cost of the total cost of electricity, process cooling water, steam
requirements and any other form of utility that is required to keep the plant in
operation. This component is estimated as 10% of the total equipment cost
(Timmerhaus, 1991).
Maintenance and repairs
For efficient operating condition of the plant, a considerable amount of expenses

would be necessary for maintenance and repairs. This component is estimated as 5%
of the fixed capital investment (Sinnot, 2005).
Operating supplies
64
In any manufacturing operation, many miscellaneous supplies are needed to keep the
process functioning efficiently. Operating supplies include items such as charts,
lubricants, test chemicals, custodial supplies, and protective clothing and equipment
which cannot be considered as raw materials or maintenance and repair materials. The
annual cost for operating supplies is assumed to be about 15 percent of the total cost
for maintenance and repairs (Timmerhaus. 1991).
Laboratory Charges
This involves cost of laboratory tests for control operation and product quality
control. It is taken as 20% of operating labour (Timmerhaus, 1991).
65
Patents & Royalties
This is taken to be 4% of total product cost. Total Annual Direct Production Cost
Item Description Cost (GHC
Raw material 6,386,591.02
Operating labour (OL) 451,800
Power and Utilities 10% FCI 86,618.61
Maintenance and Repairs (MAR) 5% FCI 43,309.30
Operating supplies 15% MAR 6,496.40
Laboratory charges 20% OL 90,360
Total Direct Production Cost 7,065,175.33
Fixed Charges
The fixed charges or expenses are always present in the company whether or not the plant is operation.
These costs are basically invariant with the amount of production. The fixed charge items include,
Depreciation
The value of a plant will decrease with time because of ware and technical obsolescence (Silla, 2003).
Equipment, buildings, and other material objects comprising a manufacturing plant require an initial
investment which must be written off as a manufacturing expense. In order to write off this cost, a
decrease in value is assumed to occur throughout the usual life of the material possessions. This
decrease in value is designated as depreciation. In determining the rate of depreciation, a straight-line
method is usually assumed for engineering projects. In applying this method, a useful- life period and a
salvage value at the end of the useful life are assumed (Timmerhaus, 1991). The annual depreciation is
then calculated as the quotient of the difference between the capital investment and the salvage value at
the end of plant life over the plant life. From the basis stated above the plant life is 10 years, and the
salvage life assumed to be 10% of the total investment (Silla, 2003). Therefore annual depreciation AD
is;
66
AD = (total investment – salvage value) / plant life
Total investment = N 952,804.68
Salvage value = 10% of 952,804.68 = 95,280.47
AD = (952,804.68 – 95,280.47) / 10 = GHC 85,752.42
Insurance
The insurance cost paid on the plant and general site is estimated as 1% of the fixed capital investment
(Sinnot, 2005).
Local taxes and royalties
Local taxes are determined by government policies and regulations. These comprise taxes on the
property or facility. Local taxes are estimated as 10% of the fixed capital investment (IRS Nigeria
2010).
Table showing Total Annual Fixed Charges
Description Cost
Depreciation 85,752.42
Insurance 8,661.9
Local taxes and royalties 86,619
Total 181,033.32
Plant overhead
The plant overhead include all cost that associatd with plant operation but d not fall under any of the
above headings. These include expenses for hospital and medical services; general plant maintenance
and overhead; safety services; payroll overhead including pensions, vacation allowances, social
security, and life insurance; packaging, restaurant and recreation facilities, salvage services, control
laboratories, property protection, plant superintendence, warehouse and storage facilities, and special
67
employee benefits(Timmerhaus, 1999). Plant overhead is usually estimated from the operating labour
cost, a typical value is 50% of the operating labour cost (Sinnot, 2005).
Plant overhead expenses = 50% of operating labour cost Operating labour cost = N 451,800
Plant overhead expenses = N 225,900
Total manufacturing cost = sum of direct cost, fixed charges and plant overhead.
The table below shows the total annual direct cost, fixed charges and plant overhead.
Item Cost (GHC)
Total direct cost 6,975,901.23
Total fixed charges 181,033.32
