Learning Material in Human Behavior and Victimology
Learning Material in Human Behavior and Victimology
Learning Material in Human Behavior and Victimology
Learning Material In
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Chapter 1 CONCEPTS, THEORIES, AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN 1
DEVELOPMENT………………………………………………………...
References ……………………………………………………………………………... 48
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CHAPTER 1
CONCEPTS, THEORIES, AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES
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Each phase of development has hazards. Each stage in the life span of
an individual can be associated with specific developmental hazards-be they
psychological, physical, or environmental; such hazards may involve adjustment
problems.
There are common traditional beliefs about people of all ages. Beliefs
concerning physical and psychological characteristics do affect the judgment of
others and their subsequent self-evaluations.
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Psychoanalytic Theories
As one of the most popular theories of development, Psychoanalytic
theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud, who argued that childhood
experiences and unconscious desires ultimately influence our behaviors as
adults. Since then, neo-Freudians have proposed different theories of their own,
including Erik Erikson, who introduced his eight-stage theory of psychosocial
development.
During this stage, an infant's main source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, and as such, rooting and sucking are especially important in this stage. It
is said that the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation by performing
gratifying activities, such as sucking. The infant may also develop a sense of trust
and comfort with an adult who is providing this kind of oral stimulation (e.g.,
feeding the child).
Conflict occurs during the weaning process, and at this point, the child
must become less dependent upon his/her caretakers; otherwise, fixation may
occur. If this fixation is not resolved, then the child may grow up with issues
concerning binge eating, drinking, nail-biting, or smoking. The individual may also
have problems related to dependency and aggression (Cherry, 2015a).
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During this stage, a child becomes aware of correct bowel control and
experiences pleasure in eliminating or retaining feces. Some parents praise and
reward children who show correct behavior in this sense. These children
eventually grow up to become productive and confident.
Common phallic traits are expressed in opposites, just like in the other
stages. These traits typically include vanity versus self-hatred, brashness versus
bashfulness, pride versus humility, gaiety versus gloom, and gregariousness
versus isolation, to name a few (Furnham, 2015).
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B. Infancy - This period occurs from birth to the end of the second week. It
is the shortest of all developmental periods and is considered a time of
extreme adjustments, thus making it a hazardous period.
C. Babyhood - This period occurs from the end of the second week until the
end of a child's second year. It is said to be the period of the true
foundation of age and marks the beginning of socialization and creativity.
This period is also a time of increased individuality, decreasing
dependency, and rapid growth and change, making it a hazardous period
as well.
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I. Middle Age - This period occurs from 40 to 60 years. Many people dread
this stage because it is a time of stress and transition. Others may feel
bored with their lives at around this age and may feel awkward or
inadequate when comparing themselves with others and evaluating their
lives against them.
J. Old Age or Senescence –This period lasts from 60 years to one's death.
This is considered a period of decline, during which people are judged by
different criteria based on prevalent stereotypes of old people. People in
this age group have varying social attitudes towards old age and may feel
that they are part of a minority. As aging requires role changes, some may
not be so successful in making the proper adjustments. Still, the desire for
rejuvenation is widespread in old age.
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
Purposes of Developmental Tasks
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Developmental Tasks During Each Stage of the Lifespan (Gines, et al, 1998)
1. Babyhood and Early Childhood
Achieving new and more mature relations with peers from both sexes
Achieving masculine or feminine social roles
Accepting one's physique and using one's body effectively
Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behaviors
Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
Preparing for an economic career
Preparing for marriage and family life
Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to one's
behavior
Acquiring beliefs and a set of ideologies
4. Early Adulthood
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5. Middle Age
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CHAPTER 2
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Behavioral - This view focuses on the external activities that can be observed
and measured.
Cognitive - This perspective studies how the brain processes and transforms
information in various ways.
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This theory states that throughout one's life, desires, wishes, and drives
that are collectively called "needs," motivate every individual. When not fulfilled,
these needs place an individual under stress. Thus, to relieve the tensions
created, one has to strive for appropriate satisfaction of these needs. According
to Abraham Maslow, human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:
"It is quite true that man lives by bread alone when there is no bread. But
what happens to man's desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly
is chronically filled? At once other (and "higher") needs to emerge and these,
rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in
turn are satisfied, again (and still "higher") needs emerge, and so on. This is what
we mean by saying that the basic human needs are organized into a hierarchy of
relative prepotency" (Maslow, 1943, p. 375).
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1. Biological and physiological needs: food, drink, air, shelter, warmth, sex,
sleep
2. Safety needs; security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear, protection from
the elements
3. Love and belongingness needs: affection and love from work group, family,
friends, peers; romantic relationships; friendship; intimacy
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Types Behavior
1. Habitual Motor, emotional, language
Olfactory smell
Cutaneous-touch
Auditory - hearing
Gustatory taste
Visual - sight
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Characteristics of Behavior
Economic Conflicts- These result from one's inability to acquire material things
because of poverty or other financial obligations.
