Unit 3 APPSC G2 S&T Mains

APPSC Group2 S&T Notes by Malleswari Reddy Mana La Excellence
APPSC Group 2 S&T Mains Material

Unit 3: Ecosystem and Biodiversity
1. Ecology and Ecosystem: Basic concepts of Ecology
2. Ecosystem: Components and Types
3. Biodiversity: Meaning, Components
4. Biodiversity Hotspots
5. Loss of Biodiversity
6. Conservation of Biodiversity: Methods, Recent Plans, Target
7. Convention and Protocols
8. Wildlife Conservation: CITES
9. Endangered Species with reference to India
10. Biosphere Reserves
11. Indian Wildlife Conservation efforts, projects, acts and initiatives in recent times.
3.1 Ecology and Ecosystem: Basic concepts of Ecology
Ecology
Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and their surroundings occurring within an
ecosystem or environment.
Note: German zoologist Ernst Haeckel coined the word "ecology" in 1866 to describe how animals interact
with their surroundings. The word comes from the Greek words oikos, meaning "household," "home," or
"place to live," and logos, meaning "study".
Ecosystem
1. An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature.
2. It is the system of interaction or
interdependency of living organisms among
themselves and also with the surrounding
physical environment.
Ecosystem= Interaction (Living Organisms + Physical
Environment)
Examples:
Mangrove Ecosystem, Tropical Rain Forest, Desert Ecosystem, etc.
Environment vs Ecosystem:
Category Environment Ecosystem
Definition It is the surrounding where It is the community where biotic and abiotic
organisms live. components interact.
Components Comprises physical components. Comprises biological components.
Function Provides living space for elements. Provides interaction between elements.
Conditions Provides conditions for life. Provides relations between components.
Types Can be macro or micro. Can be aquatic or terrestrial.
Mobility Environment changes as organism Ecosystem remains the same regardless of

moves. organism's location.
Temporality Environment is a place in time. Ecosystem remains constant over time.
The Four Spheres of the Earth-

The area near the surface of the earth can be divided up into four inter-connected geo-spheres-
Sphere Components
Lithosphere Continents, ocean floor, rocks, sand, dust, metal,
brick, asphalt
Hydrosphere Earth’s oceans, lakes, rivers, groundwater, rain, snow
Atmosphere Earth’s oxygen, nitrogen, ozone, wind particles, other
gases
Biosphere Earth’s living organisms: plants, humans, animals,
insects, microbes
Cryosphere Frozen water on Earth: ice, glaciers, polar ice caps,
icebergs, sea ice
(Part of Hydrosphere)
Hydrosphere
1. The hydrosphere includes all forms of water in the Earth’s environment.
2. The hydrosphere is always in motion as seen through the movement and flow of water in rivers,
streams and the ocean (beach).
3. Plant and animal organisms rely on the hydrosphere for their survival as water is essential.
Atmosphere -
1. The atmosphere referrers to the air that
surrounds the earth.
2. The atmosphere is always in motion and
constantly changing. It’s believed that there are
about 14 different gases that make up the
atmosphere.
3. The atmosphere is also responsible for the
weather as the weather occurs within the lower
atmosphere.
Biosphere
1. Earth has different components-
Lithosphere, Atmosphere and Hydrosphere.
2. Biosphere is that part of lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere where plants
and human beings live.
3. It is part of the earth where life exists.
4. It consists of living organisms and the dead
organic matter.
Species, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biome, Biosphere-

Term Meaning
Species A group of organisms capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile
offspring.
Population A group of individuals of the same
species living in the same area and
interacting with each other.
Community All populations of different species
living and interacting in the same area.
Ecosystem A biological community of interacting
organisms and their physical
environment.
Biome A large naturally occurring community
of flora and fauna occupying a major
habitat.
Biosphere The global sum of all ecosystems and
includes all living organisms on Earth.
3.2 Ecosystem: Components and Types
Ecosystem is a system of interaction between biotic and abiotic factors.

Interaction Description
Type
Biotic Living or once-living organisms in the ecosystem; obtained from the biosphere; capable of
reproduction. Examples include animals, birds, plants, fungi, etc.
Abiotic Non-living physical and chemical elements in the ecosystem; obtained from the
lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. Examples include water, air, soil, sunlight, etc.
Biotic Factors-
Biotic factors are of two types- Produces and Consumers
Type Meaning Examples
Producers Organisms that produce organic compounds Plants, algae, certain bacteria, and some
from inorganic substances through protists
photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
Consumers Organisms that obtain energy and nutrients Herbivores (deer, rabbits), carnivores (lions,
by feeding on other organisms or organic wolves), omnivores (humans, bears), and
matter decomposers (fungi, bacteria)
Consumers are categorised into different types based on their feeding habits and the sources of their
nutrition within the ecosystem.
Type Description Examples
Herbivores Consumers that primarily feed on plants and plant-based Deer, cows, rabbits,
materials. grasshoppers
Carnivores Consumers that primarily feed on other animals. Lions, wolves, snakes,
hawks
Omnivores Consumers that feed on both plants and animals. Humans, bears, raccoons,
pigs
Decomposers Organisms that break down dead organic matter into Fungi (mushrooms),
simpler substances, recycling nutrients. bacteria, worms
Detritivores Consumers that feed on decomposing organic matter, such Earthworms, woodlice,
as leaf litter and dead plant material. dung beetles
Abiotic Factors-
Abiotic Factor Description
Sunlight Primary source of energy for photosynthesis in plants.
Temperature Influences metabolic rates, affecting the survival and activity of organisms.
Water Essential for hydration, cellular processes, and maintaining osmotic balance.
Soil Provides anchorage for plants, houses essential nutrients, and serves as a habitat for
organisms.
Air Contains gases necessary for respiration and photosynthesis.
Wind Affects seed dispersal, plant growth, and temperature regulation.
pH Influences the availability of nutrients and the activity of enzymes in organisms.
Humidity Affects water loss through transpiration and influences the distribution of organisms.
Altitude Impacts atmospheric pressure, temperature, and oxygen availability.
Topography Determines the distribution of habitats and influences microclimates.
Types of Ecosystems-
Ecosystems can be broadly categorized into two main types based on their presence and flow of water: 1.
Terrestrial Ecosystem 2. Aquatic Ecosystem
The largest ecosystem in the world is the aquatic ecosystem. It comprises freshwater and marine
ecosystems. It constitutes 70% of the surface of the earth.
Ecosystem Characteristics Examples

Type
Terrestrial Found on land surfaces and characterized by soil, Forests, grasslands, deserts,
vegetation, and various habitats. tundra, etc.
Aquatic Found in water bodies and distinguished by factors such Oceans, rivers, lakes, ponds,
as salinity, depth, and water flow. wetlands, etc.
Terrestrial Ecosystems-
Ecosystem Description Examples in India
Type
Forests Dense areas with high tree density and diverse Tropical rainforests (Western Ghats),
flora and fauna. They play a vital role in Deciduous forests (Madhya Pradesh),
maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance. Alpine forests (Himalayas)
Grasslands Open areas dominated by grasses and herbs, with Savannas (Deccan Plateau), Alpine
few trees and shrubs. They support grazing meadows (Western Himalayas), Thar
animals and are important for agriculture. Desert (Rajasthan)
Deserts Arid regions characterized by low precipitation Thar Desert (Rajasthan), Rann of
and sparse vegetation. Adapted flora and fauna Kutch (Gujarat), Cold deserts (Ladakh)
thrive in extreme conditions.
Wetlands Areas where water covers the soil, either Mangroves (Sundarbans), Marshes
permanently or seasonally. They support unique (Chilika Lake), Swamps (Keoladeo
biodiversity and provide various ecosystem National Park)
services.
Mountains High-altitude regions with diverse ecosystems Himalayan region (including Eastern,
due to variations in altitude, temperature, and Western, and Central Himalayas),
precipitation. They are biodiversity hotspots. Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats
Coastal Regions where land meets the sea, characterized Coastal plains (Konkan Coast,
by dynamic ecosystems influenced by tides, Coromandel Coast), Estuaries
waves, and currents. They support diverse marine (Sundarbans), Coastal dunes (Rann of
life. Kutch)
Aquatic Ecosystems-
Ecosystem Description Examples in India
Type
Oceans Vast bodies of saltwater covering a significant Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal
portion of the Earth's surface. They host
diverse marine life.
Seas Large bodies of saline water that are partially Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of
enclosed by land. They support various marine Bengal
ecosystems.
Rivers Flowing bodies of freshwater that play a crucial Ganges River, Brahmaputra River,
role in shaping landscapes and supporting Yamuna River
aquatic life.
Lakes Large inland bodies of water surrounded by Dal Lake (Kashmir), Chilika Lake (Odisha),
land. They vary in size, depth, and ecosystem Vembanad Lake (Kerala)
characteristics.
Ponds Small bodies of freshwater, usually shallow and Wular Lake (Kashmir), Loktak Lake
isolated. They support a variety of aquatic (Manipur), Pichola Lake (Rajasthan)
plants and animals.
Estuaries Coastal areas where rivers meet the sea, Sundarbans (Ganges-Brahmaputra
forming brackish water habitats. They are rich Delta), Chilika Lake (Odisha)
in biodiversity.
Wetlands Transitional zones between terrestrial and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan),
aquatic ecosystems, characterized by seasonal Bhitarkanika Mangroves (Odisha), Rann
flooding. of Kutch (Gujarat)
Ecological Niche-
1. It is the unique functional role or position of an organism in its natural habitat.
2. It is a description of the organism’s
a) Habitat (Habitat Niche)
b) Place in food chain (Food Niche)
c) Reproductive characteristics (Reproductive Niche)
d) Chemical and Physical requirement (Chemical and Physical Niche)
3. A Niche is unique for a species. It means by the above descriptions we can identify a particular
species.
Habitat-
a) It is the place where a living organisms’ lives.
b) It corresponds to the address of an organism.
c) A single habitat maybe common for more than one organism which has similar requirements.
Ex: A rain forest is habitat for many species. So, all these species have one habitat.
Habitat Niche
A habitat is a particular place where A niche defines a specific role played by organisms
organisms live, i.e. address. in an ecosystem, i.e. profession.
Habitat is not species-specific, and many Niche is species-specific, and it supports only a
species can occupy the same habitat. single species.
Habitat consists of several niches. Niche is specific to a particular species, which may
overlap with a similar niche but must have distinct
differences.
Habitat is a superset of niche. Niche is a subset of habitat.
Examples: desert, ocean, mountains, Examples: different trophic positions occupied by
grassland, forest, etc. Darwin’s finches.
Functions of Ecosystem-
Function Description
1. Ecological succession or The process by which an ecosystem evolves over time, transitioning from
ecosystem development a barren or disturbed state to a stable, mature state through the
colonization of plant and animal species.
2. Homeostasis (or The maintenance of a stable internal environment within the ecosystem
cybernetic) or feedback through regulatory processes, ensuring that essential factors such as
control mechanisms temperature, pH, and nutrient levels remain within optimal ranges.
3. Energy flow through the The transfer of energy from one trophic level to another within the
food chain ecosystem, typically starting with producers (plants) and moving through
various consumer levels (herbivores, carnivores) until reaching
decomposers.
4. Nutrient cycling The recycling of essential nutrients (such as carbon, nitrogen,
(biogeochemical cycles) phosphorus, and water) through living organisms, soil, air, and water
bodies, ensuring their availability for future generations of life forms.
Function 1. Ecological Succession-

Successio Primary Succession Secondary Succession
n Type
Definition Occurs where no previous community existed, Occurs where an existing community has
often on barren rock or soil. been disturbed, leaving behind soil and
remnants of vegetation.
Pioneer Lichens and mosses are common pioneer Fast-growing grasses, herbs, and shrubs
Species species, initiating soil formation. often pioneer, aiding in soil stabilization.
Time Takes centuries or millennia to reach a climax Progresses more rapidly, often completing
Scale community due to slow soil formation. within decades or centuries, depending on
the severity of the disturbance.
Example Volcanic eruptions and glacial retreats lead to Forest fires and clear-cutting of forests
primary succession. trigger secondary succession.
Note-
1. The primary community is like the first settlers in a new land, laying the groundwork for others to
come.
2. The seral community is like the evolving community that follows, with different species gradually
taking over.
3. The climax community is like the mature, stable neighbourhood where everyone has found their
place and things remain relatively unchanged unless there's a major shake-up.
Function 2. Homeostasis or Feedback Control Mechanism-

