Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014) 260–270

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Landscape and Urban Planning

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/landurbplan

Research Paper

Sustainable urban landscapes: South African perspectives on

transdisciplinary possibilities
Sarel Cilliers a,∗ , Marié du Toit b , Juaneé Cilliers c , Ernst Drewes c , Francois Retief d
a
Section Botany, Unit of Environmental Sciences and Management, North West University, Potchefstroom Campus, Private Bag X 6001,
Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
b
Section Botany, Unit of Environmental Sciences and Management, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
c
Section Town and Regional Planning, Unit of Environmental Sciences and Management, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
d
Section Geography, Unit of Environmental Sciences and Management, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

h i g h l i g h t s

• Sustainability profile of South Africa – biodiversity and social issues in legislative and policy context.
• Integration of urban ecology, planning and management in transdisciplinary research, using South African examples.
• Integrative approach to bridge the “knowing-doing” gap for sustainable urban green planning and development.
• Address socio-economic driving forces such as poverty and lack of human capital in urban ecological research.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The development of sustainable urban landscapes challenges all stakeholders, including local govern-
Available online 16 March 2014 ments as the major custodians thereof. The majority of urban ecological research done describes European
and North American cities. South Africa’s position in the global South underlines the potential that local
Keywords: research has in contributing to global knowledge. South African urban landscapes are rich in biodiversity
Urban ecology and characterized by cultural diversity and steep socio-economic gradients. Spatial inequality, specifi-
Urban planning
cally access to resources and green areas, greatly influences the perceived importance and need of urban
Environmental management
green space to citizens and policy makers. This legacy is a major challenge to the implementation of sus-
Sustainable development
Transdisciplinary approach
tainability oriented contemporary urban planning and environmental management practices in South
Africa. Sustainable solutions call for transdisciplinary approaches, in which the contributions of both
non-academic and academic role players are integrated. Therefore, we investigated the possible inter-
face between urban ecology, urban planning, and environmental management, within current policy and
legislation frameworks and within practice in South Africa. We highlight certain aspects of the three dis-
ciplines that could contribute to transdisciplinary planning approaches, such as mapping and valuation
of ecosystem services, strategic and integrated thinking, prediction and scenario building, governance,
and decision-making and participatory planning. We believe that awareness of the major contributions
of each discipline would refine the linkages between social and ecological issues proposed by several
existing conceptual frameworks, leading to a transdisciplinary approach to plan for sustainable urban
landscapes. The South African perspective presented in this paper could guide other (similar) global
scenarios with regard to transdisciplinary planning approaches that could enhance the development of
sustainable urban landscapes.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Sustainability has become the primary challenge and major

∗ Corresponding author.
research focus of contemporary science, and is the “most inclusive
E-mail addresses: Sarel.Cilliers@nwu.ac.za (S. Cilliers), Marie.duToit@nwu.ac.za
concept of all time” according to Mukoko (1996). We have finally
(M. du Toit), Juanee.Cilliers@nwu.ac.za (J. Cilliers), Ernst.Drewes@nwu.ac.za realized that we occupy a finite planet with dwindling resources in a
(E. Drewes), Francois.Retief@nwu.ac.za (F. Retief). reality of exponential human growth. “Abundant evidence suggests

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.02.009
0169-2046/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 S. Cilliers et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014) 260–270 261

that the world and its constituent landscapes are on an unsustain- et al., 2006). Moreover, the “search for sustainability has become
able trajectory” according to Wu (2013). Urbanization is arguably defined primarily as a technical/scientific exploration when it is
the most dramatic and permanent form of global land-use change. actually a moral and ethical issue” (McCool & Stankey, 2004). Scien-
In 2008, 50% of the world population officially inhabited urban areas tific solutions without the explicit incorporation of societal issues
(UN, 2008) with most of the future growth predicted to take place and the local cultural context will lack endorsement by the policy-
in developing countries (Cohen, 2006). Urban areas, in their role makers and stakeholders who are responsible for any incorporation
as the main habitation for humans, are the arena wherein we have thereof into governance and reformatory action plans. Participation
to find sustainable solutions (Wu, 2010). Despite the known neg- of local citizens into goal setting and sustainable future scenar-
ative impacts of urbanization on local environments, urban areas ios will ensure the long-term viability and success of reformatory
occupy only 3% of the earth’s surface whilst accommodating the endeavours.
majority of the global population. Cities have “lower per capita costs We need, therefore, sound basic and applied knowledge and
of providing clean water, sanitation, electricity, waste collection, novel approaches to address the issue of sustainability in our cities.
and telecommunications, and offer better access to education, jobs, However, to be of any significant value traditional disciplinary
health care, and social services” (Wu, 2010) and if “well managed, and newly formed transdisciplinary approaches should integrate
cities offer important opportunities for environmental, economic their research outcomes with progress in sustainability science
and social development” (Cohen, 2006). to fast track potential sustainable solutions. We believe that the
Managing cities which are growing in population and extent approach presented in this paper, focusing on sustainability in
is a complex and challenging issue. In developing countries the African landscapes could be of global importance and guide trans-
scale and rate of urban transformation created threats in terms disciplinary approaches in similar situations in other countries. The
of natural resources, health conditions, safety and security, social impression exists, however, that African countries either lack such
cohesion, individual rights and increased poverty (Cohen, 2006; urban research, or that much of the on-going research is never
Du Plessis & Landman, 2002). Another complex issue that needs to published because it was not undertaken by “university-based or
be managed in sub-Saharan African cities is their dualistic nature, government-sponsored organizations”, according to Cohen (2006).
a legacy of their colonial past (Mukoko, 1996). Clear differences In this paper the focus is on South Africa, as the majority of pub-
in terms of population and building densities, provision of pub- lished research on urban ecological issues in Africa is from South
lic green spaces and vegetation cover (Cilliers, Cilliers, Lubbe, & Africa (Cilliers et al., 2013). It is therefore important to describe
Siebert, 2013; McConnachie & Shackleton, 2010; Mukoko, 1996) the South African context in terms of its sustainability profile (Sec-
exist between residential areas traditionally occupied by people tion 2). The main aim of this paper is, however, to explore the
of “colonial origin” and those occupied by people of “native African contributions made by the disciplines of urban ecology, urban plan-
origin”. Due to the inequities of the past, a dualism in terms of man- ning and environmental management in South Africa (Section 3),
agement of urban areas was also reported for South Africa which is and their integration (Section 4) in following a transdisciplinary
causing major tensions in terms of sustainable development (Du approach in an attempt to create sustainable urban environments.
Plessis & Landman, 2002). Affluent cities or neigbourhoods are There are several definitions for transdisciplinarity, but for the pur-
focusing more on a Green Agenda in which the impact of urban- pose of this paper, the definition of Fry, Tress, and Tress (2007) is
ization on natural ecosystems and resources need to be reduced, used. They focused on the integration of non-academic role-players
while poorer cities or neigbourhoods are emphasizing reduction of (e.g. managers, planners, designers and policy makers at local gov-
environmental constraints on aspects such as health, water provi- ernments and the general public) with academic researchers from
sion and air and water pollution, the so-called Brown Agenda (IIED, different disciplines to research a common goal, the development
2001). of sustainable landscapes, as indicated earlier.
From a global perspective, Wu (2013) and Musacchio (2013)
offer overviews on some of the most important current concepts
and definitions on the perspective of sustainable landscapes, high- 2. The South African context
lighting the emergence of the new field of Landscape sustainability
science. Furthermore, Musacchio (2013) envisions that “landscape 2.1. High biodiversity vs. social issues influence the sustainability
sustainability . . . a key concept and research priority . . . will play an profile
important role in helping to redefine the debate about relationships
among landscapes, ecosystem services and human well-being”. A South Africa is home to immense biodiversity and ranks as
selection of current literature emphasizes the importance of uti- the third most biologically diverse country in the world (DEAT,
lizing landscape design as the bridge between science and society 1998). Nine biomes (Fig. 1), 33 bioregions and 401 vegetation
as the common ground for interactions between them (Nassauer & units occur within the political boundaries of South Africa (Mucina
Opdam, 2008); acknowledging six tenets (the six Es) of landscape & Rutherford, 2006). Furthermore, three of the 34 biodiversity
sustainability, namely: environment, economy, ethics, experience, hotspots of global relevance are situated in South Africa (Secretariat
equity and aesthetics (Musacchio, 2009); and the importance of of the Convention on Biological Biodiversity, 2012), including two
resilience and vulnerability as essential perspectives on sustaina- of the largest cities, namely Cape Town and Durban (Fig. 1). Cape
bility (Turner, 2010; Wu, 2013). Ahern (2011, 2013) proposed five Town is especially worth mentioning due to its major contribution
strategies to improve the resilience capacity of cities, namely: pro- of about 3250 vascular plant species to South Africa’s total figure
tection of biodiversity, urban ecological networks and connectivity, of about 24,000 species. This is highly significant, taking into con-
design for multifunctionality, redundancy and modularization, and sideration that Cape Town only covers about 0.2% of South Africa’s
adaptive design. total surface area. Cape Town also contains 19 national terrestrial
However, notwithstanding vast literature resources, there is vegetation types, of which six are endemic to the city, and sup-
often limited success in implementing sustainable concepts. Burns, ports half of South Africa’s critically endangered vegetation types
Audouin, and Weaver (2006) believe that at the root of this problem (Holmes, Rebelo, Dorse, & Wood, 2012; Rebelo, Holmes, Dorse, &
lie the divisions within and between suppliers of scientific infor- Wood, 2011).
mation and the intended users of it. A situation “compounded by However, South Africa has a legacy of a deeply divided eco-
the diverse range of value systems, for example political and eco- nomic structure, embodied in racial land ownership inequalities
nomic self-interest, that influence decisions and behaviour” (Burns and widespread poverty of previously disadvantaged racial groups
262 S. Cilliers et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014) 260–270