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CHAPTER 3
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR AND
TYPES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
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Classification Characteristics
1. Passive- Passively dependent and aggressive due to
Aggressive overindulgence
2. Hysterical Easily excitable, emotional instability, dramatic need for
Personality attention, immature, tendency to sexualize contacts with
Disorder the opposite sex
3. Compulsive Excessive concern for conformity, perfection, and order
Personality
Disorder
4. Paranoid Hypersensitive, unwarranted suspicion, jealousy, envy,
Personality and feelings of excessive importance
Neuroses
Neuroses or psychoneuroses are behavioral disorders that are emotional
tension resulting from conflicts, repression, frustration, or insecurity. Neurotic
individuals compromise with reality by developing imaginary ailments,
obsessions, phobias, compulsion, depression or anxiety.
Behavioral Characteristics of Individuals Displaying Neurotic Reactions
1. Inability to function at the normal capacity level
2. Presence of anxiety
3. Rigid or repetitive behavior
4. Somatic complaints
5. Immaturity
6. Hypersensitivity
7. Egocentricity
8. Unhappiness
9. A great deal of unconsciously motivated behavior
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Forms of Hysteria
A. Amnesia - This is a disorder wherein the individual cannot recall his or her
name and remembers little or nothing about the past in varying levels of intensity.
Types of Amnesia
Anterograde -This is the inability to retain information, which has just been seen
or read.
Retrograde - This refers to the inability to recall any event (and details thereof)
that took place during a certain period.
Localized-The inability to recall events and details that are related to a particular
situation.
B. Fugue - This is a type of amnesia wherein one wanders away from his or her
home or usual surroundings; often, the person has no recollection as to how
he/she came to be there when awareness sets in.
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Psychastenia
B. Obsession- This refers to an idea or series of idens that recur very frequently
that they interfere with the ability of an individual to think and/or function normally.
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Classification of Psychoses
1. Organic/Somatogenic
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2. Functional Psychosis
Functional psychosis refers to a serious mental disorder involving the total
personality with no observable tissue damage. Hence, with no organic basis,
these ailments are believed to result from years of living under emotional stress.
As a severe emotional disorder, functional psychosis is characterized by
personality derangement and complete loss of the ability to function in reality,
"but without evidence that the disorder is related to the physical processes of the
brain" (Functional Psychosis, n.d.). It can also relate to an obsolete term "once
used to denote schizophrenia and other severe mental disorders before modern
science discovered a biological component to some aspects of each of the
disorders" (Functional Psychosis, n.d.)
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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Types of Schizophrenia
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suicidal thoughts
irritability or anxiety
prolonged sadness
lack of interest in normal activities
lethargy and lack of energy
major changes in eating and sleeping habits
feelings of guilt
difficulty concentrating
aches and pains that have no physical explanation
Anxiety Disorders - The different types of anxiety disorders are all characterized
by feelings of anxiety, fear, and nervousness. The symptoms of affective
disorders include the following:
constant worrying
irritability
obsessive thoughts
restlessness and trouble concentrating
trembling, sweating, shortness of breath and rapid heart rate
difficulty sleeping
nausea
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C. Paranoia
Types of Paranoia
D. Anti-Social Personality
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SEXUAL DEVIANCY
Sexuality - The behavior associated with the relation between sexes and their
respective reproductive organs.
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Types Characteristics
5. As to Visual Stimulus
Types Characteristics
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6. As to Number
Types Characteristics
1. Froilism A form of sexual perversion, in which three persons
participate in the sexual orgy (Suixante-neve)
2. Pluralism A form sexual deviation, in which a group of persons
participate in the sexual orgy (sexual festival)
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CHAPTER 4
VICTIMOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION, VICTIMS AND
VICTIMIZATION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Victimologist - is a social scientist who deals with the study of the causes of
victimization and the programs of preventing victimization.
Criminologist Victimologist
Collects and analyzes information Looks over statistics about the ages
about individuals engaging in illegal and social backgrounds of the
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Crime occurs more in open public areas, although rapes and simple
assaults tend to occur in homes.
Western urban areas have highest crime rates, while the Northeast rural
areas have the lowest.
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Victim risk diminishes rapidly after age 25. Contrary to popular belief,
grandparents are safer than their grandchildren.
Unmarried /never married people are more likely to be victims than the
married or widowed.
The poor are more likely to be victims of crime. They are far more likely
to be victims of violent crime, while the middle class are more likely to be
victims of property crime.
In some studies, over half of offenders report being under the influence
of alcohol and/or other drugs when they committed the offense resulting
in incarceration.
CONCEPT OF VICTIMIZATION
One of the most neglected subjects in the study of crime is its victims:
the persons, households, and businesses that bear the brunt of crime.
