Article

The Fine Tuning of the

Universe: Evidence for the
Existence of God? Walter L. Bradley
Walter L. Bradley

Investigations by cosmologists during the past sixty years have uncovered a remark-
able new picture of our amazing universe and its incredible journey from the big bang
to our “finely tuned” habitat. It appears that the initial conditions, the mathematical
forms that nature takes, and the universal constants must each be precisely tuned to
have a suitable habitat for complex, conscious life. Whether this fine tuning is evidence
for a creator God is explored, while trying to avoid making fallacious “God of the gaps”
claims and instead pointing appropriately to patterns in nature that provide legitimate
evidence for a creator God.

W
hy is “Fine Tuning” such a The universe is such a remarkable place
popular subject today, as evi- of habitation for complex, conscious life
denced by the many books that that it is extremely difficult to believe
have been written on this topic? Here that it is the result of a long series of cos-
are some examples: The Anthropic Cosmo- mic accidents. The elegant mathematical
logical Principle,1 Universes,2 The Accidental forms that are encoded in nature, the
Universe,3 The Cosmic Blueprint,4 Cosmic twenty-two universal constants with val-
Coincidences,5 The Anthropic Principle: Man ues within very narrow ranges of exactly
as the Focal Point of Nature,6 Universal Con- what they need to be,15 and the multitude
stants in Physics,7 The Goldilocks Enigma: of initial conditions that must be within
Why Is the University Just Right for Life?,8 a very narrow bandwidth, which they
Cosmic Jackpot: Why Our Universe Is Just are, would seem to suggest a universe
Right for Life,9 The Constants of Nature: The that has been carefully crafted for our
Numbers That Encode the Deepest Secrets of benefit.
the Universe,10 Why the Universe Is the Way
It Is,11 Just Six Numbers: The Deep Forces This article will specifically explore the
That Shape the Universe,12 and A Fine Tuned fine tuning of our universe, the math-
Universe: The Quest for God in Science and ematical forms that nature takes, the
Theology.13 universal constants, and the precise initial
conditions when the universe exploded
There is good reason for these discus- into existence in the “big bang.” Then
sions. Fine tuning describes one of the this article will explore whether fine tun-
great mysteries of the universe, and one ing provides significant warrant for belief
that may have significant metaphysi- in a creator God.
cal implications. Even atheists such as
Stephen Hawking note,
To understand the universe at the deep- Walter L. Bradley, PhD, is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering
est level, we need know not only how for both Texas A&M University (2000) and Baylor University (2012). An
ASA Fellow, he has spoken about “Fine Tuning” on 74 university campuses
the universe behaves but why. Why is
to more than 50,000 students and professors over the past thirty years. Each
there something rather than nothing?
lecture was followed by an open Q&A for an hour or more. He has deeply
Why do we exist? Why this particular
appreciated both that feedback and that of anonymous PSCF reviewers.
set of laws and not some other?14

Volume 70, Number 3, September 2018 147

Article
The Fine Tuning of the Universe: Evidence for the Existence of God?
Universal Constants, Requirements for a Universe to
Initial Conditions, and the Support Complex, Conscious Life
Laws of Nature “Work” Together Living systems may be distinguished from nonliving
Important provisions for complex, conscious life in systems by their unique capacity to process energy
our universe are executed through the combination from their surroundings (chemical or electromag-
of natural laws, universal constants, and initial con- netic from the sun), store information, and replicate.
ditions. But how does this work? A simple example In living systems, these remarkable capacities are
will be used to illustrate. executed by biopolymers such as DNA, RNA, and
proteins. Living systems levitate above thermody-
Suppose you are in Pisa, Italy, at the top of the namic equilibrium, whereas nonliving matter will
Leaning Tower of Pisa and want to throw a water exist at, or very near, thermodynamic equilibrium.
balloon timed to hit your friends as they walk on
the plaza directly below you. The relevant natural Designing a universe is much more complicated than
law is expressed mathematically by Newton’s dif- designing in a universe, as engineers and scientists do
ferential equation for motion in a gravitational field. in our universe. When human beings design and cre-
This law of nature (expressed in mathematical form) ate something, they are operating in a universe where
can be solved to give an algebraic equation, as seen the laws of nature have already been put into place
in equation 1. The solution requires specification of and the universal constants have already been speci-
a universal constant, G, for gravitational force; the fied. Designing a universe requires that one specify
mass of the earth, M; the height of the tower, h0; and the mathematical forms that the laws of nature take,
the initial velocity with which the water balloon is defining the fundamental characteristics of the uni-
thrown, v0, to determine how long, t, it will take for verse. Then, the universal constants which scale the
the balloon to reach the plaza: characteristics of these laws of nature must be speci-
fied; for example, G as in F = G[m1m2]/d2 where F
h(t) = h0 – (GMt2)/2r2 – v0t (1)
is the force of attraction, the two m’s are the two
This equation describes the fundamental law of masses that have a gravitational attractive force
nature that mass attracts mass with a force that we between them, and d is the distance between the
call the gravitational force of attraction between two masses. Our present universe is also the conse-
two masses (the water balloon and the earth in this quence of the initial conditions at the moment of the
case) scaled by the universal constant, G. In address- big bang such as the rate of expansion, which has a
ing various phenomena in nature, one must always profound impact on the universe that unfolds. For
know the appropriate law(s) of nature, expressed example, if the post-big-bang rate of expansion is too
in mathematical form, with the initial conditions rapid, then gravitational forces are insufficient to cre-
and the appropriate universal constants. If one sets ate stars and planets. If the initial rate of expansion
h(t) = 0, then one can solve the equation to specify is too slow, then the universe might simply expand
the time, t, that it will take for the balloon to reach the briefly and then collapse so that all of the mass of the
plaza below. Note that the drag force on the water universe is in one place with an overwhelming gravi-
balloon was not included in this calculation, in order tational force, precluding satisfying the list of design
to keep the equations in the illustration simple. There requirements given below.
are many more-complicated phenomena in nature,
but one can always predict the behavior of each A partial list of necessary requirements for a habit-
phenomenon if one knows the appropriate law(s) of able universe for complex, conscious life similar to
nature, the values of the associated universal con- life forms that have been found in this universe must
stants, and the specification of initial conditions. It is meet at least the following requirements suggested
worth noting the connectedness between the univer- by Ward and Brownlee.16
sal constants, the initial conditions, and the laws of 1. The first requirement is a star that is located in a
nature. There are many different possible solutions relatively “quiet” region of the universe where
(times) for h(t) = 0, depending on the values of the not too many neighbors are producing high-
universal constants and initial conditions in combi- intensity, sterilizing radiation. This star needs to
nation with the mathematical form that the law of have its highest intensity of radiation in the range
nature takes to prescribe h(t). that is suitable to drive the chemical reactions

