Child Adol 1
Child Adol 1
Child Adol 1
3. Construction of knowledge.
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information and
experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety of forms,
such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made or
developed may vary in different subject areas and among students with varying talents, interests, and
abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner's prior knowledge and
understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks,
and does not transfer readily to new situations. Educators can assist learners in acquiring and
integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners
of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organization or categorizing. This historical
document is derived from a 1990 APA presidential task force (revised in 1997).
4. Strategic thinking.
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve
complex learning goals. Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning,
reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies
to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations.
They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to
see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or
interacting with appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners
in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.
6. Context of learning.
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional
practices. Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers a major interactive role with both the
learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students can impact many
educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of
thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level of prior
knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies. The classroom environment,
particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also have significant impacts on student
learning.
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five areas:
Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more
effectively.
3. Motivation and affect
Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment of
learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own unique combination of
genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context
Growth
Development
GROWTH DEVELOPMENT
Quantitative changes in size, weight number, etc. Qualitative changes in the quality
One of the parts of development Growth is one of its parts
Changes that take place in particular aspects of the Describes the changes in the organism as a whole
body and behavior
Continue throughout life but stops with the Continuous process- from womb to tomb
attainment of maturity
Quantitative and observable Changes are qualitative in nature and cannot be
measured
May or may not bring about development Possible without growth
PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
There are seven principles of development that have been put forth from the scientific
knowledge gained from observing children.
a. Cephalocaudal Pattern – during infancy, the greatest growth always occur at the top.
b. Proximodistal Pattern- muscular control of the trunk and arms comes earlier as
compared to the hands and finger.
2. The rate of development is unique in each individual.
3. Development involves change
4. Early development is more critical than later development.
5. Development is the product of maturation and learning
6. Principle of inter-related development
7. There are social expectations for every developmental period which are often referred to as
developmental tasks.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Gross motor development- the large muscles in the body such as legs, arms, and the
chest
Fine motor development- The small muscles such as those in the hands, fingers, lips and
tongue. Hand-eye co-ordination is an example of fine motor development height and
weight growth.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
A Developmental task is a task that arises at a certain period in our life, the successful
achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness,
social disapproval, and difficulty with the later tasks.
PRE-NATAL STAGE
1. GERMINAL PERIOD
Prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception
It includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division and the attachment of the
zygote to the uterine wall.
A. Blastocyst
Inner layer of cells
Develops later into the embryo
B. Trophoblast
Outer layer of cells
Provides nutrition and support for the embryo
2. EMBRYONIC PERIOD
Prenatal development occurs 2 to 8 weeks after conception
The zygote will become Embryo
Organogenesis- is the process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal
development
3 layers of cells
Endoderm- inner layer of the cell; becomes the digestive and respiratory systems
Ectoderm- outermost layer of the cell; becomes the nervous, sensory receptors and
skin parts
Mesoderm- middle layer; develops into circulatory skeletal, muscular, excretory,
and reproductive system
Placenta – a life support system that consist disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood
vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join.
Umbilical cord- contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta
Amnion- is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing embryo
floats.
3. FETAL PERIOD
Last from about 2 months after conception until 9 months when the infant is born.
Dramatic course and organ systems mature to the point at which life can be sustained
outside the womb.
Teratology
Infants will responds to sudden sounds or movements by throwing their arms and legs
out and throwing their heads back.
Most infants will usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their
bodies.
6. Galant Reflex
It is shown when an infant’s middle or lower back is stroked next to the spinal cord
The baby will respond by curving his/her body toward the side which is being stroked.
INFANTILE AMNESIA – infants do not have the ability to recall events that happened when
they are very young. Many psychologists believe that people remember experiences
beginning at 3. Some, however, remember events at age of 2.
Characterized by decreasing dependency for the reason that this is the time when
babies achieve enough body control to become independent
Babyhood skills: hand and leg skills
Crying, cooing, babbling, gesturing, and emotional expressions are examples of pre-
speech forms of communication
Babies are capable of establishing friendships
4. EARLY CHILDHOOD
Learning to walk
Learning to crawl
Learning to take solid food
Learning to talk
Learning to control the elimination of body waste
Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
Getting ready to read
Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality.
Gang and creativity age when self-help skills, social skills, school skills, and play skills are
developed.