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deity. Today, the term commonly refers to individuals who experience injury,
loss, or hardship for any reason. People can be victims of accidents, diseases,
natural disasters, or social problems like warfare, discrimination, or other
injuries. Crime victims are harmed because of illegal acts.
Victimization can happen either with or without the knowledge or consent
of those who are victimized. Victimization is an asymmetrical relationship that is
abusive, destructive, unfair, and in many cases, in violation of a law.
The term "victimization" is defined as a verb rather than a noun; such as:
Earthquakes
volcanic eruptions
hurricanes, typhoons, tidal waves, floods, drought, famines
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suicide
attempted suicide
self-mutilation
self-inflected injury
self-caused accidents
self-destroying behavior
The abuse of legal and illegal drugs, alcohol, tobacco, and steroids, used
with a full knowledge of the harmful effects of these substances to one's health
and well-being, are typical forms of auto-victimization.
People can be responsible for their own victimization in many other ways.
They can get killed or injured as a result of accidents caused by their own
negligence, alcohol consumption, or some other behavior, such as refusing to
wear a helmet while driving a motorcycle or not fastening seat belts while in a
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car. A person may decide to play the daredevil or become a stuntman only to be
involved in a deadly or serious accident.
Industrial pollution is one of the foremost health hazards in modern life and
every year causes countless victimization in many different forms. Our
environment has become unsafe as a result of dangerous substances, such as:
Dioxin,
Pesticides,
insufficiently tested drugs,
adulterated foods,
chemical additions to food and beverages, and
defective and/or unsafe industrial products.
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TYPOLOGIES OF VICTIMS
The following are types of victims of crimes.
a. Child victims refer to those who are subjected to an act proscribed to those
who are subjected to an act by domestic and international laws and who are
below the age of eighteen (18) years. These children are victimized primarily due
to their childhood or the offender is attracted to them due to their youth. Examples
are child abuse and rape, child trafficking, and the recruitment of child combatants
in internal conflicts. In the Philippines, victimizing children is penalized by laws
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b. Female victims are those who are victimized by male offenders owing to their
gender. These crimes are collectively described as 'violence against women' and
best characterized in situations of 'domestic violence'. Domestic abuse or
violence is perpetrated by male offenders against female victims of their
household such as women battery committed by a husband or male partners.
c. Minority victims refer to those victims who are targeted by criminals because
they are victims of a minority group. Thus, minority victims may be said to be
victims of discrimination. Examples of these are victims of hate crimes such as
homosexuals, Muslims who are attacked by Islamophobes, and American Blacks
targeted by White Supremacists.
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CHAPTER 5
THEORIES OF VICTIMOLOGY AND VICTIMIZATION
PREVENTION
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Examples:
"In 1971, Menachem Amir suggested female rape victims often contribute to their
attacks by... pursuing a relationship with the rapist."
"A woman may become the target of domestic violence when she increases her
job status and her success results in a backlash from a jealous spouse or
partner."
Lifestyle Theory
"Single women who drink frequently and have a prior history of being sexually
assaulted are most likely to be assaulted on [college] campus."
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The more often victims visit dangerous places, the more likely they'll be
exposed to violence and crime. Victims don't encourage crime but are victim-
prone since they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas just where
they've probably the greatest risk of coming into contact with criminal offenders,
regardless of their behavior or perhaps their lifestyle.
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they head off on a vacation makes their home a suitable target for burglars.
Leaving a house for holiday in a metropolitan area generates an even higher
threat; and also doing so in an urban area where there's a greater number of
teenage boys, acknowledged felons, and any other "motivated offenders"
generates an even greater risk for victimization. Towns and or suburban areas
with high police visibility, other protection systems and sensors, and
neighborhood watch teams, reduce the possibility of victimization.
REDUCING RISKS
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- community beautification
Crime control - measures that are taken in response to acts that have already
been committed.
Example: adequate patrolling
Crime resistance - means making the offender's task more difficult through
advanced
planning.
Victimization prevention are activities that are done before any crime
incident happens and include risk reduction activities, like:
1. Avoidance Strategies. These are actions taken by people to limit their
personal exposure to dangerous persons and frightening situations. This is
done to achieve victimization prevention.
Example:
not allowing strangers into their homes,
ignoring passers by who attempt for a conversation on a deserted street
2. Risk Management Tactics. Tactics that are to be employed that manage
reduction of victimization risks and minimize the chance of being harmed
when exposure is unavoidable.
Example:
walking home with other people
carrying of weapon instead of going around unarmed
3. Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED). CPTED
stresses the importance of creating well-protected defensible space by
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target hardening. Target hardening means adding lights, erecting fences and
maintaining effective surveillance, limiting number of entrances, improving
visibility by trimming down bushes and adding bright lights.