plant overhead expenses 225,900
Total manufacturing cost 7,264,368.81
68
GENERAL EXPENSES
General expenses are associated with management of a plant. Included within general costs are
administrative, marketing, financing, and research and development costs (Silla, 2003).
Administration expenses : the administration costs comprises those expenses that come along with
supply of office materials equipment, communications, upkeep of office buildings, and other
overhead items related with administrative activities. It is generally assumed to be 20% of operating
labour.
Research and Development: In order to remain in a competitive industrial position, research and
development (R&D) is essential. This component is estimated as 5% of the total product cost (Peter
and Timmerhaus, 1991).
Distribution and Marketing: Expenses associated with selling the products, sales office and salaries of
salesmen, advertising cost, container cost and shipping expenses. It is estimated as 10% of the total
product cost (Peter and Timmerhaus, 1991).
Financing: for a venture that requires the borrowing of funds for capital investment, interest is
considered to pay for the use of borrowed capital. A fixed rate of interest is established at the time the
capital is borrowed; therefore, interest is a definite cost if it is necessary to borrow the capital used
to make the investment for a plant. Although the interest on borrowed capital is a fixed charge; it is
preferable to separate interest from the other fixed charges and list it as a separate expense under the
general heading of management or financing cost. Annual interest rates amount to 32.5% of the total
value of the borrowed capital (SG-SSB, 2011).
General Costs
Item Description Cost (GHC)
Administration expenses 20% of OL 90,360
Financing (interest) 32.5 % of TCI 107,023.51
Total 197,383.51
69
Total production cost can now be estimated as the sum of the manufacturing cost, fixed charges and
general cost.
Annual TPC = manufacturing cost + general costs + 4% TPC (patent royalties) + 5% TPC
(research and development) + 10% TPC (distribution and marketing)
TPC = 7,264,368.81 + 197,383.51+ 0.19 TPC
TPC = 7,872,130.17+ 0.19 TPC
TPC = (7,872,130.17) / (1 – 0.19)
Annual TPC = N 9,690,890.96
PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
Having estimated the cost of investment and the cost of production, one will now be in a position to
assess the economic viability of the entire project, hence its profitability. Any venture is
economical viable or attractive only then manufacturing process reaps more earning than cost..
Profitability analysis attempts to proof the desirability of taking risk and also serves as a measure of
attractiveness of this project in comparison to the other competing projects. It is also a qualitative
measure of profit with respect to the investment required to generate that profit. The analysis of
profitability will be based on the following standards:
Break-even point (BEP)
Turn over Ratio (TOR)
Return on Investment (ROI)
Net Present Value (NPV
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)
Payback Period
Basis of Project analysis
Start-up date of project: January 2025 Completion of project: December 2025
Commencement of production: January 2026 Expected plant life: 10 years
Plant life : 90%
Annual production rate: 2564931.6 kg/hrs
Available Working period: 0.9 × 365.25 × 24 = 7889.40 hrs
Cash flow analysis
Powdered orange concentrate is a very common commodity on the market; and sells at an average
price of N 0.20 per product in packs of 35 g net weight. The annual production rate of the project
70
amounts to 1947735.07 kg/hr in the first year at (80% plant capacity).
Total annual production cost = N 9,690,890.96
Total product cost = (Total annual production cost) / annual production rate
= N 9,690,890.96 / 1947735.07 kg/annum
= N 4.98 / kg
With the above product costs and competitive market as a basis, the products shall be sold at a price
of N 0.25 per product pack of 50g net weight. Thus unit selling price would be
N 0.25 / 0.05 kg = N 5/ kg
As a result the annual gross income from sales is expected to be, N 5/ kg × 1947735.07
kg/annum = N 9,738,675.36/ annum Annual Cash flow table
Unit selling price GHC/kg 5.00
Annual sales of paper at 80% capacity (A) GHC/annum 9,738,675.36
Total Product Cost (B), GHC/annum 9,690,890.96
Gross profit (A - B), GHC/annum 47,784.40
Annual tax at 12.5% of taxable income (C) 5973.05
Net Annual profit (A – B – C), GHC/annum 109,514.55
Break Even Point