The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered
The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture.
Achievement becomes amore central theme of the child’s world and self-control
increases.
Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes
Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively
Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
Preparing for marriage and family life
Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as guide to behavior
Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.
Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as spouse, parents and
bread winner.
A time of establishing personal and economic independence, career development,
selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in intimate way, starting a family and
rearing children
Selecting a mate
Learning to live with a partner
Staring family
Rearing children
Managing home
Getting started in occupation
Taking on civic responsibility
Finding a congenial social group
Transition age when adjustments to initial physical and mental decline are experienced
A time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility
Developmental Task
A time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement, and
adjustment to new social roles
Retirement age when increasingly rapid physical and mental decline are experienced.
Developmental Tasks
Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial development has eight distinct stages, taking in five stages up to
the age of 18 yrs and three further stages beyond, well into adulthood. Erikson suggests that there is still
plenty of room for continued growth and development throughout one’s life.
Like Freud, Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs at each stage of development. For Erikson, (1963) these
crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual conflicting
with the needs of society.
Epigenetic Principle
Psychosocial Crisis
JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) was one of the 20 th centuries most influential researchers in the area
of developmental psychology. He was a child prodigy who published his first article in a refereed journal
at the age of 11.
While working in Binet’s test lab in Paris, Piaget became interested in how children think. He
noticed that young children’s answers were qualitatively different than older children. This suggested to
him that younger children were not less knowledgeable but, instead, answered the questions differently
than their older peers because they thought differently.
This implies that human development is qualitative rather than quantitative. Piaget showed that
young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults.
Schema- the cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment
Assimilation- the process of fitting new experiences into an existing created schema
Accomodation- process of creating new schema
Equilibration- achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation
Lev Vygotsky
Socio-cultural Theory
Key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in
cognitive development
Social and cultural factors should be looked into in understanding individual
development
He recognized that social interaction and language are two central factors in cognitive
development
Scaffolding
Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the
learners accomplish a task.
Potential Level- level that the learner achieves with the assistance of the teacher or a more
advanced peer
Actual Level- level that the learner achieves alone
His theory was based on techniques on investigation that included conversing with children and
asking them questions about moral dilemmas and events in stories.
1. Starting age 5 and lasting up to age 7-8- justice is subordinated to adult authority
2. Between 8-11- progressive equalitarianism
3. Between 11-12- consideration of equity
A person goes through the sequence of these five stages and along the way there are
needs to be met.
Whether these needs are met or not, determines whether the person will develop a
healthy personality or not.
Sigmund Freud
Considered to be the most well- known psychologist because of his very interesting
theory about the unconscious and also about sexual development.
ORAL STAGE
Erogenous zone- (pleasure area) a specific area that becomes the focus of pleasure or
needs. These may be arms, mouth and the genitals.
Erogenous zone is the mouth.
During the oral stage the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking)
Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to Oral Fixation or Oral Personality as shown in
increased focus on oral activities.
Fixation- results from failure to satisfy the needs of a particular psychosexual stage.
Oral receptive- a type of personality which has a stronger tendency to smoke, drink,
alcohol, overeat.
Oral aggressive- a tendency to bite his/her nails or use curse words or even gossip
As a result, these persons may become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack
leadership traits.
However, they may also find these tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive in
relating with people.
ANAL STAGE
PHALLIC STAGE
LATENCY STAGE
GENITAL STAGE
Begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are again awakened.
Adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex with pleasure centered on
the genitals.
Id
Operates on the pleasure principle
It focuses on immediate gratification of its needs
Whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no consideration for the reality,
logicality or practicality in the situation.
Ego
emerges during toddler and preschooler years
operates using the reality principle
aware that others have also needs to be met
It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative
consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations.
Superego
Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of phallic stage, the superego develops
It embodies a person’s moral aspect
It is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right or
wrong.
TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL
1. The unconscious
Freud believes that most of what influences us is our unconscious
The Oedipus and Electra Complex are both buried down into the unconscious, out of our
awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused.
2. The Conscious
All that we are aware of are stored in our conscious mind
However, our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in our
everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality.
Most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.
3. The Subconscious
This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted, but is not in our active conscious
It is right below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we search for it.
Telephone number, childhood memories, name of your childhood friend
LEARNING
It is relatively permanent change in one’s behavior as a result of his interaction in the
environment.
