The lost arts of India:

Mathura and Gandhara School of Art

India’s art history evolved into an autonomous disciplinary activity from its common
roots with archaeology in the nineteenth century. This maturation of the discipline,
as well as its ever-expanding scope and object domain, has led it to engage with
issues that intersect with Archaeology, History, Anthropology, Art Conservation,
Archival, and Museum Studies, as well as other specialized fields of research like
Film, Theatre, and Performance Studies.
In the volume, Himanshu Prabha Ray's "Questioning Art History: Locating
Religious Identities" raises methodological problems about the colonial legacy of
an object-centred approach in Indian art history, which has remained detached from
its Asian moorings more often than not. She emphasizes the need of viewing
Indian art and architecture within an Asian cultural context that
connects Asian art forms' shared history.
During the Kushana period (late 1st century – 3rd Century CE), the
Afghanistan- Gandhara region and the Mathura emerged as two major
centres of artistic activity. We’d be discussing both the major schools of arts,
Gandhara and Mathura school of art in detail going forward.
According to S.R Dar, “An understanding of Gandhara art remains problematic
because scholars writing on the subject have done so from the perspective of their
own biases. West writers judged Gandhara art from the measure of Classical,
Roman, or Early Christian art, whereas South Asian scholars either followed their
European contemporaries or else regarded it as an intruder in the mainstream of
indigenous art. The result is that today Gandhara art is, in essence, disowned. That
is, it is generally regarded as neither Western nor even Indian despite its Indian
origins. The fundamental history of Gandhara art thus has yet to be resolved.”
Gandhara is likely the most well-known of the western Asiatic nations to those who
are already familiar with South Asian art traditions. Gandhara is situated on
both sides of the Indus River in the northwestern section of the Indian
subcontinent. Peshawar Valley, Svat, Buner, and Bajjora were all
included. Gandhara art thrived mostly in Afghanistan and present-day North-
Western India. Taxila, Peshawar, Begram, and Bamiyan were among the most
prominent sites. Other main centres from where the art pieces of Gandhara School
have been found are Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran.
The Gandhara school thrived between the 1st and 5th centuries CE, and it was
practiced in portions of Kashmir and Afghanistan until the 7th century. The
first impetus was most likely provided during the Indo-Bactrian era, although
activity peaked in the first two centuries CE. According to Upinder Singh, the
stylistic similarities, as well as variations, are a reflection of the
contribution of various ateliers. Some historians are of the view that the
Gandhara school shows little evidence of stylistic change over time. However, it is
possible that the changes haven’t been properly studied. The striking feature of the
Gandhara School of art shows a very realistic and natural depiction of features in
perfection.
There are two schools of Gandhara art: early and later. Blue-grey schist
stone was used to create idols during the early school, which existed during the first
and second centuries A.D. In the beginning, blueschist and green phyllite were
the main material focused upon by the sculptors. The idols were made out of mud,
lime, pilaster, and stucco (lime plaster) in the later school, rather than schist
stone around 1st century CE, and it had mostly completely replaced stone by the 3rd
Century. These idols realistically depict the human figure, with limbs and other
bodily organs clearly shown. They have crisp features and are anatomically correct.
Gandhara School of Art can be said as an influence and culmination of both the
Indian as well as foreign traditions due to its strategic location. Gandhara School,
like the Kushana coinage, has a high level of syncretism. It had Indian elements, yet
it was done in a Graeco-Roman manner. The halo surrounding Lord
Buddha's head, Buddha's wavy hair, the forehead lines, Ornaments, and
the drape and style of the robes all show the Greco-Roman influence on
Gandhara art. Images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were popular subjects, leading
to the term Greco-Buddhist Art.
According to John C. Huntington, the general Hellenistic milieu in western Asia
during the first century BC and the first century AD was invariably seen as direct
Greek or Roman influence by early investigators. “Asian Hellenism" was owed to
Iranian, Scythian, and other traditions as well as a Greek and Roman
legacy that was regularly influenced by new infusions from the
Mediterranean realm. The outcome was a genuinely worldwide synthesis, both in
terms of ideas and aesthetic breakthroughs in art, when combined with forms and
notions popular in the Indie culture.
Scholars have debated whether the classical influence on Gandhara art was Greek,
Roman, or Early Christian from the beginning. The level of classical influence
was also a point of contention. The usage of terminologies like "Greco-Roman" or
"Classical" to describe the sculptures was meant to be a compromise. Alexander
Cunningham, James Burgess, Albert Griinwedel, Alfred Foucher, and
John Marshall were among those who campaigned for a pure Greek
influence on Gandhara art, or at least a largely Greek impact. Gandhara
art, according to Griinwedel, is based on Greek compositional rules. Foucher, the
most ardent proponent of Greek influence on Gandhara art, saw two opposite
expansions: Hellenism's eastward growth and Buddhism's westward expansion.