The breakeven point is the point in operation at which there is no profit or loss. At the
breakeven point the annual cost of production is equal to the annual income from sales.
The breakeven point can be estimated mathematically from the relation below.
Breakeven point = fixed costs / (total annual sales – variable cost)….equation 14.1 Fixed
cost = general expenses + fixed charges + maintenance + operating labour +
laboratory cost + plant overhead Fixed charges = 181,033.32
General expenses = 2,016,144.3 Maintenance = 43,309.30 operating labour = 451,800

laboratory cost = 90,360.00 plant overhead = 225,900.00
Fixed cost = 197,383.51 + 181,033.32 + 43,309.30 + 90,360.00 + 225,900.00 + 451,800
= N 3,008,546.92
Total annual sales = 9,738,675.36
Variable cost = sum of cost of raw materials, utilities, power and operating supplies.
Variable cost 496.40 = 6386675.36 + 451,800 + 86618.61+6 = GHC 6925,093.97
From equation 14.1,
71
Break even point = (3,008,546.92) / (9,738,675.36 – 6,925,093.97)
= 1.06
Therefore the break even point is 1.06
Turn Over Ratio
This is a rapid method suitable for order of magnitude estimates. In other words, it
could be the ratio of gross annual sales to the fixed capital investment. That is,
TOR = (gross annual sales) / fixed capital investment × 100

Gross annual sales for the first income year = 9,738,675.36
Fixed capital investment = 952,804.68
Turn over ratio = (9,738,675.36 / 952,804.68) = 10.22
Return on Investment
The return on investment is the expected profit over the plant life divided by the total capital
invested. This is the percentage return that an investor may expect to eventually earn on his money.
It is the after-tax return on investment that the company or individual must compare with the
earnings from savings accounts, capital bonds, and other projects to determine whether this is a good
project in which to invest.
Return on investment =
(Cumulative net cash flow)/ (plant life × capital investment) × 100
The cumulative net cash flow = (20,095,442.63) / (10 × 952,804.68) × 100
72
= 210.91 %
years annual net discount factor discounted

cash flow cash flow
at an interest of 89.52
0 952,804.68 - -
1 41811.35 0.52764295 22061.46407
2 352833.76 0.278407083 98231.41792
3 643894.74 0.146899535 94587.8377
4 5434017.5 0.077510504 421193.4346 Discounted Cash Flow Rate

of Return (DCFRR)
This is rate of return on

5 4448542.71 0.040897871 181935.9257
the project which includes
the 6 4135776 0.021579473 89247.86774 profit on the project, pay
off investment and normal
7 2397794.75 0.011386257 27301.90715 interest charges on
investment. It is the
8 2546432.25 0.006007878 15298.65484 interest rate at which the
net present worth is zero. It is
9 744324.27 0.003170015 2359.518793
also known as investor’s rate
of return and is given by the
10 302829.38 0.001672636 506.5232771
formula; discounted cash
total . 952,725 flow rate of return is

