Research Methodology for Social sciences

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. MEANING AND NATURE OF SOCIAL INQUIRY
Inquiry is a process of exploration which is guided by a personal interest or question. It is driven
by our curiosity and wonder of observed phenomena. Inquiry investigations usually involve:
 Generating a question or problem to be solved
 Choosing a course of action and carrying out the procedures of the investigation
Social inquiry is an integrated process for examining social issues, ideas and themes that is
specifically linked to the social sciences.
Sources of Social Inquiry
 Traditional Knowledge
 Authoritative Knowledge
 Common Sense and Intuition
 Science as a Trustworthy Way of Knowing
1.2. MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
Research is a systematic attempt to obtain answers to meaningful question and about phenomena
or events through the application of scientific procedures.
The goal of research is problem solving and the problem could be of an immediate or practical
value or they could be of theoretical value.
The main characteristic of research includes:
 It is Systematic, ordered, planned and disciplined
 It is directed towards the solution of the problem
 It is critical meaning many truths are tentative and are subject to change as a result of
subsequent research.
 Is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence
 Demands accurate observation and description
 Requires expertise;
 Emphasizes the development of generalizations or principle or theories that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrences

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1.3. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

RESEARCH
1. Qualitative versus quantitative research
Qualitative research is a research undertaking that study things in their natural settings,
attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to
them. It’s about getting people to talk about their opinions so you can understand their
motivations and feelings.
Major characteristics of Qualitative research
• Exploring a problem and developing a detailed understanding of a central phenomenon
• Having the literature review play a minor role but justify the problem
• Stating the purpose and research questions in a general and broad way so as to the
participants’ experiences
• Collecting data based on words from a small number of individuals so that the
participants’ views are obtained
• Analyzing the data for description and themes using text analysis and interpreting the
larger meaning of the findings
• Writing the report using flexible, emerging structures and evaluative criteria, and
including the researchers’ subjective reflexivity and bias
Quantitative research is ‘Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analyzed
using mathematically based methods (in particular statistics)’
Major characteristics of quantitative research
• A need for an explanation of the relationship among variables
• Providing a major role for the literature through suggesting the research questions
• Creating purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses that are specific, narrow,
measurable, and observable
• Collecting numeric data from a large number of people using instruments with preset
questions and responses
• Writing the research report using standard, fixed structures and evaluation criteria, and
taking an objective, unbiased approach
2. Applied versus Basic research

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Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems.
The primary criterion of success in applied research is contribution to the solution of specific
problems.
 Applied research is funded by government agencies, private firms, nongovernmental
interest organizations, to further their respective purposes in terms of social and medical
improvements, economic profitability, ideological and political acclaim, etc.
• Applied research helps interpret and refine the patron’s problems to make them
researchable, and then investigates possible solutions.
• Rewards are primarily for results that help the patron realize his purposes.
On the other hand basic research is a scientific investigation that involves the generation of new
knowledge or development of new theories; its results often cannot be applied directly to specific
situations.
• Basic research is successful when it discovers new phenomena or new ideas of general
interest.
• The aim is theoretical, to improve general understanding.
• It improves our grasp of what the world is like and is thus also a basis for developing
efficient technologies.
• The result of basic research, when successful, is discovery of new phenomena and new
ideas of general interest.
1.4. THE SUCCESSIVE STAGES IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH
• Problem identification
• Literature review
• Design and methodology
• Writing proposal
• Data collection, processing and analysis
• Interpretation and reporting finding(conclusion) and Recommendation
Problem identification: Background/ Introduction
• The background section serves several purposes, which are often misunderstood. It is not
just a literature review, as is commonly believed.

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• The first purpose of this section is to demonstrate your understanding of your field by
critically analyzing the pertinent work of other investigators leading up to your proposed
work.
• "Critical" does not mean negative, however; critical means that you are able to appreciate
the salient contributions of other scientists upon whose work your work builds.
• On one level, the purpose of a background section is to give the reader the relevant facts
about your topic so that they understand the material that you are writing about and how
it links to your research question.
• This section must not, however, simply provide the general context, but must direct the
readers' attention to the empirical details through which your research topic and question
are lived and made relevant.
Statement of the problem
Identifying a research problem consists of:
 Specifying an issue to study
 Developing a justification for studying it
 Suggesting gaps in the existing knowledge
 Suggesting the importance of the study
Research Questions
• A Research Question is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied.
• The question sets out what you hope to learn about the topic. This question, together with
your approach, will guide and structure the choice of data to be collected and analyzed.
• A research question is a clear, focused, concise, complex and arguable question around
which you center your research. You should ask a question about an issue that you are
genuinely curious about.
• A research question can be answered directly through the analysis of data.
Hypothesis
• Research hypotheses are predictions of a relationship between two or more variables.
• For example, a research project might hypothesize that higher consumption of alcohol
independent variable) is associated with more incidents of partner violence (the
dependent variable). Data would then be gathered and analyzed statistically to see
whether the results support the hypothesis or not.

