PDF Basic Studies in Environmental Knowledge Technology Evaluation and Strategy Introduction To East Asia Environmental Studies 1St Edition Takayuki Shimaoka Ebook Full Chapter
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Takayuki Shimaoka · Takahiro Kuba
Hirofumi Nakayama · Toshiyuki Fujita
Nobuhiro Horii Editors
Basic Studies in
Environmental
Knowledge,
Technology, Evaluation,
and Strategy
Introduction to East Asia Environmental
Studies
Basic Studies in Environmental Knowledge,
Technology, Evaluation, and Strategy
ThiS is a FM Blank Page
Takayuki Shimaoka • Takahiro Kuba •
Hirofumi Nakayama • Toshiyuki Fujita •
Nobuhiro Horii
Editors
Basic Studies in
Environmental Knowledge,
Technology, Evaluation, and
Strategy
Introduction to East Asia Environmental
Studies
Editors
Takayuki Shimaoka Takahiro Kuba
Kyushu University Kyushu University
Fukuoka, Japan Fukuoka, Japan
Nobuhiro Horii
Kyushu University
Fukuoka, Japan
Human activities today are increasing at a pace rarely seen in human history. The
economies in the West and in developed countries in other parts of the world have
continued to grow over the long term because of mass consumption and at the
expense of resources and energy. Population growth, urbanization, and economic
development likewise have progressed in developing countries, including those in
East Asia, at a speed greater than that in the developed countries; consequently,
developing countries have had to deal with environmental problems more seriously
than developed countries have, including water and air pollution, soil erosion,
deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and desertification.
A major characteristic of East Asia is a great discrepancy in income between the
developed and the poorest countries, even as the region as a whole is growing, with
the developing countries chasing after the developed countries as they step up the
rate of their stages of development. East Asia is thriving in certain areas because of
international relationships in production, trade, investment, finance, and aid.
Mutual dependency between Japan and East Asia deepened when the East Asian
countries opened up their respective economies under various liberalization poli-
cies that promoted trade with Japan and acceptance of direct Japanese investment as
keys to their economic development strategy. These deepened relationships have
engendered high economic growth in this area.
Besides the existing economically mutually dependent relationships, a proposal
for new coordination in environmental conservation as an international mission
would be significant in terms of the current international situation. Therefore, as a
developed country, Japan is expected to play a large role in East Asia regarding
environmental problems. Japan possesses an environmental awareness born of its
struggles to overcome pollution and its accumulation of rich technical knowledge,
funding, human resources, and research for solving problems; and the significance
of reinvesting such resources in foreign countries is enormous. International coop-
eration and coordination in environmental conservation in all of East Asia must be
recognized as essential to the stability and development of the region, and the
development of a system for fostering such relationships is absolutely necessary.
v
vi Preface
at the local, regional, and trans-boundary levels. In all, 58 researchers are linked to
one another and are working on diverse themes in research and education.
Kyushu University has positioned the RIEAE as one of its major projects, and it
is funded by the Special Research Budget of the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology. The institute was founded initially for research
purposes, but as stated earlier, human development is absolutely essential for
solving environmental problems. Therefore, the institute began to work on devel-
oping human resources and providing the research results to education, which truly
took off when the East Asia Environmental Strategist Training Program proposed
by the institute was selected for the next 5 years in October 2010 by the Japan
Science and Technology Agency (JST) as the International Environment Leaders
Training Program.
The East Asia Environmental Strategist Training Program is for the purpose of
training international leaders by playing to the strengths of Kyushu University as a
leader in East Asian environmental studies. It employs the university’s rich human
resources and its educational and research facilities, as well as the geographical
advantage of being near advanced research institutions such as RIEAE.
International leaders trained through the program are called “environmental
strategists.” The qualifications for an environmental strategist have been defined
as comprising the four following skills:
• Environmental knowledge: has acquired a wide range of knowledge from the
social to the natural sciences and can comprehensively and systematically
understand the relationship between human activities and environmental prob-
lems from various points of view.
• Environmental technology: is able to choose feasible technologies from a menu
of environmental measures based on local conditions in a developing country.
• Environmental evaluation: is able to accurately understand the structure of
environmental problems, and is thoroughly knowledgeable about tools for
assessing environmental load and impacts.
• Environmental strategy: is able to apply solutions with leadership using strategic
thinking skills, as well as decision making for solving environmental problems
in a consensus formation process.
The major goal of this book is to train environmental strategists, using the
essence of the East Asia Environmental Strategist Training Program. Its ultimate
objective is to impart a broad knowledge of the environmental problems in East
Asia in simple terms so that beginners can comprehensively and systematically
understand environmental problems, and to help readers acquire four practical
skills for strategic development of solutions: (1) environmental knowledge,
(2) environmental technology, (3) environmental evaluation, and (4) environmental
strategy.