Fig. 1. Map of South Africa (at the southernmost tip of Africa) indicating the nine biomes, nine provinces (WC – Western Cape, EC – Eastern Cape, NC – Northern Cape, FS –
Free State, NW – North-West, KZN – KwaZulu-Natal, GP – Gauteng, MP – Mpumalanga and L – Limpopo) and two of the largest cities in South Africa, Cape Town and Durban.
Gauteng Province is enlarged in the top left hand corner indicating three of the metropolitan municipalities, TSH – Tshwane, JHB – Johannesburg, and EKU – Ekurhuleni.

(Crane, 2006). 62% of the South African population live in urban the “unhealthiest, and most dangerous residential areas in South
areas (2010 estimate) with an estimated 50% of the overall popu- Africa and also provide the worst shelter conditions with few or
lation living below the poverty line (CIA, 2012). The Johannesburg no services”. Some aspects of peri-urban, rural and farm villages
plan of Implementation (UN, 2002) stated that sustainable devel- are acceptable in terms of most of the quality of life issues, except
opment has remained elusive for many African countries listing for productive life and self-determination that are regarded as
poverty as one of the major challenges. In this context, few envi- very bad (Du Plessis & Landman, 2002). In terms of the impacts of
ronmental considerations come into play, despite declared national settlements on the biophysical environment, we can expect large
support of international agreements mandating sustainable prac- differences between rich and poor and between urban and rural
tices as incorporated into national legislation (South Africa, 1996, settlements, as indicated earlier. Metropolitan municipalities have
1998). Surprisingly, institutional barriers often hinder more sus- much better institutional ability than all the other municipalities,
tainable practices. One of the most prominent of these are a lack of with rural municipalities in poorer provinces scoring the lowest. In
capacity in especially local governments tasked with management general, however, most of the municipalities, except some of the
of strategic planning of more ecologically responsible development metropolitan municipalities, have large capacity and skills short-
directions and its implementation (Du Plessis & Landman, 2002; ages (Du Plessis & Landman, 2002). In summary, the major threats
Goebel, 2007). to sustainability of South African settlements are water scarcity;
To determine the sustainability profile of South African settle- safety and security issues; the Aids pandemic; increasing poverty;
ments, Du Plessis and Landman (2002) followed the guidelines the tendency of the government to make uninformed decisions to
provided by the Habitat Agenda, an international action plan defin- meet deadlines and delivery quotas; the large body of new and
ing sustainable human settlements. The main aspects included in complex policies, programmes and guidelines that creates confu-
the Habitat Agenda are quality of life, interactions with the biophys- sion amongst different stakeholders, and the low efficiency in terms
ical environment, and institutional ability. Each of these aspects of service delivery from certain public service sectors (Du Plessis &
contains different issues, determinants and suggested indicators Landman, 2002).
(Table 1). Using quality of life issues to determine the sustaina-
bility of South African settlements is complex and the diversity of 2.2. Sustainable development – legislative and policy context
the different geographical settlement typologies, namely inner city,
suburb, township, informal settlement, peri-urban, rural village South Africa has a very complex legislative and policy context
and farm village (Du Plessis & Landman, 2002) need to be taken into related to sustainable development. This is because the princi-
consideration. Inner cities, suburbs and to a lesser degree town- ples of sustainability and sustainable development are included
ships provide good quality of life conditions, although the crime in the vast majority of policies and legislation related to devel-
rate in townships is high. Informal settlements are regarded as opment planning, environmental management and conservation.
 S. Cilliers et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014) 260–270 263

Table 1
Summary of the guidelines to determine the sustainability of human settlements proposed by the Habitat Agenda (Du Plessis & Landman, 2002).

ASPECT ISSUE DETERMINANTS

Quality of life 1.1 Health Adequate sanitation, clean air and water, absence of disease vectors, access to health care
1.2 Safety Reduced threat of natural and man-made disasters, a secure living environment
1.3 Shelter Adequate, affordable housing and special needs housing
1.4 Productive life Mobility and access to means of living, education, and economic resources
1.5 Self-determination Connectivity, access to information, and participation and democracy
1.6 Quality of built environment Natural heritage, urban decay and supporting community

Biophysical interaction 2.1 Resource use Freshwater, land and energy use and waste produced
2.2 Pollution and degradation Air and water quality
2.3 Protection of environment Conservation and environmental governance

Institutional ability 3.1 Financial capacity Payment levels for services, rates and taxes; ability to access external funding; realistic
relationship between income and expected delivery responsibilities
3.2 Institutional integration Consistency of boundaries; cooperation between different spheres of government and types of
municipalities
3.3 Operational efficiency Clear allocation of powers and responsibilities; adequately skilled human resources; sufficient
human resources
3.4 Technical capacity Ability to operate and maintain physical infrastructure; knowledge of alternative technology
options for service delivery
3.5 Political will Development of policy that supports sustainability; adequate regulatory measures to implement
policy, including incentive programmes and effective legal remedies.