defined as the discount
rate i,
The table below shows the discounted cash flow and the net present worth for a selected
interest rate of approximately 89.521%
The discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFRR) is then the set interest rate that yields a
net present worth of zero.
Discounted Cash Flow rate of return = 89.521%
73
Pay Back Period
Payback time is the time that elapses from the start of the project to the breakeven point. The shorter
the payback time, the more attractive is the project. Payback time is often calculated as the time to
recoup the capital investment based on the mean annual cash flow. Pay back time is a useful criterion
for judging projects that have a short plant life, or when the capital is only available for a short time.
The graph above shows the cumulative cash flow of the project over the project life. From the figures
above the break even was 2.9 years
74
CHAPTER SEVEN
PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT
7.1 PLANT LOCATION
The place or area the plant is situated has the profitability of the project and the scope for future
expansion. Therefore, many factors are considered when selecting a suitable site for the caffeinated
coffee production plant. They include:
Availability of raw material or feedstock: The main raw material needed in caffeinated coffee
production plant in large quantity in Nigeria, is in (Imo, Akwa Ibom Ebonyi etc). The plan site
should be located near where the frankfurter Production plant raw material is available in order to
reduce transportation cost, also the purchase price, availability and reliability of the supply should also
be put into consideration. Hence, the proposed plant site will be at industrial clusters, in Niger state,
due to the nearness of Malt Production plant from the Northern parts of Nigeria.
Availability of energy: The plant will run production and will require continually with constant supply
of energy, but due to the inconsistent character of energy supply in the country, it will depend on beer
energy source. Therefore, an alternative means of energy will be provided (Generator power).
Transportation: The frankfurter Production plant will be provided with adequate transport facilities
for case in the distribution of goods at various destinations. The transportation modes will includes
trucks, buses etc. This production plant will be located close to a good access and for easy distribution
of the finished good to the customers.
Market assessment: The marketing problem will be tackled by carrying out pre-marketing research to
find but how the consumer assessed to before producing to large quantity. Also, when this is known,the
product will be located near a primary market where a buyer can comfortably purchase the finished
product; also cost of the product will be relatively low.
Site characteristics: Test boring information will be made available for the entire plant site, there will
be adequate drainage system to avoid stagnant water, since industrial cluster Nekede, Owerri in a
leveled ground there will be no sloppy or construction cost on the plant site.
75
Community factors: The development of this project will include representatives from the community
it is sited, also worked will include indigenes of the community, so that it will stand as a job generator
not only for outsiders but also for indigenes of the community.
Also if the community officials and the company representative develop a method of interacting
together, it will determine the extent to which the community will boost and support the project from
hoodlums and theirs.
Labour supply: Labour needed for the construction and operation of this Malt Production plant will
include both skilled (brought from outside) and will paid to pay scales of every individual or group of
workers. Also there should be training (workshop) to enlighten the unskilled ones.
Waste disposal: There will be proper treatment of waste in the industry by adopting the ISO
(international Standard Organization) which is set aside for guiding the interest of the nation. In order
for the company not to pollute the environmental there will be large waste management until for
treatment of waste in the plant before disposal.
Taxation and legal restriction: The plant will run for two years as stipulated by the legal regulation of
Imo state. This is to build a strong grand for industrial. plant which is located at Gwer West Industrial
Layout, Naka, Benue State is an area mapped out for industries.
The area is for only industry, because individual buildings are restricted from the area, to avoid the
industrial equipment causing nuisance.
7.2 PLANT LAYOUT
This involves where the plant will be suited, which is at Gwer West Industrial Layout Naka Benue State.
It also involves the space requirement, to ensure continuous and steady movement for the production
take place.
These include:
Personal, operating equipment, storage space, material shading equipment and all other supporting
devices along with the design of the best structure to accommodate the named facilities.
7.2.1 OBJECTIVES OF PLANT LAYOUT
Providing comport and catering to workers Providing good and improved working conditions
Minimizing delays in production and making efficient use of the space that is available Having a better
76
control over the production cycle and other activities within the plant premises.
7.2.3 PLANT LAYOUT
Vehicle park Weigh bridge Security office
Reception office General Manager’s

Filling Station Office
Chemical Office Loading and

uploading
Storage room for raw
material
Processing House Administrative block
Finished Product
Store for Packaging
Waste treatment Utilities

plant and disposal Storage room for
office finished goods
Room for expansions
Administration building: Located far away from potential hazardous plant area,
Central control room (CCR): Located adjacent to processing unit, but with potential hazardous
processes
Field auxiliary room (FAR): Located right inside the plant area. It is a mini control room
77
Tank farm: Located close to the plant for supply of raw materials and also close to loading and exist
point for easy movement of trucks
Maintenance workshop: Located far from the administrative officers and close to the plant for easy
maintenance and repairs of equipment. There is a good network for easy transportation of machineries
to and from the building
Laboratory: Located far from potential hazardous area, but not too far from plant. It is where samples
of batches are tested for standard
Emergency block: Located close to potential hazardous area, it consists of fire station, fire pumps. Fire
pumps are situated at each of the layout in case of emergency
Plant area: A place where production takes place
Car park: Located very far from plant
Canteen: Located not far from administrative building, so that workers will not spend which time
going to where they can refresh thereby abiding their work.
Clinic: Located very close to plant, to ensure urgent attention to any injured worker
Residential area: Located very far from plant it is where company staffs reside, for the safety of the
workers.
Mustard point: Located close to different structures in the industrial area, to enhance easy
convergence of staff during emergency.
7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Environmental impact analysis was carried out on the early stage of this design, to investigate the likely
environmental challenge that will be posed by the proposed plant on the environment. The
environmental challenges which is likely to be caused by waste (by products of Malt production and
waste water). That is why the waste water will be treated before disposal and by products sold to
people or company that will need them for production. All these are done to presence the earth and
protect its habitant.
78
CHAPTER EIGHT
SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL

In every manufacturing or process industry, the workers are exposed to some amount of
risk. This risk can be as a result of:
- The use of equipments or machinery
- Exposure to emissions from the process
Safety measures are therefore very important factors considered in any manufacturing industry. Safety
measures when ensured and encouraged increases efficiency on the part of both the workers and the
equipments. These measures ensured will reduce downtime of plants as well as ensure that equipments
are kept free from any form of damage or destruction.
The hazards likely to be encountered in the orange juice industry include the following;
Electrical hazards
Mechanical hazards
Fire hazards
Electrical Hazard: The use of electricity for any purpose carries with it the risk of shock or
electrocution. As such the use of brand tested quality wiring as well as proper and adequate insulation
will be ensured on the plant. Fuses, circuit breakers and earth leakage breakers which will ensure
minimum risk in times of power fluctuations will also be employed to ensure the safety of all workers. In
the light of this, all electrical equipments would be grounded.
Mechanical Hazard: In the operation of the various units, any mechanical fault, from the manufacturer,
induced stresses during operation or operator carelessness can cause serious injury or even a loss of life
as well as damage to the equipment. Hence, inspection of the equipment before installation is
necessary to eliminate the possibility of manufacturer negligence. Also, the rules and regulations outlined
in the operation manual of the equipments would be adhered to. There will also be regular checks and
maintenance operations carried out on all the units or equipments to ensure that developing faults are
noted early and rectified.
Fire Hazard: Many fire outbreaks in the country started about as a result of small fires through mainly
smoking and electrical faults. As a result of this, smoking will be strictly prohibited within and around
the environs of the plant. This also would ensure that products are not contaminated. Again, regular
checks would be conducted to identify electrical faults early and rectified. Provision would also be made
for fire hydrants and extinguishers at vantage points to help battle fire in the case of an outbreak. Some of
79
the workers would also be taken through training and given certificates on fire control. Lastly to ensure
the safety of workers, they would be provided with safety equipments and also be passed through safety
trainings. The safety gadgets include;
Safety boots
Ear plugs
Nose mask
Overall coats
Eye goggles
Hairnets
First aid kits
There would also be a clinic on the facility to manage minor injuries and illnesses. The workers would
also be insured against these hazards and would receive some amount of compensation in the unlikely
event of injury.
POLLUTION
Every manufacturing or process industry is faced with the problem of pollution control. An important
consideration in the modern food manufacturing industry is to minimise the effect or impact of pollution
on the environment. Many legal restrictions have been placed on the methods of disposal of waste from
industries. The goal is to preserve environmental quality for the benefit of present inhabitants and future
generations (Smook, 1994).
There are many forms of waste that cause pollution to the environment. These include;
Solid waste
Liquid waste
Emissions to air
Solid Waste
The main solid wastes of the plant are the orange peels, seeds and pulp from the orange fruit, and rubbish
collected daily. Traditionally, this waste has been consigned to landfill. Incineration is becoming
popular; however, it produces waste in the form of ash which goes to landfill. The solid waste can
however be managed in different ways:
- Spillage of solids would be swept of with brush and collected into a bin.
- The peels can be processed and the essential oils extracted from it. This oil can be used in the
manufacture of mosquito repellents amongst others.
- The pulp from the fruits can be used as a supplement to animal feed and therefore can be sold
to farmers.
80
- Different containers would be marked for the different forms of rubbish and would be collected
daily for proper disposal. Theses containers would be placed at various points for easy access.
Generally, solid wastes from the plant can be sent to the landfill for proper disposal.
Liquid Waste: The main liquid waste from the plant is the muddy water from the washing unit. The
waste water from this unit would be sent to a water treatment unit, where the soil particles would be
separated, the water treated and sent back for different operations. The disposal of other effluents will be
guided by local regulations. Liquid spills would be washed off with pressurised water and swept off into
a drain.
Emission to Air: The major emissions to the atmosphere includes, exhaust steam from some of the
plants particularly the de-aeration plant, exhaust fumes from boiler. The exhaust gases include carbon
dioxide (CO2), small traces of sulphur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen dioxide (NOx) from incomplete
combustion. The gases from the plant are minimal and considered relatively insignificant. However, an
environmental impact assessment would be made regularly to ensure that emissions are within standards.
81
CHAPTER NINE
RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
Assessing the economic facts about this project, a total capital investment of GHC 952,804.68 is to yield
a rate on Investment of 201% in less than 3 years thus; it makes the project a very profitable one. This
project will also develop the Asebu Township and also provide employment for its people and the people
of Ghana as a whole. It is therefore, recommended that investors both home and abroad invest in this
project.
In view of the fact that all the main objectives as well as the specific objectives were met, it can be
concluded that the project was successful. It can also be concluded that an orange juice powdered
concentrate plant can operate effectively and successfully under appropriate conditions in Ghana. It also
produces huge profits as well as provides employment for the people of our dear country.
On the whole, the project has been a very successful one.
82
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Hill, New York. pp 17.12 – 17.14
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Filtration and Centrifuges.
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85
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A
MATERIAL BALANCE CALCULATION
Number of trees per 20 acre land = 2222.20
Average number of orange fruits per season = 765 oranges

