ALFRED ADLER

BIOGRAPHY
Alfred Adler was born on February 7, 1870, and raised in Vienna, Austria by his
middleclass Jewish parents. His mother was a homemaker and his father a grain
merchant from Hungary. Adler was born the second of six children, he was
sickly and suffered much trauma in his youth. At age 5, he nearly died of
pneumonia, due to his near death experience Adler decided to become a medical
doctor. His earliest memories of illness, sibling rivalry, and jealousy, contributed
to, and likely provided the basis for his theory of inferiority, and striving for
superiority. After Adler received a Medical Degree in Ophthalmology, from the
University of Vienna in 1895, he began to study psychiatry to better understand
his patients. Adler would later integrate his holistic approach and concepts into
his practice of psychiatry. In 1897, Adler married Raissa Epstein and together
they had four children. World War I (1914-1918) interrupted Adler’s scholarly
work, during which time he served 3 years as a physician in the Austrian
military. After the war, “Adler turned increasingly to social projects, including
clinics affiliated with state schools and the training of teachers” (Salamone,
2010, p. 30). Adler and his family left Austria in 1934; a few years later on May
28, 1937, Dr. Alfred Adler died of a heart attack (Feist & Feist, 2009).
Alfred Adler is considered to be one of the most influential thinkers in
psychotherapy. Yet, many of Adler’s writings, and ideas have long since been
abandoned or given little if any regard. As a physician, psychiatrist, professor,
author, husband and father he concerned himself with answering the hard
questions that plagued humanity during a tumultuous time in history. His theory
of Individual Psychology explores the holistic and phenomenological
orientation of human personality and behaviour, and ties personal growth and
achievement to social interest. He considered ‘social interest’ as the pinnacle of
psychological health, and identified behaviour as the driving force, rather than
the Freudian determinants of sex and libido. Although Adlerian psychology has
been neglected for decades, it is gaining visibility in the 21st century; Adler’s
impact on psychology is unmistakable, his theory of individual psychology have
organic and spiritual implications that are far reaching, and continue to provide
insights that remain relevant today.
Climate of times leading to his theory
Like Freud, Adler had a younger brother who died in infancy. This early
experience profoundly affected both men but in vastly different ways. Freud, by
his own account, had wished unconsciously for the death of his rival and when
the infant Julius did in fact die, Freud was filled with guilt and self-reproach,
conditions that continued into his adulthood. In contrast, Adler would seem to
have had a more powerful reason to be traumatized by the death of his younger
brother Rudolf. At age 4, Adler awoke one morning to find Rudolf dead in the
bed next to his. Rather than being terrified or feeling guilty, Adler saw this
experience, along with his own near death from pneumonia, as a challenge to
overcome death. Thus, at age 5, he decided that his goal in life would be to
conquer death. Because medicine offered some chance to forestall death, Adler
decided at that early age to become a physician (Hoffman, 1994).
His earliest memories of illness, sibling rivalry, and jealousy, contributed to, and
likely provided the basis for his theory of inferiority, and striving for superiority.
After Adler received a Medical Degree in Ophthalmology, from the University
of Vienna in 1895, he began to study psychiatry to better understand his
patients. Adler would later integrate his holistic approach and concepts into his
practice of psychiatry.
BASIC TENETS
Adler evolved a basically simple and parsimonious theory. To Adler, people are
born with weak, inferior bodies—a condition that leads to feelings of inferiority
and a consequent dependence on other people. Therefore, a feeling of unity with
others (social interest) is inherent in people and the ultimate standard for
psychological health.
The basic tenets are as follows:
 1. Striving for Success and Superiority
Adler reduced all motivation to a single drive—the striving for success or
superiority. Adler’s own childhood was marked by physical deficiencies and
strong feelings of competitiveness with his older brother. Individual psychology
holds that everyone begins life with physical deficiencies that activate feelings
of inferiority—feelings that motivate a person to strive for either superiority or
success. Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority,