Homeostasis refers to an ecosystem's ability to self-regulate and maintain equilibrium.
Types of Homeostasis:
1. Regulation: Some species regulate internal conditions, like body temperature, through physiological
processes.
2. Conformity: Many organisms conform to external environmental conditions, such as variations in
temperature and osmotic concentration.
3. Migration: Organisms may migrate to less stressful environments temporarily to maintain
homeostasis.
4. Suspension: Some organisms enter states of dormancy or suspended development to survive adverse
conditions.
Hibernation and Aestivation are some examples of Homeostasis.
Hibernation Aestivation
Also known as “winter sleep”. Also known as “summer sleep”.
Longer duration. Short duration.
Animals look for a warm place to sleep. Animals look for a moist, cool and shady place to
sleep.
It prevents any internal body damage due to low It prevents excessive water loss and internal body
temperatures. damage due to high temperatures.
Hibernation takes place in warm and cold-blooded Aestivation takes place in cold-blooded animals
animals like bats, mammals, birds. like snails, earthworms, frogs, etc.
Function 3. Energy Flow in the Ecosystem-

In ecosystem energy gets transferred form one organism to another. These levels are known as trophic
levels. Based on the direction it is of two types.
Food Chain-
1. In ecosystem energy gets transferred form one organism to another.
2. This chain of dependence among organisms is called a food chain.
3. It can be of different types:
1. Grazing food chain
2. Detritus food chain.
4. The flow of energy in a food chain is always unidirectional.
Food Web-
1. The feeding relationship in a natural ecosystem is complicated.
2. The food chain does not remain simple and linear.
3. Rather it is complicated by several inter-connected overlapping food chains.
4. This happens when greater number of species feed on many kinds of prey.
5. Such complicated food network is called food web.
Food Chain Food Web

A linear pathway showing the flow of energy A multitude of networks showing the flow of
energy
An organism of higher-level trophic feeds on a An organism of higher trophic level has access to
specific organism of lower trophic level more members of a lower trophic level.
Has no effect on the adaptability and Has a role in improving the adaptability and
competitiveness of organisms. competitiveness of an organism.
Trophic Levels-
1. The various energy levels in a food chain are called Trophic levels.
2. Trophic levels show us the position of an organism in a food chain.
Ex: Primary consumers, secondary consumers etc.
Ecological Pyramid-
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between the different living organisms
at different trophic levels.
1. In a food web Ecological Pyramids are graphical representation of:
a. Total Number of Species (Pyramid of Numbers)
b. Total Biomass (Pyramid of Biomass)
c. Total Energy availability (Pyramid of Energy)
2. For different ecosystems different ecological pyramids are constructed.
3. These are of two types:
a. Vertical Pyramids
b. Inverted Pyramids
Pyramid of Numbers
1. Pyramid of numbers represents the total number of individuals of different species (population) at
each trophic level.
2. Depending upon the size, the pyramid of numbers may not always be upright, and may even be
completely inverted.
3. It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a pyramid of numbers and so the pyramid of
number does not completely define the trophic structure for an ecosystem.
Pyramid of numbers – upright
In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased from lower level to higher trophic level.
Pyramid of numbers – inverted

In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased from lower level to higher trophic level. E.g. Tree
ecosystem.
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms occupying each trophic level separately
and measuring their dry weight.
This overcomes the size difference problem because all kinds of organisms at a trophic level are weighed.
Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called the standing crop.
The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area.
Pyramid of Biomass – upright-

For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has a large base of primary producers with a smaller
trophic level perched on top. The biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum. The biomass of next
trophic level i.e. primary consumers is less than the producers. The biomass of next higher trophic level i.e.
secondary consumers is less than the primary consumers. The top, high trophic level has very less amount
of biomass.
Pyramid of Biomass – Inverted

In contrast to the upright biomass pyramid, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may
assume an inverted form.
This is because the producers are tiny phytoplankton that grows and reproduces rapidly.
Here, the pyramid of biomass has a small base, with the consumer biomass at any instant exceeding the
producer biomass and the pyramid assumes an inverted shape.
Pyramid of Energy
To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most suitable.
An energy pyramid represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of energy at each transfer
to another trophic level. Hence the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at the bottom.
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids-

1. It does not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
2. It assumes a simple food chain, something that seldom exists in nature; it does not accommodate a
food web.
3. Moreover, saprophytes (plant, fungus, or microorganism that lives on decaying matter) are not given
any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the ecosystem.
Pollutants and Trophic Level –
Biomagnification
Pollutants move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem.
Non-degradable pollutants (persistent pollutants), which cannot be broken down by detrivores, not only
move through the various trophic levels but also remain in that tropic level for a very long duration.
Biomagnification / Bio- Bio Accumulation Bioconcentration
amplification
Bio-amplification (or) Bioaccumulation occurs within It is a form of
biomagnification, refers an organism, where a bioaccumulation by
to an increase in the concentration of a substance absorption directly from
concentration of a builds up in the tissues and is water. It is specifically
substance as you move absorbed faster than it is referred to
up the food chain. removed. as bioconcentration.
Ecosystem Services
1. Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems.
2. These include:
a) Economic Benefits
b) Ecological Benefits
c) Medical Benefits, etc
Carrying Capacity
1. Carrying capacity is the maximum capacity or resources that the system can sustain for the given
population.
2. It is the number of people, animals, or crops which a region can support without environmental
degradation.
3. The carrying capacity for any given area is not fixed.
4. It can be altered by improved technology
Function 4. Bio-geo Chemical Cycling or Nutrient Cycling

1. Energy flow and nutrient circulation are the major functions of the ecosystem.
2. Energy is lost as heat forever in terms of the usefulness of the system. On the other hand, nutrients
of food matter never get used up. They can be recycled again and again indefinitely.
3. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus as elements and compounds makeup 97% of
the mass of our bodies and are more than 95% of the mass of all living organisms.
4. In addition to these, about 15 to 25 other elements are needed in some form for the survival and
good health of plants and animals.
5. These elements or mineral nutrients are always in circulation moving from non-living to living and
then back to the non-living components of the ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion.
6. This circular fashion is known as biogeochemical cycling (bio for living; geo for atmosphere).
Types of Nutrient Cycles-

1. Based on the replacement period, a nutrient cycle is referred to as Perfect or Imperfect cycle.
2. A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients are replaced as fast as they are utilized.
3. Most gaseous cycles are generally considered as perfect cycles.
4. In contrast sedimentary cycles are considered relatively imperfect, as some nutrients are lost from
the cycle and get locked into sediments and so become unavailable for immediate cycling.
5. Based on the nature of the reservoir, a nutrient cycle is referred to as Gaseous or Sedimentary cycle
A. Gaseous Cycle: the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere — water cycle, carbon cycle,
nitrogen cycle, etc. and
B. Sedimentary Cycle: the reservoir is the earth’s crust (soluble elements mostly found in
earth’s crust) — phosphorous cycle, sulphur cycle, calcium cycle, magnesium cycle etc.
Hydrological Cycle
The hydrological cycle describes the path of a water droplet from the time it falls to the ground until it
evaporates and returns to our atmosphere.
Carbon Cycle
1. The carbon cycle describes the process in which carbon atoms continually travel from the
atmosphere to the Earth and then back into the atmosphere.
2. Since our planet and its atmosphere form a closed environment, the amount of carbon in this system
does not change.
Oxygen Cycle
1. Oxygen cycle, circulation of oxygen in various forms through nature.
2. Free in the air and dissolved in water, oxygen is second only to nitrogen in abundance among
uncombined elements in the atmosphere.
3. Plants and animals use oxygen to respire and return it to the air and water as carbon dioxide (CO2).
Nitrogen Cycle
1. It is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into many forms, consecutively
passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and back into the atmosphere.
2. It involves several processes such as nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, decay and
putrefaction.
Sulphur Cycle
Sulphur cycle is the collection of processes that involves the movement of sulphur between the rocks,
waterways and living systems.
Phosphorous Cycle
1. The phosphorus cycle is the process by which phosphorus moves through the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
2. Phosphorus is essential for plant and animal growth, as well as the health of microbes inhabiting the
soil, but is gradually depleted from the soil over time.
Other Concepts in Ecosystem:

Ecotone-
1. An ecotone is a transition area between two biological communities, where two communities
meet and integrate.
1. It may be narrow or wide, and it may be local (the zone between a field and forest) or regional (the
transition between forest and grassland ecosystems).
Edge Effect-
The edge effect is an ecological concept that describes how there is a greater diversity of life in the region
where the edges two adjacent ecosystems overlap, such as land/water, or forest/grassland.
Invasive Species
Invasive alien species are species that are introduced, accidentally or intentionally, outside of their natural
geographic range and that become problematic.
3.3 Biodiversity: Meaning, Components
Biodiversity comes from two words: Bio meaning life and diversity meaning variability. It includes the
different plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, the genetic information they contain, and the
ecosystems they form.
Biodiversity is important to most aspects of our lives. It supports everything in nature that we need to
survive, such as food, clean water, medicine, and shelter.
Components of Biodiversity-
It is studied at three levels:
a. Genetic Diversity
b. Species Diversity
c. Ecological Diversity
Comparison between the components of Biodiversity-
Component Genetic Diversity Species Diversity Ecosystem Diversity

Meaning Variation within species Variety of different species Variety of different ecosystems
at the genetic level present in a particular area or habitats in a region
Ex: Different breeds of Ex: Rainforest with diverse Ex: Tropical rainforests, deserts,
dogs, varieties of crops plant and animal species, wetlands
coral reefs
Scope Diversity of genes, Richness and evenness of Terrestrial, aquatic, and marine
alleles, and genetic species within a community ecosystems
traits
Importance Essential for adaptation Supports stability andProvides habitat diversity,
and evolution functionality of ecosystems supporting a wide range of
species
Inter- Influences species Influences genetic diversity Supports species diversity and
connection diversity and vice versa within species genetic diversity
Species Diversity- Components:
Species Richness Species Evenness Species Diversity
Species richness is simply Species evenness is a description of species diversity is the number of
the number of species in the distribution of abundance different species (species richness)
a community. across the species in a community. combined with the relative
Species evenness is highest when all abundance of individuals within
species in a sample have the same each of those species in
abundance. a given area.
Note: Alpha diversity measures the species diversity in an ecosystem while beta diversity measures the
change in species diversity mainly between two communities or two ecosystems. Whereas, gamma diversity
measures the overall biodiversity of a large geographic region.
3.4 Biodiversity Hotspots
Coined by Norman Myers, the term “Biodiversity hotspots” can be defined as the regions which are known
for their high species richness and endemism.
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria:
1. It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics.
2. It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation.
Biodiversity hotspots are identified and promoted by organizations like Conservation International, focusing
on conservation efforts in areas with high species richness and threat levels.
India- Biodiversity Hotspots:
India boasts diverse ecosystems, with approximately 23.39% of its land covered in forests, housing around
91,000 animal species and 45,500 plant species.
There are four recognized biodiversity hotspots in India: the Himalayas, Western Ghats, Indo-Burma area,
and Sundaland. These hotspots are areas of high biodiversity, endemism, and vulnerability.
1. The Himalayan hotspot spans across northern Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and India's northwest and
northeastern states. It encompasses diverse ecosystems, including alpine meadows, subtropical
broadleaf forests, and temperate broadleaf forests.
2. The Indo-Burma hotspot covers parts of northeastern India, Bangladesh, and Malaysia, featuring a
wide range of habitats and high levels of overall biodiversity. It faces threats from logging, agriculture,
infrastructure development, and climate change.
3. The Western Ghats, extending along India's western coast, are known for their rich biodiversity and
crucial role in regulating rainfall. However, deforestation, monoculture plantations, and habitat
fragmentation pose significant threats.
4. Sundaland encompasses islands in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, and the Philippines. It is home to
unique flora and fauna, including orangutans and rhinos, but faces threats from industrial forestry,
wildlife trade, and habitat destruction.
Biodiversity in Western Ghats

Older than the Himalaya mountains, the mountain chain of the Western Ghats represents geomorphic
features of immense importance with unique biophysical and ecological processes.
It also has an exceptionally high level of biological diversity and endemism and is recognized as one of the
world’s eight ‘hottest hotspots’ of biological diversity.
3.5 Loss of Biodiversity-
The accelerated rates of species extinctions that the world is facing now are largely due to human activities.
There are four major causes –
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation

2. Over-exploitation
3. Alien species invasions
4. Co-extinctions.
Causes Description Examples

Habitat loss Habitat loss and fragmentation are the primary
1. Conversion of forests in the Western
and drivers of species extinction, especially in
Ghats for coffee and tea plantations
fragmentation tropical rainforests. Activities such as has fragmented habitat for endemic
deforestation for agriculture and urbanization
species like the Nilgiri tahr.
result in the destruction and fragmentation of
2. Urbanization in the Delhi-NCR region
habitats, leading to declines in biodiversity.
has led to the loss of natural habitats
Pollution further degrades habitats,
for migratory birds.
exacerbating the threat to species survival.
3. Deforestation in the Western Ghats
Large-scale habitat fragmentation disruptshas led to the loss of habitat for
ecological processes and affects species endemic species like the Malabar civet
requiring large territories or migratory routes,
and lion-tailed macaque.
leading to population declines. 4. Conversion of mangrove forests for
aquaculture along the coasts of Gujarat
and Maharashtra threatens
biodiversity.
Over- Over-exploitation of natural resources by 1. Illegal poaching of tigers and
exploitation humans, driven by population growth and leopards for their body parts threatens
demand for food and other commodities, poses their survival in protected areas like
a significant threat to biodiversity. Species such Ranthambore National Park.
as marine fish are over-harvested for 2. Unsustainable logging in the
commercial purposes, leading to population Andaman Islands has led to habitat loss
declines and ecosystem imbalances. Historic for endemic species like the Nicobar
examples include the extinction of species like megapode.
Steller's sea cow and the passenger pigeon due
to over-hunting.
Alien species Introduction of non-native species, either 1. Lantana camara, an invasive plant
invasions/ intentionally or accidentally, can have species, has invaded grasslands and
Invasive devastating effects on native biodiversity. forests in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve,
Species Invasive alien species often outcompete native displacing native flora and reducing
species for resources and disrupt ecosystems, biodiversity.
leading to declines in native species 2. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia
populations. crassipes) is an invasive aquatic plant
that has choked water bodies like the
Dal Lake in Kashmir, impacting native
aquatic flora and fauna.
Co-extinctions Co-extinctions occur when a species becomes In Mauritius, the extinction of the Dodo
extinct, leading to the extinction of other bird led to the imminent danger of the
species that depend on it for survival. For Calvaria tree coextinction.
example, the extinction of a host species can Other examples-
result in the extinction of its associated 1. Bird-plant mutualism: Birds rely on
parasites or symbiotic organisms. Co- specific plant species for food and
extinctions further exacerbate biodiversity loss shelter.
and disrupt ecological relationships, leading to 2. Pollinator-plant relationships:
cascading effects on ecosystem functioning and Plants depend on pollinators for
stability. reproduction, and vice versa.
3. Host-parasite relationships:
Parasites depend on host species
for survival.
4. Predator-prey interactions:
Declines in prey populations can
affect predator survival.
Other than these 4, pollution and climate change have now become significant factors in loss of biodiversity.
Pollution Pollution encompasses the introduction of 1. Pollution from industrial effluents and
harmful substances into the environment, agricultural runoff has severely
including air, water, and soil pollution. Pollutants degraded water quality in rivers like
such as industrial chemicals, pesticides, heavy the Ganges and Yamuna, affecting
metals, and plastic waste can poison or harm aquatic biodiversity.
organisms, degrade habitats, and disrupt
ecosystem functions. Pollution can lead to 2. Air pollution from vehicular emissions
declines in population sizes, genetic diversity, and and industrial activities in cities like
overall ecosystem health, contributing to Delhi has led to respiratory problems
biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. in humans and affected the health of
urban trees and plants.
Climate Climate change refers to long-term alterations in 1. Rising temperatures and changing
Change temperature, precipitation patterns, and other rainfall patterns in the Himalayas are
climatic factors, primarily driven by human causing shifts in the distribution of
activities such as fossil fuel combustion and alpine plant species, affecting
deforestation. Climate change can directly and biodiversity and ecosystem stability.
indirectly impact biodiversity by altering habitats, 2. Rising sea levels due to climate change
triggering extreme weather events, shifting threaten coastal habitats like
species distributions, and exacerbating existing mangroves and coral reefs in the
threats such as habitat loss and pollution. Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Changes in climate conditions can disrupt affecting marine biodiversity.
ecological relationships, endanger vulnerable
species, and increase extinction risks.
Eutrophication- (Concept related to Pollution in the Ecosystem)
It is the gradual increase in the concentration of phosphorus, nitrogen, and other plant nutrients in an aging
aquatic ecosystem such as a lake.
The productivity or fertility of such an ecosystem naturally increases as the amount of organic material that
can be broken down into nutrients increases.
Parameter BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)

Meaning The amount of dissolved oxygen The amount of oxygen required for chemical
consumed by aerobic microorganisms in oxidation of organic and inorganic
water to decompose organic matter contaminants in water
Process Biological oxidation process involving Chemical oxidation process using strong
aerobic microbes oxidants
Organisms Aerobic microorganisms Chemical reagents
Involved
Measurement Incubation of water sample for 5 days at Chemical oxidation with strong oxidant
Method 20°C
Time Required Typically, 5 days Few hours to a day
for Test
Value Indicates the amount of organic matter Reflects the total organic and inorganic load
Interpretation in water and its biodegradability in water
Relative Value Generally lower than COD Generally higher than BOD
Application Water quality assessment, sewage Industrial effluent assessment, pollution
treatment control
Limitation Slow process, does not account for all Rapid but less specific, doesn't differentiate
pollutants types of pollutants
3.6 Conservation of Biodiversity: Methods, Recent Plans, Target, Convention and Protocols
Methods of Biodiversity Conservation-

Method In-situ Conservation Ex-situ Conservation
Definition Conservation of species within their Conservation measures conducted outside the
natural habitats, aiming to protect natural habitat, involving relocation to
ecosystems, habitats, and populations. controlled environments.
Methods Establishing protected areas, wildlife Captive breeding programs, botanical gardens
sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves; for seed conservation, tissue culture for plant
habitat restoration and management; propagation, zoos for endangered species,
community-based conservation efforts. gene banks for storing genetic material.
Examples 1. Kaziranga National Park in Assam, 1. Nehru Zoological Park in Hyderabad,
home to the Indian rhinoceros and housing diverse species including the Indian
Bengal tiger, among other endangered elephant and Asiatic lion.
species. 2. National Botanical Research Institute in
2. Sundarban Tiger Reserve in West Lucknow, preserving plant diversity and
Bengal, conserving the Royal Bengal conducting research.
tiger population. 3. National Gene Bank in New Delhi,
3. conserving genetic material of crop species.
Protected Areas:
Protected areas are those in which human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources is limited.
The definition that has been widely accepted across regional and global frameworks has been provided by
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in its categorization guidelines for protected
areas.
There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the enabling laws
of each country or the regulations of the international organizations involved.
The term "protected area" also includes Marine Protected Areas, the boundaries of which will include some
area of ocean, and Transboundary Protected Areas that overlap multiple countries which remove the
borders inside the area for conservation and economic purposes.
Types:
1. National Parks
2. Wildlife Sanctuaries
3. Conservation Reserves
4. Community Reserves
5. Marine Protected Areas
National Park
1. It is a protected area constituted for the protection and conservation of wildlife or its environment.
2. They are declared in areas that are considered to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and
natural significance.
3. National parks are given highest level of protection. Unlike wildlife sanctuaries, no human
interference in any form of harvesting of timber, collecting minor forest products and private
ownership rights is allowed.
There are multiple objectives for creating a National Park:
1. It can help in the protection of the ecosystem is a specific area or region
2. Conservation of species that are on the verge of extinction
3. To preserve natural resources for ecological development
4. It can help in preserving varied species
As of 2024, India has 106 national parks covering 40,500 square kilometers, which is about 1.23% of India's
total surface area. Madhya Pradesh has the maximum number of National Parks (11).
Note:
1. The Jim Corbett National Park (Jim Corbett National Park is also known as Hailey National Park,
Ramganga National Park, and Corbett National Park) is the oldest National Park in India. It is located
in Uttrakhand and was established in 1936.
2. Hemis National Park in Ladakh is the largest National Park in India. Hemis National Park is globally
famous for its snow leopards, it is believed to have the highest density of them in any protected area
in the world.
3. The first Marine National Park is located in the Gulf of Kutch and was created in 1982. It is situated
on the southern shore of the Gulf of Kutch in the Devbhumi Dwarka district of Gujarat state.
4. The Keibul Lamjao National Park is a national park in the Bishnupur district of the state of Manipur in
India. It is the only floating National Park in the world.
5. Raimona National Park, located in the western region of Assam, is the 106th national park in India. It
covers 422 square kilometers, and is part of a contiguous forest that forms the westernmost buffer
zone of Manas Tiger Reserve. (Declared in 2021)
Wildlife Sanctuary
1. It is a protected area constituted for the protection and conservation of wildlife or its environment.
2. They are declared in areas that are considered to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and
natural significance.
3. In wildlife sanctuaries, certain rights of people living inside, are permitted as long they don’t harm
the wildlife.
4. Such activities include harvesting of timber, collecting minor forest products, livestock grazing,
ownership of private land.
5. There are 567 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India covering an area of 125564.86 km2 in 2024.
List of Important Wildlife Sanctuaries:
No. Name Location Year Area Significance

1 Corbett National Nainital, Uttarakhand 1936 521 km2 The Bengal Tigers
Park (Jim Corbett
National Park)
2 Ranthambore Sawai Madhopur, 1980 392 km2 Majestic Tigers
National Park Rajasthan
3 Bandipur National Gundlupet, 1974 874 km2 Tiger, Asian elephant
Park Chamarajanagar and many types of
biomes
District, Bandipur,
Karnataka
4 Keoladeo Ghana Bharatpur, Rajasthan 1905 28.7 km2 Avifauna Birds
National Park
5 Nagarhole National Kodagu district and 1988 642.39 km2 Tigers, Indian bison and
Park Mysore district, elephants
Karnataka
6 Sariska National Park Near Kraska, Alwar 1955 866 km2 Bengal tigers
District, Sariska,
Rajasthan
7 Kaziranga National Kanchanjuri, Assam 1908 430 km2 One horned Rhinos,
Park Tigers and Wild
Buffaloes
8 Bhadra Wildlife Chikkamagaluru town, 1951 492.46 km2 Tiger,
Sanctuary Karnataka
9 Kanha National Park Madla/ Balaghat 1955 940 km2 Tigers
districts, Madhya
Pradesh
10 Sunderbans National Dayapur, Gosaba, West 1984 1,330.12 Bengal tigers
Park Bengal km2
11 Bandhavgarh Badhavgarh, District 1968 1,536 km2 White tiger
National Park Umaria, Madhya
Pradesh
12 Gir National Park and Junagadh District, Gir 1965 1,412 km2 Asiatic lion
Sasan Gir Sanctuary Somnath District and
Amreli District Gujarat,
India
13 Periyar National Park Idukki, Kottayam and 1982 305 km2 Asian Elephants, Periyar
Pathanamthitta, Kerala Lake
state, India
14 Pench National Park Turia, Seoni Dist, Kurai, 1983 758 km2 Inspired Rudyard
Madhya Pradesh Kiplingto write 'The
Jungle Book', While
Tigers
15 Manas National Park Fatemabad - 1990 490.3 km2 wild water buffalo,
Mathanguri Road, Jyoti Assam roofed turtle,
Gaon, Assam hispid hare, golden
langur and pygmy hog
16 Dudhwa National Palia Kalan, Uttar 1977 542.67 km2 Tiger and swamp deer
Park Pradesh
17 Panna National Park Panna and Chhatarpur 1981 625.4 km2 tiger
districts, Madhya
Pradesh, India
18 Tadoba Andhari Chandrapur, 1955 90.44 km2 Tiger