For a more detailed discussion of the overall policy context see to the three disciplines. Understanding this relationship is impor-
Glazewski (2005) and Kidd (2010). However, for the purpose of tant because it provides the decision making mandates which in
this paper we focus on the legislative policy context of the three turn reflects the extent to which integration between disciplines
disciplines under question, namely urban ecology, urban planning could be achieved within the legal and policy context.
and environmental management. Fig. 2 presents a summary of the Firstly it is important to highlight that according to the constitu-
governance arrangements in terms of policy and legislation related tion of South Africa (South Africa, 1996); governance is arranged in

Fig. 2. Disciplinary interface between legislation and policy frameworks in South Africa in urban ecology, urban planning and environmental management (NEMA – National
Environmental Management Act, SEA – Strategic Environmental Assessment, EMF – Environmental Management Framework, EIA – Environmental Impact Assessments).
264 S. Cilliers et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014) 260–270

terms of three ‘spheres’ and not ‘levels’ of government. This means Translation of the importance of biodiversity in terms of the
that one sphere is not above the other in a typical hierarchical sys- ecosystem goods and services (EGS from now on) it provides
tem, but rather that the spheres govern as autonomous entities. towards human well-being (Elmqvist, 2011) has increasingly being
The environmental governance function is assigned as a concur- used globally to sensitize all stakeholders (especially local gov-
rent function of national and provincial spheres of government ernment), by shifting the emphasis from biodiversity conservation
while municipal planning is assigned exclusively to local spheres to human demands in terms of EGS (Roberts, Boon, Croucamp, &
of government (Du Plessis, 2012). The location of different gover- Mander, 2005). The EGS approach may form a good framework
nance functions to different spheres of government is an important for sustainability science if a multi-faceted approach is followed
factor when considering transdisciplinary approaches within the where ecologists, social scientists and economists are involved
governance system. (Le Maitre, O’Farrell, & Reyers, 2007). Classifying the EGS pro-
Secondly, the extent of legislative and policy development vided in urban ecosystems as supporting (e.g. nutrient cycling, soil
related to the three disciplines differs. For example, urban plan- formation), provisioning (e.g. food, fresh water), regulating (e.g.
ning has a long and complicated legislative and policy development climate, water purification) and cultural services (e.g. aesthetic,
history related to the apartheid era with very strong decision mak- educational) (MEA, 2005) is a clear indication that most of the sus-
ing mandates, as will be indicated later, while urban ecology has tainability issues discussed earlier for South Africa (Table 1) can
no explicit legal mandate. However, the consideration of ecol- potentially be addressed.
ogy is incorporated indirectly through principles and objectives in From literature it is clear that for implementation of the concept
various pieces of legislation related to issues such as water man- of EGS as part of the decision-making process on local government
agement and environmental impact assessment. On the other hand level, mapping and valuation of EGS within local administrative
the legislative mandate for environmental management is rela- boundaries need to be done (De Wit et al., 2013; O’Farrell, Andersen,
tively newly introduced in the late 1990s. This means that the three Le Maitre, & Holmes, 2012; Roberts et al., 2005). Durban was the
disciplines function within a parallel legislative and policy con- first city in South Africa who addressed EGS of their open spaces.
text which makes transdisciplinary integration of decision making The concept of resource economics was used, linked to extensive
potentially difficult and exceedingly complex as shown in Fig. 2. consultation with several stakeholders for the economic valuation
The integration between the different spheres is dependent on of EGS (a good example of a transdisciplinary approach) (Roberts
adequate data transfers, and that can lead to a so-called “knowing- et al., 2005). This exercise formed part of Durban’s Environmen-
doing” gap that exists between different disciplines (Knight et al., tal Management System (EMS) and paved the way to several other
2008). Urban ecology could fulfil an important role here as the developments in terms of local level environmental management
source and producer of a research database that must inform and focusing on the importance of EGS to address climate change issues
supply environmental management and urban planning. (Roberts, 2008, 2010). Additionally, ecosystem-based adaptation
(EBA) was also proposed as part of a strategy to assist urban
residents to adapt to the negative aspects of climate change focus-
3. Transdisciplinary possibilities ing on conserving and restoring ecosystems and their services
(Roberts et al., 2012). The lack of urban ecological information
In an attempt to contribute towards sustainability thinking in and specifically the effect of climate change on biodiversity and
South Africa and enhancing the management of strategic planning EGS are acknowledged by Roberts et al. (2012) and integration
of more ecologically responsible development directions, acknowl- of urban ecology with environmental management is urgently
edging the Green Agenda and Brown Agenda (IIED, 2001), this needed.
section explores the possible contributions of the disciplines of No city in South Africa has so far embarked on a complete map-
urban ecology, urban planning and environmental management ping exercise of all the EGS provided by open spaces in cities. A
towards transdisciplinarity. spatially explicit ecosystem service assessment model was, how-
ever, developed for Cape Town and nine different EGS were mapped
in four themes, namely agricultural provision, water run-off regu-
3.1. Urban ecology as part of transdisciplinary planning lation, ground water and coastal zone protection (O’Farrell et al.,
approaches 2012). The challenge is to implement these spatial models in urban
planning (Cilliers & Siebert, 2012). Cape Town also focused on valu-
McDonnell (2011) claimed that urban ecology is at the “forefront ing EGS and including it into the city’s management plan (De Wit
of creating the knowledge base, conceptual frameworks, and tools et al., 2013) As this was a recent development, the valuation of EGS
that are crucial for building and maintaining sustainable cities in was so far unsuccessful in influencing financial policy and bud-
the future”. Urban ecology is regarded as an interdisciplinary field in get allocation (TEEB, 2011). This exercise had, however, several
which basic and applied natural and social sciences are integrated other advantages such as communication of “the value of urban
to investigate the co-existence of humans and ecological processes natural capital and flow of EGS in the financial language of bud-
in urban environments (Marzluff et al., 2008; McDonnell, 2011). It get processes” and it “contributed to interdepartmental linkages
is only recently that it was recognized that urban ecology should between City line managers and senior staff” (De Wit et al., 2013).
also be regarded as transdisciplinary due to its interactions with all Careful planning and management and the involvement of all the
stakeholders, including non-academic participants in urban eco- stakeholders are needed to address these issues. In Cape Town a
logical issues (Cilliers & Siebert, 2012). high premium has also been placed on citizen participation and
In South Africa different issues are driving urban ecological a co-management approach is followed to involve local residents
research in different cities (e.g. Cape Town, Durban, cities in the in conservation-orientated management of ecologically important
North-West and Eastern Cape provinces – see location in Fig. 1), areas (Graham & Ernstson, 2012).
with the conservation of biodiversity being one of the most press- Globally there are several challenges in terms of the eco-
ing issues, especially in cities occurring in biodiversity hotspots nomic valuation of EGS and are classified by Ring, Hansjürgens,
(Cilliers & Siebert, 2012). Although urban ecology is a relatively Elmqvist, Wittmer, and Sukhdev (2010) as ecological challenges
young field of research in South Africa (Cilliers & Siebert, 2012), (lack of scientific research on the relationship between bio-
studies focusing on ecosystem services contribute greatly towards diversity, ecosystem services and urbanization which include
a transdisciplinary approach. aspects such as thresholds and tradeoffs), economic challenges
 S. Cilliers et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014) 260–270 265