148 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith

 Walter L. Bradley

essential to life without destroying the products 9. The amount of solvent must be carefully coupled
of these reactions. There must also be a means of to plate tectonics activity to provide the planet
transporting the energy from this star at the cen- with similar proportions of its surfaces as oceans
ter of the solar system to planets where chemical and land mass.
reactions between the chemical building blocks 10. The planet must have the right protection from
in solution require energy to enable the chemical the destructive forces in nature such as radiation
assembly of the building blocks into biopolymers. and asteroids over a reasonable period of time.
2. There must be a planet or moon in the solar 11. The planet must have just the right stabilized
system of the star in requirement “1” that is ter- axis tilt and angular velocity to give moderate,
restrial; in other words, solid rather than gaseous. regular, and predictable seasons and moderate
3. This universe must have sufficient chemical stabil- temperature fluctuations from day to night.
ity and elemental diversity to build the complex While one is tempted to think that these require-
molecules necessary for essential life functions: ments are easily met, given the large number of stars,
namely, processing energy, storing information,
it should be noted that there are few places in the
and replicating.
universe that are sufficiently free of sterilizing radia-
4. There must be chemical reactions that allow pre- tion to provide a suitable solar system. The number
dictable polymeric compounds like DNA, RNA, of candidate “neighborhoods” is further reduced
and proteins to form from various elements in by the requirement of a sun with the right amount
simpler compounds. of mass to give the right electromagnetic radiation
5. There must be a “universal connector,” an ele- spectrum. Furthermore, the occurrence of a suit-
ment that is essential to building the molecules of able satellite in conjunction with such a star is even
life. It must readily bond chemically with almost more problematic. Only Earth in our solar system of
all other elements, including itself, forming bonds sixty-two satellites meets the above requirement for
that are stable but not too stable so that disassem- a “home” (Earth) in a safe neighborhood such as that
bly is also possible. Only carbon in our naturally of our sun and solar system, which are well placed
occurring 92 elements satisfies this chemical char- in a quiet place in a suitable universe as described
acteristic. This is the reason why, when we look above.
for life on other planets, we begin by looking for
carbon-based compounds. It is difficult to imag- In the following sections, how these universal and
ine living systems without a carbon-like element. local needs (or design requirements) are met by the
specific mathematical forms encoded in nature, the
6. A “universal solvent” in which the chemical re-
exact values of the universal constants in the uni-
actions can take place is essential, since chemical
verse, and the remarkable “coincidence” that initial
reactions in solids are much too slow and complex
(or boundary) conditions are exactly what they must
life could not be sustained as a gas. This solvent
be, will be presented. The developmental path that
must readily dissolve both the reactants and the
our universe navigated is consistently remarkable,
reaction products essential to living systems: that
making the origin of this place for life all the more
is, a liquid with the properties of water, which is
wondrous and enigmatic. Unless all of these condi-
very nearly a universal solvent.
tions, and many more not included in this list, are
7. The temperature range on the terrestrial planet or met, the universe would not allow for the develop-
moon (see requirement 2) must maintain the uni- ment of complex, conscious life forms. Therefore, the
versal solvent as a liquid rather than as a solid or above requirements for our universe are necessary
as a gas for some portion of the year. conditions, but they are not by themselves sufficient
8. The right concentration of heavy (radioactive) for a habitat suitable for complex human life.
elements must be present in the planet (see
requirement 2) to heat the core of the planet Ward and Brownlee express their wonder in their
and provide the necessary energy to drive plate book, Rare Earth.
tectonics to build up land mass in what would If some god-like being could be given the
otherwise be a smooth round planet completely opportunity to plan a sequence of events with
covered with the solvent. the expressed goal of duplicating our “Garden of

Volume 70, Number 3, September 2018 149

Article
The Fine Tuning of the Universe: Evidence for the Existence of God?
Eden,” that power would face a formidable task. mathematicians of the sixteenth and seventeenth
With the best of intentions, but limited by natural centuries, including Newton, Galileo, Kepler, and
laws and materials, it is unlikely that Earth could Copernicus, all viewed the universe as orderly
ever be truly replicated. Too many processes in its and capable of mathematical description precisely
formation involved sheer luck. Earth-like planets because a rational God had fashioned it that way.23
could certainly be made, but each outcome would These scientist-mathematicians believed that since
differ in critical ways. This is well illustrated by God had designed the universe, then “all phenom-
the fantastic variety of planets and satellites that ena of nature would follow one master plan. One
formed in our solar system. They all started with mind designing a universe would almost surely have
similar building materials, but the final products employed one set of basic principles to govern all
are vastly different from each other. Just as the
related phenomena.”24
more familiar evolution of animal life involved
many evolutionary pathways with complex and Only in the twentieth century have we come to fully
seemingly random branch points, the physical understand that the incredibly diverse phenomena
events that led to the formation and evolution of that we observe in nature are the outworking of a
the physical Earth also required an intricate set of
very small number of physical laws, each of which
nearly irreproducible circumstances.17
may be described by a simple mathematical relation-
ship. Indeed, so simple in mathematical form and
so small in number are these fundamental physical
Mathematics and the Deep laws that they can all be written on one side of one
Structure of the Universe sheet of paper, as seen in figure 1. It is truly remark-
Mathematics, in contrast to arithmetic, is an abstract able that the wide diversity of phenomena in nature
intellectual activity that was developed by the can be described by a few simple mathematical
Sumerians (in the region of Babylon) between the relationships.
twentieth and the sixteenth century BC.18 In Greece,
Pythagoras was a key mathematician, as were his Nobel laureate physicist Eugene Wigner in his widely
successors, Euclid and Archimedes between 400 BC quoted paper, “The Unreasonable Effectiveness of
and 200 BC.19 Their studies focused especially on Mathematics in the Physical Sciences,” notes that
geometric objects, such as straight lines, circles, scientists often take for granted the remarkable—
ellipses, and conic sections. In the third century BC,
Apollonius of Perga wrote eight monumental vol-
umes devoted to these curves, describing their The Fundamental Laws of Nature
properties as “miraculous.”20  Mechanics (Hamilton’s Equations)
H H
Because mathematics was considered to be an p   q  
abstract idea, it came as a great surprise that the q p
natural world was full of mathematical forms.
­
 Electrodynamics (Maxwell’s Equations)
Imagine the delight of Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)
some eighteen centuries later, when he discovered F     A   A    F   j 
that the orbits of planets around the sun conformed
to these same beautiful but abstract mathemati-  Statistical Mechanics (Boltzmann’s Equations)
cal forms. Kepler declared that the chief aim of all dS
S   k  f log f d 0
investigations of the external world should be to dt
“discover the rational order and harmony which has
been imposed on it by God and which he revealed  Quantum Mechanics (Schrödinger’s Equations)
to us in the language of mathematics.”21 Galileo 
I    H  XP 
Galilei (1564–1642) asserted that “the laws of nature 2
are written by the hand of God in the language of
mathematics.”22  General Relativity (Einstein’s Equation)
G  8 GT
In his Mathematics: The Loss of Certainty, histo-
rian Morris Kline demonstrates that the religious Figure 1. The Five Essential Fundamental Laws of Nature for Life

