Political Science &

International Relations

By: TEAM EXAMVAT

ARISTOTLE

• Father of Political Science.

• Book: Politics
• Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy,
and the Aristotelian tradition.
• at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC
• Aristotle has been called "the father of logic", "the father of biology", "the father of political
science", "the father of zoology", "the father of embryology", "the father of natural law",
"the father of scientific method", "the father of rhetoric", "the father of psychology", "the
father of realism", "the father of criticism", "the father of individualism", "the father of
teleology", and "the father of meteorology.
• His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics,
On the Soul and Poetics.
• He conferred in Nicomachean Ethics at 1099b, "The end (or goal) of politics is the best
of ends, and the main concern of politics is to provoke a certain character in the citizens
and to make them good and disposed to perform noble actions."
Theory of State
“Man is by nature of social animal”.
“One who can live without state is either beast or God but can’t be a man”.
“State comes into existence for the sake of life and continues for the sake of good life”.
“State is a union of family and villages”.
“State is highest of all associations”.
• He establishes that the origin of the state is in the natural needs of the man. Man has various
types of needs:
1. Reproductive/Biological needs: To fulfill his basic needs, and that of biology, there comes
the institution of family. The family is the association established by nature for the supply
of men's everyday wants. The family, then, is the first stage in the formation of the state.
2. Self-Preservation: which causes master and slave to come together for their mutual benefit,
and creates a village.
• the state is a community and that it is the highest of all communities, 'which embraces all
the rest, aims at good in greater degree than any other, and at the highest good'.
• Aristotle was the first to define the state a community clearly as such, and thus he laid the
foundation for the organic conception of the state.
• Aristotle stated that sate is a natural community, an organism with all the attributes of a
living being.
• The state is by nature clearly prior to the family and the individual, since the whole is of
necessity prior to the part".
• Like the individual, the state must show the virtues of bravery, self-control and justice. The
function of the state was the advancement of good life among its citizens and, therefore,
the state was the spiritual association into a moral life.
Theory of Citizenship
• Women, slaves, children, old people are excluded from being citizens.
• Native born, adult male belonging to the propertied class can only be citizens.\
• Because citizenship is a duty to participate in the affairs of the state.
• Slaves don’t have reason.
• Women don’t have time to participate because they are into household work.
• Children are immature.
• Old people are not physically fit.
Theory of Slavery
“Slavery is natural as well as useful”.
"For that some should rule and others be ruled is a thing not only necessary, but expedient; from
the hour of their birth, same are marked out for subjection other for rule".
 • There are two kinds of slave:
1. Slaves by Law: prisoners of war
2. Slaves by Nature: Those who are unfit to be masters
• Nature has made man either physically or mentally strong.
• People who are physically strong are meant to be laborers.
• Those who are mentally strong are required to do mental labour.
• The two qualities of the ruler:
1. Ability to take right decision- use of reason
2. Courage to face the consequences of those decisions- Spirit.
• Hence, those people who don’t have reason and courage are slaves by nature.
• He also explains utility of slaves:
1. Utility for the economic system: Slaves can work for longer duration
2. Utility for the state: When the slave is working for the master, master will have enough
time to devote himself in the service of the state.
• Aristotle advised to treat slaves properly.
• Utility for slaves:
1. Slaves can’t lead his life because he doesn’t have reason. He needs constant guidance.
2. The only way slave can have virtuous life is to live under the master.
3. Slaves can learn from the master and can develop his virtues.
• He suggested that the slaves can be liberated in case they develop these virtues.

Theory of Property
• Criticized Plato’s theory of Communism
• Provided justification for private property
• He identified three systems of property:
1. Common ownership and Common use: He reject this because everyone’s property is no
one’s responsibility. It will not be a productive system.
2. Common Ownership and Individual Use: It is impractical and illogical. And will be
exploitative.
3. Individual ownership and Common Use: This is the best system.
Common use because he was aware of the evil consequences of extreme wealth. He believes
in the principle of “golden mean”. Hence, to lead a good life moderate wealth is enough.