The facial features and curly or wavy hair, the strong torso, and the
delicate, finely outlined folds of the robes all have Graeco-Roman
influences. Standing Buddha images are fairly popular, and they generally contain
the following characteristics: the Buddha is barefoot and one leg is slightly
bent. Many depictions of the Buddha reclining in meditation were made by the
Gandhara school.
At least one expert believed that Roman, rather than Greek, influenced Gandhara
art as early as 1875. W. Vaux was there at the time, and he was shortly
followed by William Simpson, V.A. Smith, and J. Fergusson. According to
them, Roman and Early Christian art were the established forms in the civilized
world when Gandhara art flourished under the Kushans in the 2nd century, and
standing images of the Buddha and narrative friezes are evocative of Roman works.
Scholars from Italy, Japan, Germany, and Pakistan have examined and
excavated sites in the Swat, Dir, Mardan, and Peshawar districts, as well
as the Gilgit-Hunza region. New museums have been constructed in numerous
locations, and wonderful new collections have been uncovered and cataloged. But,
more crucially, the material has been subjected to fresh methodologies and views.
There is no longer a debate about whether Gandhara art is Indian or non-Indian, and
there is little interest in determining whether the art is Roman or Greek in origin.
Scholars refer to the art simply as Gandhara art, rather than using terms like Greco-
Buddhist or Romano-Buddhist, which indicate a foreign origin.
A metal reliquary discovered in a big demolished stupa at Shah-ji-ki-
dheri provides evidence of Gandhara art. Buddha, Kusama kings, and flying
geese are shown (symbolic of wandering monks). Images of Bodhisattvas are
put in niches for adoration on the drum of the Chira Stupa in Taxila.
Images of Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and occurrences from their lives have been carved
out of the Sehribhelol Stupa's ramparts of miniature pillars. There were many
additional facets of Gandhara art. At Bimaran, for example, a gold reliquary
with a sequence of figures within an arcade was discovered. Ivory
plaques have also been discovered in Begram.
Mathura was among north India's most important cities. It was the Kushanas'
southern capital and a major hub of crafts and trade, as well as religious
and cultural activities. Mathura flourished as a significant hub of creative
pursuits in the centuries before and after the Christian era, but it has also long been
revered as a center of Indian religion and culture. Brahmanism, Hinduism,
Buddhism, and Jainism all flourished there at the same time, sometimes in
harmony, sometimes in strife. These characteristics of Mathura have helped us to put
the land's cultural history into context and to investigate earlier perspectives.
Mathura's beginnings may be dated back to the second century B.C. By the first
century A.D., it had not only established itself as a significant center of art, but its
works were also in high demand in other parts of the world. Mathura school of art
created a range of sculptures and other works of art for Buddhist, Jaina,
and Brahmanical religious adherents throughout a roughly 400-year
period.
Mathura art is known for producing depictions of monarchs and other notables,
similar to Afghanistan during the Kushana period. A few of the sculptures discovered
in the Mathura area may be dated to the Saka dynasty's reign, however, the
majority of Mathura's works are from the Kushana and subsequent periods.
The Mathura School of Art flourished further in the Gupta period when the
Buddhist sculptures had sharp and beautiful features, graceful and slim bodies, with
several folds of transparent drapery.
Sculptors from the Mathura school of art originally worked with red sandstone
mined nearby in Sikri. Although the iconography of the Mathura sculptures is
comparable to those of the northwest, the styles are substantially distinct. It is
entirely self-contained and bears no traces of outside influence. The Mathura
style may be considered as a continuation of the sculpting traditions of places like
Besnagar, Sanchi, and Bharhut. Yakshas, yakshis, Nagas, nagis, Buddhas
and bodhisattvas, Jaina Tirthankaras, and Hindu deities were among the
subjects.
The painters of Mathura dealt with a wide range of subjects, and, like in Sanchi and
Bharhut, they included natural elements into their work. Another interesting
feature of this style is that the votive pillars showed varied life cycles. We have
scenes of men and women gathering flowers in woodlands, ladies playing with cranes
or presenting fruits to birds, and women playing in gardens and water tanks, for
example. The votive pillars from 'KankaliTila' show how the sculptor have used
feminine beauty in his work.
Mathura's rich history may be seen in both literary and archaeological relics. A vast
number of Brahmanical, Jain, and Buddhist establishments have been
reported since the initial fortuitous discovery of the So-called Silenus group and
the rail post displaying the lady with a cage in 1836. Some of these were then
utilized for other uses, and this practice persisted until the present day.