(development of best suited valuation methods), and political planning in South Africa, demanding a holistic approach to land
challenges (translation of the EGS into practical policies). These development (Ministry of Agriculture and Land Affairs, 2001). Inte-
challenges are realities in both the developed and developing grated approaches aimed at addressing Apartheid-planning models
world. However, the additional pressures created by aspects such and spatial characteristics of low density, fragmentation (Dewar,
as resource scarcity, safety and security, increasing poverty and lack 2004) and the spatial patterns of large-scale state-subsidized hous-
of housing in the developing world, have led to the development ing developments on the periphery of cities (Brown-Luthango,
of novel approaches in valuation of EGS (see De Wit et al., 2013 in Makanga, & Smit, 2013). Integrated urban planning approaches
Cape Town) and successful attempts to translate EGS into practical were built on the understanding and developing of all aspects
policies (see Roberts, 2008, 2010; Roberts et al., 2012 in Durban). of the city, integrating technical, environmental, political, social
and economic interests in the same territory (United Cities and
3.2. Urban planning as part of transdisciplinary planning Local Governments, 2010). The relocation, provision of basic human
approaches services and facilities and accessibility issues were prioritized as
part of the integrated approach. Planning had to address the 2.2
Planning is a continuous process of anticipating and preparing million housing unit backlog (Mbuyisa, 2012) whilst considering
for foreseeable future changes and urban planning, in this sense, is environmental issues. Integrated development became inevitable
the management of such change, a process by which a balance is with the origin of the Gauteng city-region in 2006, being character-
sought between all interests involved, public and private, to resolve ized as one of the most spatially unequal city-regions in the world
conflicting demands on space (Cilliers, 2009). Based on the principle (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2011),
of sustainable development, urban planning seeks to bring about an and first city-region in Africa. The Gauteng city-region integrated
organized, efficient and sustainable landscape for the community the three major metropolitan units of Johannesburg, Tshwane and
to live and work in. Ekurhuleni (Fig. 1) (Beavon, 2006) in terms of urban manage-
In this paper four important aspects of spatial planning in South ment, public transport, environment and land use (Organisation for
Africa are recognized which can contribute to the transdisciplinary Economic Co-operation and Development, 2011). Simultaneously,
planning approach, namely strategic thinking, integrated thinking, the City of Johannesburg developed their first Integrated Develop-
prediction and scenario building, and lastly, legal enforcement. ment Plan (IDP) in 2006 (City of Johannesburg, 2012), linked to the
objectives of the Gauteng City Region, taking into cognisance the
3.2.1. Strategic thinking economic and spatial linkages between metros. Urban planning, in
Colonialism has shaped South African human settlement pat- this sense, required integrated thinking approaches, which are part
terns along racial and class lines as mentioned earlier, excluding of, and defines, the modern urban planning era.
large sections of the population from the economic, social and envi-
ronmental benefits. Apartheid was essentially a spatial, geographic, 3.2.3. Prediction and scenario building
partition attempt, with dire disintegrative spatial consequences Planning is a process of determining appropriate future action
(Ministry of Agriculture and Land Affairs, 2001). Apartheid planning through a sequence of choices (Ludin, 2006). As such, urban plan-
was integrally linked to blueprint or “master” planning, inher- ning in itself is indicative of a preferred development scenario.
ently inflexible, comprehensive in nature, striving to predetermine Scenario planning allows the construction of proactive strategies
land-use in order to achieve the desired end state of separate to adapt management to possible future events (Palacios-Agundez,
development. It led to institutional fragmentation, distorted set- Casado-Arzuaga, Madariaga, & Onaindia, 2013).
tlement patterns and spatial inefficiencies (Department of Land The nature of spatial development plans presents a long term
Affairs, 2007). Strategic interventions to reverse such undesirable vision of the desired spatial form of an area, along with predictions
settlement growth patterns were undertaken in the metropoli- of bulk infrastructure planning. Dealing with the future and com-
tan municipality of Tshwane (Fig. 1) in 2007, as in most South plex urban area with innumerable factors continuously altering its
African cities, after studies proofed the sprawling of historic urban form, the planner faces many uncertain conditions and in this sense
growth to be associated with social, economic and environmen- scenario planning, in terms of land-use, becomes an important
tal costs (Department of Land Affairs, 2007). New approaches part to determine the future conditions and best plan for present
to master planning emerged, focused on sustainability, integra- and future land supply, land demand, and trends of future land
tion and the development of contextually appropriate, affordable, use (Vitriani, 2010). Land-development scenarios are composed
strategic and effective forms of land use management (Todes, images of an area’s land-use patterns that would result from par-
Karam, Klug, & Malaza, 2010). Several key national policies relat- ticular land-use plans, policies and regulations if they were actually
ing to strategic spatial development at local level have been adopted and implemented in a certain point of time (Xiang & Clarke,
developed since, including the National Spatial Development Per- 2003).
spective (NSDP), Provincial Growth and Development Strategy The Department of Rural Development and Land Reform (2011)
(PGDS) and Integrated Development Plans (IDP) which provides a included scenario planning as part of the guidelines for develop-
Spatial Development Framework (SDF) for, and strategic approach ment Spatial Development plans and stated that “scenario planning
to, development across the country. In this sense, strategic spa- may be particularly useful in metropolitan areas and larger, fast
tial planning (and strategic thinking) has become significant over growing towns where development pressure could result in inap-
the past decade as a way of shaping urban growth and sustainable propriate development, and as a result, alternative scenarios should
landscapes. be based on the trends and issues identified in the Spatial Analysis”.
In this sense, planning in South Africa utilizes scenario planning
3.2.2. Integrated thinking and prediction based on national economic growth, wealth distri-
Integrated planning is a crucial factor when considering success- bution, national social and environmental policy, management of
ful development, since it takes into account diverse perspectives HIV/AIDS, birth rates, mortality rates, and urbanization (Bohensky,
and impacts, allowing decision-makers to find optimal solutions Reyers, & Van Jaarsveld, 2006). The Gauteng Provincial Government
to critical issues, as well as effective ways to respond to those used prediction and scenario building as part of their 2014 develop-
issues (Litman, 2006). Since the promulgation of the Development ment plan (Gauteng Provincial Government, 2005), including issues
Facilitation Act (DFA) (South Africa, 1995) the concept of inte- such as demographic profiles, economic growth, poverty, trans-
grated development planning (IDP) formed the focal point of spatial port, health and governance to guide future urban development.
266 S. Cilliers et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014) 260–270