Tiger Reserve Maharashtra, India
19 Chinnar Wildlife Munnar - Udumalpet 1984 1,171 km2 Endangered grizzled
Sanctuary Road, Munnar, Kerala giant squirrel
20 The Great Himalayan SaiRopa, Kullu, 1984 866.41 km2 Globally
National Park Himachal Pradesh threatened,musk deer
and the western horned
tragopan
21 Dandeli Wildlife Uttara Kannada District NA 2.36 km2 Crocodiles, great
Sanctuary , Karnataka India hornbill and Malabar
pied hornbill
22 Silent Valley National Mannarkkad, Palakkad 1905 820 km2 Lion Tailed Macaque
Park District, Kerala
23 Rajaji National Park Dehradun, 1983 107 km2 Asian elephants, Bengal
Uttarakhand tigers
24 Bhagwan Mahavir Caranzol, Goa 1978 4,400 km2 Snakes, particularly the
Wildlife Sanctuary king cobra and black
panther
25 Hemis National Park Leh, Jammu and 1981 101 km2 Snow leopards , gompas
Kashmir and holy chortens
26 Interview Island Andaman and Nicobar NA 7506.22 km2 Elephants
Wildlife Sanctuary Islands, Bay of Bengal
27 Kachchh/ Kutch Great Rann of Kutch, 1986 5000 Km2 Greater flamingo
Desert WLS Kutch district, Gujarat,
India
28 Nelapattu Bird Andhra Pradesh 1976 4953.71 km2 " Largest habitat for
Sanctuary pelicans, also Babblers,
Flamingos, Open Billed
Stork etc
29 Karakoram Wildlife Leh District, Jammu 1987 4,149 km2 Chiru or "Tibetan
Sanctuary and Kashmir, India Antelope, ibetan gazalle,
Himalayan ibex
30 Indian Wild Ass Little Rann of Kutch, 1973 3,568 km2 Endangered Indian Wild
Sanctuary (Wild Ass Gujarat, India Ass/ ghudkhar
WLS)
31 Dibang Wildlife Dibang Valley , 1991 6.14 km2 Rare species - mishmi
Sanctuary Arunachal Pradesh, takin, asiatic black bear,
India gongshan muntjac, red
panda, red goral and
musk deer
32 Nagarjuna Sagar- Nalgonda & 1978 861.95 km2 Bengal tiger
Srisailam WLS/ Rajiv Mahaboobnagar,
Gandhi WLS Telangana
33 Rollapadu Wildlife Kurnool District, 1988 783 Km2 Great Indian Bustard and
Sanctuary Rollapadu, Andhra Lesser Florican
Pradesh
34 Papikonda Wildlife Andhra Pradesh 1978 282 km2 Tiger, Wild water buffalo
Sanctuary was seen here till 1980s,
but appears to be extinct
in this region
35 Pakhui/ Pakke Tiger Kameng district, 1977 26.22 km2 Large cats - tiger,
Reserve Arunachal Pradesh, leopard and clouded
India leopard
36 Kamlang Wildlife Lohit District, 1989 6.05 km2 Elephant , Tiger, giant
Sanctuary Arunachal Pradesh, flying squirrel
India
37 Mehao Wildlife Lower Dibang Valley 1980 20.98.62 Bengal tiger, hoolock
Sanctuary district, Arunachal km2 gibbon, leopard and
Pradesh clouded leopard.
38 Eaglenest Wildlife Arunachal Pradesh 1989 681.99 km2 Birdwatcher's Paradise.
Sanctuary Asian elephant, capped
langur (endangered), red
panda, gaur, Asiatic
black bear, Arunachal
macaque
39 Bornadi Wildlife Udalguri District& 1980 551.55 Km2 Pygmy hog, hispid hare
Sanctuary Baksa District Assam, (both protected)
India
40 Garampani Wildlife Karbi Anglong district, 1952 607.70 km2 hoolock gibbons and
Sanctuary Assam golden langurs, hot
springs
41 Hoollongapar Jorhat, Assam 1997 608.55 km2 Western hoolock gibbon
Gibbon Sanctuary and 15 species of apes
42 Bhimbandh Wildlife Munger district, Bihar 1976 485.20 Km2 Tigers, panthers, birds
Sanctuary
43 Achanakmar Wildlife Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh 1975 1,027.53 Tiger, leopard, bison
Sanctuary km2
44 Shoolpaneshwar Narmada district of 1982 975 km2 Python, pangolin, Flying
Wildlife Sanctuary Gujarat squirrels
45 Tamor Pingla Surajpur District, 1978 2073 km2 Elephant
Wildlife Sanctuary Chhattisgarh
46 Shenbagathoppu Virudhunagar and 1988 423.55 km2 Grizzled giant squirrel
Grizzled Squirrel Madurai districts, Tamil (vulnerable species),
Wildlife Sanctuary Nadu Periyar Tiger
47 Cauvery Wildlife Karnataka, India 1987 219 Km2 popular for Mahseer
Sanctuary fish, birds
48 Kedarnath Wildlife Chamoli & 1972 975 km2 Endangered Himalayan

Sanctuary Rudraprayag, musk deer
Uttarakhand
49 Hastinapur WLS Meerut, Hapur, Bijnore 1986 2073 km2. Twelve - Horned Deer or
and Amroha, in Uttar "Baara Singha", the State
Pradesh, India Bird - Saaras
[Crane],crocodiles,
turtles, playful Ganga
Dolphins, Birds
50 Koyna Wildlife Satara, Maharashtra 1985 423.55 km2 Royal Bengal Tiger and
Sanctuary King Cobra
51 Ramgarh Vishdhari Alwar District, 1955 219 Km2 Bengal tigers, leopards
Wildlife Sanctuary Rajasthan
Biosphere Reserves
Man and Biosphere Program Launched in 1971, UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Program (MAB) is an
intergovernmental scientific program that aims to establish a scientific basis for the improvement of
relationships between people and their environments.
(UNESCO introduced Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage where
biodiversity is implicit in the latter in 1972 and UNESCO Global Geoparks for holistic sustainable
development, protection and education.)
Biosphere reserves have three-fold aim:
1. Conservation of genetic resources, species, and ecosystems
2. Scientific research and monitoring
3. Promoting sustainable development in communities of the surrounding region.
National Park vs Wildlife Sanctuary vs Biosphere Reserve:
Parameter National Park Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve
Protection type Protection of wildlife Reserved for species- Ecosystem oriented-reserves

oriented plant or animal all forms of life
Legislation Wildlife Protection Wildlife Protection Act, UNESCO’s Man and
Act, 1972 1972 Biosphere (MAB)
Level of Greater degree of Lesser degree of protection Greater Degree of Protection

Protection protection than
sanctuaries
Regulation of Activities like grazing, Allowed to a limited extent No interference except in
Human Activities hunting, forestry or in the wildlife sanctuaries buffer and transition zone
cultivation etc. are
strictly prohibited.
Boundaries Clearly delineated by Not sacrosanct Clearly delineated by
legislation legislation
Upgradation and Cannot be Can be upgraded to a National Parks and wildlife
Down gradation downgraded to a National Park Sanctuaries may become a
Wildlife Sanctuary part of Biosphere Reserve
IUCN Status Category II of the Category IV of protected Roughly corresponds to
protected areas areas. IUCN Category V of
protected areas.
Note:
a) Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve was India's first, established in 1986.
b) Panna Biosphere Reserve is the latest in India (2011).
c) The Great Rann of Kutch Biosphere Reserve was made in 2008 in the desert area of Gujarat. It is the
largest Biosphere Reserves of India. It is famous for Indian Wild Ass and Kharai Camel.
List of Biosphere Reserves in India
Biosphere Year Location Famous Wildlife and Significance

Reserve
Nilgiri 1986 Karnataka, 1. It forms confluence of Afro-tropical and Indo-Malayan biotic
Tamil Nadu, zones of the world.
Kerala 2. It includes evergreen, semi evergreen, moist deciduous
montane sholas and grassland types of vegetation.
3. Animals like Nilgiri tahr, Nilgiri langur, slender loris, blackbuck,
tiger, gaur, Indian elephant and marten are found here.
4. Tribal groups like the Todas, Kotas, Irullas, Kurumbas, Paniyas,
Adiyans, Edanadan Chettis, Cholanaickens, Allar,
Malayan, etc., are native to the reserve.
Nanda Devi 1988 Uttarakhand 1. The Biosphere Reserve includes reserve forests, evam soyam
(civil) forests, panchayat (community) forests, agricultural
land, grassy slopes, alpine meadows (bugiyals) and snow-
covered areas.
2. It was inscribed a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988
3. Home to Seven endangered mammal species such as the snow
leopard, Himalayan black bear. brown bear, musk deer and
bharal/blue sheep.
4. Communities living here mainly belong to two ethnic groups,

the Indo-Mongoloid (Bhotia) and Indo-Aryan.
5. Some 312 floral species that include 17 rare species have been
found here.
6. Fir, birch, rhododendron, and juniper are the main flora.
Nokrek 1988 Meghalaya 1. The entire area is mountainous and Nokrek is the highest peak
(West Garo of the Garo hills.
Hills) 2. The tropical climate is characterized by high humidity,
monsoon rains (April–October) and high temperatures.
3. Highly vulnerable and threatened fauna species in Nokrek
include the Slow Loris, Petaurista philippensis (Giant flying
squirrel) and Macaca leonina (Pig-tailed macaque).
4. 90% of the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve is covered by evergreen
forest. Some patches of bamboo forest can also be found in
the lower altitudes, and a remarkable variety of endemic Citrus
spp.
Gulf of 1989 Tamil Nadu 1. The Gulf of Mannar endowed with 3 distinct Coastal
Mannar (Rameshwara ecosystems: coral reef, seagrass bed and mangroves
m to is considered one of the world’s richest region.
Kanyakumari) 2. This habitat is the feeding grounds for the largest endangered
marine mammal Dugong i.e., Dugong dugon and, also, sea
turtles.
3. It is also important for crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms,
fishes, turtles and many other mammals.
4. The inhabitants are mainly Marakeyars, local people
principally engaged in fisheries.
5. Mangroves dominate the intertidal zones of the park islands.
Sundarbans 1989 West Bengal 1. It is the largest delta and mangrove forest in the world.
(Gangetic 2. The scientists listed 428 birds, some, like the Masked Finfoot
Delta) and Buffy fish owl, are recorded only from the Sunderbans.
3. The Indian Sunderbans is bound on the west by river
Muriganga and on the east by rivers Harinbhahga and
Raimangal.
4. The area is home to 9 out of 12 species of kingfishers found in
India as well rare species such as Goliath heron and spoon-
billed sandpiper
5. It is a world heritage site and a Ramsar site
6. It is also home to “rare and globally threatened species, such
as the critically endangered northern river terrapin (Batagur
baska), the endangered Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella
brevirostris), and vulnerable fishing cat (Prionailurus
viverrinus).
Manas 1989 Assam 1. It is the first reserve included in the network of tiger reserve
under Project tiger in 1973, tagged as World Heritage Site.
2. It is famous for its rare & endangered endemic such as Assam
Roofed Turtle, Hispid Hare, Golden Langur and Pygmy Hog.
Also for its population of Wild water buffalo.
3. Includes a range of forested hills, alluvial grasslands and
tropical evergreen forests.
4. The Manas-Beki system is the major river system flowing
through the property and joining the Brahmaputra River
further downstream.
5. Pagrang is the only forest village located in the core of the
Manas national park
6. It is contiguous with the Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan.
Great 1989 Andaman 1. Home to the two most primitive tribes namely- Nicobarese &
Nicobar and Nicobar Shompens.
Islands 2. Ecosystems- tropical wet evergreen forests, mountain ranges,
and coastal plains.
3. These islands also host the growth of coral reefs (the existence
of which is threatened by the plastic debris & marine litter).
4. The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve (GNBR) has been
declared as one of the World Network of Biosphere
Reserves by UNESCO
5. The Sundalands which is one of the four biodiversity hotspots
in India includes the Nicobar group of Islands
Similipal 1994 Odisha 1. It was formally designated a tiger reserve in 1956 and brought
under Project Tiger in the year 1973.
2. UNESCO world heritage site
3. Similipal has 1,076 flowering species and 96 species of orchids.
4. It boasts of having tropical semi-evergreen forests, tropical
moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous hill forests, high level
sal forests and sprawling meadows.
5. Two tribes, the Erenga Kharias and the Mankirdias, inhabit the
reserve’s forests and practise traditional agricultural activities.
6. Similipal is home to a wide range of wild animals including
tigers and elephants, besides 304 species of birds, 20 species
of amphibians and 62 species of reptiles.
Dibru- 1997 Assam 1. Comprises semi-evergreen forests, swamp forests, deciduous
Saikhowa forests and wet evergreen forests.
2. It is identified as Important Bird Area (IBA) housing such
avifauna as(lesser adjutant, black-necked, greater adjutant)
storks, crested serpent eagle, white-winged wood duck,
greater spotted eagle, great pied hornbill
3. It is the largest swamp forest in north-eastern India
4. Mammals found in the Park include Tiger, Elephant, Leopard,