3 Important Concepts in Learning
1. Change
Learning involves change in knowledge or behavior. Example, if a rat is lost in a maze, it
produces an array of attempts to look for its way out. For several times, it does the same
thing until it finally gets its way out.
Nothing about the maze has changed for it remains the same. Everything else in the
rat’s situation has remained unchanged except the RAT.
Metacognition
coined by John Flavell
means “thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn”
it involves higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the
cognitive process engaged in learning
3 Categories of Metacognitive Knowledge
1. Person Variables
Includes how one views himself as a learner or thinker
Refers to knowledge about how human beings learn and process information
2. Task Variables
Include knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing
demands that it will place upon the individual
It is about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished, gauging its difficulty and
knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you.
3. Strategy Variables
Involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating
whether this strategy is effective
Meta-attention- the awareness of specific strategies so you can keep your attention
focused on the topic or task.
BEHAVIORISM
Emphasizes conditioning behavior and altering the environment to elicit selected
responses from the learner.
This dominated much of the 20th century psychology
1. Unconditioned Stimulus
The Unconditioned Stimulus ( UCS) is any stimulus that consistently produces a
particular naturally occurring automatic response.
In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCS was the food.
2. Unconditioned Response
The Unconditioned Response (UCR) is the response that occurs automatically when the
UCS is presented.
UCR is a reflexive, involuntary response that is predictably caused by UCS.
In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCR was the salivation.
3. Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning
process and does not normally produced the UCR.
Yet, through repeated association with the UCS, the CS triggers a very similar response
to that caused by the UCS.
4. Conditioned Response
The Conditioned Response (CR) is the learned response that is produced by the CS.
The CR occurs after the CS has been associated with the UCS.
The term “operant conditioning” originated by the behaviorist B.F. Skinner, who believed that
one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior.
All we need to now in order to describe and explain behavior is this; actions followed by good
outcomes are likely to recur and actions followed by bad outcomes are less likely to recur.”
-(Skinner, 1953)
The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase.
He believes that people acquire behaviors through the observation of others, then imitate
what they have observed. Several studies involving television commercials and videos
containing violent scenes have supported this theory of modeling.
Albert Bandura believed television was a source of behavior modeling.
According to Maslow’s Theory, there are four types of needs that must be satisfied before a
person can act unselfishly.
The needs are arranged in hierarchical order. The upward climb is made by satisfying one set of
needs at a time.
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
1. Physiological Needs – this is the basic. The body craves for food, liquid, sleep, oxygen, sex,
freedom of movement and a moderate temperature.
2. Safety Needs- safety from physical attack, emotional attack, fatal disease, invasion, Extreme
losses (job, family members, home, friends)
3. Love and Belonging Needs- the love or belongingness needs come into play after the
physiological and security drives are satisfied. Gratification is a matter of degree rather than an
either or accomplishment.
Inclusion- part of a group colleagues, peers, family, clubs
Affection- love and be loved
Control- influence over others and self
4. Esteem Needs- The esteem needs are of two types. There’s self-esteem, which is the result of
competence or mastery of tasks.
There is also the attention and recognition that comes from others. Wanting this
admiration is part of what McClelland labels “need for power”.
5. Self-actualization- Maslow described the need for self-actualization as the desire to become
more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.
COGNITIVISM
The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the “black box” of the mind should be opened
and understood. The leaner is viewed as an information processer (like a computer).
I. Gestalt Laws
The word Gestalt is used in modern German to mean the way a thing has been
“gestellt”. i.e. “placed” or “put together”
There is no exact equivalent in English. Form is the usual translation; in psychology the
word is often rendered “pattern” or “configuration”
One of the most important theories of perception is the Gestalt Theory. It was
developed about 1910 by Max Wertheimer and carried on by Wolfgang Kohler and
Kurt Koffka at Frankfurt University.
They suggested that learners do not just collect information but they actively process
and restructure data in order to understand it.
This called perceptual process.
Like past experience, needs, attitudes and one’s present situation can affect his/her
perception.
According to the Gestalt Psychologist, the way we form our perception are guided by
certain principles or laws.
Principles of Gestalt Psychology
1. Law of Continuity – states that perceptual organization tends to preserve smooth continuities
rather than abrupt changes.