Prediction and scenario building is part of the everyday business 3.3.2. Governance
of the spatial planning profession and thus aspects that are well Understanding governance has always been a central theme
developed in this discipline. of environmental management and underpins common manage-
ment approaches such as command and control. For this reason
3.2.4. Legal enforcement the work done on environmental governance could provide the
Spatial planning, and specifically urban planning has been second major contribution to a transdisciplinary approach. A clear
legally enforced since the 1960s in South Africa. At the moment and detailed understanding of the governance context is key when
it guides both spatial planning and land use management in urban thinking about sustainable urban landscapes. To implement any
areas. The Constitution of South Africa (South Africa, 1996) recogni- planning proposal for example requires knowledge on who makes
zes “development . . . and a safe and healthy environment” as local decisions in relation to which mandate and how does the decision
government functions, and this is translated into the compilation making process work. In this regard for example the Western Cape
of legally binding “plans” and “development frameworks” annually Provincial Government has made great strides towards integrat-
(South Africa, 2000). The vehicle for the pro-active integration of ing the planning and environmental functions not only in the same
the three main spheres in this study is, therefore, available and directorate (DEADP) but also in the same location. This is done to
implemented on provincial and local governmental levels. With facilitate cooperative governance and integrated decision making
spatial planning being legally bound, this also ensures political buy- between planning and environmental management.
in – a crucial component in executing the goals of this envisaged
integration process.
3.3.3. Decision-making and participatory planning
Building on from the governance theme is the work done on
3.3. Environmental management as part of transdisciplinary
understanding how decision making works, as the third contribu-
planning approaches
tion from the field of environmental management. International
research by Bartlett and Kurian (1999) and Kornov and Thissen
The definition of environmental management is somewhat of
(2000) set the scene and made the link between environmental
an elusive concept with no one agreed universal understanding
management and the decision making sciences. Since then the
(Barrow, 1999; Strydom & King, 2009). Within the South African
work of Audouin and De Wet (2012) and Retief, Morrison-Saunders,
context attempts have been made to conceptualize environmental
Geneletti, and Pope (2013) have developed conceptual understand-
management against international approaches and definitions as
ings on how to deal with complex decision making scenarios related
well as local policy and legislative principles (Nel & Kotze, 2009;
to sustainability within the South African context. Many of these
Retief & Rossouw, 2007; Retief, 2010). Environmental manage-
scenarios play out within urban context and therefore could con-
ment is not about managing the environment per se but rather
tribute to the transdisciplinary discussion on sustainable urban
about developing approaches and tools to manage human activi-
landscapes.
ties that have or may have negative impacts on the environment.
Protecting the environment requires the joint effort of gov-
Linked to the latter understanding is the notion that impact minimi-
ernments and the public. Public participation in environmental
zation is not a sufficient outcome any more but rather the need to
decision-making relates to the notion of participatory democracy
move towards more sustainable outcomes or no net loss options
and environmental justice and often comes to the fore in aca-
(Gibson, 2005). When considering the evolution of debates and
demic analyses of environmental rights (Du Plessis, 2008). The
potential contributions environmental management could make to
NEMA (South Africa, 1998) is South Africa’s principal environmen-
transdisciplinary thinking on sustainable urban landscapes, three
tal management framework law that, inter alia, contains a number
important aspects come to mind, namely sustainability thinking,
of environmental principles. It stated that the participation of all
governance and decision-making (in terms of participatory pro-
interested and affected parties in environmental governance must
cesses).
be promoted and that all people must have the opportunity to
develop the understanding, skills and capacity necessary for achiev-
3.3.1. Sustainability thinking
ing equitable and effective participation and that participation by
Environmental management in South Africa has, over the past
vulnerable and disadvantaged persons must be ensured. NEMA also
decade, made great strides towards developing new innovative
stated that decisions must take into account the interests, needs
tools and approaches dealing with sustainability issues within
and values of all interested and affected parties, and this includes
urban areas such as strategic environmental assessment (SEA),
recognizing all forms of knowledge, including traditional and ordi-
environmental management frameworks (EMF) and systematic
nary knowledge (Du Plessis, 2008).
conservation planning (De Villiers & Hill, 2008; Retief, 2007;
Roberts, 2001; Rossouw & Retief, 2005). Underpinning all these
approaches is the need to guide decision making towards more 4. Integrating urban ecology, urban planning and
sustainable outcomes. The international conceptualization of sus- environmental management
tainability assessment by Gibson (2005) and Pope, Annandale, and
Morrison-Saunders (2004) provide a good basis from which to Urban ecology, urban planning, and environmental man-
explore the South African context. This conceptualization and its agement are uniquely suited to combine and operate in the
application to the South African context could be considered an transdisciplinary environment of sustainable development. In sec-
important potential contribution to transdisciplinary approaches tion 3 it was indicated that each discipline represents a critical
especially since it makes the link between sustainability outcomes perspective on urban environments; and an integration of their
and decision making (Morrison-Saunders & Retief, 2012; Retief, main aspects will be a sure way to achieve sustainable solutions.
2013). So-called ‘sustainability criteria’ has for example been devel- In addressing the major issues of sustainability (Table 1) the
oped by the Western Cape Provincial Government to guide decision social-ecological linkages in urban ecological research should
making related to various development proposals within Cape be taken into consideration. This has already been done glob-
Town (DEADP, 2010). The main point about these sustainability ally with the development of several conceptual frameworks
approaches is that they ask different questions about optimization (not all focusing on urban landscapes) such as those of Collins
and no net loss rather than questions around impact mitigation and et al. (2011), Pickett et al. (2011), Ostrom (2009), Waltner-
minimization. Toews and Kay (2005) and Zipperer, Morse, and Gaither
 S. Cilliers et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014) 260–270 267

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of an integrative approach to bridge the knowing-doing gap towards achieving sustainable urban green planning and development.

(2011), to mention a few. Each one of these frameworks pre- three mentioned disciplines, i.e. a strategic or pro-active exercise,
sented good guidelines in which sustainability and sustainable and alternatively a management or reactive process. The aforemen-
development are addressed. Some of these frameworks are tioned refers to greenfield and/or proposed plans (e.g. IDPs and
addressing the same issues we have mentioned in this paper, e.g. SDFs), while the latter refers to existing public space and/or brown-
EGS linking ecological research with social issues (Collins et al., field developments. For the purpose of proposed development- or
2011) and governance as an important part of ongoing adaptive strategic frameworks, the integration process will be founded on
management (Waltner-Toews & Kay, 2005). Evaluation of the exist- the above strategic principles and processes. Within existing towns
ing frameworks is beyond the scope of this paper and it is also not and cities, the type of integration will focus on the management
the aim of this study to develop a new framework. We do, however, of open and public spaces more sustainably, also using the above
want to emphasize the necessity to apply existing frameworks to principles in an adapted format.
real world urban issues. Most of the mentioned frameworks clearly Despite the threats to sustainability, mentioned earlier, some
indicate the linkage between the ecological and social issues but do successes have been documented in terms of the creation of more
not explicitly emphasize the important integration between dif- sustainable settlements in South Africa, for example an increased
ferent disciplines, or the importance of the development of sound awareness of the impact of settlements on the environment, a
policies based on an integrated approach. According to Rowley, better understanding of how policies can advance sustainable
Gallopin, Waltner-Toews, and Raez-Luna (1997) policies can be development, more integration of different issues on management
regarded as hypotheses and management practices are the tests and planning levels and creating an environment that empowers
of these hypotheses, taking in consideration the uncertainty and people to help themselves (Du Plessis & Landman, 2002). The city
complexity of social ecological systems. of Durban (Fig. 1) is a good example of a municipality that has suc-
We propose an approach to refine the linkage between eco- ceeded in developing an Environmental Management Framework
logical and social issues in existing conceptual frameworks that (integration of social, economic and ecological concerns) based
aims to integrate urban ecology, with environmental management on most of the aspects and issues of sustainability included in
and urban planning processes as a starting point to bridge the Table 1 (Roberts, 2001; Roberts & Diederichs, 2002; Roberts et al.,
knowing-doing gap that exists in the management of urban areas 2005), following a transdisciplinary approach in which the different
(Fig. 3). The compilation of data bases, driven by socio-ecological aspects discussed earlier have been implemented. Durban is one
research in urban ecology should be the point of departure to of the few municipalities in South Africa who focused specifically
inform national, regional and municipal planning, captured in on environmental issues in their newest Integrated Development
environmental policies (e.g. Strategic Environmental Assessments Plan (IDP), which provides a vision for the development for the
(SEA) and Environmental Management Frameworks (EMF)) on the city for the next five years (eThekwini Municipality, 2012), indicat-
appropriate scales. These research databases and transfer to the ing strategic and integrated thinking and scenario building. Right
appropriate scale should then inform the compilation of regional from the start, a Local Agenda 21 Programme has been followed
and municipal frameworks and plans (Integrated Development in Durban. Signatory countries to Agenda 21, a global action plan
Plans – IDPs which include Spatial Development Frameworks – that promote sustainable development, is mandated to implement
SDFs), which again will inform the local planning level in terms a Local Agenda 21 programme. This helped to keep sustainability
of ecological planning, managed mainly by Environmental Impact on the city of Durban’s agenda, forming a platform of interaction
Assessments (EIAs) on local level. In Fig. 3 a structure is proposed between different stakeholders (Roberts & Diederichs, 2002), indi-
upon which each sector builds on the other, avoiding duplication cating the importance of sustainability thinking, governance and
of data, and ensuring expert input in all levels of decision-making. participatory planning.
In terms of the above proposals, it is also important to distin- Durban has designed and managed an open space system
guish between two processes with regard to the integration of the (D’MOSS – Durban Metropolitan Open Space system) to protect the
268 S. Cilliers et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014) 260–270