Jungle Cat, Bears, Small Indian Civet, Squirrels, Gangetic
Dolphin, Hoolock Gibbon, etc
5. Maguri Motapung wetland is a part of the Reserve.
Dihang- 1998 Arunachal 1. It includes steep terrain, subtropical forests, alpine meadows,
Dibang Pradesh grasslands and bamboo brakes. The area is rich in species of
rhododendrons, orchids
2. Fauna: rock python, leopard, snow leopard, clouded leopard,
red panda, musk deer, bison, Himalayan black bear, red fox,
Indian wild dog, sloth bear, civet.
3. Forms a part of one of the world’s “Bio-Diversity Hot spots”
4. About 195 species of birds had been recorded. Of these, the
scatter’s Monal and Blyth’s Tragopan are among the most
interesting
5. The BR provides the rich for all organisms like saprophytes, as
Monotropa uniflora, Epipogium spp and Gastrodia spp.
Pachmarhi 1999 Madhya 1. Pachmarhi comprises three protection sites: the Bori
Pradesh Sanctuary, Satpura National Park and Pachmarhi Sanctuary –
otherwise known as the Satpura Tiger Reserve. Also known as
the ‘Queen of Satpura’.
2. Characterized by high population growth, with Gond tribes
accounting for 50% to 90%.
3. There are a variety of birds: black eagle, the Malabar Pied
Hornbill, Paradise Flycatcher, Malabar Whistling Thrush and
even the Crested Serpent Eagle can be spotted at the reserve
4. The forests are dominated by Teak. They include the
westernmost groves of Sal
5. Large mammal species include tigers, leopard, wild
bear, gaur, chital deer, muntjac deer, sambar deer ,
and rhesus macaque
Khangchen 2000 Sikkim 1. Mount Khangchendzonga, the third-highest peak in the world.
dzonga A UNESCO Mixed World Heritage Site.
2. The most popular species- Himalayan tahr and snow leopard,
clouded leopard, leopard, golden cat, leopard cat, jungle cat,
jackal, large Indian civet, red panda, Tibetan wolf, blue sheep,
musk deer, goral, etc.
3. It includes a range of ecoclines, varying from sub-tropic to
Arctic, as well as natural forests in different biomes.
4. The epiphytes and lianas are abundant here.
5. There are a few Lepcha tribal settlements inside the park.
6. The park contains Tholung Monastery,a gompa located in the
park's buffer zone. It is considered one of the most sacred
monasteries in Sikkim.
Agasthyam 2001 Kerala, Tamil 1. Agastyamalai is also home to the Kanikaran, one of the oldest
alai Nadu surviving ancient tribes in the world.
2. Anai Mudi is the highest peak in the Western Ghats and South
India.
3. ABR includes the Indian Ecoregions of tropical wet evergreen
forests, South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, South
Western Ghats montane rain forests and Shola.
4. It encompass the wildlife sanctuaries Shendurney Wildlife
Sanctuary, Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Neyyar Wildlife
Sanctuary, and Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.
Achanakma 2005 Madhya 1. The topography of the soil in the Amarkantak plateau
r- Pradesh is bauxite rocks.
Amarkantak 2. Major watersheds of peninsular India.
3. Maikal hill ranges,Vindhya ,Satpura lies within the reserve.
4. The tropical Moist deciduous forests makes 63% of the area,
and remaining area is covered with tropical dry deciduous
vegetation which constitutes the southern part of the
biosphere reserve.
5. It is home of 67 threatened faunal species, which includes Four
horned antelope, Saras crane, Asian white-backed vulture,
Indian wild dog, Sacred grove bush frog
6. Tribal communities- Gonds and their sub tribes like Madia,
Mudia, Gurva, Agariya and Rajgond. Other tribes are Baigas,
Kol, Kanwar and Pradhans.
Great Rann 2008 Gujarat 1. Largest BSR in India.
of Kutch 2. Kachchh Biosphere Reserve (KBR) is mainly composed of two
major ecosystems called Great Rann of Kachchh (GRK) and
Little Rann of Kachchh (LRK)
3. A reserve also covers part of finest grassland of Asia called
“Banni”
4. The Rann of Kachchh comprises a unique example of Holocene
sedimentation. Consists of 42 islands
5. The fifteen biospehre reserve designated by government of
India (2008) represents combination of saline deserts and
seasonal wetlands
6. Indian Wild Ass-Endangered animaly only found in this reserve
7. Major fauna are Coral Reef, Coral Lichen,Coral Sponge, Green
Sponge,Puffer Fish,Turtles,Dolphins.
Cold Desert 2009 Himachal 1. The cold desert of India are located adjacent to the Himalaya
Pradesh Mountains.
2. Rain shadow zone of Himalayas. It is stretched along the
Western Himalayas.
3. Cold Desert is noted for the preservation of the snow leopard.
4. It comprises the Pin Valley National Park and its surroundings,

Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarchu and Chandratal, etc.
5. Some of the common fauna you can spot here include
Himalayan black bear, Himalayan blue sheep, Himalayan ibex,
snow pigeon, Tibetan gazelle, woolly hare, red fox, etc.
Seshachala 2010 Andhra 1. Seshachalam hills, the first Biosphere Reserve in AP.
m Hills Pradesh 2. The reserve is a home for nearly 1756 species of flowering
plants.
3. It has large reserves of Red
Sandalwood (Pterocarpussantalinus) which is used in
medicines, soaps, spiritual rituals.
4. Highly endangered wildlife species, like slender loris, Indian
giant squirrel, mouse deer, golden gecko, etc
5. There are total 18 biosphere reserves in India out which 11 are
a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves based on
the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme
Panna 2010 Madhya 1. Ken River (one of the least polluted tributaries of the Yamuna
Pradesh River) flows through the reserve and the Ken-Betwa river
interlinking project will also be located in it.
2. Panna Biosphere Reserve falls in bio-geographic zones of
Deccan Peninsula and Biotic Province of Central highlands .
3. The region is famous for Panna Diamond Mining.
4. UNESCO included it in the Man and Biosphere Programme in
2020
5. The Panna tiger reserve is situated in the Vindhya mountain
range in the northern part of MP.
6. Among the animals found here are the tiger,
leopard, chital, chinkara, nilgai, sambhar and sloth bear.
World Network of Biosphere Reserves: by UNESCO

Panna Biosphere Reserve (PBR) is the latest (In 2020) from India to be added to World Network of Biosphere
Reserves (WNBR).
India has a total of 18 Biosphere Reserves and with the inclusion of PBR, the number of internationally
designated WNBR has become 12.
In 2000, the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve became the 1st BR from India to be included in the WNBR.
In 2018, the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve became the 11th BR to be included in the list.
Conservation Reserves-
1. They are declared by the State Governments in any area owned by the Government.
2. The aim of conservation reserves is to protect landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna and their
habitat.
3. They act as buffer zones between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and
protected forests of India.
4. It is important to note that the rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve are not affected.
Examples: Bankapur Peacock Conservation Reserve (Karnataka), Beas River Conservation Reserve (Punjab).
Community Reserves
1. They are declared by the State Government in any private or community land.
2. The land should not be within a National Park, Sanctuary or a Conservation Reserve.
3. It is basically an area where an individual or a community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and
its habitat
4. These areas also act as buffer zones between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and
reserved and protected forests of India.
5. Rights of people living inside a Community Reserve are not affected.
Examples: Lalwan community reserve in Punjab, Gogabeel in Bihar, etc
Sacred Groves-
1. They are patches of forests or natural vegetation generally dedicated to local folk deities or tree
spirits.
2. These groves are considered “sacred” and are protected by local community. Community reserves
may include such sacred groves and thus enjoy protection.
Examples: Kovil Kadu at Puthupet (Tamil Nadu), Gumpa Forests (Sacred Groves attached to Buddhist
monasteries) in Arunachal Pradesh
Eco-sensitive zone-
1. It is an area notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC), around
Protected Areas, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
2. Notifications declaring areas as ESZ are issued under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
3. The main aim behind ESZs is to regulate certain activities and thus minimise the negative impacts of
such activities on the fragile ecosystem surrounding the protected areas.
4. Activities permitted: ongoing agriculture and horticulture practices by local communities, rainwater
harvesting, organic farming, adoption of green technology and use of renewable energy sources.
Western Ghats- Eco-sensitive Area-
The Central Government has designated 56,825 Sqkm of the Western Ghats region as an Ecologically
Sensitive Area (ESA). The ESA includes protected areas and World Heritage Sites. The ESA prohibits:
1. Mining activities
2. Thermal power plants
3. Highly polluting industries
4. New "Red" category industries
5. Expansion of existing "Red" category industries
6. New expansion projects of building and construction with built-up area of 20,000 square meters
and above
In order to protect and conserve Western Ghats, MoEFCC had constituted two Committees viz., the
Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) headed by Prof. Madhav Gadgil and the High Level Working
Group (HLWG) headed by Dr. K. Kasturirangan, to review the recommendations of the WGEEP.
Marine Protected Areas

These are protected areas within or adjacent to seas, oceans, estuaries, lagoons. In these areas human
activities are more strictly regulated than the surrounding waters.
The MPAs in India are defined according to IUCN guidelines.
There are five designated MPAs in India:
1. Gulf of Mannar National Park, Tamil Nadu
2. Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park, Gujarat
3. Gulf of Kutch Marine Sanctuary, Gujarat,
4. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
5. Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, Odhisa
3.6 Biodiversity Conservation- Measures taken by India

India is one among the 17 mega-diverse countries of the world. But many plants and animals are facing the
threat of extinction. To protect the critically endangered and other threatened animal and plant species,
Government of India has adopted many steps, laws and policy initiatives.
1. Biological Diversity Act 2002
1. It is passed to implement UN Convention on Conservation of Biodiversity.
2. It addresses issues related to access to genetic resources and associated knowledge and fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from utilization of biological resources to the country and its people.
Exceptions:
1. Local people and communities
2. For growers and cultivators of biodiversity of the area and to Vaids and Hakims to use biological
resources.
3. Exemption through notification of normally traded commodities.
4. For collaborative research through.
Three tier structure

1. National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
2. State Biodiversity Authority (SBB)
Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) at local level
2. National Mission on Biodiversity and Human Well-being, 2020
1. Launched in 2020 by the Government of India, the mission aims to explore the neglected links
between biodiversity and human well-being.
2. It spans across the sectors of health, economic development, agricultural production, and livelihood
generation.
3. It addresses health and livelihood concerns along with efforts to mitigate climate change and related
disasters.
4. One of the components of the mission explicitly links biodiversity to human health through the One
Health framework.
5. As part of the programme, institutions are encouraged to set up surveillance systems at potential
emerging infectious disease hotspots across India.
Initiatives to conserve Biodiversity-

1. Project Tiger
1. For conservation of endangered species Indian Tiger
(Pantheratigris). Core
2. Centrally sponsored scheme launched in 1973 Zone
3. Conducted by National Tiger Conservation Authority. Buffer
4. Tiger census- pugmark technique, camera trapping, DNA
Zone
fingerprinting -4 years once.
5. Project aims at ensuring a viable population of Bengal tigers in-
situ conservation of wild tigers in designated tiger reserves.
6. Tiger Reserve consists of Core zone and Buffer zone
2. Project Elephant
1. Launched in 1992 a centrally sponsored scheme.
2. Mainly implemented in 13 states ie., Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal, Assam, Jharkhand, Kerala,
Karnataka etc.,E-50:50 forum for international conservation of elephants.
3. Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) Programme under CITES Haathi Mere Saathi Initative
by MoEF in partnership with Wildlife Trust of India.
3. Vulture Protection Program
1. Decline of vultures first seen in Keoladeo Ghana National Park.
2. Red-headed Vulture, Slender billed Vulture and Long billed vulture are Critically endangered.
3. Diclofenac is the cause which are used for ailing inflammation in livestock causing renal failure in
vultures.
4. Ban on usage of Diclofenac and usage of alternative drug Meloxicam.
Other Measures-
1. Vulture Safety Zones
2. Vulture Restaurants by Maharashtra and Punjab
3. SAVE- Save Asia’s vultures from Extinction for White backed, slender billed and Long billed
Vulture.
4. One horned Rhinoceros
1. Rhinos are poached for their Horns.
2. Last Male White Northern Rhino Sudan died last year bring its species closer to extinction.
3. Indian Rhino Vision 2020 by Dept of Environment and forest, Assam.
4. The Bodo Autonomous Council, WWF India, International Rhino Foundation (IRF) support it.
5. To increase rhino population from 2000 to 3000 by 2020.
5. Project Snow Leopard
1. An Indian initiative started in Jan 2009 for strengthening wildlife conservation in Himalayan High
altitudes.
2. Global endangered species found in Himalayan and Central Asian mountains.
3. Conservation above 3000 metres in western and trans Himalayas, above 4000 metres in eastern
Himalayas.
4. Most snow leopards are found in China followed by Mongolia and India.
5. In India its found in all 4 Himalayan states and 2 UTs above 3000 metres altitude.
6. Sea Turtle Project

1. Olive Ridley turtle visits India coasts during winter for hatching.
2. MoEFCC with collaboration with UNDP started the project in 1999. Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun is the implementation agency.
3. Vulnerable in IUCN Red List and is listed in Appendix I of CITES.
4. Conservation of Olive Ridley turtles is done in the Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary (KWS), Andhra Pradesh.
Yanadi tribe are directly involved in the conservation bid.
Olive Ridely Turtles- Arribada- An arribada is a mass nesting event of sea turtles, where hundreds of
turtles come ashore at the same time to lay eggs. The word "arribada" means "arrival by sea" in Spanish.
This happens every year in India, Mexico, and Costa Rica, but in India, the arribada occurs in three
beaches in Odisha: Gahirmatha, Devi River mouth, and Rushikulya. The Indian population of olive ridley
turtles is the largest rookery in the world.
7. Crocodile Conservation Project

1. Indian Crocodile Conservation Project has pulled back the once threatened crocodilians from the
brink of extinction and place them on a good path of recovery.
2. To build up a level of trained personnel for better continuity of the project through training imparted
at project-sites and through the (erstwhile) Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training
Institute, Hyderabad.
3. Gharial is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
8. Project Hangul
1. Started in 1970’s. Population increased to over 340 by 1980 from 150 in 1970.
2. Kashmir stag also called Hangul is a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer native to northern India.
3. State animal of Jammu & Kashmir
4. Found in Dachigam National Park at elevations of 3,035 meters
5. UT of Jammu & Kashmir, along with the IUCN and the WWF prepared a project for the protection of
these animals.
6. As of 2023, there are 289 Kashmir stags, with highly skewed male female ratio of 15:100.
7. The hangul is listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Amendment Act, 2022.
8. The hangul is listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN Red List due to habitat loss, overgrazing by
domestic livestock, poaching, predation, diseases, and human-wildlife conflicts.
9. Dolphin Conservation Measures