2. Law of Closure- states that incomplete figures tend to be seen as complete. In perception, there
is the tendency to complete unfinished objects. We tend to ignore gaps and complete contour
lines.
3. Law of Proximity- holds that things close together are grouped together in perception.
4. Law of Similarity- refers to the perception of similar objects that tend to be related
5. Law of Pragnanz- states that all possible organizations that could be perceived from a visual
stimulus, the one that will most likely occur is the one that possesses the best, simplest, and
most stable form.
6. Figure and Ground- the eye differentiates an object form its surrounding area. A form,
silhouette, or shape is naturally perceived image clearer. Using unusual figure/ ground
relationships can add interest and subtlety to an image.
Conclusion
Gestaltist views on learning and problem-solving were opposed at the time dominant pre-
behaviorist and behaviorist views. Wertheimer emphasized importance of seeing the whole
structure of the problem.
Gestaltism therefore suggests that learners should be encouraged to discover whole nature
or relationships between elements of a problem.
2 forces
Internal Forces- individual’s feelings, attitudes, and needs
External Forces- everything in the physical world including other human beings.
Application to Teaching
To understand the motivation of a learner, the teacher has to develop the ability to
transcend the tension (needs) of a learner, the learner’s ability, and the properties of
the learner’s perceived environment
Teacher should try to suit the goals and activities of the lesson to the learner’s needs.
4. Macrosystem
May be considered the outermost layer in the child’s environment
This layer is comprised of cultural values, customs and laws. (Berk, 2000).
the effects of larger principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence
throughout the interaction of all the other layers.
5. Chronosystem
Encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s environments
The social and historical time frame in which the child’s life is set- this reflects how
children change over time.
Elements within the system can be either external, such as the timing of a parent’s
death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a child.
AS children get older, they may react differently to environment changes and may be
more able to determine more how that change will influence them.
ADVANCE ORGANIZER- presents an overview of the information to be covered in detail during the
exposition that follows.
Derivative Subsumption
Describes the situation in which the new information pupils learn is an instance or example of a
concept that pupils have already learned.
Meaningful learning takes place when new material or relationships can be derived from the
existing structure.
Example (Stage 1)-
o PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE: Let’s suppose Ali has acquired a basic concept such as “tree”-
has green leaves, branch, fruits
o Ali learns about a kind of tree that he has never seen before “persimmon tree”-
conforms to his previous understanding of “tree”.
o His new knowledge of persimmon trees is attached to the concept of tree, without
substantially altering that concept in any way.
Correlative Subsumption
More “valuable” learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher level
concept.
Example (stage 2)
o Now, let’s suppose Ali encounters a new kind of tree that has red leaves, rather than
green
o To accommodate this new information, Ali has to alter or extend hid concept of “tree”
tp include the possibility of red leaves.
Superordinate Learning
In this case, you already knew lot of examples of the concept, but you did not know the concept
itself until it was taught to pupils.
Example (stage 3)
o Ali was well acquainted with maples, oaks, apple trees, etc., but pupils still did not know,
until they were taught that these were all examples of deciduous trees.
Combinatorial Learning
It describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that comes from his
previous knowledge (in a different, but related, “branch”)
Students could think of this as learning by analogy
Example (Stage 3)
o Ali learn about modification on the plants part, Ali might relate it to previously acquired
knowledge of how papyrus tree used to produce paper.
Discovery Learning
Bruner believes that students must be ACTIVE – they must identify key
principles themselves rather than simply accepting teacher’s explanation
Posits that learning is more meaningful to learners when they have opportunity
to discover on their own the relationship among concepts or to actively search
for a solution to a problem
An approach to instruction through which students interact with their
environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions
and controversies and performing experiments
The ideas is that students are more likely to remember concepts they discover
on their own.
Calls his view of learning as “instrumental conceptualism”
Characteristics:
Inquiry-based process
Focuses on learning through experience
Inductive reasoning- uses specific examples to formulate a general principle
Advantages of Discovery Learning
Active engagement
Promotes motivation
Promotes ownership of learning
The development of creativity and problem-solving skills
A tailored learning experience
Spiral Curriculum
Is one that develops the same lessons at succeeding age or grade levels as well as at
different levels of difficulty
It is also about integration and cohesion of knowledge
It means that there must be a considerable venue for developing themes in which a
number of different content areas can be combines and integrated.