city’s biodiversity and the various EGS it provides (Roberts et al., for implementation in policies, as they are locally determined by
2012). According to Roberts et al. (2012), “the continued provision biophysical, social and economical issues, according to Lyytimäki
of ecosystem services is seen as a critical adaptation tool, replacing and Sipilä (2009) and Dobbs et al. (2011). Knowledge about those
the need for expensive infrastructure (e.g. wetlands reducing the aspects of urban green areas that the local residents experience as
need for stormwater infrastructure) and providing a safety net for negative could lead to a better determination of tradeoffs between
the poor and vulnerable populations against natural disasters and different EGS and minimizing the disservices, therefore increasing
the economic shocks likely to accompany climate change (e.g. pro- sustainability in terms of quality of life, biophysical interaction
viding food, shelter, and energy).” In terms of governance, Durban and even institutional ability (Table 1).
placed a large focus on institutionalizing the importance of climate
change on local government level, realizing major institutional and
resource challenges, and mainstreaming the climate change debate References
in Durban (Roberts, 2008, 2010; Roberts et al., 2012).
Ahern, J. (2011). From fail-safe to safe-to-fail: Sustainability and resilience in the
new urban world. Landscape and Urban Planning, 100, 341–343.
Ahern, J. (2013). Urban landscape sustainability and resilience: The promise and
5. Conclusion challenge of integrating ecology with urban planning and design. Landscape
Ecology, 28, 1203–1212.
Audouin, M., & De Wet, B. (2012). Sustainability thinking in environmen-
This paper explored several aspects of the disciplines of urban tal assessment. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 30(4), 264–274.
ecology, urban planning and environmental management in an http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2012.742695
Barrow, C. J. (1999). Environmental management: Principles and practice. New York:
attempt to guide future planning and environmental management
Routledge.
to ensure the planning of sustainable urban landscapes. Building Bartlett, R., & Kurian, P. (1999). The theory of environmental impact assessment:
and enhancing ecological theories and current knowledge neces- Implicit models of policy making. Policy and Politics, 24(4), 415–433.
Beavon, K. S. O. (2006). Johannesburg 1986–2030: A quest to regain world status. In
sitates the incorporation of research, and best practices, from all
M. M. Amen, K. M. M. Archer, & M. M. Bosman (Eds.), Relocating global cities: From
over the globe. We do regard the application of sustainability issues the center to the margins (pp. 49–74). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
in local governance in Durban, South Africa (discussed in Sections Bohensky, E. L., Reyers, B., & Van Jaarsveld, A. (2006). Future ecosystem services
3.1 and 4) as “best practice” for other cities, mainly in develop- in a Southern Africa river basin: A scenario planning approach to uncertainty.
Conservation Biology, 20(4), 1051–1061.
ing countries. Bulkeley (2006) described best practice as more as Brown-Luthango, M., Makanga, P., & Smit, J. (2013). Towards effective city planning
“technical knowledge” or “practical know-how”, but rather as “a – The case of Cape Town in identifying potential housing land. Urban Forum, 24,
political rationality about appropriate urban futures, and a govern- 189–203.
Bulkeley, H. (2006). Urban sustainability: Learning from best practice? Environment
mental technology through which the urban sustainability problem and Planning A, 38, 1029–1044.
is rendered governable”. Following the “Durban example” could be Burns, M., Audouin, M., & Weaver, A. (2006). Advancing sustainability science in
challenging for other municipalities, especially those lacking the South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 102, 379–384.
Central Intelligence Agency CIA. (2012). The World Factbook: South Africa.
necessary background scientific knowledge and are not as well https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sf.html
resourced as Durban. (date of access 20.09.12)
In general it is clear that most urban ecological research has Cilliers, E. J. (2009). The urban development boundary as a planning tool for sus-
tainable urban form: The South African Situation. World Academy of Science,
been done in cities of the Northern Hemisphere, but knowledge
Engineering and Technology, 54, 1170–1175.
from developing countries, and their perspectives and governing Cilliers, S. S., Cilliers, J., Lubbe, C. S., & Siebert, S. J. (2013). Ecosystem services of
paradigms are needed in future to refute or underscore widely pub- urban green spaces in African countries – Perspectives and challenges. Urban
Ecosystems, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11252-012-0254-3
lished urban ecological patterns and theories. Important lessons
Cilliers, S. S., & Siebert, S. J. (2012). Urban ecology in Cape Town: South
can be learned from developing countries, practicing urban ecology African comparisons and reflections. Ecology and Society, 17(3), 33.
in the midst of overwhelming poverty and socio-economic issues. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-05146-170333
To have relevant scientific knowledge does not automatically imply City of Johannesburg. (2012). 2012/2016 Integrated Development Plan
(IDP): Committing to a promising future. Retrieved from http://www.
its inclusion or prominence in local governance and key planning joburg-archive.co.za/2012/pdfs/idp/idp201216.pdf (10.09.13)
strategies. Environmental concerns will always remain firmly on Cohen, B. (2006). Urbanization in developing countries: Current trends, future pro-
the back seat of a society where there are great disparities between jections, and key challenges for sustainability. Technology in Society, 28, 63–80.
Collins, S. L., Carpenter, S. R., Swinton, S. M., Orenstein, D. E., Childers, D. L.,
science and the general concerns and basic needs of the public. Gragson, T. L., et al. (2011). An integrated conceptual framework for long-
South African urban environments mirror a context where it will term social–ecological research. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 9(6),
“require progress towards reducing angst about basic human needs 351–357.
Crane, W. (2006). Biodiversity conservation and land rights in South Africa: Whither
so that people may view their environment as more than a base the farm dwellers? Geoforum, 37, 1035–1045.
for provision of immediate human needs” (Kotze, Venn, Niemelä, & Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT). (1998). Convention on
Spence, 2011). Additionally, all ecosystems are bound by their geog- biological diversity: South African National Report to the fourth conference of
the parties. Retrieved from http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/za/za-nr-01-en.pdf
raphy and the context of their history (Green, Klomp, Rimmington,
(05.11.11)
& Sadedin, 2009). Legacies of spatial inequalities and the composi- Department of Environment and Development Planning (DEADP). (2010). Sustaina-
tion and quality of the local urban green infrastructure powerfully bility criteria for planning and EIA in South Africa. In Paper presented at the annual
IAIAsa conference Pretoria, South Africa.
impact on urban biodiversity and the equal supply of EGS to its
Department of Land Affairs. (2007). Interventions to reverse undesirable set-
residents. tlement growth patterns. Retrieved from http://www.info.gov.za/view/
Although mapping and valuation of EGS were discussed as DownloadFileAction?id=72525 (02.09.13)
important contributions to achieve sustainability in urban areas, Department of Rural Development, & Land Reform. (2011). Guidelines for the devel-
opment of spatial development frameworks. Draft 8. Pretoria.
the numerous disservices that the public experience from nature De Villiers, C., & Hill, R. (2008). Environmental management frameworks as an alter-
also need to be taken into consideration. Ecosystem disservices native to farm-level EIA in a biodiversity hotspot: A proposal from the Cape
in urban green areas include aspects such as financial costs Floristic Region. South Africa, Journal of Environmental Assessment, Policy and
Management, 10(4), 333–360.
(e.g. maintenance), social nuisances (e.g. allergenic pollen) and Dewar, D. (2004). The relevance of the compact city approach: The management
ecological costs (e.g. production of volatile organic compounds) of urban growth. In M. Jenks, & R Burgess (Eds.), South African Cities in Compact
which all have negative impacts on human well-being (Dobbs, Cities: Sustainable urban forms for developing countries. London/New York: Spon
Press.
Escobedo, & Zipperer, 2011; Escobedo, Kroeger, & Wagner, 2011; De Wit, M., Van Zyl, H., Crookes, D., Blignaut, J., Jayiya, T., Goiset, V., et al. (2013).
Lyytimäki and Sipilä, 2009). It is important to include ecosystem Including the economic value of well-functioning urban ecosystems in financial
disservices in analysing and mapping EGS of specific urban areas decisions: Evidence from a process in Cape Town. Ecosystem Services, 2, 38–44.
 S. Cilliers et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014) 260–270 269