Theory of Constitutions
• The state is a self-sufficient unit and this self-sufficiency is not for the purposes of life
alone, but for good and noble life. Noble and good life is happy life.
“By the constitution we mean the organization of the various authorities and in particular
the sovereign authority that is above all the others.”
 • Aristotle studied and compared nearly 158 states and their constitution.
• In Book III (Politics): constitutions can be distinguished by the different conceptions
of justice each embodies.
• in the “best” of constitutions, all free men must participate in public decisions and
actions, but not equally because “better” contributions should be recognized,
encouraged and rewarded.
• Constitutions, for Aristotle, are the essential structures of an organization.
• When it comes to the constitution of a polis, the crucial questions are who rules (and to
what extent), and what are the purposes their rule embodies? For these purposes,
constitutions can be classified along two dimensions. One dimension has to do with the
number (and type of person – wealthy? poor?) in the ruling group. The second
dimension has to do with whether the ruling group follows aims that are “proper”, that
is, intended for the good of all, or “perverted”, that is, only for the rulers’ benefit.

Proper Perverted

One Monarchy Tyranny

Few Aristocracy Oligarchy
Many/All “Polity” Democracy
 • The end of the polis is not to provide a living but to provide the conditions of a good
life, to be a place where happiness as “eudaimonia” can be exercised.
• The polis is no mere territorial, economic or defensive association (although it is all
these as well). It exists instead for the sake of “noble” actions.
• he states that the many, taken collectively, have more wisdom than the few, even
though each member of the many will not be as an individual wise enough. There is
danger, therefore, in giving individual members of the lower, poorer classes offices of
state.
• According to him Monarchy is the best form of government but no practicable. It will
decay into tyranny. Therefore, he gives democracy as the “golden mean”.
• the “best of the possible” (i.e., 2nd rank) constitutions in ch. 11 of Book IV. It will, in
some way, be a synthesis and mixture of democracy and oligarchy.
• The best of the possible – what he calls the “Polity” – is the best for most people, for
the kind of society and economy already in existence, for the ordinary kinds of virtue
and levels of education we might find in them

Theory of Law
• In order to find answers, he weighed pros and cons of both the options and in doing so,
came to the conclusion that law should be supreme.
• Believed in “rule of law”.
• Aristotle believed that rule of law was preferable over that of any individual proposing that
any and every individual, even a king, must be a subject to law.
• “Law is a reason without passions”.

Theory of Revolution
• Aristotle’s theory is divided into two parts:
• 1. First part is a practical manual of conduct advising democrats, aristocrats, monarchs and
oligarchs and even tyrants as how to keep themselves in power.
2.Second part is a treatise on the philosophical basis of the good and stable governments.
• For Aristotle, any change, big or small, violent or non-violent, is a revolution.
• Aristotle is conservative in nature, and hence, not very happy of changes.
• General Causes of Revolution:

1. The main feature of revolution is to be the craving of men for equality. Equality has two
characters-absolute and proportional. The proletariat are passionate to secure absolute
 equality for the availability of the same rights that are possessed by few. The few
strugglesfor proportional equality for perpetual upgrading superiority in power and
privilege.

2. Strong desire for justice becomes another feature of revolution. Aristotle was of the view
that men turn to revolution when they think they have not got their dues.