150 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith

 Walter L. Bradley

even miraculous—effectiveness of mathematics in not have the characteristics implicit in Schrödinger’s

describing the real world. Wigner muses: equations, all atomic orbitals would collapse, with
The enormous usefulness of mathematics is the electrons being attached to the atomic nuclei,
something bordering on the mysterious … There is meaning no chemistry, no periodic chart, and no
no rational explanation for it … The miracle of the life. Maxwell’s equations for electromagnetic energy
appropriateness of the language of mathematics transmission also require that the universe be no
for the formulation of the laws of physics is a more than three-dimensional. Maxwell’s equations
wonderful gift which we neither understand nor describe a facet of nature without which life could
deserve.25 not exist, since getting the energy from the sun to
planets where life can exist is essential.
Albert Einstein was also struck by the wondrous
orderliness of the world as he explained it: Furthermore, Richard Courant illustrates this felici-
You find it strange that I consider the compre- tous meeting of natural laws with the example of
hensibility of the world (to the extent that we are sound and light:
authorized to speak of such comprehensibility) as The actual physical world in which acoustic
a miracle or as an eternal mystery. Well a priori, or electromagnetic signals are the basis of
one should expect a chaotic world, which cannot communication seems to be singled out among the
be grasped by the mind in any way … The kind mathematically conceivable models by its intrinsic
of order created by Newton’s theory of gravity, simplicity and harmony.27
for example, is wholly different. Even if man pro­
poses the axioms of the theory, the success of such Boltzmann’s equation for the second law of thermo-
a project presupposes a high degree of ordering of dynamics provides an essential predictability to the
the objective world and this could not be expected behavior (directionality) of chemical reactions.
a priori. That is the “miracle” which is being con-
To summarize, for life to exist, an orderly (and by
stantly reinforced as our knowledge expands.26
implication, intelligible) universe is needed. Order
The splendid orderliness of the cosmos, expressed in at many different levels is required. For instance,
the mathematical forms seen in figure 1, is remark- to have planets that circle their stars, Newtonian
able in many additional ways to enable a universe mechanics operating in a three-dimensional universe
with a suitable place for habitation by complex, con- is essential. For there to be multiple stable elements
scious life. The particulars of the mathematical forms of the periodic table to provide a sufficient variety of
themselves are also critical. atomic “building blocks” for life, an atomic structure
to be constrained by the laws of quantum mechan-
Consider the problem of stability at the atomic and ics is necessary. The orderliness in chemical reactions
cosmic levels. Both Hamilton’s equations for non- that is the consequence of Boltzmann’s equation for
relativistic Newtonian mechanics and Einstein’s the second law of thermodynamics is essential for
theory of general relativity (fig. 1) are unstable for chemical reactions to “go” in predictable ways. For
a sun with planets unless the gravitational potential an energy source like the sun to transfer its life-giving
energy is proportional to the radius “r-1,” a require- energy to a habitat like Earth, the laws of electromag-
ment that is met only for a universe made with three netic radiation, which Maxwell’s equations describe,
spatial dimensions. Newtonian mechanics describe must describe and compel this essential feature of
a crucial feature of the physical world, Newtonian our universe.
gravitational attraction, that makes possible the
peculiar behavior of planets having very stable orbits The universe is indeed orderly, and in precisely the
around their respective star, their sun. ways necessary for it to serve as a suitable habitat
for complex, conscious life. The wonderful inter-
For Schrödinger’s equations for quantum mechanics nal ordering of the cosmos is matched only by its
to give stable, bound energy levels for atomic hydro- extraordinary economy. Each one of the fundamen-
gen (and by implication for all of the various types of tal laws of nature is essential to life itself. A universe
atoms), the universe must have no more than three lacking any one of the laws shown in figure 1 would
spatial dimensions. Furthermore, the physical reality almost certainly be a universe without life. Many
captured in Schrödinger’s equations makes possible modern scientists, like the mathematicians centuries
a universe with 92 different elements. If nature did before them, have been awestruck by the evidence