Dobbs, C., Escobedo, F. J., & Zipperer, W. C. (2011). A framework for developing urban McCool, S. F., & Stankey, G. H. (2004). Indicators of Sustainability: Challenges and
forest ecosystem services and goods indicators. Landscape and Urban Planning, opportunities at the interface of science and policy. Environmental Management,
99, 196–206. 33(3), 294–305.
Du Plessis, A. (2008). Public participation, good environmental governance and McDonnell, M. J. (2011). The history of urban ecology – An ecologist’s perspective.
fulfillment of environmental rights. Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 2, In J. Niëmela, J. Breuste, T. Elmqvist, G. Guntenspergen, P. James, & N. E. McIn-
1–34. tyre (Eds.), Urban ecology: Patterns, processes and applications (pp. 5–13). Oxford:
Du Plessis, A. (2012). South African environmental law: The governing function of local Oxford University Press.
government. Cape Town: Juta. Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). (2005). Millenium ecosystem assessment
Du Plessis, S., & Landman, K. (2002, July 2002). Sustainability analysis of human synthesis report. Washington, DC: Island Press.
settlements in South Africa. Prepared for the Department of Housing by CSIR Ministry of Agriculture and Land Affairs. (2001). White paper on spatial plan-
Building and Construction Technology. Retrieved from http://researchspace. ning and land use management. Wise land use. July 2001. Retrieved from
csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/3522/1/Du%20Plessis 2002.pdf (05.06.12) www.info.gov.za/whitepapers/2001/spatialplanning.htm (15.09.12)
Elmqvist, T. (2011). Introduction to ecosystem services and social systems in urban Morrison-Saunders, A., & Retief, F. (2012). Walking the sustainable development talk
landscapes. In J. Niemelä, J. H. Breuste, T. Elmqvist, G. Guntenspergen, P. N. – Progressing the practice of environmental impact assessment (EIA). Environ-
James, & N. McIntyre (Eds.), Urban ecology: Patterns, processes and applications mental Impact Assessment Review, 36, 34–41.
(pp. 191–192). New York: Oxford University Press. Mucina, L., & Rutherford, M. C. (Eds.). (2006). The vegetation of South Africa
Escobedo, F. J., Kroeger, T., & Wagner, J. E. (2011). Urban forests and pollution mit- Lesotho and Swaziland. Strelitzia 19. Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity
igation: Analyzing ecosystem services and disservices. Environmental Pollution, Institute.
159, 2078–2087. Mukoko, S. (1996). On sustainable development in sub-Saharan Africa. Cities, 13(4),
eThekwini Municipality. (2012). Draft Integrated Development Plan (IDP): 171–265.
2012/13 to 2016/2017. Retrieved from http://www.durban.gov.za/City Musacchio, L. R. (2009). The scientific basis for the design of landscape sustaina-
Government/City Vision/IDP/Documents/Final%20Adopted%20idp%2030 bility: A conceptual framework for translational landscape research and practice
%20May%202012.pdf (15.09.13) of designed landscapes and the six Es of landscape sustainability. Landscape
Fry, G., Tress, B., & Tress, G. (2007). Integrative landscape research: Facts and chal- Ecology, 24, 993–1013.
lenges. In J. Wu, & R. J. Hobbs (Eds.), Key topics in landscape ecology (pp. 246–268). Musacchio, L. R. (2013). Key concepts and research priorities for landscape sustaina-
New York: Cambridge University Press. bility. Landscape Ecology, 28, 995–998.
Gauteng Provincial Government. (2005). Planning for 2014: Making the future Nassauer, J. I., & Opdam, P. (2008). Design in science: Extending the landscape ecol-
work today. Gautengonline.gov.za. Retrieved from http://www.gautengonline. ogy paradigm. Landscape Ecology, 23, 633–644.
gov.za/Publications/Planning%20for%202014.pdf (02.09.13) Nel, J., & Kotze, L. (2009). Environmental management: An introduction. In H. Stry-
Gibson, R. (2005). Sustainability assessment criteria, processes and applications. Earth- dom, & N. King (Eds.), Fuggle and Rabie’s environmental management in South
scan Publications. Africa. Cape Town: Juta.
Glazewski, J. (2005). Environmental Law in South Africa – Second Edition. Cape Town: O’Farrell, P. J., Andersen, P. M. L., Le Maitre, D., & Holmes, P. M. (2012). Insights and
Lexis Nexis. opportunities offered by a rapid ecosystem service assessment in promoting a
Goebel, A. (2007). Sustainable urban development? Low-cost housing challenges in conservation agenda in an urban biodiversity hotspot. Ecology and Society, 17(3),
South Africa. Habitat International, 31, 291–302. 27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-04886-170327
Graham, M., & Ernstson, H. (2012). Co-management at the fringes: Examining Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2011). OECD
stakeholder perspectives at Macassar Dunes, Cape Town, South Africa – At the territorial reviews: The Gauteng City-Region, South Africa 2011. OECD Publishing.
Intersection of High Biodiversity, Urban Poverty, and Inequality. Ecology and http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264122840-en
Society, 17(3), 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-04887-170334 Ostrom, E. (2009). A general framework for analysing sustainability of
Green, D. G., Klomp, N., Rimmington, G., & Sadedin, S. (2009). Complexity in landscape social–ecological systems. Science, 325, 419–422.
ecology. Landscape series (Vol. 4) Springer. Palacios-Agundez, I., Casado-Arzuaga, I., Madariaga, I., & Onaindia, M. (2013). The
Holmes, P. M., Rebelo, A. G., Dorse, C., & Wood, J. (2012). Can Cape Town’s unique bio- relevance of local participatory scenario planning for ecosystem management
diversity be saved? Balancing conservation imperatives and development needs. policies in the Basque Country, northern Spain. Ecology and Society, 18(3), 7.
Ecology and Society, 17(2), 28. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-04552-170228 http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-0561-180307
International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). (2001). Pickett, S. T. A., Cadenasso, M. L., Grove, J. M., Boone, C. G., Groffman, P. M., Irwin, E.,
30 years of making sustainable development work. Retrieved from et al. (2011). Urban ecological systems: Scientific foundations and a decade of
http://pubs.iied.org/G00275.html (14.09.13) progress. Journal of Environmental Management, 92, 331–362.
Kidd, M. (2010). Environmental law. Cape Town: Juta. Pope, J., Annandale, D., & Morrison-Saunders, A. (2004). Conceptualising
Knight, A. T., Cowling, R. M., Rouget, M., Balmford, A., Lombard, A. T., & Camp- sustainability assessment. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 24,
bell, B. M. (2008). Knowing but not doing: Selecting priority conservation 595–616.
areas and the research implementation gap. Conservation Biology, 22(3), Rebelo, A. G., Holmes, P. M., Dorse, C., & Wood, J. (2011). Impacts of urbanization
610–617. in a biodiversity hotspot: Conservation challenges in Metropolitan Cape Town.
Kornov, L., & Thissen, W. (2000). Rationality in decision- and policy-making: Impli- South African Journal of Botany, 77, 20–35.
cations for strategic environmental assessment. Impact Assessment and Project Retief, F. (2007). The quality and effectiveness of spatial planning related Strategic
Appraisal, 18(3), 191–200. Environmental Assessment (SEA) within the South African context: A case study.
Kotze, J., Venn, S., Niemelä, J., & Spence, J. (2011). Effects of urbanization on the Town and Regional Planning, 52, 6–19.
ecology and evolution of arthropods. In J. Niëmela, J. Breuste, T. Elmqvist, G. Gun- Retief, F. (2010). The evolution of environmental assessment debates – Critical
tenspergen, P. James, & N. E. McIntyre (Eds.), Urban ecology: Patterns, processes perspectives from South Africa. Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and
and applications (pp. 159–166). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Management, 12(4), 1–23.
Le Maitre, D. C., O’Farrell, P. J., & Reyers, B. (2007). Ecosystem services in South Retief, F. (2013). Sustainability assessment in South Africa. In A. Bond, A. Morrison-
Africa: A research theme that can engage environmental, economic and social Saunders, & R. Howitt (Eds.), Sustainability assessment: Pluralism, practice and
scientists in the development of sustainability science? South African Journal of progress. London: Routledge.
Science, 103, 367–374. Retief, F., Morrison-Saunders, A., Geneletti, D., & Pope, J. (2013). Exploring the
Litman, T. (2006). Planning principles and practices. Victoria Transport Policy. psychology of trade-off decision making in EIA. Impact Assessment and Project
Retrieved from http://www.vtpi.org/planning.pdf (05.11.11) Appraisal, 31(1), 13–23.
Ludin, A. N. M. (2006). Scenario-based spatial modelling for land use planning Retief, F., & Rossouw, N. (2007). Environmental policy issues in Africa – The real
and evaluation. Map Malaysia 2006: Geospatial information & knowl- story. In M. Geyer (Ed.), International Handbook of Urban Policy. London: Edward
edge economy. Palace of the Golden Horses, Selangor, 3–4 May 2006. Elgar.
In Proceedings of the 5th South East Asian Technical University Consortium Ring, I., Hansjürgens, B., Elmqvist, T., Wittmer, H., & Sukhdev, P. (2010). Challenges
(SEATUC) symposium Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Hanoi, in framing the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity: The TEEB initiative.
Vietnam, 24–25 February 2011, (pp. 179–184). ISSN: 1882-5796. Retrieved Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 2, 15–26.
from http://fabserver.utm.my/download/ConferenceSemiar/SEATUC5 16.pdf Roberts, D. C. (2001). Using the development of an environmental management
(05.11.11) system to develop and to promote a more holistic understanding of urban
Lyytimäki, J., & Sipilä, M. (2009). Hopping on one leg – The challenge of ecosystem ecosystems in Durban, South Africa. In A. R. Berkowitz, C. H. Nilon, & K. Hollweg
disservices for urban green management. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 8, (Eds.), Urban ecosystems, a new frontier for science and education (pp. 384–398).
309–315. New York: Springer.
Marzluff, J. M., Shulenberger, E., Endlicher, W., Alberti, M., Bradley, G., & Ryan, C., Roberts, D. C. (2008). Thinking globally, acting locally – Institutionalizing climate
et al. (Eds.). (2008). Urban ecology – An international perspective on the interaction change at the local government level in Durban, South Africa. Environment and
between humans and nature. New York: Springer. Urbanization, 20(2), 521–537.
Mbuyisa, S. (2012). Human Settlements Summit 2012 address. Affordable housing Roberts, D. C. (2010). Prioritizing climate change adaptation and local level
delivery, spatial planning and land management. , 29–31 August. Retrieved resilience in Durban, South Africa. Environment and Urbanization, 229(2),
from http://www.urbangateway.org/sites/default/ugfiles/HumanSettlements 397–413.
Summit2012-AffordableHousingDelivery,SpatialPlanning&LandManagement. Roberts, D. C., Boon, R., Croucamp, P., & Mander, M. (2005). Resource economics
pdf (02.09.12) as a tool for open space planning in Durban, South Africa. In T. Tryzna (Ed.),
McConnachie, M. M., & Shackleton, C. M. (2010). Public green space inequality in The urban imperative, urban outreach strategies for protected areas agencies (pp.
small towns in South Africa. Habitat International, 34, 244–248. 44–48). Sacramento: California Institute of Public Affairs.
270 S. Cilliers et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 125 (2014) 260–270