1. Ministry of Environment and Forests notified the Ganges River Dolphin as the National Aquatic
Animal.
2. River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu River systems of
Nepal, India, and Bangladesh.
3. Listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (1972).
Captive Breeding Programs in India
Captive breeding means that members of a wild species are captured, then bred and raised in a
special facility under the care of wildlife biologists and other expert.
1. Snake -Katraj Snake Park, Pune
2. Crocodile -Madras Crocodile Bank, Chennai
3. Lion -Devaliya Safari Park, Gujarat
4. Gharial -National Chambal Sanctuary, Chambal
5. Vulture -Ramanagara Vulture Sanctuary, Karnataka.
6. Dolphin –Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Bhagalpur.
7. Macaque- Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Chennai.
Conventions and Protocols on Biodiversity

1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
1. The Convention on Biological Diversity (a multilateral treaty) was opened for signature at the Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into effect in 1993.
2. The Convention is legally binding; countries that join it (‘Parties’) are obliged to implement its
provisions.
3. 195 UN states and the European Union are parties to the convention.
4.All UN member states, with the exception of the United States, have ratified the treaty.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has three main objectives:
1. the conservation of biological diversity.
2. the sustainable use of the components of biological diversity, and
3. the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
There are two protocols under this convention. 1. Cartagena Protocol 2. Nagoya Protocol
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety-
1. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international
agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms
(LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological diversity,
taking also into account risks to human health.
2. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003.
3. It addresses technology development and transfer, benefit-sharing and biosafety issues.
Nagoya Protocol
1. It is the second Protocol to the CBD- Convention on Biodiversity (Other one- Nagoya Protocol); the
first is the 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.
2. It is a 2010 supplementary agreement to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
3. The Nagoya Protocol is about “Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Benefits Arising from their Utilization”, one of the three objectives of the CBD.
4. This protocol, also known as Biodiversity Accord; saves the developing countries from “foreign
illegitimate bioprospecting”.
5. It addresses the problem source countries of genetic resources by recognizing their right to get a
share in benefits reaped by foreign bioprospectors.
Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2011-2020)
The ‘Aichi Targets’ were adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) at its Nagoya conference.
It is a short-term plan provides a set of 20ambitious yet achievable targets, collectively known as the Aichi
Targets. India has developed 12 National Biodiversity Targets (NBT) under the CBD process in line with the
20 global Aichi biodiversity targets.
Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework: (30*30 Plan)
1. It replaced Aichi Biodiversity Targets.
2. The “Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework” (GBF) was adopted
bythe 15th Conference of Parties (COP15) to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity.
3. It includes four goals and 23 targets to be achieved by 2030.
4. COP 15 took place in Montreal, Canada in Dec 2022. (Chaired by China)
5. Through Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), countries agreed to protect 30
percent of the planet by 2030. (That is why it is called 30*30)
6. The countries pledged to achieve 23 targets to reverse ecosystem degradation under four
overarching goals for the survival of the natural world.
Targets:
1. 30x30 Deal:
a. Restore 30% degraded ecosystems globally (on land and sea) by 2030
b. Conserve and manage 30% areas (terrestrial, inland water, and coastal and marine) by 2030
2. Stop the extinction of known species, and by 2050 reduce tenfold the extinction risk and rate of all
species (including unknown)
3. Reduce risk from pesticides by at least 50% by 2030
4. Reduce nutrients lost to the environment by at least 50% by 2030
5. Reduce pollution risks and negative impacts of pollution from all sources by 2030 to levels that are
not harmful to biodiversity and ecosystem functions
6. Reduce global footprint of consumption by 2030, including through significantly reducing
overconsumption and waste generation and halving food waste
7. Sustainably manage areas under agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, and forestry and substantially
increase agroecology and other biodiversity-friendly practices
8. Tackle climate change through nature-based solutions
9. Reduce the rate of introduction and establishment of invasive alien species by at least 50% by 2030
10. Secure the safe, legal and sustainable use and trade of wild species by 2030
11. Green up urban spaces
Global Biodiversity Fund-

The Global Biodiversity Framework Fund (GBFF) is a fund that supports investments in global biodiversity
and helps to scale up financing for the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).
The GBFF was ratified and launched at the Seventh Assembly of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) on
August 24, 2023.
The fund's goals include:

1. Helping countries achieve the KMGBF goals and targets
2. Strengthening national-level biodiversity management, planning, policy, governance, and finance
approaches
3. Mobilizing and accelerating investment in the conservation and sustainability of wild species and
ecosystems
The United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030) –
It is a global effort to protect and restore the world's ecosystems. The UN General Assembly adopted the
resolution in March 2019.
The UN Decade's goals include:
1. Stopping and reversing the destruction of ecosystems
2. Identifying and encouraging restoration-friendly consumption
3. Building up capacity for restoration initiatives
2024 United Nations Biodiversity Conference- (COP16 of CBD)

1. The Parties (Countries) under CBD, meet at regular intervals and these meetings are called
Conference of Parties (COP).
2. The Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is held every two
years. The first COP was held in Nassau, Bahamas in 1994. The most recent COP was held in Kunming,
China and Montreal, Canada from October 11–15, 2021 and December 7–19, 2022.
3. The 2024 United Nations Biodiversity Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological
Diversity is a conference scheduled to be held from October 21 to November 1, 2024 in Cali,
Colombia.
2. Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS)
The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention, is an
environmental treaty of the United Nations that provides a global platform for the conservation and
sustainable use of terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory animals and their habitats.
Enforcement Year: The Convention came into force on November 1, 1983.
Convention has two Appendices:
Appendix I - lists migratory species that are endangered or threatened with extinction.
Appendix II- lists migratory species which have an unfavorable conservation status and which require
international agreements for their conservation and management.
CMS Conference of Parties- The Conference of the Parties (COP) of the Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species (CMS) is held at least once every three years. The COP is the primary decision-making
body of the CMS, setting the budget and priorities for the following three years.
CMS CoP14-
The Fourteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS COP 14) concluded on February 17, 2024 (in Samarkand,
Uzbekistan).
The parties agreed to adopt listing proposals for 14 migratory species and several other resolutions for
global wildlife conservation.
Major Outcomes:
1. Adoption of Samarkand Strategic Plan: The meeting adopted the Samarkand Strategic Plan for
Migratory Species for 2024-2032, outlining strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of
migratory animals and their habitats.
2. Addressing Light Pollution: New Global Guidelines were introduced to address the impacts of light
pollution on migratory species, recognizing the importance of minimizing artificial light's negative
effects on their behaviour and habitats.
3. Species Listings: Fourteen migratory species, including the Eurasian Lynx, Pallas’s Cat, and Sand Tiger
Shark, were added to CMS Appendices I and II, reflecting their conservation status and the need for
concerted efforts to protect them.
4. Concerted Actions and Action Plans: Implementation of new Concerted Actions for six species, such as
the Chimpanzee and Blue Shark, was initiated, along with the development of three new Action Plans
for aquatic species: the Atlantic Humpback Dolphin, the Hawksbill Turtle, and the Angelshark.
5. Agreement on Migratory Bird Conservation: Parties agreed on the Central Asian Flyway (CAF), a
significant migratory route, with the establishment of a coordinating unit in India to facilitate
conservation efforts across the flyway's 30 range states.
6. Publication of State of the World’s Migratory Species Report: The first-ever State of the World’s
Migratory Species report was published, providing valuable insights into the current status and
conservation needs of migratory species worldwide.
7. Launch of Global Partnership on Ecological Connectivity (GPEC): The GPEC was launched to maintain,
enhance, and restore ecological connectivity for migratory species, with support from various parties
including Belgium, France, Monaco, and Uzbekistan.
8. Amendment Proposals: Proposals for amending CMS Appendices I and II were discussed and
recommended by the Committee of the Whole (COW) for adoption, reflecting ongoing efforts to
enhance the effectiveness of the convention in safeguarding migratory species.
9. India's significant contributions to migratory species conservation were acknowledged, including its
National Action Plan for the Conservation of Migratory Birds and various initiatives aimed at protecting
marine turtles, establishing transboundary protected areas, and implementing wildlife protection
laws.
3. Ramsar Convention
It is an international treaty for the conservation and wise use of wetlands.
It is named after the Iranian city of Ramsar, on the Caspian Sea, where the treaty was signed on 2 February
1971. The 2nd of February each year is World Wetlands Day
Known officially as ‘the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat’ (or, more recently, just ‘the Convention on Wetlands’), it came into force in 1975.
At the centre of the Ramsar philosophy is the “wise use” (means maintenance of ecological character within
the context of sustainable development.) of wetlands.
Montrux Record
Montreux Record under the Convention is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of
International Importance. It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.
Note: In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of international importance under the
Ramsar Convention.
Largest Ramsar Site in India is Sundarban Wetlands (4230 sq km)
Recently (31st Jan 2024), 5 Ramsar sites were added to the list.
1. Karaivetti Bird Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
2. Longwood Shola Reserve Forest, Tamil Nadu
3. Magadi Kere Conservation Reserve, Karnataka
4. Ankasamudra Bird Conservation Reserve, Karnataka
5. Aghanashini Estuary, Karnataka
List of Ramsar Sites in India: (80 as of April 2024)

S.No. Ramsar Site Name State Year Area (km2)
1 Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 2002 901

2 Deepor Beel Assam 2002 40
3 Kanwar (Kabar) Taal Bihar 2020 26.2
4 Nanda Lake Goa 2022 0.42
5 Khijadia WLS Gujarat 2021 6
6 Nalsarovar BS Gujarat 2012 123
7 Thol Lake Gujarat 2021 6.99
8 Wadhvana Wetland Gujarat 2021 10.38
9 Bhindawas WLS Haryana 2021 4.11
10 Sultanpur NP Haryana 2021 142.5
11 Chandra Taal Himachal Pradesh 2005 0.49
12 Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh 2002 156.62

13 Renuka Lake Himachal Pradesh 2005 0.2
14 Ranganathituu BS Karnataka 2022 5.18
15 Magadi Kere Conservation Reserve Karnataka 2024 0.5
16 Ankasamudra Bird Conservation Reserve Karnataka 2024 0.98
17 Aghanashini Estuary Karnataka 2024 4.8
18 Ashtamudi Wetland Kerala 2002 614

19 Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 2002 3.73
20 Vembanad-Kol Wetland Kerala 1905 1512.5
(Longest Lake in India)
21 Bhoj Wetland Madhya Pradesh 2002 32
22 Sakhya Sagar Madhya Pradesh 2022 2.48
23 Sirpur wetland Madhya Pradesh 2022 1.61
24 Yashwant Sagar Madhya Pradesh 2022 8.22
25 Lonar Lake (Impact Crater Lake) Maharashtra 2020 4.27
26 Nandur Madhameshwar Maharashtra 2019 14
27 Thane Creek Maharashtra 2022 65.21
28 Loktak Lake Manipur 1990 266
29 Pala Wetland Mizoram 2021 18.5
30 Ansupa Lake Odisha 2021 2.31

31 Bhitarkanika Mangroves Odisha 2002 650
32 Chilika Lake (Oldest Ramsar Site in India) Odisha 1981 1165
33 Hirakud Reservoir Odisha 2021 654
34 Satkosia Gorge Odisha 2021 981.97
35 Tampara Lake Odisha 2021 3
36 Beas CnR Punjab 2019 64
37 Harike Wetland Punjab 1990 41
38 Kanjli Wetland Punjab 2002 1.83
39 Keshopur-Miani CmR Punjab 2019 34
40 Nangal WLS Punjab 2019 1
41 Ropar Wetland Punjab 2002 13.65
42 Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan 1981 28.73
43 Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 1990 240
44 Chitrangudi BS Tamil Nadu 2021 2.6
45 Gulf of Mannar Marine BR Tamil Nadu 2022 526.72
46 Kanjirankulam BS Tamil Nadu 2022 0.96
47 Karikili BS Tamil Nadu 2022 0.584
48 Koonthankulam BS Tamil Nadu 2021 0.72
49 Pallikaranai Marsh Reserve Forest Tamil Nadu 2022 12.475
50 Pichavaram Mangrove Tamil Nadu 2022 14.786
51 Point Calimere WLS & BS Tamil Nadu 2002 385
52 Suchindram Theroor Wetland Complex Tamil Nadu 2022 0.94
53 Udhayamarthandapuram BS Tamil Nadu 2022 0.44
54 Vaduvur BS Tamil Nadu 2022 1.12
55 Vedanthangal BS Tamil Nadu 2022 0.4
56 Vellode BS Tamil Nadu 2022 0.77
57 Vembannur Wetland Complex Tamil Nadu 2022 0.2
58 Karaivetti Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu 2024 4.5
59 Longwood Shola Reserve Forest Tamil Nadu 2024 1.16
60 Rudrasagar Lake Tripura 2005 2.4
61 Hokera Wetland UT of JK 2005 13.75
62 Hygam Wetland CnR UT of JK 2022 8.02
63 Shallbugh Wetland CnR UT of JK 2022 16.75
64 Surinsar-Mansar Lakes UT of JK 2005 3.5
65 Wular Lake UT of JK 1990 189
66 Tso Kar (High Altitude Ramsar Site) UT of Ladakh 2020 95.77
67 Tsomoriri (High Altitude Ramsar Site) UT of Ladakh 2002 120
68 Bakhira WLS Uttar Pradesh 2021 28.94
69 Haiderpur Wetland Uttar Pradesh 2021 69
70 Nawabganj BS Uttar Pradesh 2019 2