As mentioned earlier, East Asia Environmental Studies is designed to foster a
comprehensive understanding of the essence of social and environmental phenom-
ena in East Asia and to develop optimal policies and technologies for creating a
sustainable safe and secure environment. Developing environmental strategists who
viii Preface
can find strategic solutions by using their wide and highly professional knowledge
on environmental problems and related fields is inseparable from East Asia Envi-
ronmental Studies as a whole. Therefore, this book is titled Basic Studies in
Environmental Knowledge, Technology, Evaluation, and Strategy: Introduction to
Asia Environmental Studies, and the contents are divided into four essential parts
that correspond to the above-named four practical skills required for environmental
strategists.
In this book, the authors have attempted to keep the text simple and to limit the
explanations to basic concepts in each related field so that the content is under-
standable both to beginners, such as college undergraduates, and to professionals
from different fields. In addition, the book is aimed at providing up-to-date and
useful information and research so that it will be useful to front-line researchers and
engineers. Part of the book was written by experts on the latest results of their
research. We, the editors, would like to thank them for their contributions.
We will be greatly pleased if the book is of any help in solving the environmental
problems in East Asia and beyond.
ix
x Contents
xix
xx Editors and Contributors
Tetsuya Kusuda is Senior Advisor at the Research Institute of East Asia on Environment. He has
earned B.Eng., M.Eng., and Dr. Eng. from Kyushu University. His research work has expanded to
environment, environmental systems, ecological systems, water and wastewater treatment,
trenchless technology on underground pipelines and environmental ethics. He has worked for
Kyushu University as professor and director of Institute of Environmental Systems, the University
of Kitakyushu as professor, and University of Florida, USA as visiting professor. He was a
member of Science Council of Japan and is a member of the Engineering Academy of Japan.
Michikazu Kojima is a senior research fellow in the Institute of Developing Economies, Japan
External Trade Organization. He got M.Sc. in Agricultural and Resource Economics from
University of California, Berkeley. His recent works are International Trade in Recyclable and
Hazardous Waste in Asia (ed. with Etsuyo Michida) Edward Elgar 2013, and Kojima, Michikazu
Policy for Fostering “Sound” Recycling Industries, Institute of Developing Economies and
Institute for Global Environmental Studies, 2014.
Yuko Ishibashi is a senior researcher at Fukuoka Institute of Health and Environmental Sciences
belonging to Fukuoka prefecture. Her research work has been about water environmental science.
Hideo Koide is Professor at Seinan Gakuin University. He has Bachelor of Economics from
Yokohama National University, Master of Economics and Ph.D. in Economics from Hitotsubashi
University. His research work has been about environmental economics, environmental policy
management and design of interdisciplinary research and education. His doctoral thesis has been
published as the title of “Resource Circulation Economy and Internalization of Externalities” from
Keiso Shobo in November 2008.
Shinji Kaneko is professor at Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation
(IDEC), Hiroshima University since 2009. He received Dr. of Engineering from Kyushu Univer-
sity in 1999. He has worked for Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) based in
Hayama, Japan from 1999 to 2002 as a researcher and has joined Hiroshima University in 2002 as
an associate professor in charge of researches and education in development economics and
environmental economics. His research achievements include approximately 40 publications in
SCI journals and a book entitled Environmental Policy and Governance by Edward Elgar co-
authored with Shunsuke Managi in 2009.
Hidemichi Fujii is an Associate professor at Nagasaki University. He has Ph.D. in Arts from
Hiroshima University. His research work has been about corporate environmental management,
environmental innovation and productivity analysis. He has worked at the Graduate School of
Environmental Studies in Tohoku University as Research Fellow of the Japan Society for the
Promotion, and FUJITSU LABORATORIES LTD. as a researcher.
Takeru Sakai is a professor at Kyushu University. He has B.Eng., M.Eng., and Dr.Eng. from
Kyushu University. His research work has been about Urban Design and Landscape Design, City
Planning and Architecture. He has worked at the Sogo Kenchiku Architects, ACROS Fukuoka
Project at Fukuoka Prefectural Government, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University as a
research associate, and New Campus Planning Office as a professor. He has also worked at
Department of Architecture and Graduate School of Engineering.
Masaki Yokota is an assistant professor at Kyushu University. He has B.Eng., M.Eng., and
Doctor of Eng. from Kyushu University. He has worked for IDEA Consultants, Inc. His research
work has been about coastal engineering issues.