Volume 70, Number 3, September 2018 151

Article
The Fine Tuning of the Universe: Evidence for the Existence of God?
for intelligent design implicit in nature’s mathemati- The crucial role of universal constants can be illus-
cal harmony and the internal consistency of the laws trated by an example. If I were designing the first
of nature. Arizona State astrophysicist Paul Davies automobile, I would need to select an engine size for
declares: this car. Having no idea of how much horsepower
All the evidence so far indicates that many complex the car will need, I might choose an engine with one
structures depend most delicately on the existing horsepower. I install this engine into my first proto-
form of these laws. It is tempting to believe, type and discover much to my dismay that the car
therefore, that a complex universe will emerge will barely move. To rectify this problem, I replace
only if the laws of physics are very close to what this engine with one with 10,000 “horse power.”
they are … The laws which enable the universe to Now I barely touch the accelerator and the car takes
come into being spontaneously, seem themselves off like a rocket, causing a nonfatal crash that totally
to be the product of exceedingly ingenious design. destroys my prototype. After building a new proto-
If physics is the product of design, the universe type, I equip it with a 100 horsepower engine which
must have a purpose, and the evidence of modern works just fine. Scaling the optimal engine size for a
physics suggests strongly to me that the purpose vehicle and many other components, is an example
includes us.28 of what engineers do in their design work. It is quite
analogous to the relative scaling of the universal con-
British astronomer Sir Fred Hoyle likewise comments: stants in nature.
I do not believe that any scientist who examines
the evidence would fail to draw the inference that One of the remarkable discoveries of the past twenty
the laws of nuclear physics have been deliberately years is that a functional universe suitable for com-
designed with regard to the consequences they plex, conscious life requires that the many universal
produce inside the stars. If this is so, then my constants in nature must be very nearly what we
apparently random quirks have become part of a now know them to be. Many journal articles and
deep-laid scheme. If not, then we are back again to books have documented this remarkable and sur-
a monstrous sequence of accidents.29 prising new insight, which has come to be known
Nobel laureates Eugene Wigner and Albert Einstein as the “fine tuning” of the universe. Table 1 pro-
have respectfully evoked “mystery” or “eternal vides an illustrative set of examples of important
mystery” in their meditations upon the brilliant “universal constants” that must have values that are
mathematical encoding of nature’s deep structures. essentially what they are to provide a universe that
But as Kepler, Newton, Galileo, Copernicus, Davies, is suitable for complex, conscious life: for example,
Hoyle, and many others have noted, the mysterious the speed of light; the gravitational-force constant;
coherency of the mathematical forms underlying the the rest masses of the protons, electrons, and neu-
cosmos is solved if one recognizes these forms to be trons; the unit charge for the electron or proton; the
the creative intentionality of an intelligent creator weak nuclear force; the strong nuclear force; the elec-
who has purposefully designed our cosmos to be a tromagnetic coupling constants; Plank’s constant;
habitat for Homo sapiens. and the Boltzmann constant. These are all universal
constants that are indispensable in the mathematical
description of the universe.
Universal Constants
When scientists use the term “fine tuning” today, When cosmological models were first developed
they generally are talking about the fine tuning of the in the mid-twentieth century, cosmologists naively
universal constants, though the term has been used assumed that the selection of a given set of constants
more broadly so far in this article. The deepest level was not critical to the formation of a suitable habi-
of cosmic harmony and coherence is that of the ele- tat for life. Through subsequent parametric studies
mental forces and universal constants that govern all using mathematical models that varied these con-
of nature. The universe is embodied in the scaling of stants, scientists now know that relatively small
the various physical phenomena such as the gravi- changes in any of the universal constants produce a
tational force, the rest mass of the electron, and the dramatically different universe that is not hospitable
speed of light. to life of any imaginable type.

152 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith

 Walter L. Bradley

Let us examine several examples that constrain the ity and electromagnetic forces and their associated
selection of the universal constants to a remarkable constants. Furthermore, the frequency distribu-
degree. Twentieth-century physicists have identified tion of the electromagnetic radiation produced by
four fundamental forces in nature. These may each the sun must be precisely tuned to the energies of
be expressed as dimensionless numbers to allow a the various chemical bonds on Earth. Excessively
comparison of their relative strength. These values energetic photons of radiation such as the ultravio-
vary by a factor of 1041 or 41 orders of magnitude. let radiation emitted from a blue giant star, destroy
Yet modest changes in the relative strengths of any chemical bonds and destabilize organic molecules.
of these forces and their associated constants would Insufficiently energetic photons, such as infrared and
produce dramatic changes in the universe, rendering longer wavelength radiation from a red dwarf star,
it unsuitable for life. Several examples to illustrate would result in chemical reactions that are either too
this fine-tuning of our universe are presented next. sluggish or would not occur at all. Most life on Earth
depends upon fine-tuned solar radiation, which
Balancing Electromagnetism and requires, in turn, a very precise balancing of the elec-
Gravitational Forces tromagnetic and gravitational forces.
The electromagnetic force is 1038 times stronger than
As previously noted, chemical bonding energy relies
the gravitational force. Gravity draws hydrogen
upon quantum mechanical calculations that include
into stars, creating a high-temperature plasma. The
the electromagnetic force, the mass of the electron,
protons in the plasma must overcome their elec-
the speed of light (c) and Planck’s constant (h).
tromagnetic repulsion to fuse. Thus, the relative
Matching the radiation from the sun to the chemi-
strength of the electromagnetic force to the gravita-
cal bonding energy in plants on earth requires that
tional force determines the rate at which stars “burn”
the magnitude of six constants be selected to satisfy
by fusion. If this ratio of strengths were altered to
the following inequality, with the caveat that the two
1032 instead of 1038 (i.e., if gravity were much stronger
sides of the inequality are of the same order of mag-
than it actually is), stars would be a billion times less
nitude, guaranteeing that the photons are sufficiently
massive and would burn a million times faster.30
energetic, but not too energetic.31
Electromagnetic radiation and the light spectrum (mp2 G)/(hc) ≥ [e2/{hc}]12[me/mp]4 (2)
also depend on the relative strengths of the grav-

Table 1. An abbreviated list of fundamental constants of physics and chemistry based on the
values provided by CODATA.
Quantity Symbol Numerical Values Unit
speed of light in vacuum c 299 792 458 m s-1
magnetic constant µ0 12.5664 x 10-7 NA-2
electric constant ε0 8.854 187 817 x 10 -12
F m-1
gravitational constant G 6.6738 x 10-11 m3kg-1s-2
Planck’s constant h 6.626070040 x 10 -34
Js
elementary charge e 1.6021766208 x 10 -19
C
magnetic flux quantum φ0 2.067833831 x 10-15 Wb
conductance quantum G0 7.7480917310 x 10 -5
S
electron mass me 9.10938356 x 10-31 kg
proton mass mp 1.672621898 x 10 -27
kg
fine-structure constant (e2/4πε0hc) α 7.2973525664 x 10-3
inverse fine-structure constant 1/α 137.035999139
Avagadro constant NA 6.022140857 x 1023 mol-1
Faraday constant NAe F 96485.33289 C/mol
molar gas constant R 8.3144598 J/mol-1 K-1
Boltzmann constant, R/NA k 1.38064852 x 10-23 JK-1