Total orange fruits available in 20 acre land per season =
=
1699983 oranges
Average mass of an orange fruit = 350 g = 0.35 kg

Total mass of orange fruits available for production =
=
594994.05 kg
Number of working hours for plant operation in 7 days = 168 hrs

Orange feed flow rate =
= 3541.63 kg/hr
Assuming 0.1 % of feed is dirt, leaves and branch sticks, then
99.9 % of feed = 3541.63 kg/hr.
100 % feed =
= 3545.18 kg/hr.
86
SORTING UNIT
oranges (1) sorted oranges (3)

Unsorted
spoilt, unriped oranges (2)
Crushed,
Assuming one of every thousand orange fruit is spoilt crushed or unriped and is to be
removed.
Feed flow rate to sorter = 3545.18 kg/hr.

Bottom material =
= 3.55 kg/hr.
Output flow rate from sorter =
= 3541.63 kg/hr.
Compositions of various streams on the sorting unit.

kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
Good 99.9 3541.63 0 0 100 3541.63
Orange
fruits
Crushed, 0.1 3.55 100 3.55 0 0
spoilt or
87
unripe
orange
Total 100 3545.18 100 3.55 100 3541.63
88
WASHING UNIT
Feed flow rate to washing unit = 3541.63 kg/hr.
Wash water (2)
Dirty water (4)
Assuming 0.1 % of the washing feed flow rate is dirt, mud, leaves and broken brunches
from the orange tree.
Feed flow rate to washer = 3541.63 kg/hr.

Bottom material flow rate =
= 3.54 kg/hr.
Output flow rate from washer =
= 3538.09 kg/hr.
Feed flow rate to separation unit = 3538.09 kg/hr.
89
Compositions of various streams on the washing unit

Mass, Mass Mass, Mass Mass, Mass Mass, Mass
% flowrate, % flowrate, % flowrate % flowrate,
kg/hr kg/hr , kg/hr kg/hr
Water 0 0 100 7083.26 0 0 99.95 7083.26
Dirt 0.1 3.54 0 0 0 0 0.05 3.54
Orange 99.9 3538.09 0 0 100 3538.09 0 0
fruits
Total 100 3541.63 100 350 100 3538.09 100 7086.8
PEELER
Orange fruits
Peeled orange fruits (3)
(1)
Orange peels (2)
The peeler will separate the peels from the orange fruits. Assuming the orange peel
takes about 10 % of the mass of the orange fruit, 50 % being the juice and 40 % pulp.
Feed flow rate to peeler = 3538.09 kg/hr.

Bottom flow rate =
= 353.81 kg/hr.
Output flow rate =
= 3184.29 kg/hr.
90
Compositions of various streams on the Peeler

kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
Orange 50 1769.05 0 0 55.56 1769.05
juice
Orange 10 353.81 100 353.81 0 0
peels
Orange 40 1415.24 0 0 44.44 1415.24
pulp
Total 100 3538.09 100 353.81 100 3184.29
EXTRACTOR
The extractor will separate the juice from the pulp. The average juice content of the
peeled orange fruit (feed to the extractor) is about 55.56 % and the remaining 44.44 %
being the pulp.
Juice extraction efficiency: 98 %, therefore 2 % juice is entrained in the pulp.