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Objective of the study

• Research objectives outline the specific goals the study plans to achieve when completed.
• The research objectives are usually divided into: General objective/broad objective or
overall objective and Specific objectives
The general (broad) objective or goal and specific objectives are not the same and should be
dealt with separately.
 The general objective defines the contribution of the project in a bigger context thereby
defining the purpose of the project.
 The general objective is a goal that the project hopes to achieve.
The specific objective is a specific result that the project aims to achieve within a given time
frame.
• Specific objectives are statements of precise outcomes that can be measured in support of
the project's general objective.
Properly written specific objectives should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
Realistic, Timely)
Scope of the study
• Scoping is figuring out what, exactly, to explore for a study. You don’t want the scope
too broad, or you will not see patterns appear in the data, but you don’t want it too
narrow, or the participants will tell you everything they have to say about it in five
minutes. You want to get the scope just right–somewhere in between these two extremes.
Significance of the study
• This section explains the potential value of the study and findings to science or society. It
also identifies the target audience of the study and how the results will benefit them.
1.5. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
It is clear that research is a process for collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to
answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it
must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and
critical.

Controlled: The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two
variables, you set up your study in a way that minimises the effects of other factors affecting the
relationship.

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Rigorous: a researcher must be careful in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers
to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.

Systematic: This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.

Valid and verifiable: This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

Empirical: This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real-life experiences or observations.

Critical: Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from any drawbacks.
The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

More than gathering facts: Research is not just gathering facts and/or data together and
describing them; it is much more than this and is usually focused on explanation as well as
description.

1.6. CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH

There are various bases to classify research.

A. On the Basis of goal of Research

On the basis of objectives (focus) of research they are of two types:

 Basic/Fundamental research and

 Applied/ Action research.
B. On the basis of time dimension of Research

On the basis of time dimension of Research they are of two types:

 Longitudinal research:
 Cross sectional research:
C. On the Basis of purpose of Research

On the basis of purpose of research there are of three types:

 Explanatory research
 Descriptive research
 Exploratory research

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D. Based on data collection techniques

Based on the use of different techniques for data collection we can classify researches in to two:

 Qualitative research
 Quantitative research

BASED ON THE FOCUS OF RESEARCH

A. Basic Research

Pure research is focused to collect knowledge without any intention to apply it. It is purely
intellectual in character. It is also known as basic or fundamental research. Intellectual curiosity
is the only motivational factor behind it. It is not necessarily problem oriented. It aims at
extension of knowledge. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an
existing theory. Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
research. Basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the social world. It is the source of most
new scientific ideas and ways to think about social events. The scientific community is its
primary audience. Researchers use basic research to support or refute theories about how the
social world operates and changes, what makes things happen, and why social relations or events
are in a certain way.

It is designed to add an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce
results of immediate practical value.

B. Applied research

Applied research is focused up on a real life problem requiring an action or policy

decision. It tries to find out practical and immediate result. It is thus problem oriented and action
directed. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society
or an industrial/business organization. The immediate purpose of an applied research is to find
solutions to practical problems, it may incidentally contribute to the development of theoretical
knowledge by leading to the discovering of new facts or testing of a theory or to conceptual
clarity. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem. Applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and
the goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary.

BASED ON THE TIME DIMENSION OF RESEARCH

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Cross-sectional research gathers data at one time point and creates a kind of “snapshot” of
social life. It can also be said that any research that examines information on many cases at one
point in time. Cross-sectional research can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, but it is
most consistent with a descriptive approach. It is usually the simplest and least costly alternative
but rarely captures social processes or change.

Longitudinal research gathers data at multiple time points and provides more of a “moving
picture” of events, people, or social relations across time. In general, longitudinal studies are
more difficult to conduct and require more resources. We can use longitudinal studies for
exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory purposes.

It can be defined as research in which: (1) data are collected for two or more distinct periods
(implying the notion of repeated measurements); (2) the subjects or cases analyzed are the same,
or at least comparable, from one period to the next; and (3) the analysis involves some
comparison of data between or among periods.

BASED ON THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

There are almost as many reasons to do research as there are researches. Yet the purposes of
research is organized into three groups based on what the researcher is trying to accomplish;
explore a new topic, describe a social phenomenon, or explain why something occurs. Studies
may have multiple purposes (e.g. both to explore and to describe) but one purpose usually
dominates.
A. Exploratory/Formulative Research

We use exploratory research when the subject is very new, we know little or nothing about it,
and no one has yet explored it. The researcher’s goal is to formulate more precise questions that
future research can answer. Exploratory research may be the first stage in a sequence of studies.
A researcher may need to know enough to design and execute a second, more systematic and
extensive study. Initial research conducted to clarify the nature of the problem. When a
researcher has a limited amount of experience with or knowledge about a research issue,
exploratory research is useful preliminary step. The findings discovered through exploratory
research would encourage the researchers to emphasize learning more about the particulars of the
findings in subsequent conclusive studies. It addresses the “what” of questions.