Koichiro Aitani is a design expert with international practical experience in USA, Europe,
Middle East and Asia, on complex residential, commercial, mixed-use and large-scale architecture
and urban projects, such as NATO headquarter, Cathedral of Christ the Light with Skidmore,
Owings and Merrill, LLP of San Francisco and London. He is a certified professional (1st Class
Architect, Japan), also an Associate Professor at the Department of Architecture of Texas A&M
University, and a Visiting Professor of Kyushu University. Having over 20 years of practical
experience in Architecture and Urban Design with 7 years of teaching, He brings an incredible
collaborative spirit and breath of scientific knowledge to every project he touches, with sustainable
aspect. Research Interest: Architecture and Urban Design, High-rise Building, Urban Regenera-
tion, Architecture Education.
Part I
Environmental Knowledge
Chapter 1
Asia’s Local Air Pollution and Impacts
on Global Climate Change
Nobuhiro Horii
Abstract Asia has become one of the global economic centers responsible for
nearly 30 % of global GDP as of 2011. This may not be too surprising when we
consider the fact that 55 % of global population is concentrated in this area.
However, considering the fact that Asia accounted for only 15 % of the global
economy in 1973, it can be said that the change over the past 40 years has been quite
considerable. At the same time, energy consumption increased along with eco-
nomic growth. Furthermore, now Asia has a huge share of air pollution and
greenhouse gases emission. The purpose of this chapter is to organize the data of
the current situation where energy consumption is increasing along with economic
growth in Asia and to have an overview of local air pollution and global environ-
mental problems brought about as a result of energy consumption. We will analyze
the energy structure in Asia which has low energy efficiency and large environ-
mental impacts. However, as for local air pollution, the indications are showing that
it has been on a course of improvement in recent years. Finally, the future outlook is
examined based on that given by the International Energy Agency (IEA).
First of all, we need to confirm the position of Asia in the whole world economy,
energy, and environment. As shown in Table 1.1, the GDP of Asia accounted for
27.4 % of the global economy as of 2011, representing a huge increase in the impact
on the global economy compared with the 15.1 % figure in 1973. Big changes can
be seen among the shares of each country. Japan produced more than 70 % of Asian
GDP in 1973; however, its share decreased to 30.4 % in 2011, indicating multi-
polarization, in particular the robust growth rates of China and India. The GDP of
N. Horii (*)
Faculty of Economics, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
e-mail: horii@econ.kyushu-u.ac.jp
Table 1.1 Economic, energy, and CO2 emission indicators for the world, regional, and each
country in Asia
1973 2011
Real CO2 Real CO2
GDP Energy emission GDP Energy emission
(billion consumption (million (billion consumption (million
US$) (million toe) tons) US$) (million toe) tons)
North 5,995 1,887 5,070 16,296 2,421 5,726
America
Latin America 1,615 275 545 5,282 809 1,606
EU 9,305 2,316 6,732 20,537 2,900 6,433
EU (OECD) 8,040 1,371 3,993 17,965 1,719 3,650
Africa 494 212 273 1,760 700 1,048
Middle East 553 58 152 2,378 671 1,635
Oceania 438 65 190 1,356 136 397
Asia 3,260 1,109 2,427 17,952 5,036 13,841
Japan 2,293 321 891 5,464 457 1,174
China 220 427 975 6,503 2,723 8,561
Hong Kong 31 3 10 240 14 48
Taiwan 45 12 39 466 110 262
Korea 102 21 70 1,052 260 577
Singapore 19 4 10 244 35 62
Brunei 6 0 1 13 3 9
Indonesia 90 38 33 755 194 399
Malaysia 27 6 14 259 78 189
Philippines 55 17 27 207 31 78
Thailand 39 15 22 319 121 229
Vietnam 11 15 18 113 62 132
India 217 164 207 1,813 759 1,801
World 21,659 6,105 15,962 65,560 13,031 31,811
Source: The Energy Data and Modelling Center, IEEJ (2014)
China accounted for 36.2 % of the whole of Asia, surpassing Japan in 2011. The
GDP of India in the same year was 10.0 %.
China is not only one example, but a lot of countries in Asia are also on a course
of economic development based on industrialization, which mandates a rapid
increase in energy consumption. China, which accounts for the largest energy
consumption in the area, surpassed the USA in 2010 to become a nation with the
highest energy consumption in the world. However, the increase in energy con-
sumption is more than six times as much, while the size of its economy increased by
nearly 30 times. On the other hand, India has increased its economy by over eight
times, while its energy consumption grew by nine times. Similarly, the rate of
energy consumption has increased more than the rate of economic growth in Korea,
Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. On the other hand, Taiwan and Japan have
improved their energy efficiency.