Roberts, D. C., Boon, R., Diederichs, N., Douwes, E., Govender, N., McInnes, A., Todes, A., Karam, A., Klug, N., & Malaza, N. (2010). Beyond master planning? New
et al. (2012). Exploring ecosystem-based adaptation in Durban, South Africa: approaches to spatial planning in Ekurhuleni, South Africa. Habitat International,
“Learning-by-doing” at the local government coal face. Environment and Urban- 34, 414–420.
ization, 24(1), 1–29. Turner, B. L. I. I. (2010). Vulnerability and resilience: Coalescing or paralleling
Roberts, D. C., & Diederichs, N. (2002). Durban’s Local Agenda 21 programme: approaches for sustainability science? Global Environmental Change, 20(4),
Tackling sustainable development in a post-apartheid city. Environment and 570–576.
Urbanization, 14(1), 189–201. United Cities and Local Governments. (2010, November). Policy paper on urban strate-
Rossouw, N., & Retief, F. (2005). Strategic environmental assessment and planning gic planning: Local leaders preparing for the future of our cities. Includes regional
in South Africa. In C. Jones, M. Baker, S. Jay, M. Short, & C. C. Wood (Eds.), Strate- reports and case studies, 2010.
gic environmental assessment and land use planning: An international evaluation. United Nations (UN). (2002). Johannesburg plan of implementation of the world sum-
Earthscan. mit on sustainable development. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/
Rowley, T., Gallopin, G., Waltner-Toews, D., & Raez-Luna, E. (1997). Development documents/WSSD POI PD/English/WSSD PlanImpl.pdf (02.09.13)
and application of an integrated conceptual framework to tropical agroecosys- United Nations (UN). (2008). World urbanization prospects: The 2007 revi-
tems based on complex systems theories: Centro Internacional de Agricultura sion. Executive summary. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/esa/population/
Tropical-University of Guelph Project. Ecosystem Health, 3, 154–161. publications/wup2007/2007wup execsum web.pdf (05.11.11)
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Biodiversity. (2012). Cities and biodi- Vitriani. (2010). Developing a scenario development approach and the alternative land
versity outlook. Montreal. Retrieved from http://www.cbd.int/en/subnational/ use scenarios: The case of Pakal, Benowo and Sambikerep districts of Surabaya city.
partners-and-inititaives/cbo (12.04.13) Enschede, University of Twente Faculty of Geo-Information and Earth Observa-
South Africa. (1995). Development facilitation act, 67 of 1995. Pretoria – Government tion (ITC), 201 pp.
Printer. Waltner-Toews, D., & Kay, J. (2005). The evolution of an ecosystem approach:
South Africa. (1996). Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 109 of 1996. The diamond schematic and adaptive methodology for ecosystem
Pretoria – Government Printer. sustainability and health. Ecology and Society, 10(1), 38. http://www.
South Africa. (1998). National Environmental Management act 107 of 1998 (Notice ecologyandsociety.org/vol10/iss1/art38/
1540). Government Gazette 19519:2, 27 November. Wu, J. (2010). Urban sustainability: An inevitable goal of landscape research. Land-
South Africa. (2000). The local government: Municipal systems act, 32 of 2000. Pretoria scape Ecology, 25, 1–4.
– Government Printer. Wu, J. (2013). Landscape sustainability science: Ecosystem services and human-
Strydom, H., & King, N. (2009). Fuggle and Rabie’s environmental management in South wellbeing in changing landscapes. Landscape Ecology, 28, 999–1023.
Africa. Cape Town – Juta. Xiang, W. N., & Clarke, K. C. (2003). The use of scenarios in land use planning.
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB). (2011). The economics of Environmental and Planning B: Planning and Design, 30, 885–909.
ecosystems and biodiversity: TEEB Manual for Cities – Ecosystem services in Zipperer, W. C., Morse, W. C., & Gaither, C. J. (2011). Linking social and ecological
urban management. Retrieved from http://www.teebweb.org/Portals/25/ systems. In J. Niëmela, J. Breuste, T. Elmqvist, G. Guntenspergen, P. James, & N. E.
Documents/TEEB Manual for Cities Ecosystem Services for Urban McIntyre (Eds.), Urban ecology: Patterns, processes and applications (pp. 298–308).
managment FINAL 2011.pdf (10.10.12) Oxford: Oxford University Press.