In the early centuries CE, iconographic norms for depictions of several Hindu
deities were created. Images of Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Durga, and Lakshmi
have been discovered among the numerous stone sculptures excavated in the
Mathura region. Early shiva pictures from the area clearly reveal a rich, albeit
formative, iconographic background. Shiva is shown alone or with the Nandi
bull, as well as Shiva with his spouse Parvati in many incarnations.
In Mathura, a number of Yaksha and Yakshini images have been uncovered. All
three religions - Buddhism, Jainism, and Brahmanism - are linked to them. Another
deity shown with a big belly was Kubera. Sculptures of Kartikeya, Vishnu,
Sarasvati, Kubera, and other gods, including Naga representations, were
popular throughout the Kushana period.
A number of Buddhist relics have been discovered in the Bhuteshwara temple,
which has been a Shaiva center since the Middle Ages. Several sitting Buddha statues
from the Mathura school are still extant. The Buddha sat on a throne cross-
legged, his right hand elevated in the Abhaya mudra. His hair is curly or
shaved on his head. He also had a coiled ushnisha, however, because of the quality of
the relief, it is hard to tell whether he also had an urna.
Separate pictures of the Bodhisattvas, particularly Maitreya, Vajrapani, and
Avalokiteshvara, are also available. Artists in Mathura also sculpted reliefs
depicting incidents from the Buddha's life. The Mathura style is also
represented by a huge Buddha figure unearthed at Sarnath. Several Buddhist statues
known as Huvishka Vihara have been discovered on the Jail or Jamalpur
mound. According to the inscription, this was also a Naga temple of
Dadhikarna Naga before this Vihara or at the same period.
The legend of the Mathura Jain stupa's antiquity may be found in Jinaprabha
Suri's Tirtha Kalpa or Raja Prasada, a 14th-century contract. Accordingly,
the goddess Kubera, at the request of two teachers, Dharmaruchi and
Dharmaghosha, donated the original gold and precious stone stupa to
the 7th Tirthankara Suparsva. The golden stupa was afterward enclosed in
bricks and a stone temple was erected under the reign of the 23rd Jina,
Parshvanatha. Parshvanatha is considered a historical figure, and his time period is
estimated to be about the eighth century B.C. In addition, a great number of Jain
pictures were discovered in Mathura's Kankali Tila. A pillar fragment with
four standing Tirthankaras with extended arms carved on all four sides was one of
them.
Big images of Kushana Kings and other notables like Kanishka, Wima, and
Chastana were discovered in Mathura's Mat hamlet. Many Scythian
dignitaries' heads have also been discovered at Mat. These findings suggest that
Mathura was the most significant center of the Kushana empire's eastern region.
Mathura art styles eventually had a key role in the creation of Gupta art forms.
Mathura was a key artistic style-setter in north India, and paintings made there were
sent to places like Kausambhi, Ahichchhatra, and Sarnath, as well as
Mahasthangarh in the east. The abundance of symbols, colorful patterns, and
shapes is a distinguishing feature of Mathura art.
Various differences between the Gandhara and Mathura schools of art included
religious and foreign influences, i.e., while the Gandhara school of art showcased
Graeco-Roman influence, Mathura school of art was purely indigenous with
little to no foreign influences. Buddhism and Hellenistic realism was the
prominent theme for the Gandhara school of art and on the other hand, Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism, and Secularism were the major themes in the Mathura
school of art. The important materials used in the making of the art form were
Bluish-grey sandstone and grey sandstone in Gandhara school of art and
spotted red sandstone in Mathura school of art.
The major key difference in both the art form was the features of Buddha
Sculptures. Key features of the Buddha depicted in the Gandhara school of art were
Less ornamentation, great detailing, Buddha in various yogi postures
and phases i.e., sad, spiritual, etc. Greek factors like wavy hair, large
forehead, and long ears were also some prominent features. Mathura school of
art showed features such as shaven head and face, seated in Padmasana,
Halo around the head of Buddha decorated with geometrical motifs, and
the standing Buddhas of the Sravasti, Sarnath, and Kausambhi.
Indian activities during this period were also influenced by art forms. Vigorous
interaction with various non-Indian and the presence of Hellenistic and central Asian
elements in Indian art of this period shows how enriched Indian culture became
through contact with other contemporary cultures. Both the Gandhara art form and
Mathura art form were prominent in the Indian art and architecture sphere and of
great importance in the development of culture and heritage.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 The Art – Susan L. Huntington and John C. Huntington
 Perceptions of South Asia’s Visual Past – Catherine B. Asher
 Indian Art – Partha Miller
 Much Maligned Monsters: A History of European reactions to Indian Art –
Partha Miller
 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the stone age to the 12th
Century – Upinder Singh