Volume 70, Number 3, September 2018 153

Article
The Fine Tuning of the Universe: Evidence for the Existence of God?
Substituting the values in equation 2 for h, c, G, me, two bodies like those found around “black smok-
mp and e (with units adjusted as required) allows ers” on the ocean floor, or thermal gradients due to
equation 2 to be evaluated to give radioactive decay. However, the greatest intensity of
5.9 x 10-39 > 2.0 x 10-39 (3) radiation from the sun occurs at the place of greatest
biological utility. Is this another remarkable coinci-
In what is either an amazing coincidence or careful dence, or another example of carefully crafted design
design by an intelligent Creator, these constants have in the functionality of the universe?
the very precise values relative to each other that
are necessary to give a universe in which radiation Happily, our star (the sun) emits radiation (light)
from the sun is tuned to drive the necessary chemi- that is finely tuned to drive the chemical reactions
cal reactions that are essential for life. This result is necessary for life. But there is still a critical poten-
illustrated in figure 2, where the intensity of radia- tial problem: getting that radiation from the sun
tion from the sun and the biological utility of the to the place where the chemical reactions occur.
radiation are shown as a function of the wavelength Passing through the near vacuum of space is no
of radiation.32 While thermal energy from the sun is problem. However, absorption of light by either the
the primary source of energy for living systems on earth’s atmosphere or by water where the necessary
planet Earth, it is worth noting that there are several chemical reactions occur, could render life on Earth
less common sources as well. Hot thermal vents in impossible. It is remarkable that both the earth’s
the oceans, for example, have provided the energy atmosphere and water have “optical windows”
needed to supply simple life forms that are beyond that allow visible light (just the radiation necessary
the reach of sunlight. Other less common sources for life on Earth) to pass through with very little
of energy for living systems include chemical gra- absorption, whereas shorter wavelength (destruc-
dients in oceans, gravitational interactions between tive ultraviolet radiation) and longer wavelength

radiant radiant
energy energy
output biological
of sun utility

gamma visible-infrared radio waves gamma visible-infrared radio waves

10-16 109 10-16 109
Electromagnetic spectrum (wavelengths in microns) Electromagnetic spectrum (wavelengths in microns)

radiant absorption
energy by water
absorbed relative
by the units
atmosphere

gamma visible-infrared radio waves gamma visible-infrared radio waves

10-16 109 10-16 109
Figure 2. The visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (~ 1 micron) is the most intense radiation from the sun (upper, left): has the
greatest biological utility (upper, right); and passes through the atmosphere of Earth (lower, left) and water (lower, right) with almost no
absorption. It is uniquely this same wavelength of radiation that is ideal to foster the chemistry of life. This is either a truly amazing series
of coincidences or else the result of careful design.

154 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith

 Walter L. Bradley

(infrared) ­radiation are both highly absorbed, as seen to form helium, then helium fuses to produce beryl-
in figure 2. This allows solar energy in the form of lium, and so forth.35
light to reach the reacting chemicals in the universal
solvent, which is water. The Encyclopaedia Britannica Within the nucleus, an even more precise balanc-
observes in this regard, “Considering the importance ing of the strong force and the electromagnetic force
of visible sunlight for all aspects of terrestrial life, allows for a universe with an abundance of organic
one cannot help being awed by the dramatically nar- building blocks, including both carbon and oxygen.36
row window in the atmospheric absorption … and in Carbon serves as the universal connector for organic
the absorption spectrum of water.”33 life and is an optimal reactant with almost every
other element, forming bonds that are stable but not
It is remarkable that the optical properties of water too stable, allowing compounds to readily be formed
and of our atmosphere, the chemical bonding ener- and also to be disassembled. Oxygen is a component
gies of the chemicals of life, and the radiation from of water, the necessary universal solvent in which
our sun are all precisely harmonized to allow liv- life chemistry can occur. This explains why people
ing systems to utilize energy from the sun, without first look for signs of organic molecules (ones con-
which life could not exist. It is analogous to your car, taining carbon atoms) and signs that Mars once had
which can run using only gasoline as a fuel. Happily, water when they speculate about life on Mars.
but not accidentally, the service station has an ample
supply of exactly the right fuel for your automobile. Quantum physics examines the most minute energy
But someone had to drill for and produce the oil, exchanges at the deepest levels of the cosmic order.
someone had to refine it into liquid fuel (gasoline) Only certain energy levels are permitted within
that has been carefully optimized for your internal nuclei-like steps on a ladder. If the mass-energy
combustion engine, and others had to truck it to your for two colliding particles results in a combined
service station. The production and transportation of mass-energy that is equal to or slightly less than a
the right energy from the sun for metabolic motors of permissible energy level on the quantum “energy
plants and animals is much more remarkable. ladder,” then the two nuclei will readily stick
together or fuse on collision, with the energy differ-
Finally, without this unique window of light trans- ence needed to reach the step being supplied by the
mission through the atmosphere of Earth and combined kinetic energy of the colliding particles.
through water, made possible by the intricate frame- If this mass-energy level for combined particles is
work of “just right” universal constants, vision exactly right, then the collisions are said to have reso-
would be impossible and sight-communication nance, which is to say that there is a high efficiency
would cease, since living tissue and eyes are com- within the collisions. On the other hand, if the com-
posed mainly of water. bined mass-kinetic energy results are a value that is
slightly higher than one of the permissible energy
levels on the energy ladder, then the particles will
Nuclear Strong Force and simply bounce off each other rather than fusing (i.e.,
Electromagnetic Force sticking together).
The nuclear strong force is the strongest force within
nature, occurring at the subatomic level to bind pro- It is clear that the step sizes between quantum nuclear
tons and neutrons within atomic nuclei.34 Were we energy levels depends on the balance between the
to increase the ratio of the strong force to electro- strong force and the electromagnetic force, and these
magnetic force by only 3.4%, the result would be a steps must be tuned to the mass-energy levels of
universe with no hydrogen, no long-lived stars that various nuclei for resonance to occur and give an
burn hydrogen, and no water (a molecule composed efficient conversion by fusion of lighter elements into
of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom), our carbon, oxygen, and heavier elements.
“universal solvent” for life. Likewise, a decrease of
only nine percent in the strong force relative to the Distinguished cosmologist George Ellis concluded
electromagnetic force would decimate the periodic his article in Scientific American as follows: “The laws
table of elements. Such a change would prevent of nature exhibit an incredibly unlikely degree of
deuterons from forming from the combination of fine tuning that is required to produce a life-friendly
protons and neutrons. Deuterons, in turn, combine universe.”37