Particular Causes of Revolution:

1. Desire for gain and profit.

2. Universal desire for honor and prestige

3. The possession of sovereign power by an individual or group so as to create fear and

apprehension in the minds of the subject

4. Undue priority and prominence of individuals caused great stir in the heart of the
subdued people

5. Disproportionate increase of power and wealth in any part of the state

6. Elections intrigues and moral degradation kept up in the selection of some people

7. Carelessness shown in granting public offices to disloyal citizens and undue favoritism
shown to the individuals

8. Too much power concentrated in one man or class of men for political gains

9. Dissimilarity of different elements in the state

10. The rivalries of people of different races in the state

11. Dynastic quarrels and conflicts

12. Free immigration of outside races with different notions of justice and law

Revolutions in Particular kind of State:

1. Democracy

In democracies, revolutions are led by the dogmatic policies of demagogues in attacking the rich.
2. Tyranny or Oligarchy

In oligarchies, revolutions take place due to two reasons:

a)Oppressive or Totalitarian rule
b)Rivalry among the ruling dictators

3. Aristocracy

In aristocracies, revolution held to the policy of narrowing down the circle of the Government.
Aristocracy tends to become oligarchy, through the undue encroachment of the richer classes
polity to become democracy, through the undue aspiration of the poorer class.

Remedies for Revolution:

1. Abundant political power should not be concentrated in the hands of one man or one class of
men.

2. The various classes in the state without any discrimination of color and creed should be treated
alike and with proper consideration

3. Honors and rewards should be distributed as fairly as possible only to deserving ones because
inequalities of offices and honors drive men to revolt.

4. Political offices should be within reach of every individual who is able of performing his
functions best.

5. The Government should be so vigilantly organized that the political office-holders cannot make
money out of their offices. Bribes and other kinds of illegal gratification should be made quite
impossible to accept.

6.A Government would gain popularity and political stability if it so arranges things that the
internal details of the administration, particularly the administration of public finances is open to
public scrutiny.

7. Proper education should be imparted to the citizens in the spirit of constitution.

8. Political stability and internal solidarity can be gained by maintaining proportionate equality.

9. The habit of obedience and submission to law should be instilled. Lawlessness and anarchy
should not be allowed to creep in even in small and trifling matter.

10. In oligarchy and aristocracy, the inferior class must be well treated and the principles of
democratic equality must be followed among the privileged classes. In democracy, the poor and
the rich should be encouraged to take part in the state administration which does not affect the
sovereign power.

According to Aristotle “A revolution constitutes more a political than a legal change. It had the
effect of reversing ethical, social and economic standard."

Theory of JUSTICE

DISTRIBUTIVE
PARTICULAR CIVIL LAW
JUSTICE CORRECTIVE
CRIMI NAL
UNIVERSAL
LAW

for Aristotle, justice is of two types, viz., universal justice and particular justice. The former
refers to obedience to laws—that one should be virtuous.
As far as particular justice is concerned, it is again of two types, viz., distributive justice and
remedial or corrective justice.
 Distributive justice implies that the state should divide or distribute goods and wealth among
citizens according to the merit.
Again, remedial justice is divided into two, dealing with voluntary transactions (civil law) and
the dealing with involuntary transaction (criminal law). Further, Aristotle added commercial and
cumulative justice to the above-mentioned types of justice.
Distributive Justice:
Aristotle was of the opinion that this form of justice is the most powerful law to prevent any
revolution, as this justice believes in proper and proportionate allocation of offices, honours, goods
and services as per their requirement being a citizen of the state.
This justice is mostly concerned with political privileges. Aristotle advocated that every political
organization must have its own distributive justice. He, however, rejected democratic as well as
oligarchic criteria of justice and permitted the allocation of offices to the virtuous only owing to
their highest contributions to the society, because the virtuous people are few. Aristotle believed
that most of the offices should be allocated to those few only.
Corrective Justice:
All laws related to commercial transactions are dealt within the remedial and corrective actions. It
aims to restore what an individual had lost due to the injustice of the society. This justice prevents
from encroachments of one right over the other.
Aristotle opined that corrective justice relates to voluntary and commercial activities such as hire,
sale and furnishing security. These actions involve aggression on life, property, honor and
freedom. In brief, this justice aims at virtue and moral excellence of character and it is for this
reason, it is called corrective justice.