Extractor’s separation efficiency: 95 %, hence 5 % of chuff is retained in the
juice.
91
Feed flow rate to extractor = 3184.28 kg/hr.
The juice content =
= 1769.19 kg/hr.
Pulp content =
= 1415.09 kg/hr.
5 % of the chuff = 70.75
kg/hr.
The actual juice output =
= 1733.80 kg/hr.
Total extractor output =
= 1804.56 kg/hr.
Compositions of various streams on the Extractor

kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
Orange 55.56 1769.05 2.56 35.38 96.08 1733.80
juice
Orange 44.44 1415.24 97.44 1344.34 3.92 70.75
pulp
Total 100 3184.29 100 1379.72 100 1804.56
92
93
Centrifuge
1804.56 kg/hr
Overflow (juice) (3)
Juice from extractor
(1)
Underflow (pulp) (2)
Feed flow rate to centrifuge = 1804.56 kg/hr.

Pulp content of juice feed =
=
Since centrifuge is 95 % efficient, 5 % of this pulp would still remain in the juice
overflow
Thus; juice overflow =
Compositions of various streams on the Centrifuge

kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
Orange 96.08 1733.80 0 0 99.80 1733.80
juice
Orange 3.92 70.75 100 67.22 0.20 3.54
pulp
94
Total 100 1804.56 100 67.22 100 1737.34
95
DE-AERATOR
O2 removed (2)
1737.34kg/hr
The de-aerator removes oxygen from the juice to prevent enzymatic browning, modify
flavour and help in the quality of the juice. The juice is assumed to have 0.1 % of O 2 in
the feed input rate.
Therefore =
= 1.74 kg/hr of air is removed
Since the temperature of the de-aerator is higher than the juice temperature, the juice is
assumed to lose 0.5 % of water.
= 8.68 kg/hr of H2O vapour
Therefore the feed output rate = (1735.60 – 8.68) kg/hr
= 1726.92 kg/hr
96
Compositions of various streams on the De-aerator.

kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
Orange 99.9 1735.60 0 0 100 1726.92
juice
O2 0.1 1.74 16.70 1.74 0 0
Water 0 0 83.30 8.68 0 0
vapour
Total 100 1737.34 100 10.42 100 1726.92
PASTEURIZER
Feed input from de-aerator

feed output rate (3)
(1) 1726.92 kg/hr
The Pasteurizer increases the temperature of the juice to destroy organisms and natural
enzymes. Hence the juice is assumed to lose 10 % of water from the feed.
Therefore =
= 172.69 kg/hr
Pasteurizer feed output = (1726.92 – 172.69) kg/hr = 1554.23kg/hr.
97
Compositions of various streams on the Pasteurizer

kg/hr kg/hr kg/hr
Orange 100 1726.92 0 0 100 1554.23
juice
Water 0 0 100 172.69 0 0
vapour
Total 100 1726.92 100 172.69 100 1554.23
DRYER
Feed input from evaporator

powdered orange concentrate (3)
(1)
388.17 kg/hr
Reference: Amount of water in the edible part of orange = 82.7 - 89.3 % from literature,
Assume 83% of water in orange.
The dryer ensures that the product is in a powdered form by removing the majority of
the water left in the feed. The dryer is assumed to remove 20.5 % of water.
98
= 79.57 kg/hr
Amount of concentrated citrus powder left = (388.17- 79.57) kg/hr
= 308.6 kg/hr
% Amount of moisture in the product =
= 0.59 %
Compositions of various streams on the Dryer.

Mass, Mass flowrate, Mass, Mass flowrate, Mass, Mass flowrate,
Water / 20.97 81.39 0 0 0.59 1.82
moisture
Powdered 79.03 306.78 0 0 99.41 306.78
concentrate
Water 0 0 100 79.57 0 0
vapour
Total 100 388.17 100 79.57 100 308.60
99
APPENDIX B
ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATION ENERGY

BALANCE
The energy balance shows the energy requirements of the plant. The following facts would be
used at various points in the balance.
Pressure of saturated Steam = 3 bar
Reference temperature of all materials (except steam) = 0 o C
Reference temperature of steam = 0.01 o C
Heat capacities of orange is assumed to be the same whether cleaned or uncleaned
SORTING UNIT
Capacity = 3545.18 kg/hr
Length of conveyor belt = 10 m
Unsorted orange fruits (1) sorted orange fruits (3)
From the general energy balance equation;
Thus equation (1) reduces to;
Shaft work is needed to accelerate the orange fruits from rest on the conveyor belt.
100
=
Work done by conveyor belt on fruits =
Conveyor efficiency = 90%
Therefore shaft work supplied by conveyor motor =