According to the National Commission who stressed on the causes and
prevention of violence, "when crime is displaced (due to target hardening) and
criminals are deflected, the risk of victimization goes down for some, and are
flexible in terms of time, place, targets and tactics". In other words the adoption
of victimization prevention strategies by some very crime-conscious persons
might endanger other people who may be less conscious. Fattah (19) had
stated that "victimization may be distributed spatially, geographically and
socially.”
Arguments that the victims of crime might share responsibility with the
offenders for what happened due to facilitation, precipitation, and provocation
have been characterized as victim blaming.
Victim blaming follows a three-stage thought process:
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CHAPTER 6
THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM AND THE VICTIMS
But this "best-case scenario" frequently does not materialize. Instead, the
victims might find themselves locked into conflicts with the police, prosecutors,
judges, and parole boards instead of getting cooperation as the system handles
"their" cases.
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Victims and the Police. When victims report crimes, they want the police to
come quickly and with dispatch. Psychological and physical first aid is expected
to be performed on them, believe their story or account of the incident,
immediate apprehension of the perpetrators, gather evidence that is admissible
in court, and recover any property taken from them. However, the police might
take a while to arrive, handle them insensitively, consider their versions of
events unbelievable or exaggerated, fail to solve their cases, and be unable to
recover their stolen goods.
Victims and Defense Attorneys. Victims oftentimes are at the mercy of the
defense attorneys. During cross-examination at trials defense attorneys try to
wear down the victims by stalling tactics and asking hostile questions intended
to undermine their credibility.
Victims and the Judges. Victims hope that judges shall be fair and impartial in
handling down sentences. Victims feel that the law is always in favor of the
accused that threatens their security and safety especially if the judge sets a
bail low enough or the defendants are released, or if the judge imposes
sentences that do not reflect the gravity of the offenses that harmed them.
Victims and Corrections Officials. Victims want corrections officials to keep
them posted concerning the whereabouts of convicts, protect them from
reprisals after release, and effectively supervise any restitution arrangements
that were imposed as conditions of probation or parole.
The UN Declaration on Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse
of Power underscored some basic principles that can be summarized into the
following: a. access to justice and fair treatment; b. restitution; c. compensation;
and d. assistance.
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B. Restitution
Offenders and criminals should be held accountable for their
behavior, and where appropriate, should provide reasonable restitution to
their victims, their dependents or families. Such restitution could include
the return of property or compensation for the loss that the victims have
suffered. This must also include reimbursement of expenses incurred as
an outcome of the victimization, the provision of services, and also the
restoration of rights. Governments must examine their practices, laws, and
regulations to consider restitution as an accessible sentencing alternative
in criminal cases, additionally to many other criminal sanctions. In cases
of substantial injury to the ecosystem, restitution, if purchased, should
include, as much as you possibly can, restoration of the environment,
reconstruction of the infrastructure, replacement of community services,
and also reimbursement of the expenses of relocation, each time some
damage leads to the dislocation of a neighborhood. Anywhere other
agents or public officials acting in a quasi-official or official capacity have
violated national criminal laws, the victims must get restitution from the
State whose officials or maybe agents are to blame for the damage
inflicted. In instances where the Government under whose authority the
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C. Compensation
When compensation is not completely offered from other options or
the offender, States ought to endeavor to offer monetary compensation to:
(i) Victims who've suffered considerable physical injury or for the serious
harm to their mental or physical health as an outcome of severe crimes;
(ii) The family members of victims, particularly dependents of those that
have died or may have become mentally or physically incapacitated as a
consequence of such victimization. The establishment, building up and
expansion of a national fund for compensation to victims must be
encouraged. Wherever appropriate, some other funds might additionally
be created, which includes in all those instances in which the State of the
victim where he is a national is unable to provide the right compensation
due to financial inability.
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REFERENCES:
Books
Castillo, R. & Gabao, R. (2023). Human Behavior and Victimology (4th
Edition). Chapter House Publishing Incorporated.
Tangcanco, D. (2018). Victimology. Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.
Eduardo, J. & Panganoron, C. (2015). Human Behavior and Crisis
Management. Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.
Kalalang, S. (2011). Introduction to Criminology and Phycology of Crime.
Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.
Other Sources
Cueno, B. (2023). BeCueno Criminology Reviewer. Collegio de Santa
Catalina de Alejandria
Petrossian, G. (2022). Victims in the Criminal Justice System: Victim Wishes
– Justice Needs. European Criminal Law Review.
https://doi.org/10.5771/2193-5505-2022-1-111.
Daigle, L. & Muftic L. (2019). Victimology: A Comprehensive Approach.
London: Sage Publications Inc.
Petherick, W. (2017). Victim precipitation: Why we need to expand upon the
theory. Forensic Research and Criminology International Journal, 5(2),
263-264.
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