71 Parvati Arga BS Uttar Pradesh 2019 7
72 Saman BS Uttar Pradesh 2019 5
73 Samaspur BS Uttar Pradesh 2019 8
74 Sandi BS Uttar Pradesh 2019 3
75 Sarsai Nawar Jheel Uttar Pradesh 2019 2
76 Sur Sarovar (Keetham Lake) Uttar Pradesh 2020 4.31
77 Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora) Uttar Pradesh 2005 265.9
78 Asan Barrage Uttarakhand 2020 4.44
79 East Kolkata Wetlands West Bengal 2002 125
80 Sundarban Wetland West Bengal 2019 4230
(Largest Ramsar Site in India)
Biodiversity Conservation- International Measures

1. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
2. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 1973.
3. IUCN Red Data Book
4. T*2 Initiative to double Tigers numbers
5. International NGOs- WWF, TRAFFIC, Green Peace
T*2 Initiative-
The "Tx2" initiative aims to double the population of tigers worldwide by the year 2022. Led by the Global
Tiger Forum (GTF), the initiative involves collaboration between governments, conservation organizations,
and local communities in tiger range countries.
It focuses on habitat protection, anti-poaching efforts, and community engagement to ensure the long-term
survival of tigers.
Challenges- habitat loss, poaching, and human-wildlife conflict remain significant obstacles to achieving the
target.
International Organisations and NGOs-
Organization Year Major Objectives
Established
World Wildlife Fund 1961 WWF aims to conserve nature and reduce the most pressing threats
(WWF) to the diversity of life on Earth through habitat protection, wildlife
conservation, and sustainable development.
Fauna & Flora 1903 FFI is committed to conserving threatened species and ecosystems
International worldwide by supporting conservation projects, conducting
scientific research, and advocating for environmental protection.
United Nations 1972 UNEP sets the global environmental agenda, promotes sustainable
Environment development, and advocates for the protection of the global
Programme environment through policy development and international
(UNEP)- Inter cooperation.
Governmental
Organisation
Conservation 1987 CI works to protect nature for the benefit of people by conserving
International biodiversity, promoting sustainable practices, and addressing
climate change through science, partnerships, and policy advocacy.
TRAFFIC
1. The TRAFFIC, the Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network, is a leading non-governmental organisation
working on wildlife trade in the context of both biodiversity conservation and sustainable
development.
2. It is a joint program of World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN).
3. It was established in 1976 and has developed into a global network, research-driven and action-
oriented, committed to delivering innovative and practical conservation solutions.
4. Headquarters: Cambridge, United Kingdom
5. It aims to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature.
3.8 Wild Life Conservation: CITES:

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is
an international agreement to which States and regional economic integration organizations adhere
voluntarily. CITES adopted in 1963.
CITES entered into force in July 1975. Currently there are 183 Parties (include countries or regional economic
integration organizations).
Aim: Ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
The CITES Secretariat is administered by UNEP (The United Nations Environment Programme) and is located
at Geneva, Switzerland.
CITES CoP 19-
1. The Conference of the Parties (CoP) is a meeting that takes place every two to three years to review
the implementation of CITES.
2. The 19th meeting of the CoP, also known as the World Wildlife Conference, took place in Panama
City, Panama from November 14–25, 2022. The CoP reviews the implementation of the
Convention, considers proposals to amend the lists of species, and recommends measures to
improve the Convention's effectiveness.
3. CITES CoP 20 will be held in 2025.
3.9 Endangered Species in India:
Causes Description
Loss of Habitat Destruction of forests, the natural habitat of many species, due to human
activities such as deforestation and urbanization.
Hunting and Poaching Mass hunting and poaching activities, especially in the past, have significantly
reduced the population of many species in the wild.
Environmental Pollution Increased pollution poses health hazards to both humans and wildlife,
contributing to the endangerment of species.
Imbalances in Predator- Disruption of the natural balance between predators and prey, leading to
Prey Dynamics overhunting of species by predators due to reduced prey populations.
Overgrazing and Continuous grazing and overcrowding in small areas lead to the destruction
Overcrowding of vegetation, affecting the ecosystem and species survival.
IUCN Red Data Book-

1. The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is an international
NGO.
2. It works in the field of biodiversity conservation, research, field projects and advocacy.
3. It publishes Red Data List or Red Data Books every year. Red Data book contains the conservation
status of different species or organisms. It gives the list threatened species.
4. The categories in the Red Data book include:
1. Extinct (Ex)
2. Extinct In The Wild (Ew)
3. Critically Endangered (Cr)
4. Endangered (En)
5. Vulnerable (Vu)
6. Near Threatened (Nt)
7. Least Concern (Lc)
8. Data Deficient (Dd)
9. Not Evaluated (Ne)
Top 10 Endangered Species in India in 2024:

No. Species Status Major Threats Habitat Major Locations
Found In
1 Bengal Tiger Endangered Poaching, habitat Forests, Sundarbans,
loss, human-wildlife mangroves, Western Ghats,
conflict wetlands Central India
2 Asiatic Lion Endangered Habitat loss, human- Gir Forest Gir National Park,
wildlife conflict Gujarat
3 Snow Leopard Endangered Poaching, declining Mountain ranges, Ladakh, Himachal
prey, habitat loss Himalayas Pradesh,
Uttarakhand,
Himalayas
4 One-horned Vulnerable Poaching, habitat Grasslands, Kaziranga National
Rhinoceros loss, flooding foothills of Park, Manas National
Himalayas Park
5 Blackbuck Endangered Poaching, habitat Grasslands, scrub Rajasthan, Gujarat,
loss, roadkills areas Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka
6 Lion-tailed Endangered Habitat loss, hunting, Rainforests, Western Ghats,

Macaque roadkills Western Ghats South India
7 Resplendent Critically Habitat loss, Rainforests, high- Anamudi summit,
Tree Frog Endangered restricted range altitude areas Kerala
8 Kashmiri Red Critically Habitat loss, land Forests, Dachigam National
Stag Endangered encroachment mountains Park, Kashmir
9 Nilgiri Tahr Endangered Poaching, habitat Mountainous Western Ghats,
loss, climate change grasslands, rocky Kerala, Tamil Nadu
cliffs
10 Indian Bison Vulnerable Poaching, habitat Grasslands, Western Ghats,
(Gaur) loss, food scarcity forests Eastern Ghats,
Central India
Great Indian Bustard:

1. Scientific Name: Ardeotis nigriceps
2. Habitat: Dry grasslands and scrublands
3. Distribution: The largest population of GIBs are found in Rajasthan. The GIB
is also found in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat
states. Desert National Park, near Jaisalmer, and coastal grasslands of the
Abdasa and Mandvi talukas of Kutch District of Gujarat support some
populations
4. Features: Large bird with a horizontal body, long bare legs, black crown on
the forehead, brownish body with marked wings
5. The species has a current viable population of 100- 150 individuals in India
6. Conservation Status:
a. IUCN Red List: Critically Endangered
b. Wildlife (Protection)Act, 1972: Schedule 1
c. CITES: Appendix 1
7. Threats: The biggest threat to this species is hunting, which is still prevalent
in Pakistan. This is followed by occasional poaching outside Protected Areas,
collisions with high tension electric wires, fast moving vehicles and free-
ranging dogs in villages.
Indian Wildlife Conservation efforts, projects, acts and initiatives in recent times:
1. Wildlife Crime Control Bureau

Wildlife Crime Control Bureau is a statutory multi-disciplinary body established by the Government of India
under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, to combat organized wildlife crime in the country.
Under Section 38 (Z) of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, it is mandated to collect and collate intelligence
related to organized wildlife crime activities and to disseminate the same to State and other enforcement
agencies for immediate action so as to apprehend the criminals; to establish a centralized wildlife crime data
bank.
It assists and advises the Customs authorities in inspection of the consignments of flora & fauna as per the
provisions of Wild Life Protection Act, CITES and EXIM Policy governing such an item.
2. ENVIS
The Environmental Information System acronymed as ENVIS was implemented by the Ministry of
Environment, Forest & Climate Change by end of 6th Five Year Plan as a Plan Scheme for environmental
information collection, collation, storage, retrieval and dissemination to policy planners, decision makers,
scientists and environmentalists, researchers, academicians and other stakeholders.
ENVIS is a decentralized computerized network database system consisting of the focal point located in the
Ministry and a chain of network partners, known as ENVIS Centres located in the potential
organizations/institutions throughout the count.
3. Joint Forest Management (JFM)

It is partnership involving both the forest departments and local communities in natural forest management.
The concept was introduced by Government of India through the National Forest Policy of 1988.
1. Under JFM, village communities are entrusted with the protection and management of nearby
forests.
2. The communities are required to organize forest protection committees, village forest committees,
village forest conservation and development societies, etc.
3. Each of these bodies has an executive committee that manages its day-to-day affairs.
4. In return of their services to the forests, the communities get the benefit of using minor non-timber
forest produce. As a result, the forest can be conserved in a sustainable manner.
4. National Mission for Green India

GIM, launched in February 2014, is aimed at protecting, restoring and enhancing India’s diminishing forest
cover and responding to climate change by a combination of adaptation and mitigation measures.
Objectives of the Mission:
1. To protect, restore and enhance India’s falling forest cover.
2. To respond to climate change through a combination of adaptation as well as mitigation measures.
3. To increased forest-based livelihood incomes.
4. To enhance annual Carbon sequestration by 50 to 60 million tonnes in the year 2020.
5. Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)

1. To compensate the loss of forest area and to maintain the sustainability, the Government of India
came up with a well-defined Act, known as CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management
and Planning Authority).
2. The law establishes the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India,
and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state.
3. These Funds will receive payments for: (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest
(NPV), and (iii) other project specific payments.
4. The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the remaining
90%.
5. According to the Act’s provision, a company diverting forest land must provide alternative land to
take up compensatory afforestation.
6. For afforestation, the company should pay to plant new trees in the alternative land provided to the
state.
Net Present Value

1. It depends on the location and nature of the forest and the type of industrial enterprise that will
replace a particular parcel of forest.
2. These payments go to the Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) and are used for afforestation
and reforestation.
The Forest Advisory Committee under FCA, 1980 , constituted by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change (MoEF&CC) decides on whether forests can be diverted for projects and the NPV to be
charged.
It is a mandatory one-time payment that a user has to make for diverting forestland for non-forest use,
under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980. This is calculated on the basis of the services and ecological
value of the forests.
India State of Forest Report

ISFR is a biennial (once in 2 years) publication of Forest Survey of India (FSI), an organization under the
Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change. The ISFR assesses the forest and tree cover, bamboo
resources, carbon stock and forest fires.
The India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023
It states that India's total forest and tree cover is 80.9 million hectares, which is 24.62% of the country's
geographical area. This is an increase of 2,261 sq km from the 2019 assessment, with 1,540 sq km of forest
cover and 721 sq km of tree cover increasing since then.
The report also states that 17 states and union territories have more than 33% of their area under forest
cover.
Madhya Pradesh had the largest forest cover, followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and
Maharashtra.
The top five States in terms of forest cover as a percentage of their total geographical area were Mizoram
(84.53%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.33%), Meghalaya (76%), Manipur (74.34%) and Nagaland (73.90%).
The top five states with the highest increase in forest cover are:
1. Karnataka: 1,025 sq km
2. Andhra Pradesh: 990 sq km
3. Kerala: 823 sq km
4. Jammu & Kashmir: 4th position
5. Mizoram: 85.41 percent of total geographical area
The report also notes that there is a decrease in forest cover in the North-East region except in Tripura
and Assam.
Important Acts to protect Wildlife:

1.Indian Forest Act 1927
1. The Indian Forest Act,1927 aimed to regulate the movement of forest produce, and duty leviable
forest produce.
2. It also explains the procedure to be followed for declaring an area as Reserved Forest, Protected
Forest or a Village Forest.
3. This act has details of what a forest offence is, what are the acts prohibited inside a Reserved Forest,
and penalties leviable on violation of the provisions of the Act.
4. After the Forest Act was enacted in 1865, it was amended twice (1878 and 1927).
It has divided forests into 3 types-
Degree of protection-
Reserved forests > Protected forests > Village forests.
Criticisms
1. The act gave immense discretion and power to the forest bureaucracy which often led to the
harassment of the forest dwellers.
2. Moreover, it led to depriving the nomads and tribal people their age-old rights and privileges to use
the forests and forest produce.
3. The revenue earning potential from timber overshadowed the other values like biodiversity,
prevention of soil erosion, etc.
2. Wildlife Protection Act 1972

The Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted for protection of plants and
animal species.
1. Has 6 schedules: (Changed to 4 in the recent amendment) Schedule I and part II of schedule II cover
animals which are in the category of endangered species.
2. Schedule V – Vermins wild mammals and birds which are harmful to crops, farm animals or which
carry disease, can be hunted with permission of chief wildlife warden(recently Nilgai, Rhesus Monkey
culled under it)
3. Schedule VI- exotic plant species.
Objective of effectively protecting the wildlife of this country and to control poaching, smuggling and
illegal trade in wildlife and its derivatives.
Wild Life Act provides
1. State wildlife advisory boards, National Board for Wildlife
2. Regulations for hunting wild animals and birds
3. Establishment of sanctuaries and national parks,
4. Regulations for trade in wild animals, animal products and trophies, and
5. Judicially imposed penalties for violating the Act
Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022:

The Act seeks to increase the species protected under the law and implement CITES.
The number of schedules has been reduced to four:
1. Schedule I containing animal species enjoying the highest level of protection.
2. Schedule II for animal species subject to a lesser degree of protection.
3. Schedule III for protected plant species, and
4. Schedule IV for scheduled specimens under CITES.
The Act permits the use of elephants for 'religious or any other purposes'.
The penalties have also been increased for general and specially protected animals' violations.
National Board for Wildlife

1. Statutory Organization constituted under the WPA, 1972.
2. It is chaired by the Prime Minister and its vice chairman is Minister of Environment.
3. It serves as apex body to review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around
national parks and sanctuaries.
4. Members include Parliament Members, NGOs, eminent conservationists, ecologists.
The functions of the NBWL are as follows.
1. Promotion and development of wildlife and its conservation.
2. Advise the government on matters relating to wildlife conservation and preservation.
3. Giving or reserving clearances to projects in and around national parks and other protected areas.
4. No alteration of boundaries of the protected areas is possible without the NBWL’s approval.
3. Forest Conservation Act 1980
1. Alarmed at India’s rapid deforestation and resulting environmental degradation, the Centre
Government enacted the Forest (Conservation) Act in 1980.
2. It was enacted to consolidate the law related to forest, the transit of forest produces and the duty
levied on timber and other forest produce.
3. Forest officers and their staff administer the Forest Act.
4. Under the provisions of this Act, prior approval of the Central Government is required for diversion
of forestlands for non-forest purposes.
5. An Advisory Committee constituted under the Act advises the Centre on these approvals.
6. The Act deals with the four categories of the forests, namely reserved forests, village forests,
protected forests and private forests.
4. Environmental Protection Act 1986
1. It empowers the central government to establish authorities under section 3(3) charged with
mandate of preventing environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific problems that
are peculiar to different parts of the country.
2. Central Ground water Board is created under EPA.
3. EIA, CRZ are based on this Act.
In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the government of India enacted the Environment (Protection) Act of
1986.
a) To protect and improve environmental qualities.
b) To establish an authority to study, plan and implement long term requirements of
environmental safety.
c) To cover all problems relating to environment comprehensively.
Environmental Impact Assessment

History
After Bhopal gas tragedy of 1984, Government of India tightened environmental laws in India.
Environmental protection act, 1986 was enacted. Most important provision in this EIA.
Meaning
1. EIA is an assessment of damage or loss caused by a particular project to the environment.
2. It helps to explore alternatives on a cost benefit analysis to environment.
3. It covers mining, infrastructure development, real estate, Thermal, hydro and nuclear power
plants.
4. It ensures proper oversight of project management and execution.
6. Scheduled Tribes And Other Forest Dwellers Rights Act 2006

1. Nodal Agency for the implementation is Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA).
2. Act is applicable for Tribal and Other Traditional Forest Dwelling Communities.
3. Recognition Criteria: Forest dwellers for three generations prior to 13.12.2005 primarily resided in
and have depended on the forests for bonafide livelihood needs.
4. Maximum limit of the recognizing rights on forest land is 4 ha.
5. National Parks and Sanctuaries have been included along with Reserve Forest, Protected Forests for
the recognition of Rights.
6. Act recognizes the right of ownership access to collect, use, and dispose of minor forest
produce(MFP- all non-timber forest produce like honey, bamboo, tendu leaves) by tribals.
7. Gram Sabha has been designated as the competent authority for initiating the process of determining
the nature and extent of individual or community forest rights.
7.National Green Tribunal Act 2010

1. NGT is a statutory body established under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010.
2. Composition: One full time Chairperson, not less than ten but subject to maximum of twenty full time
Judicial Members as the Central Government may, from time to time, notify.
3. It is for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and
conservation of forests and other natural resources.
4. An order/decision/award of Tribunal is executable as a decree of a civil court.
NGT deals in the following acts
1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
3. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
5. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
6. The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
7. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
8. It does not deal with Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
8.Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act 2016
1. To compensate the loss of forest area and to maintain the sustainability, the Government of India
came up with a well-defined Act, known as CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management
and Planning Authority).
2. The law establishes the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India,
and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state.
3. These Funds will receive payments for: (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest
(NPV), and (iii) other project specific payments.
4. The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the remaining
90%.
5. According to the Act’s provision, a company diverting forest land must provide alternative land to
take up compensatory afforestation.
6. For afforestation, the company should pay to plant new trees in the alternative land provided to the
state.
Compensatory Afforestation
Compensatory afforestation means that every time forest land is diverted for non-forest purposes
such as mining or industry, the user agency pays for planting forests over an equal area of non-forest
land, or when such land is not available, twice the area of degraded forest land.
Issues Related to Biodiversity

Bio-Piracy
1. The practice of commercial exploitation of biochemicals or genetic materials which occur naturally
is known as biopiracy.
2. Typically, indigenous people have traditional cognition primarily consisting of biological features
and genetic diversity of the natural environment from one generation to another.
Ex: Patenting of Azadirachta indica – Neem by USA Company
Traditional Knowledge Digital Library

The Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) is an Indian digital knowledge repository of
the traditional knowledge, especially about medicinal plants and formulations used in Indian systems of
medicine.
Set up in 2001, as a collaboration between the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the
MINISTRY OF AYUSH.
The TKDL contains documentation of publicly available traditional knowledge (TK) that:
1. relates to Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Yoga
2. is in digitized format
3. is available in five international languages: English, German, French, Japanese and Spanish.
Policies related to Environment and Bio Diversity

1. National Forest Policy 1988
2. National Conservation Strategy and Policy statement on Environment and Development.
3. National Policy and macro-level action strategy on Biodiversity.
4. National Biodiversity Action Plan (2009).
5. National Agriculture Policy.
6. National Water Policy.
7. National Environment Policy (2006).
National Forest Policy 1988 –
Aims to have a minimum of one third (1/3rd) of the total land area under forests.
Objectives:
1. Increase in the forest and tree cover.
2. Involvement of local communities in the protection, conservation and management of forests
through Joint Forest Management Program.
3. Meeting the requirement of fuel wood, fodder minor forest produce and small timber of the rural
and tribal populations.
4. Conservation of Biological Diversity and Genetic Resources of the country through ex-situ and in-
situ conservation measures.
5. Significant contribution in maintenance of environment and ecological stability in the country.
Steps Taken by Government for Biodiversity Protection

Indian Government has taken various biodiversity protection steps. Important measures include:
1. The Central Government has enacted the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The Act, inter alia, provides
for the creation of Protected Areas for the protection of wildlife and also provides for punishment
for hunting of specified fauna specified in the schedules I to IV thereof.
2. Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 have been framed for the protection of
wetlands, in the States.
3. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme of National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-System also
provides assistance to the States for the management of wetlands including Ramsar sites in the
country.
4. Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has been established for control of illegal trade in wildlife, including
endangered species.
5. Wildlife Institute of India, Bombay Natural History society and Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and
Natural History are some of the research organisations undertaking research on conservation
of wildlife.
6. The Indian Government has banned the veterinary use of diclofenac drug that has caused the rapid
population decline of Gyps vulture across the Indian Subcontinent. Conservation Breeding
Programmes to conserve these vulture species have been initiated at Pinjore (Haryana), Buxa (West
Bengal) and Rani, Guwahati (Assam) by the Bombay Natural History Society.
7. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats‘ has been modified
by including a new component namely ‘Recovery of Endangered Species‘ and 16 species have been
identified for recovery viz. Snow Leopard, Bustard (including Floricans), Dolphin, Hangul, Nilgiri Tahr,
Marine Turtles, Dugong, Edible Nest Swiftlet, Asian Wild Buffalo, Nicobar Megapode, Manipur Brow-
antlered Deer, Vultures, Malabar Civet, Indian Rhinoceros, Asiatic Lion, Swamp Deer and Jerdon’s
Courser.
8. Under the ‘Recovery of Endangered Species’ component of the Centrally Sponsored Scheme
‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats’ for the recovery of endangered species viz. Hangul in
Jammu and Kashmir, Snow Leopard in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and
Arunachal Pradesh, Vulture in Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat, Swiftlet in Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Nilgiri Tahr in Tamil Nadu, Sangai Deer in Manipur, the government has to spend lakhs of
rupees.
9. Protected Areas, viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves all
over the country covering the important habitats have been created as per the provisions of the Wild
Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to provide better protection to wildlife, including threatened species and
their habitat.
10. Financial and technical assistance is extended to the State Governments under various Centrally
Sponsored Schemes, viz, ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats’, ‘Project Tiger’ and ‘Project
Elephant’ for providing better protection and conservation to wildlife.
11. The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) has been empowered under the Wild Life (Protection) Act,
1972 to apprehend and prosecute wildlife offenders.
12. The State Governments have been requested to strengthen the field formations and intensify
patrolling in and around the Protected Areas.
Important Indian Acts passed related to Environment and Bio Diversity

1. Fisheries Act 1897.
2. Indian Forests Act 1927.
3. Mining and Mineral Development Regulation Act 1957.
4. Prevention of cruelty to animals 1960.
5. Wildlife protection act 1972.
6. Water (prevention and control of pollution) act 1974.
7. Forest Conservation Act 1980.
8. Air (prevention and control of pollution) act 1981.
9. Environment Protection Act 1986.
10. Biological Diversity Act 2002.
11. Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of rights) act 2006.
Add current affairs to the above notes.

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APPSC Group2 S&T Notes by Malleswari Reddy Mana La Excellence

APPSC Group 2 S&T Mains Material

3.1 Ecology and Ecosystem: Basic concepts of Ecology

Mobility Environment changes as organism Ecosystem remains the same regardless of

The Four Spheres of the Earth-

Species, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biome, Biosphere-

3.2 Ecosystem: Components and Types

Ecosystem is a system of interaction between biotic and abiotic factors.

Ecosystem Characteristics Examples

Function 1. Ecological Succession-

Function 2. Homeostasis or Feedback Control Mechanism-

Function 3. Energy Flow in the Ecosystem-

Food Chain Food Web

Pyramid of numbers – inverted

Pyramid of Biomass – upright-

Pyramid of Biomass – Inverted

Limitations of Ecological Pyramids-

Function 4. Bio-geo Chemical Cycling or Nutrient Cycling

Types of Nutrient Cycles-

Other Concepts in Ecosystem:

3.3 Biodiversity: Meaning, Components

Comparison between the components of Biodiversity-

Component Genetic Diversity Species Diversity Ecosystem Diversity

Species Diversity- Components:

Species Richness Species Evenness Species Diversity

3.4 Biodiversity Hotspots

Biodiversity in Western Ghats

3.5 Loss of Biodiversity-

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation

Causes Description Examples

Eutrophication- (Concept related to Pollution in the Ecosystem)

Parameter BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)

Methods of Biodiversity Conservation-

List of Important Wildlife Sanctuaries:

No. Name Location Year Area Significance

18 Tadoba Andhari Chandrapur, 1955 90.44 km2 Tiger

48 Kedarnath Wildlife Chamoli & 1972 975 km2 Endangered Himalayan

National Park vs Wildlife Sanctuary vs Biosphere Reserve:

Parameter National Park Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve

Protection type Protection of wildlife Reserved for species- Ecosystem oriented-reserves

Level of Greater degree of Lesser degree of protection Greater Degree of Protection

List of Biosphere Reserves in India

Biosphere Year Location Famous Wildlife and Significance

4. Communities living here mainly belong to two ethnic groups,

4. Mammals found in the Park include Tiger, Elephant, Leopard,

4. It comprises the Pin Valley National Park and its surroundings,

World Network of Biosphere Reserves: by UNESCO

Marine Protected Areas

3.6 Biodiversity Conservation- Measures taken by India

Three tier structure

Initiatives to conserve Biodiversity-

6. Sea Turtle Project

7. Crocodile Conservation Project

9. Dolphin Conservation Measures

Conventions and Protocols on Biodiversity

Global Biodiversity Fund-

The fund's goals include:

2024 United Nations Biodiversity Conference- (COP16 of CBD)

List of Ramsar Sites in India: (80 as of April 2024)