Good 13210.30 99.90 0.00 0.00 13210.30 100.00
Orange
fruits
Crushed, 13.22 0.10 13.22 100.00 0.00 0.00
spoilt or
unripe
orange
Total 13223.52 100.00 13.22 100.00 13210.30 100.00
Temperature : 25 oC
Pressure: 101.23 kPa
WASHING UNIT
Wash water (2)
101
From the general energy balance equation;
Thus equation (2) reduces to
Input enthalpy =
Output enthalpy =
Hinput =
Cpmix =
102
Hinput =
For
Houtput =
103
=
But Hinput = Houtput
oC
ΔH =
= 354.7425 kJ/hr
Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy, Enthalpy,

kJ/hr % kJ/hr % kJ/hr % kJ/hr %
Water 0.00 0.00 740200.67 100.00 329926.89 100.00 740200.31 0.06
Dirt 407.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 407.39 99.94
Orange 329926.74 99.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

fruits
Total 330333.74 100.00 740200.67 100.00 329926.89 100.00 740607.70 100.00
104
EXTRACTOR

From the energy balance equation
Cp for stream 2 =
=
Cp for stream 3 =
105
=
Houtput =
=
106
=

Orange 296934.11 100.00 3294.57 2.56 163344.69 96.08
juice
Orange 0.00 0.00 125399.64 97.44 6664.35 3.92
pulp
Total 296934.11 100.00 128694.21 170009.04 100.00
Temperature : 25 oC
107

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FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE

P.M.B 1036 OWERRI,

CITRUS POWDERED JUICE

NAME: OLUIGBO PRECIOUS NGOZI

DEPT: FOOD TECHNOLOGY

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

 It has a relatively longer shelf-life.

 It is relatively easy to transport in bulk.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE PLANT

1.3 SCOPE OF DESIGN

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1.6 PRODUCTION STEPS

Reasons for Choosing Orange over other Citrus Fruits

- They are commonly available source of vitamin C.

Carbohydrates (g/l) 67-122

Niacin (µg/kg ) 7000-3000

Thiamine (µg/kg ) 300-600

Acidity of titration (g/l) 12.1-15.9

Ascorbic acid (mg/l) 50-152

Potassium (mg/l) 1900-3700

Beta carotene (µg/kg ) 4500-35000

Component Amount (g)

(Source: TSE 34, 2007)

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF CITRUS

2.3 TYPES OF CITRUS FRUITS

Process Description for Production of Powdered Orange Concentrat

Transportation and Unloading

Unloading via Dry or Water Flume System

Automatic Fruit Sorting and Grading Machine

Centrifugation or Cyclonic Separation

Theory and Design of Decanter Centrifuge

Apparent yield, % = …………………………..(1) Where;

MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE

3.0 Material Balance

Unsorted oranges Sorted oranges (3)

Crushed, spoilt, unriped oranges (2)

Table 4.1 Compositions of various streams on the sorting unit.

Component Stream 1 Stream 2 Stream 3

Mass Mass, % Mass flowrate, Mass, % Mass flow rate, Mass, %

Good Orange 3541.63 99.9 0 0 3541.63 100

Crushed , spoilt or 3.55 0.1 3.55 100 0 0

Total 3545.18 100 3.55 100 3541.63 100

Wash water (2)

Unclean orange fruits (1) washed orange fruits (3)

Dirty water (4)

Table 4.2 Compositions of various streams on the washing unit

Componen Stream 1 Stream 2 Stream 3 Stream 4

Water 0 0 100 7083.26 0 0 99.95 7083.26

Dirt 0.1 3.54 0 0 0 0 0.05 3.54

Orange 99.9 3538.09 0 0 100 3538.09 0 0

Orange fruits (1)

Peeled orange fruits (3)

Orange peels (2)

Table 4.3 Compositions of various streams on the Peeler

Component Stream 1 Stream 2 Stream 3

Mass, % Mass Mass, % Mass Mass, % Mass

Orange 50 1769.05 0 0 55.56 1769.05

Peeled orange fruits (1) orange juice (3)