Volume 70, Number 3, September 2018 155

Article
The Fine Tuning of the Universe: Evidence for the Existence of God?
In 1953, Sir Fred Hoyle et al. predicted the existence Balancing the Nuclear Weak Coupling Force
of the unknown resonance energy level for carbon, The weak force governs certain interactions at the
and it was subsequently confirmed through experi- subatomic or nuclear level. If the weak force cou-
mentation.38 In 1982, Hoyle offered a very insightful pling constant were slightly larger, neutrons would
summary of the significance he attached to his decay more rapidly, reducing the production of deu-
remarkable predictions. terons, and thus of helium and elements with heavier
From 1953 onward, Willy Fowler and I have been nuclei. On the other hand, if the weak force coupling
intrigued by the remarkable relation of the 7.65 constant were slightly weaker, the big bang would
MeV energy level in the nucleus of 12 C to the have burned almost all of the hydrogen into helium,
7.12 MeV level in 16 O. If you wanted to produce with the ultimate outcome being a universe with
carbon and oxygen in roughly equal quantities by little or no hydrogen and many heavier elements
stellar nucleo-synthesis, these are the two levels instead. This would leave no long-lived stars and no
you would have to fix, and your fixing would have hydrogen-containing compounds, especially water.
to be just where these levels are actually found In 1991, Reinhard Breuer noted that the appropriate
to be. Another put-up job? Following the above mix of hydrogen and helium to provide hydrogen-
argument, I am inclined to think so. A common containing compounds, long-term stars, and heavier
sense interpretation of the facts suggests that a elements is approximately 75% hydrogen and 25%
super intellect has “monkeyed” with the physics as helium, which is just what we find in our universe.42
well as the chemistry and biology, and there are no
blind forces worth speaking about in nature.39 This is obviously an illustrative—but not exhaus-
tive—list of cosmic “coincidences.” Clearly, the four
Rest Masses of Elemental Particles forces in nature and the universal constants must be
Scientists have been surprised to discover the very carefully calibrated or scaled to provide a uni-
extraordinary tuning of the masses of elementary verse that satisfies the key requirements for life that
particles to each other and to the forces of nature. have been enumerated on the original initial “needs
Stephen Hawking has noted that the difference in the statement”: for example, elemental diversity, an
rest mass of the neutron and the rest mass of the pro- abundance of oxygen and carbon, and a long-term
ton must be approximately equal to twice the mass of energy source (our sun) that is precisely matched
the electron. The mass-energy of the proton is 938.28 to the bonding strength of organic molecules with
MeV and the mass-energy of the neutron is 939.57 a minimal absorption by water in Earth’s terrestrial
MeV. The mass-energy of the electron is 0.51 MeV, or atmosphere. John Wheeler, Professor of Physics at
approximately half of the difference in neutron and Princeton, in discussing these observations claimed:
proton mass-energies, just as Hawking indicated it “The necessity to produce life lies at the center of the
must be.40 If the mass-energy of the proton plus the universe’s whole machinery and design … Slight
mass-energy of the electron were not slightly smaller variations in physical laws such as gravity or electro-
than the mass-energy of the neutron, then electrons magnetism would make life impossible.”43
would combine with protons to form neutrons, with
all atomic structures collapsing, leaving an inhospi-
table world composed only of neutrons. Initial Conditions
The “big bang” follows the physics of any explosion,
On the other hand, if this difference were larger, then though on an inconceivably large scale. The criti-
neutrons would all decay into protons and electrons, cal boundary condition for the big bang is its initial
leaving a world of pure hydrogen, since neutrons are velocity. If the velocity is too fast, the matter in the
necessary for protons to combine to build heavier universe expands too quickly, and never condenses
nuclei and the associate elements. As things stand, into planets, stars, and galaxies. If the initial veloc-
the neutron is just heavy enough to ensure that the ity is too slow, the universe expands only for a short
big bang would yield one neutron to every seven time and then quickly collapses under the influ-
protons, allowing for an abundant supply of hydro- ence of gravity. Well-accepted cosmological models
gen for star fuel and enough neutrons to build up tell us that the initial velocity must be specified to
the heavier elements in the universe.41 Again, a a precision of 1/1060. Newer models tell us that the
meticulous inner “design” assures a universe with initial velocity needs to be specified to 1/10123.44
long-term sources of energy and elemental diversity. Furthermore, the ratio of the gravitational energy to

156 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith

 Walter L. Bradley

the kinetic energy must be equal with a variation of 1996 book Climbing Mount Improbable, by comparing
no more than one part in 100,000. While these num- particular, designed artifacts with similar accidents
bers may change over time, all possible models of in nature.45 Dawkins illustrates the concept of design
the big bang will contain boundary conditions of a by comparing the example of Mount Rushmore upon
remarkably specific nature that cannot simply be which are carved the clearly recognizable images of
described as “fortuitous.” It is clear that the initial Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson,
conditions for a “big bang beginning” for the uni- Abraham Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt (fig. 3)
verse are very demanding in their required precision. to a naturally occurring rock in Hawaii that casts a
shadow that resembles President John F. Kennedy
(fig. 4), illustrating the difference between an acci-
By Many Measures, Nature Appears dental occurrence and an artifact that was the result
to Be Finely Tuned of design and execution. Obviously, one could con-
There are literally hundreds of examples of fine tun- firm this interpretation by carefully examining the
ing that seem to be essential to enable the universe surfaces of both images. One would have marks from
to have the many features that are essential for com- chisels and dynamite utilized by the sculptor Gutzon
plex, conscious life. What remains to be explained is Borglum, while the other would have a surface that
how the universe just happens to have this remark- was the result of natural weathering since there was
able combination of particular laws of nature with no designer. The sheer number of details in which
(1) just the right mathematical form, (2) universal the Mount Rushmore sculptured faces resemble the
constants that must be and are remarkably precise, four presidents testifies to the presence of an intelli-
and (3) mind-boggling initial conditions that our uni- gent agent, a human sculptor. No one could seriously
verse satisfies with amazing specificity. attribute these magnificent faces to the “creative”
forces of wind, rain, sleet, and hail.

Metaphysical Implications of Generally, design is associated with complexity,

Fine Tuning which can sometimes be quantified with information
“Finely tuned” is a description of how our universe content. To specify the three-dimensional topog-
appears that is widely accepted in the scientific com- raphy of Mount Rushmore requires orders of
munity. This observation raises the very interesting magnitude more pieces of information than that
question of why the universe is finely tuned. Is required to create a two-dimensional silhouette with
there a fine tuner? The remainder of this article will minimum features that looks like John Kennedy, but
explore this metaphysical question: namely, does only when viewed from a certain direction. What
fine tuning point to an intelligent agency, a super- does the nature of nature previously presented in
natural fine tuner? this article suggest about the origin of our magnifi-
cent universe?
Richard Dawkins, a British zoologist and one of the
world’s foremost apologists for classical Darwinism This second level of examination to be used to inter-
and atheism, addressed the question of design in his pret the fine-tuning data is called “abduction,”46 or