whereas psychologically healthy people seek success for all humanity.
According to Adler (1956), people strive toward a final goal of either personal
superiority or the goal of success for all humankind. Each person has the power
to create a personalized fictional goal, one constructed out of the raw materials
provided by heredity and environment. However, the goal is neither genetically
nor environmentally determined. Rather, it is the product of the creative power,
that is, people’s ability to freely shape their behaviour and create their own
personality.
People strive for superiority or success as a means of compensation for
feelings of inferiority or weakness. Adler (1930) believed that all humans are
“blessed” at birth with small, weak, and inferior bodies. These physical
deficiencies ignite feelings of inferiority only because people, by their nature,
possess an innate tendency toward completion or wholeness. People are
continually pushed by the need to overcome inferiority feelings and pulled by
the desire for completion.
Some people strive for superiority with little or no concern for others. Their
goals are personal ones, and their strivings are motivated largely by exaggerated
feelings of personal inferiority, or the presence of an inferiority complex.
People who strive for personal gain are those psychologically healthy people
who are motivated by social interest and the success of all humankind. These
healthy individuals are concerned with goals beyond themselves, are capable of
helping others without demanding or expecting a personal payoff, and are able
to see others not as opponents but as people with whom they can cooperate for
social benefit. Their own success is not gained at the expense of others but is a
natural tendency to move toward completion or perfection. People who strive
for success rather than personal superiority maintain a sense of self, of course,
but they see daily problems from the view of society’s development rather than
from a strictly personal vantage point. Their sense of personal worth is tied
closely to their contributions to human society. Social progress is more
important to them than personal credit (Adler, 1956).
2. Subjective Perceptions
People strive for superiority or success to compensate for feelings of inferiority,
but the manner in which they strive is not shaped by reality but by their
subjective perceptions of reality, that is, by their fictions, or expectations of the
future.
Our most important fiction is the goal of superiority or success, a goal we
created early in life and may not clearly understand. This subjective, fictional
final goal guides our style of life, gives unity to our personality. For example- A
fiction might be a belief in an omnipotent God who rewards good and punishes
evil. Such a belief guides the daily lives of millions of people and helps shape
many of their actions. Whether true or false, fictions have a powerful influence
on people’s lives.
Adler’s emphasis on fictions is consistent with his strongly held teleological
view of motivation. Teleology is an explanation of behaviour in terms of its
final purpose or aim. It is opposed to causality, which considers behaviour as
springing from a specific cause. Teleology is usually concerned with future
goals or ends, whereas causality ordinarily deals with past experiences that
produce some present effect.
Because people begin life small, weak, and inferior, they develop a fiction or
belief system about how to overcome these physical deficiencies and become
big, strong, and superior. But even after they attain size, strength, and
superiority, they may act as if they are still small, weak, and inferior. Adler
himself was weak and sickly as a child, and his illness moved him to overcome
death by becoming a physician and by competing with his older brother and
with Sigmund Freud. For example- Great figures like Stephen Hawkings,
Hellen Keller, Franklin Roosevelt made great contributions despite of
physical deficiencies
3. Unity and Self consistency of Personality
Adler wished to stress his belief that each person is unique and indivisible.
Thus, individual psychology insists on the fundamental unity of personality and
the notion that inconsistent behaviour does not exist. Thoughts, feelings, and
actions are all directed toward a single goal and serve a single purpose. When
people behave erratically or unpredictably, their behaviour forces other people
to be on the defensive, to be watchful so as not to be confused by capricious
actions. Although behaviours may appear inconsistent, when they are viewed
from the perspective of a final goal, they appear as clever but probably
unconscious attempts to confuse and subordinate other people.