1 Asia’s Local Air Pollution and Impacts on Global Climate Change 5
1
Energy theft is said to amount to nearly 20 % of power generation in India despite the low price of
electricity. Therefore, some argue that raising the price of electricity is difficult in practice.
However, it is better to assist low-income people with welfare policies such as cash handouts to
match the amount of electricity price increase. By doing so, low income people also will have an
incentive for electricity saving so that they can keep more of the handout at hand (and the unused
money may be spent on children’s education, etc., which is better for society). It is expected that
6 N. Horii
Further still, typical cases where energy saving was compromised due to
suppressed energy prices are seen in Indonesia and Malaysia. Both were once
prominent oil-/gas-producing nations. They maintained a system to keep domestic
energy prices low based on the idea of returning the benefit from natural resources
to their citizens. However, the growth in energy production has been stagnating,
and the subsidy, along with rising international prices, imposes a heavy burden on
the economy and finance. As is seen from Table 1.2, a lot of countries pay an energy
subsidy in Asia, which is one of the main factors holding back improvements in
energy efficiency.
Next, the impact on the environment is examined. As indicated in Table 1.1, the
Asian share in world CO2 emission shows a large increase, from 15.2 % in 1973 to
43.5 % in 2011. Unlike traditional air pollutants, there is no abatement technology
which is economically available to reduce CO2 emissions completely.2 Although
CO2 is a major component of greenhouse gas, it is inevitably emitted into the air
accompanied by use of fossil fuels. Therefore there is a high correlation between
CO2 emission and energy consumption. Yet in those countries where alternative
energy wasting can be eliminated as a whole, leading to a good result where supply deficiency is
eased.
2
Even with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology which is considered most promising, it
cost 4,200 yen per ton CO2 in Japan as of 2013. The target is to decrease the cost to 1,000 yen per
ton to achieve commercialization in the 2020s.
1 Asia’s Local Air Pollution and Impacts on Global Climate Change 7
energy use is developed, such as nuclear energy and renewable energy, the amount
of emission is lower. Moreover, in those countries where fossil fuel with a higher
carbon content, i.e., coal, is mainly used, the emission is greater than those
countries where gas is often used.
As is mentioned previously, Asia’s share of CO2 emission in the world (43.5 %)
is far greater than its GDP share (27.4 %) mainly due to low energy efficiency. In
addition, the CO2 emission share is slightly larger than the energy share (38.6 %)
because carbon intensity in the energy structure is high, especially when the
dependency rate on coal as an energy source is high. As shown in Table 1.3,
67.2 % of world coal consumption as of 2011 was in Asia. Considering the fact
that the proportion in 1973 was a mere 22.0 %, this increase indicates coal was the
fuel of choice when trying to meet the increasing demand for energy as Asia was
about to launch its economic takeoff. When the breakdown in each country is
focused, coal consumption in China is predominantly excessive. Coal consumption
in China is as much as 73.3 % of the Asian total and 49.2 % of the world’s total.
Consumption in India is also very high. Coal consumption in Taiwan, Korea, and
Indonesia is also fairly high, though the quantity is much lower compared with
these two countries.
What we should focus on is the fact that consumption of coal and oil in Europe is
decreasing, indicating a shift to natural gas and nuclear energy. In North America,
the rate of conversion from coal to gas is expected to make a huge leap due to the
expansion of shale gas production. On the other hand, a lot of countries are expected
to increase their dependency on coal, which will be examined later according to the
future prediction of the IEA. In particular, a large increase is predicted in India.
Furthermore, coal is expected to become the main energy source in Indonesia due to
restrictions placed on domestic oil/gas production.
Meanwhile, coal consumption volume in China will continue to increase for a
while, but the ratio of coal in primary energy is expected to decrease because the
growth of other energy sources will be correspondingly greater. It is also partly
because coal price had been on rise until 2012 since around the mid of 2000s, due to
coal pricing reform, and coal is now not very specially cheap energy, compared
with other energies, as before (Horii 2014a). In addition, China is also actively
introducing renewable energy and now is the largest country with the largest wind
power capacity in the world. As is seen in Table 1.3, China holds the highest level
of other energy sources including renewable energy.3 Hydropower and nuclear
capacity are also expanding rapidly.
3
By the way, this figure is high also in Africa and India. This is because consumption of so-called
traditional biomass energy, that is, firewood and animal manure, makes up a large proportion. On
the other hand, the figure in China is mostly modern renewable energy, such as wind power and
solar energy.
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In neunter Auflage durchaus neu bearbeitet von
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