Figure 3. Mount Rushmore Figure 4. Rock in Hawaii

Volume 70, Number 3, September 2018 157

Article
The Fine Tuning of the Universe: Evidence for the Existence of God?
“inference to the best explanation,” which is a means highlight the growing criticism of positing a multi-
of justifying a hypothesis when there is insufficient verse, asserting that it is an audacious claim that can
data for the claim to have the warrant of an estab- be neither confirmed nor refuted by experimental
lished theory. This approach allows one to posit a observations.49 Alan Lightman, a professor of physics
(maybe very) tentative hypothesis, while avoiding at MIT, confesses in his excellent book, The Accidental
the erroneous claim that you cannot know anything Universe, that he is an atheist who accepts the exis-
about a question unless you have a much greater tence of a multiverse because he finds the arguments
amount of data. for fine tuning very persuasive and the multiverse
seems to be the only alternative, acknowledging that
this must be taken by faith as we cannot see outside
Proclivities of Theists and Atheists in our own universe.50 This is an example of how the
Interpreting the Fine-Tuning Data remarkable fine tuning in our universe is taken seri-
Theists believe that God can choose to act by per- ously by a thoughtful atheist.
forming miracles (God acting in some extraordinary,
unpatterned ways that are not described by the laws One of the most compelling arguments for fine tun-
of nature). They also believe that God can choose to ing comes from a leading string theorist, Leonard
act in his customary (patterned) ways, as described Susskind, in the foreword to his 2005 book The
by the so-called laws of nature. Alternatively, Cosmic Landscape.
God can choose to act in some combination of pat- The real mystery raised by modern cosmology
terned and extraordinary ways to create a suitable concerns a silent “elephant in the room,” an
habitat for human beings. Some theists believe that elephant in the room I might add, that has been a
God chose to work only in his customary way (as huge embarrassment to physicists: why is it that
described by the laws of nature) in the creation of the universe has all of the appearances of having
our universe, while ­others believe that he chose to been specially designed just so that life forms like
use some combination of miracles and processes. us can exist. This puzzled scientists and at the
same time encouraged those who prefer the false
Atheists believe that there is no God, and that all comfort of a creationist myth … In the past most
explanations of phenomena in nature will in due physicists (including me) have chosen to ignore
course be found to have “natural” explanations that the elephant—even to deny its existence. They
describe the autonomous functioning of nature. preferred to believe that nature’s laws follow from
Some, like Victor Stenger in his book The Fallacy of some elegant mathematical principle and that the
Fine Tuning: Why the Universe Is Not Designed for Us, apparent design of the universe is merely a lucky
seek to dispute the claims that the universe is fine accident. But recent discoveries in astronomy,
tuned.47 Michael Strauss has provided an excellent cosmology, and above all, String Theory have left
critique of Stenger’s book, showing in detail why theoretical physicists little choice but to think about
Stenger’s claim that there is no fine tuning is clearly these things.51
wrong.48
Paul Steinhardt, Albert Einstein Professor in Science
(Princeton) and Director of the Princeton Center for
Many scientists (including atheists) seem to implic-
Theoretical Science, made some extraordinary claims
itly accept the evidence for fine tuning in the
in an interview with science writer John Horgan that
universe, responding to the overwhelming evidence
was published in Scientific American, December 1,
for fine tuning by embracing the idea of a multi-
2014.52 Steinhardt complained that inflation theory,
verse. If there actually are 10500 universes produced
which he helped to create in 1982, was “developed”
by inflation and if each universe has a different set
in part to “create” a multiverse that was in turn
of “natural laws,” universal constants, and initial
­motivated by the desire to account for “fine tun-
conditions, then fine tuning by accident becomes
ing” in our universe by predicting an almost infinite
more plausible. However, there are serious ­questions
number of alternative universes besides our own,
­
about the ­existence of a multiverse, since it is impos-
with one or more having universal constants with
sible to “see” outside our own universe. In an
the necessary values to permit life. Steinhardt said,
editorial entitled “A Crisis at the Edge of Physics,” in
“The fact that we had to introduce fine tuning (into
The New York Times (June 5, 2015), Adam Frank and
the inflation model) to remove the “fine tuning” (that
Marcelo Gleiser (based on a recent article in Nature),

158 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith

 Walter L. Bradley

we see in our universe) was worrisome. This prob- Creator God, who can be seen through “the things
lem has never been resolved.” Since inflation theory that have been made, so that those who do not
requires new physical laws and new finely tuned believe are without excuse” (Rom. 1:20). 
constants, it did not resolve the challenge of account-
ing for fine tuning. It only pushes fine tuning down
one level.
Notes
1
John D. Barrow and Frank J. Tipler, The Anthropic Cos-
mological Principle (New York: Oxford University Press,
What about the “God-of-the-Gaps” 1988).
Problem? John Leslie, Universes (New York: Routledge, 1989).
2
3
Paul Davies, The Accidental Universe (Cambridge, UK:
It is difficult to do justice to this extremely impor- Cambridge University Press, 1982).
tant question in the limited remaining space for this 4
Paul Davies, The Cosmic Blueprint (Portsmouth, NH:
essay. Fortunately, this topic has been thoughtfully Heinemann, 1988).
5
John Gribbin and Martin Rees, Cosmic Coincidences (New
addressed in articles in this journal, Perspectives on York: Bantam Books, 1989).
Science and Christian Faith. Randy Isaac highlights 6
Reinhard Breuer, The Anthropic Principle: Man as the Focal
his reasons for avoiding fine-tuning arguments Point of Nature, trans. Harry Newman and Mark Lowery
as his primary support of biblical theism, but sees (Cambridge, MA: Birkhäuser Boston, 1991).
7
Gilles Cohen-Tannoudji, Universal Constants in Physics,
fine tuning as consistent with and reinforcing his trans. Patricia Thickstun (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993).
faith commitment to biblical theism.53 Ron Larson, 8
Paul Davies, The Goldilocks Enigma: Why Is the Universe Just
Jack Collins, and David Snoke argue in different Right for Life? (New York: Penguin Books, 2006).
9
Paul Davies, Cosmic Jackpot: Why Our Universe Is Just Right
ways that we should be mindful of the God-of-the-
for Life (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2007).
gaps mistakes that can and have been made in the 10
John D. Barrow, The Constants of Nature: The Numbers That
past so as not to repeat them. They offer clear direc- Encode the Deepest Secrets of the Universe (New York: Vin-
tions on ways that this can be done.54 I would add tage Books, 2002).
11
Hugh Ross, Why the Universe Is the Way It Is (Grand Rap-
one additional approach that I have used in this ids, MI: Baker Books, 2008).
article. If one frames the discussion of God’s work 12
Martin Rees, Just Six Numbers: The Deep Forces That Shape
in nature more carefully, the God-of-the-gaps con- the Universe (New York: Basic Books, 2000).
cern can be minimized. God’s work in nature in his
13
Alister E. McGrath, A Fine Tuned Universe: The Quest for
God in Science and Theology (Louisville, KY: John Knox
customary patterned way (what we call the laws of Press, 2009).
nature), should be distinguished from God working 14
Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinow, The Grand
in some extraordinary way, which may be viewed as Design (New York: Bantam Books, 2010), 9–10.
15
Peter J. Mohr, David B. Newell, Barry N. Taylor,
a miracle. “CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental
Physical Constants: 2014,” Reviews of Modern Physics 88,
Features in nature such as fine tuning can tentatively no. 3 (26 September 2016): 035009, https://link.aps.org
be assumed to be the consequence of God working /doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.88.035009.
16
Peter D. Ward and Donald Brownlee, Rare Earth: Why
in an extraordinary way. However, the discovery of
Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe (New York:
the Grand Theory of Everything would not change Copernicus Books, 2000).
my belief in God, but only my view of how God cre- 17
Ibid., 37.
ated and operates creation. It changes the question,
18
George F. R. Ellis, “Does the Multiverse Really Exist?,”
Scientific American 305, no. 2 (August 2011): 38–43.
“Did God do it or did nature do it autonomously?” 19
Richard Dawkins, Climbing Mount Improbable (New York:
to an a priori assumption that God did it, with the Norton, 1996), 2–4.
remaining question, “How did God do it—in his cus- 20
Ibid.
tomary way (sometimes called the laws of nature),
21
Johannes Kepler, De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus,
Thesis XX (1601).
or in some extraordinary way (sometimes called a 22
Galileo Galilei; this comment is widely attributed to Gali-
miracle)?” leo, but without reference.
23
Morris Kline, Mathematics: The Loss of Certainty (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1980).
Conclusion 24
Ibid., 52.
Does our universe look more like Mt. Rushmore
25
Eugene Wigner, “The Unreasonable Effectiveness of
Mathematics in the Physical Sciences,” Communications on
(fig. 3) or the rock in Hawaii (fig. 4)? The “nature of Pure and Applied Mathematics 13, no. 1 (1960): 1–14.
nature,” especially fine tuning, provides clear and 26
Albert Einstein, Letters to Solovine (New York: Philosophi-
compelling evidence for our all-powerful, loving cal Library, 1987), 131.