Ways of operation
with unity and
self-consistency

Organs jargon/ Conscious and

Organ dialect Unconscious

The deficient organ expresses the direction of the individual’s goal, a

condition known as organ dialect. Through organ dialect, the body’s
organs “speak a language which is usually more expressive and discloses
the individual’s opinion more clearly than words are able to do.
Adler avoided a dichotomy between the unconscious and the conscious,
which he saw as two cooperating parts of the same unified system.
Conscious thoughts are those that are understood and regarded by the
individual as helpful in striving for success, whereas unconscious
thoughts are those that are not helpful.

4. Social Interest
Social interest is Adler’s somewhat misleading translation of his original
German term, Gemeinschaftsgefühl. A better translation might be “social
feeling” or “community feeling,” but Gemeinschaftsgefühl actually has a
meaning that is not fully expressed by any English word or phrase. Roughly, it
means a feeling of oneness with all humanity; it implies membership in the
social community of all people. A person with well-developed
Gemeinschaftsgefühl strives not for personal superiority but for perfection for
all people in an ideal community. Social interest can be defined as an attitude of
relatedness with humanity in general as well as an empathy for each member of
the human community. It manifests itself as cooperation with others for social
advancement rather than for personal gain (Adler, 1964). For example-
Humanitarian organizations, like UNICEF and WHO are dedicated with their
efforts to addressing global issues, such as poverty, healthcare, and education,
with a focus on improving the well-being of humanity.
5. Style of life
Style of life is the term Adler used to refer to the flavour of a person’s life. It
includes a person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for others, and attitude toward
the world. It is the product of the interaction of heredity, environment, and a
person’s creative power. Adler (1956) used a musical analogy to elucidate style
of life. The separate notes of a composition are meaningless without the entire
melody, but the melody takes on added significance when we recognize the
composer’s style or unique manner of expression. For example- Someone who
tends to approach life with a pessimistic outlook, expecting negative outcomes.
This individual may avoid challenges or opportunities, fearing failure or
disappointment.
6. Creativity of power
Each person, Adler believed, is empowered with the freedom to create her or his
own style of life. Ultimately, all people are responsible for who they are and
how they behave. Their creative power places them in control of their own lives,
is responsible for their final goal, determines their method of striving for that
goal, and contributes to the development of social interest. Creative power
makes each person a free individual. Creative power is a dynamic concept
implying movement, and this movement is the most salient characteristic of life.
All psychic life involves movement toward a goal, movement with a direction
(Adler, 1964)
CONTRIBUTION
1. Adlerian psychotherapy offers a universal, multicultural approach that
is congruent with spiritual perspectives. Adler’s views may appear
complex and comprehensive, yet they can easily be understood from a
common sense point-of-view. Adler was an excellent therapist; however,
his primary interests were in preventive psychology and the interaction of
families. Many of the issues Adler confronted remain highly relevant
today - such as his insightful views on parenting and family dynamics,
overcoming inferiority, and striving for success.
 2. Adler’s original ideas serve as a foundation for most modern theories of
counseling and psychotherapy. Most of today’s prominent theories of
psychotherapy, including person-centred therapy, existential therapy,
cognitive therapy, rational emotive behavioural therapy, logotherapy,
strategic therapy, constructivist therapy, positive psychology, and family
therapy, can find their roots in Adlerian ideas (Carlson et al., 2006;
DeRobertis, 2011; Watts, 1998, 2000b, 2012; Watts & Critelli, 1997;
Watts & LaGuardia, 2015; Watts & Phillips, 2004)

3. Adlerian theory espouses a philosophy of human relations based upon

social equality and emphasizes the influence of contextual factors.
Further, as a psychoeducational model, Adlerian ideas can be applied in
individual, group, couples, and family counseling as well as in the
classroom and at the community level. As such, Adlerian theory is
uniquely positioned as a complete and effective approach to meet the
expanding needs of diverse clients across multiple settings

4. Holistic approach: In an era where the interconnectedness of various

aspects of life is increasingly recognized, Adler's holistic approach is
valuable. The 21st century acknowledges the importance of considering
social, cultural, and environmental factors in understanding human
behaviour and mental health.

5. Social Interest in a Globalized world: With increasing globalization and

interconnectedness, Adler's concept of social interest gains significance.
The ability to empathize, cooperate, and contribute to the well-being of a
larger community is crucial in navigating the complexities of a globalized
world.

6. Birth order- He proposed that the birth order position in which a child is
born significantly affects their personality and life outcomes, including
their career and educational success. According to Adlerian theory, kids
who grow up within the same family can have different experiences.
Adler said that your birth order and the number of siblings you have
significantly affect your potential and personality.
CONTROVERSIES
Freud attracted many followers who modified his ideas to create new theories
about personality. These theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, generally
agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but deemphasized sex,
focusing more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality.
Four notable neo-Freudians include Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung ,and
Karen Horney.
Alfred Adler, a colleague of Freud’s and the first president of the Vienna
Psychoanalytical Society (Freud’s inner circle of colleagues), was the first
major theorist to break away from Freud. Their warm association came to a
bitter end, with both men hurling caustic remarks toward the other. For
example, after World War I, when Freud elevated aggression to a basic human
drive, Adler, who had long since abandoned the concept, commented
sarcastically: “I enriched psychoanalysis by the aggressive drive. I gladly make
them a present of it” (quoted in Bottome, 1939, p. 64). He subsequently founded
a school of psychology called individual psychology, which focuses on our
drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority. Adler (1937, 1956) proposed the
concept of the inferiority complex. An inferiority complex refers to a person’s
feelings that they lack worth and don’t measure up to the standards of others or
of society. Adler’s ideas about inferiority represent a major difference between
his thinking and Freud’s. Freud believed that we are motivated by sexual and
aggressive urges, but Adler (1930, 1961) believed that feelings of inferiority in
childhood are what drive people to attempt to gain superiority and that this
striving is the force behind all of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviours.
Freud accused Adler of having paranoid delusions and of using terrorist tactics.
He told one of his friends that the revolt by Adler was that of “an abnormal
individual driven mad by ambition” (quoted in Gay, 1988, p. 223)
CRITIQUE
1. Adler’s theory, like that of Freud, produced many concepts that do not
easily lend themselves to either verification or falsification. For
example, although research has consistently shown a relationship
between early childhood recollections and a person’s present style of life
(Clark, 2002), these results do not verify Adler’s notion that present style
of life shapes one’s early recollections. An alternate, causal explanation is
also possible; that is, early experiences may cause present style of life.
2. In general, individual psychology is sufficiently broad to encompass
possible explanations for much of what is known about human
 behaviour and development. Even seemingly self-defeating and
inconsistent behaviours can be fit into the framework of striving for
superiority. Adler’s practical view of life’s problems allows us to rate his
theory high on its ability to make sense out of what we know about
human behaviour.
3. Lack of precise operational definitions: Although Adlerian theory is a
model for self-consistency, it suffers from a lack of precise operational
definitions. Terms such as goal of superiority and creative power have no
scientific definition. Nowhere in Adler’s works are they operationally
defined, and the potential researcher will look in vain for precise
definitions that lend themselves to rigorous study.

APPLICATION TO PERSONAL LIFE

Our close ones and even us demonstrate social interest by offering emotional
support, encouragement, and assistance during challenging times, fostering a
sense of unity and mutual care.
Being actively engaged in volunteer work in our for community organizations
or non-profits, driven by a genuine desire to contribute to the welfare of others.
For example- Teaching underprivileged children in our spare time or even our
own siblings is a way of contributing to their welfare.
All individuals struggle with some or the other physical deficiency, despite of
that we continue to strive for success and superiority in life and reach our final
goals. Example- People around me struggle with their mental and physical
health but they always try to give their best as they have set a goal for
themselves which is constantly motivating them to strive for success.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, Alfred Adler's theories, particularly those in individual
psychology, have left a lasting impact on the fields of psychology, education,
counseling, and beyond. His emphasis on the subjective experiences of
individuals, the pursuit of social interest, and the development of a unique style
of life has provided valuable insights into human behaviour and motivation.
Adler's ideas, including the concepts of inferiority complex, striving for
superiority, and the importance of early social relationships, continue to
influence various therapeutic approaches, educational practices, and
interpersonal dynamics.
Adler's holistic view of individuals as active agents in shaping their own
destinies, along with his focus on community and cooperation, has resonated
with practitioners and scholars seeking a positive and holistic understanding of
human psychology. The real-life applications of Adler's theories in counseling,
education, parenting, and organizational development underscore the enduring
relevance of his contributions.
While some aspects of Adler's theories have evolved and been integrated into
broader psychological frameworks, his fundamental principles remain
foundational. The call to recognize the importance of social connections, to
foster a sense of community and mutual support, and to empower individuals to
overcome challenges and pursue meaningful goals continues to inspire those
working towards positive personal and societal change. In this way, Alfred
Adler's theories stand as a testament to the enduring quest for a psychology that
not only understands human behaviour but also strives to enhance the well-
being and potential of individuals within the context of their social
environments.
References:
Adler, A. (2014). Individual psychology. In An Introduction to Theories of
Personality (pp. 83-105). Psychology Press.
Feist, Jess, Feist, Gregory F., Roberts, Tomi-Ann. (2018). Theories of
Personality, 9th ed (9). : McGraw-Hill International Editions.
Hall, C. S., Lindzey, G., & Campbell, J. B. (1998). Theories of personality (4th
ed.).