Goals of Exploratory Research:

 Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and concerns

 Develop well-grounded picture of the situation
 Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas, conjectures, or hypotheses
 Determine the feasibility of conducting the study
 Formulate questions and refine issues for more systematic inquiry; and
 Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future research

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B. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting, or
relationship. The major purpose of descriptive research, as the term implies, is to describe
characteristics of a population or phenomenon. Descriptive research seeks to determine the
answers to who, what, when, where, and how questions. Labor Force Surveys, Population
Census, and Educational Census are examples of such research. Descriptive study offers to the
researcher a profile or description of relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest. Descriptive
and exploratory research blur together in practice. A descriptive research study starts with a well-
defined issue or question and tries to describe it accurately. The study’s outcome is a detailed
picture of the issue or answer to the research question.

For example, the focused issue might be the relationship between parents who are heavy
alcohol drinkers and child abuse. Results could show that 25 percent of heavy-drinking
parents had physically or sexually abused their children compared to 5 percent of
parents who never drink or drink very little.

Goals of Descriptive Research

 Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics i.e. provide an accurate profile of a
group
 Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation
 Present background information
 Create a set of categories or classify the information
 Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
 Focus on ‘who,’ ‘what,’ ‘when,’ ‘where,’ and ‘how’ but not why?

C. Explanatory Research

When we encounter an issue that is already known and have a description of it, we might begin
to wonder why things are the way they are. The desire to know “why”, to explain, is the
purpose of explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and goes on
to identify the reasons for something that occurs. Explanatory research looks for causes and
reasons. For example, a descriptive research may discover that 10 percent of the parents abuse
their children, whereas the explanatory researcher is more interested in learning why parents
abuse their children.

Goals of Explanatory Research

 Explain things not just reporting. Why? Elaborate and enrich a theory’s explanation.
 Determine which of several explanations is best.
 Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a theory’s predictions or principle.
 Advance knowledge about underlying process.

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 Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and enrich a theory’s predictions or principle.
 Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new issues, new topics:
 Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction.
 Test a theory’s predictions or principles

Although, theoretically, a research study can be classified in one of the above objectives
perspective categories, in practice, most studies are a combination of the first three; that is, they
contain elements of descriptive, exploratory and explanatory research. Students are suggested for
writing a research report that integrates these different aspects.

BASED ON THE DATA COLLECTION METHODS OF RESEARCH

Qualitative research

Qualitative research explores attitudes, behavior and experiences through such methods as
interviews or focus groups. It attempts to get an in-depth opinion from participants. As it is
attitudes, behaviour and experiences which are important, fewer people take part in the research,
but the contact with these people tends to last a lot longer.

 It is a term used to describe an approach to research than stresses ‘quality’ not ‘quantity’,
that is, social meanings rather than the collection of numerate statistical data.
 The qualitative approach is based on intensive study of as many features as possible of
one or a small number of phenomena. Instead of condensing information, it seeks to build
understanding by depth.
 Qualitative research can be characterized as the attempt to obtain an in-depth
understanding of the meanings and 'definitions of the situation' presented by informants,
rather than the production of a quantitative 'measurement' of their characteristics or
behavior.
 Any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical
procedures or other means of quantification.

Quantitative research

The departure point of quantitative research, as its name suggests, is numerical measurement of
specific aspects of phenomena. It is a very structured approach; in it competing explanations
must be formulated in terms of the relationship between variables. The first step is to condense
what one is studying into a number of key attributes or dimensions.

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to

phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Quantitative research generates statistics
through the use of large-scale survey research, using methods such as questionnaires or
structured interviews.

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

• A literature review is a description of the literature relevant to a

particular field or topic.
• It provides the reader with a comprehensive review of the literature
related to the problem under investigation. The review of related
literature should greatly expand upon the background information
already incorporated in the introduction section.
• It should be selective and critical. It should only discus relevant
studies and provides a fair evaluation of them.
• If no studies of your specific topic exist, look for parallel or
broader ones.
• Since the literature review may be lengthy, it is essential to divide
into sections and subsections as needed to logically organize the
information presented.
The stages of a literature review :
• Introduction: define the topic, together with your reason for
selecting the topic. You could also point out overall trends, gaps,
particular themes that emerge, etc.
• Body: this is where you discuss your sources. Here are some ways
in which you could organize your discussion:

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• Conclusion: summarize the major contributions, evaluating the

current position, and pointing out flaws in methodology, gaps in
the research, contradictions, and areas for further study.
How to organize a literature review
• Chronologically: for example, if writers' views have tended to
change over time. There is little point in doing the review by order
of publication unless this shows a clear trend;
• Thematically: take particular themes in the literature;
• Methodologically: here, the focus is on the methods of the
researcher, for example, qualitative versus quantitative approach
A literature review must do the following things
• Be organized around and related directly to the research question you are
developing

• Synthesize results into a summary of what is known and not known

• Identify areas of controversy in the literature

• Formulate questions that need further research

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