Volume 70, Number 3, September 2018 159

Article
The Fine Tuning of the Universe: Evidence for the Existence of God?
27
R. Courant and D. Hilbert, Methods of Mathematical Phys- 46
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, substantive revision,
ics, vol. 2, Partial Differential Equations (New York: John April 28, 2017, s.v. “Abduction.”
Wiley & Sons, 1966), 765–66. 47
Victor J. Stenger, The Fallacy of Fine Tuning: Why the Uni-
28
Paul Davies, Superforce: The Search for a Grand Unified The- verse Is Not Designed for Us (Amherst, NY: Prometheus),
ory of Nature (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984), 243. 2011.
29
Fred Hoyle, Religion and the Scientists, quoted in Barrow 48
Michael Strauss, blog, http://www.michaelgstrauss.com
and Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, 22. /2017/07/is-fine-tuning-fallacy.html.
30
Leslie, Universes, 36–39. 49
Adam Frank and Marcelo Gleiser, “A Crisis at the Edge
31
Barrow and Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, of Physics,” New York Times, June 5, 2015, New York
336. edition, SR5, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/07
32
Michael Denton, Nature’s Destiny: How the Laws of Biology /opinion/a-crisis-at-the-edge-of-physics.html.
Reveal Purpose in the Universe (New York: The Free Press, 50
Alan Lightman, The Accidental Universe: The World You
1998), 54–57. Thought You Knew (New York: Vintage Books, 2014), 1–22.
33
Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 18, 15th edition (1994): 200. 51
Leonard Susskind, The Cosmic Landscape: String Theory and
34
Barrow and Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, the Illusion of Intelligent Design (New York: Little, Brown &
322. Company, 2005), x, xi.
35
S. W. Hawking, “Is the End in Sight for Theoretical Phys- 52
John Horgan, “Physicist Slams Cosmic Theory He Helped
ics?,” Physics Bulletin 32, no. 32 (1981): 15–17. Conceive,” Scientific American (December 1, 2014), https://
36
Leslie, Universes, 35–40. blogs.scientificamerican.com/cross-check/physicist
37
Ellis, “Does the Multiverse Really Exist?,” 43. -slams-cosmic-theory-he-helped-conceive/.
38
F. Hoyle et al., “The 7.68-MeV State in C12,” Physics Review 53
Randy Isaac, “From Gaps to God,” Perspectives on Science
92 (1953): 649. and Christian Faith 57, no. 3 (2005): 230–33.
39
F. Hoyle, “The Universe: Past and Present Reflections,” 54
Ronald Larson, “Revisiting the God of the Gaps,” Perspec-
Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 20 (1982): 16. tives on Science and Christian Faith 61, no. 1 (2009): 13–22;
Hawking, “Is the End in Sight for Theoretical Physics?,” ———, “Design or the Multiverse?,” Perspectives on Science
40

15. and Christian Faith 63, no. 1 (2011): 42–47; Jack Collins,
41
Barrow and Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, “Miracles, Intelligent Design, and God-of-the-Gaps,”
371. Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 55, no. 1 (2003):
42
Breuer, The Anthropic Principle, 102. 22–29; David Snoke, “In Favor of God-of-the-Gaps Rea-
43
John Wheeler, quoted in John Boslough, “Inside the Mind soning,” Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 53, no. 3
of John Wheeler,” Reader’s Digest (September 1986): 107. (2001): 152–58.
44
William Lane Craig, “Design and the Anthropic Fine-
Tuning of the Universe,” in God and Design, ed. Neil A.
ASA Members: Submit comments and questions on this article
Manson (New York: Routledge, 2003), 157.
at www.asa3.org→RESOURCES→Forums→PSCF Discussion.
45
Dawkins, Climbing Mount Improbable, 5.

Conference ‘19
ba ltimore·m ar c h 27-29, 2019
Join hundreds of Christians for Beyond Conflict: Science,
Faith, and the Big Questions, featuring John Ortberg, church
historian Justo González, and world-class scholars and
communicators who will explore some of the most pressing
questions at the interface of science and Christian faith.
John Ortberg Justo González
conference.biologos.org

160 Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith