Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

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CHAPTER 2
Internet Business Models and Strategies

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you complete this chapter you should be able to:

1. Describe the key elements of an internet business model.

2. Explain the similarities and differences between B2C and B2B models.
3. Explain the similarities and differences between models based on “bricks,”
“bricks and clicks,” “clicks and bricks,” and “clicks.”
4. Describe key revenue-generating approaches used by internet business models.
5. Define and explain the importance of ebusiness strategy.
6. Describe the relationship between internet business models and business strategy.
7. Identify the key areas addressed by a strategic plan.

KEY TERMS
asynchronous (p. 36)
banner ad (p. 31)
brokerage site (p. 33)
business model (p. 23)
channel conflict (p. 30)
clickthrough count (p. 31)
internet business model (p. 23)
reverse auction (p. 26)
strategy (p. 23)
TEACHING OVERVIEW

Chapter 2 focuses on three key elements of all ebusinesses: how business strategy can
impact the success of an ebusiness venture, how identifying the core values of an
ebusiness through classification can help define its revenue model, and the necessity to
define steps that help align strategic planning between the corporate and ebusiness goals.
Quick reference to dot com failures such as pets.com and Napster.com clarify how losing
track of basic accounting principles (like revenue – expenses = profit), or infringing on
copyright laws, can lead to business disaster.

No strategic business discussion today is complete without an acknowledgement to

Michael E. Porter, and this chapter introduces students to a selection of his ideas. For the
instructor, emphasize why strategic objectives are important within an ebusiness
environment, with particular importance given to an organization’s core products and
revenue models. There is a perception that strategic planning locks a company in to a

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

particular plan, but in reality strategic planning (when done properly) is an exercise that
can increase flexibility and allow companies to be prepared for change well in advance of
market conditions.

This chapter also introduces students to the numerous types and classifications of internet
business models. By adapting the ebusiness models of Michael Rappa, instuctors are
given a broad base of models to discuss and debate with students. Rappa’s classifications
provide a number of examples—brokerage, advertising, merchant, subscription—but
additional examples can also be discussed since companies often fall into several of the
categories described.

Strategic planning “involves a process of developing a broad vision, considering the

constraints and assumptions that constrict or guide that vision, and defining strategic
objectives for the business that come as close as possible to the vision.” This chapter
describes some of the methods to align those visions, but also stresses that strategy for an
ebusiness is more susceptible to changes than traditional business models. Still, the
strategic planning processes described in this chapter lend themselves well as in-class
discussion frameworks. For example students could be assigned a particular company
(existing or startup) and discuss the use of the framework for that company. Two tools
that are identified in the chapter to guide strategic analysis are Porter’s Five Forces and
SWOT.

MEDIA GUIDE
Internet Exercises

1. Pure Plays
Advanced Book Exchange (www.abebooks.com)
Many new business models have evolved with the introduction of the Internet.
Review the AbeBooks.com website to gain an understanding of the business.

Questions:
A. What type of ebusiness model has this site adopted?
B. In what countries does the company do business?
C. To what markets does the company appeal?
D. Who are the company’s customers?

2. Brokerage Business Models

Match the sites listed below to the appropriate business model.

1.Buy/Sell Fulfillment A. eeProductCenter (http://www.eeproductcenter.com/)

2.Market Exchange B. Match.com ( http://www.match.com/)
3.Distributor C. CarsDirect.com (http://www.carsdirect.com/home)

4.Virtual Mall D. mySimon ( http://www.mysimon.com/)

E. Edmunds.com
5.Metamediary
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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies
(http://www.edmunds.com/help/about/index.html)

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

6.Auction Broker F. ChemConnect (http://www.chemconnect.com/)

7.Reverse Auction G. Choice Mall ( http://mall.choicemall.com/)
H. Yahoo! Auctions Singapore
8.Classifieds
(http://sg.auctions.yahoo.com/)
9.Search Agent I. Respond.com (http://www.respond.com/)

3. Mixed Business Model

Go to the Three Square Feet website at www.threesquarefeet.org. Review the site to
answer the following questions.

Questions:
What combination of ebusiness models has this site adopted? How do the for-profit
and not-for-profit objectives merge?

Site is clearly a merchant model because of the sale of physical products. It also has
elements of the community model because it seeks to foster user participation and
identification with a social-awareness community.

The stylized products are sold from the website with a portion of the revenue being
directed to charitable organizations. Additionally, participants are encouraged to
share their efforts to promote random acts of kindness.

How has this business model design encouraged international participation?

Site takes advantage of social media sites like Facebook and Twitter to increase
awareness and spread awareness.

Site displays a map of the countries of origin of its participants, reinforcing a global
perspective.

Donations revenue will be distributed to a charity in the purchaser’s country.

What logical partnerships could Three Square Feet pursue that would be consistent
with its mission?
This business is similar in concept to the cancer awareness "think pink" product
marketing or the rubber wristband for a cause concept that was popular in the early
2000s.

The concept has a identifying product logo (stylized number three in a square), a
philanthropic objective (donation of a portion of the revenue), and a social
participation directive (spread local acts of everyday kindness)

Small, charitable organizations who don't have the infrastructure to create a

product, setup a website to handle sales, and promote its activities could benefit from
partnering with Three Square Feet.

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

4. Subscription Model
Newspapers are struggling with maintaining their long-run viability in the face of new
media channels and changing consumer preferences. Access The New York Times
website at www.nytimes.com to review their business model.
Questions:

In addition to a paper-based subscription, identify the several options that

consumers may use to access New York Times content.
with a paid paper-based subscription, a consumer may request unlimited access to
digital content. (Note: some companies will charge a premium for online access.)

website access plus smartphone app ($15 for 4 weeks at time of review)

website access plus tablet app ($20 for 4 weeks at time of review)

website access on all configured devices ($35 for 4 weeks at time of review. Note:
that site is not configured for all devices in the marketplace)

the website has some publicly accessible content available without charge or
subscription

Identify examples of differences in content across the various options.

Premium content is restricted to paid subscribers.

Blog entries and user-generated commentary are website-based and not presented
on the traditional paper-based offering.

Online content allows use of typical online tools (search capability in classifieds).

Weblinks
Expedia
www.expedia.ca

President’s Choice Financial

www.pcfinancial.ca

Staples Business Services

www.staples.ca

Workopolis
www.workopolis.com

Salesforce
www.salesforce.com

Government On-Line
www.tpsgc-pwgsc.gc.ca/apropos-about/fi-fs/ged-gol-eng.html

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

Ariba
www.ariba.com

Canada Revenue Agency

www.cra-arc.gc.ca

Government of Canada
www.canada.gc.ca

Business Access Canada

www.canadabusiness.mb.ca/home_page/guides/guides_by_department/public_works_an
d_government_services_canada/business_access_canada/

Rogers’ Chocolates
www.rogerschocolates.com

Indigo Books & Music

www.chapters.indigo.ca

McDonald’s
www.mcdonalds.ca

Shoppers Drug Mart

www.shoppersdrugmart.ca

Canadian Tire
www.canadiantire.ca

Sears
www.sears.ca

Future Shop
www.futureshop.ca

Royal Bank of Canada

www.royalbank.com

Netflix
www.netflix.com

1-800-FLOWERS.COM
www.1800flowers.com

Grocery Gateway
www.grocerygateway.com

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

iTunes
www.apple.com/itunes

Kindle
www.amazon.com/kindle

Blackberry App World

http://appworld.blackberry.com/webstore/

Nike
www.nike.com

Cisco Systems
www.cisco.com

AOL
http://aol.ca

Globe and Mail

www.theglobeandmail.com

BusinessWeek
www.businessweek.com

Skype
www.skype.com

BizRate.com
www.bizrate.com

Perfect Commerce
www.perfect.com

JDA Software
www.jda.com

Cornerstone OnDemand
www.cornerstoneondemand.com

Grooveshark
www.grooveshark.com

Spotify
www.spotify.com

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

Affiliates World
www.affiliates-world.com

MyPoints.com
www.mypoints.com

Workopolis
workopolis.com

Yahoo! Canada shopping

http://yahoo.shoptoit.ca

ChemConnect
www.chemconnect.com

TD Waterhouse WebBroker
https://webbroker.tdwaterhouse.ca

CarsDirect.com
www.carsdirect.com

Expedia
www.expedia.ca

Hotels.ca
www.hotels.ca

Groupon
www.groupon.ca

Guru.com
www.guru.com

PayPal
www.paypal.com

Edmunds.com
www.edmunds.com

OneSpout
http://onespout.com

RoboShopper
www.roboshopper.com

mySimon

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

www.mysimon.com

Shopbot.ca
www.shopbot.ca

Priceline.com
www.priceline.com

Business Models on the Web

www.digitalenterprise.org/models/models.html
Professor Michael Rappa’s site is the best for ebusiness models and forms the
foundation for some of the material in the text on this subject.

Survivor III, by Stephanie Overby, CIO Magazine, May 1, 2001.

www.cio.com/archive/050101/survivor.html
This is a profile of six businesses and how their business models have changed.

Ebusiness Models, Richard Trombly, computerworld, Dec 4, 2000

www.computerworld.com/industrytopics/retail/story/0,10801,54589,00.html
This article contains a short analysis of why business models rose and failed
during the dot com rage.

Quick MBA: Strategic Management

www.quickmba.com/strategy
This article contains short summaries of key strategic planning concepts such
as PEST, Porter 5 Forces Analysis, and SWOT.

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS

IN-CHAPTER BOXES

Estrategy—Web Strategy at Digg

1. What are the main components of Digg’s business model? What are their
strengths and weaknesses?

Business model Digg’s components Strengths Weaknesses

components
External forces The internet and This major trend Competition from
social networks contributes to other social networks
provide impetus for growth of Digg’s will threaten Digg’s
Digg’s value business. value proposition.
proposition.

Markets/formats Revenues are based Advertising enables Advertising is driven

on advertising to Digg to offer by size and
large user base. services to its users segmentation of the
for free. social network. If
Digg starts losing
users it can lose
proportionately more
of its revenue if
advertisers abandon it
in favour of growing
sites.
Customers Users are both Users are both Users don’t pay any
customers and customers and fees. Advertiser
suppliers of social suppliers of social payments are driven
news and rankings. news and rankings. by the number of
Advertisers are also users as well as their
customers who buy characteristics.
advertising.
Core business Website receives Users can identify Others like Reddit,
processes social news that is and rank social TweeMeme and
posted and ranked by news and browse Yahoo Buzz can
users. other users’ easily produce similar
postings and processes.
rankings.
Core products Content in the form Vrtually no cost Users may have
and services of social news and associated with user limited appetite for
rankings is donated postings. social news. Users are
by users for fickle and can easily

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

consumption by other abandon the site if it

users. stops being cool or
interesting.
Alliances Various network sites Easy to “Digg” The alliances are not
have links to Digg. items on the internet enforced by contract
and thereby help to and are therefore
grow Digg’s social easily lost.
network.
Resource Advertising, posting Ability to segment Power users are a key
management and user tracking users is attractive to resource but also need
processes need to be managed. advertisers. to be controlled so as
Segmentation of not to take control of
users is needed to the site.
enable advertisers to
target users.
Strategic Obtain user consent Users want others to If there are privacy
management to share their use their postings abuses they could
process personal information. and rankings so are lead users to deny
Power user inclined to share Digg access to their
relationships are their personal personal information
important. information. and undermine the
Advertiser value proposition for
relationships are advertisers.
critical.

2. Are there alternative revenue models that Digg could/should consider?

Voluntary donations (like

Wikipedia) One time registration fee
Monthly subscription fee
Brokerage fees for directing traffic to article sites
Commissions on purchases by users directed to article sites that also sell
products and services
Sales of items associated with postings or direct traffic to sales sites for a
fee
Sell swag (t-shirts, mugs, etc.)

3. Is Digg’s business model sustainable?

Probably not. Why?

Its business can be easily copied by other social network sites.

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

It will be difficult to retain advertisers if traffic on its site keeps dropping. A small
drop in users can lead to a large drop in advertising revenues if advertisers lose
confidence in Digg’s attractiveness to users.

With Facebook’s “Like” button, it is difficult to see what added value Digg
brings.

New Business Models—Digital Distribution of Music: An Evolving Business Model

1. How do the three business models (download, subscription based streaming, and
advertising supported streaming) described in this case respond to the realities
of purchasing music in the age of the internet?

Model

Download to own Permits purchase of small units of music like a track

instead of a full CD/DVD. Enables owner to transfer
iTunes music from device to device.

Subscription (like renting) Permits continuous access to music at much lower cost
since listener doesn’t need to own a copy of the music.
Napster
With many devices to manage, users may prefer
subscription to owning because they can easily switch
between devices such as smartphone, tablet, notebook,
etc.

Advertising supported (free) Similar to subscription, but permits access to music for
free.
Grooveshark
Users prefer to get music for free.

A free legal model can compete with free illegal

downloading.

2. What aspects of these business models are likely to be viable, and what do you think
will still need to be done to improve them and keep pace with changes in customer
demand for music, videos, and movies?

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

Model

Download to own Subscription (like Advertising

renting) supported (free)

What’s viable? Legal ownership of Subscription is Free legal access to

digital copies of music appealing to many music is appealing to
files is appealing to who want legal a majority of internet
many users. access to music but users and can
don’t want to own compete with free
digital copies of illegal downloading,
music files. especially in
jurisdictions where
enforcement is strict.

Ubiquitous, fast and

wireless access to the
internet through
mobile devices
makes it unnecessary
to have personal
copies of digital
media files.

What needs to Need access to more Need access to more Need access to more
improve? music and need to music and need to music and need to
track, anticipate and track, anticipate and track, anticipate and
keep up with changing keep up with keep up with
tastes of users to keep changing tastes of changing tastes of
a large enough user users to keep a large users to keep a large
base to earn enough user base to enough user base to
downloading fees. earn subscription attract advertisers.
renewals.
Need contracts with Need to protect
content suppliers to Need to maintain users’ privacy to win
ensure access to speed of streaming their trust and
supply of content that and to keep costs of sharing of personal
will appeal to users. operating down so information with
that subscription fees advertisers.
Need to provide don’t have to
services to users that increase to cover
will encourage them to costs and potentially
pay for downloads lose a portion of the
rather than simple customer base.
subscribe to a

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 Chapter 2 Internet Business Models and Strategies

streaming service.

Need to make sharing

across devices simple
and convenient while
also protecting
“ownership” value
through digital rights
management.

Canadian Snapshots—Daily Deals at OneSpout

1. What are the pros and cons of sites like OneSpout?

Pros Cons

Convenience of having one email Adds a layer of complexity through

covering many deals. aggregation that can frustrate users.

Personalization feature helps keep No barrier to entry; therefore easy for

email streamlined and focused on users’ competitors to develop alternatives.
preferences.

Difficult and costly to keep up with all

Personalization enables segmentation of the deal sites that are available.
users by attributes chosen for
personalization.
Deal sites have to be screened if they
are across borders to determine if the
Multiple channels enable users to deals are valid in local area.
obtain deal postings in multi-locations
through multi-devices.
Dissatisfaction with an advertised deal
or reneging by one supplier on a paid
Free access makes the service attractive for offer can lead users to abandon the
to users. deal aggregator altogether.

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
outline straight and declinate to the nostrils, then direct and slightly
concave, the sides sloping and concave at the base, broadly convex
toward the end, the edges soft, with about forty short erect lamellæ
internally on each side, the unguis linear-oblong, suddenly decurved
and directed backwards, its lower part transversely expanded and
serrulate. Nostrils in an oblong depression covered with skin, medial,
rather small, linear oblong, pervious. Lower mandible flattened, a
little recurved, its angle very long and narrow, the laminæ about a
hundred and forty and extremely small, the unguis oblong.
Head rather large, oblong. Eyes of moderate size. Neck short and
thick. Body full, much depressed. Legs short and placed rather far
behind; tibia bare for a short space; tarsus very short, compressed,
with an anterior series of small scutella, an outer short series going
to the fourth toe, the rest reticulated. Hind toe very small, with a free
inferior web; anterior toes very long, slender, the middle toe double
the length of the tarsus, the outer almost as long, the inner
considerably shorter, and having a broad lobed margin; the webs
reticulated. Claws rather small, slender, compressed, slightly arched,
acute.
Plumage dense, blended, on the upper parts very soft; on the fore
part of the head stiffish; on the lower parts with a silky gloss, and
stiff, having the extremities broad, and the barbs strong and pointed.
Wings very short, of moderate breadth, concave, pointed; primaries
tapering, the first longest, obliquely rounded. Tail short, much
graduated, of eighteen stiff, narrow feathers, of which the shaft is
very strong, and runs out in a flattened concave point.
Bill and edges of eyelids greyish-blue. Iris hazel. Feet dull greyish-
blue; webs inclining to dusky; claws greyish-brown. Upper part of the
head and nape deep bluish-black, that colour running to a point
about the middle of the neck; a large white patch on each side of the
head, from the bill to behind the ear, narrowed on the throat. Neck all
round, and all the upper parts, as well as the sides of the rump, rich
glossy brownish-red or chestnut; the lower parts greyish-white,
tinged with brown, and marked with transverse interrupted bands of
dusky. Wing-coverts, quills, and tail-feathers, blackish-brown.
Length to end of tail 14 3/4 inches, to end of wings 12 1/2, to end of
claws 15, to carpal joint 7 3/4; extent of wings 21 1/2; wing from
flexure 6 1/4; tail 3 1/2; bill along the ridge 1 5/8, along the edge of
1/
lower mandible 1 5/8; tarsus 1 1/4; hind toe and claw 4 2/8; inner toe
1 3/4, its claw 1/4; middle toe 2 3/8, its claw 3/8; outer toe 2 3/8, its claw
1/ . Weight 1 3/4 lb. Average measurements of six individuals.
4

The black on the head of the male is sometimes marked with a few
white feathers.
Adult Female in summer. Plate CCCXLIII. Fig. 2.
The plumage presents the same characters as in the male. The bill
is of a darker greyish-blue; iris as in the male; feet darker. The top of
the head, and all the upper parts, are dark reddish-brown, minutely
dotted and undulated with dusky; wings and tail as in the male; lower
parts duller than in the male, but similarly marked; the throat, and a
band from the base of the upper mandible to beneath the eye,
brownish-white.
Male one year old. Plate CCCXLIII. Fig. 3.
Bill, eyes, and feet as in the adult. A similar white patch on the side
of the head; upper part of head and hind neck dull blackish-brown;
throat and sides of the neck greyish-brown; lower part of neck, dull
reddish-brown, waved with dusky; upper parts as in the adult, but of
a duller tint; lower parts greyish-white.
Young in December. Plate CCCXLIII. Fig. 4.
Bill dusky; iris hazel; feet yellowish-green, webs dusky. All the upper
parts dull reddish-brown tinged with grey, and barred with dusky;
wings and tail dark greyish-brown. Cheeks, fore part and sides of
neck, and all the lower parts, dull yellowish-white, undulated with
dusky; as is the rump above; the lower tail-coverts white.
The tongue of a male is 1 inch 8 twelfths long, and of the same
general form as that of the Fuligulæ, but a little more dilated at the
end. The œsophagus is 1/2 inch in diameter until its entrance into the
thorax, when it contracts, and again expands to 6 twelfths, to form
the proventriculus, of which the glandules are oblong, small, and
very numerous, occupying a space of 2 1/4 inches in length. The
stomach is a strong gizzard, of a roundish form, 1 inch 5 twelfths
long, 1 1/2 inch broad; its lateral muscles very large, and about 8
twelfths thick; the epithelium confined to two round spaces 1/2 inch in
diameter, opposite the lateral muscles. The intestine is 5 feet 1 1/2
inch long, its diameter varying from 5 twelfths to 3 1/2 twelfths. The
rectum is 2 inches 10 twelfths long; the cœca 4 inches 2 twelfths
their greatest diameter 2 1/2 twelfths.

In another male, the œsophagus is 7 1/2 inches long; the stomach 1

inch 5 twelfths long, 1 inch 6 twelfths broad; the intestine 5 feet 11
inches long; the rectum 2 3/4 inches; the cœca 4 1/8 inches, their
greatest diameter 2 1/2 twelfths.

The trachea is 5 3/4 inches long. The thyroid bone is comparatively

large, forming an expansion 7 twelfths long, 5 twelfths broad. At its
upper part the trachea has a diameter of 3 twelfths, about the middle
enlarges to 4 twelfths, and so continues nearly to the end, when it
contracts to 2 twelfths. The last ring is very large, being formed of
five or six united rings, of which the last two or three are split; but
there is no expansion or tympanum as in other ducks. The muscles
are as in the other species of this family. The bronchi are of
moderate length, with about 15 half rings.
 LONG-LEGGED SANDPIPER.

Tringa Himantopus, Bonap.

PLATE CCCXLIV.

I have often spoken of the great differences as to size and colour

that are observed in birds of the same species, and which have
frequently given rise to mistakes, insomuch that the male, the
female, and the young, have been considered as so many distinct
species. The Long-legged Sandpiper has been treated in this
manner, and has latterly reappeared under the name of Tringa
Douglassii, in the Fauna Boreali-Americana of my friends
Richardson and Swainson. Bonaparte was, in truth, the first who
described this bird; and although some differences might be found
between his specimen and the one described in the work just
mentioned, they are trifling compared with those which I have
observed between seven or eight individuals all procured from the
same flock at a single shot. It is strange that neither Bonaparte nor
Swainson have mentioned the sex of their specimen.
On the morning of the 4th of April 1837, while seated among the drift
wood that had accumulated on the southern shore of the island of
Barataria, forty miles from the south-west pass of the Mississippi,
and occupied in observing some Pelicans, I saw a flock of about
thirty Long-legged Sandpipers alight within ten steps of me, near the
water. They immediately scattered, following the margin of the
retiring and advancing waves, in search of food, which I could see
them procure by probing the wet sand in the manner of Curlews, that
is, to the full length of their bill, holding it for a short time in the sand,
as if engaged in sucking up what they found. In this way they
continued feeding on an extended line of shore of about thirty yards,
and it was pleasing to see the alacrity with which they
simultaneously advanced and retreated, according to the motions of
the water. In about three quarters of an hour, during all which time I
had watched them with attention, they removed a few yards beyond
the highest wash of the waves, huddled close together, and began to
plume and cleanse themselves. All of a sudden they ceased their
occupation, stood still, and several of them emitted a sharp tweet-
tweet, somewhat resembling the notes of Totanus solitarius;
immediately after which seven birds of the same species passed
close to me, and alighted near those which I had already watched.
They at once began to feed, and as I thought that the first flock might
join them, and that I might lose the opportunity of procuring
specimens, in sufficient number, I fired and killed eleven. The rest
flew off, and were joined by the second group, the whole flying to
windward in a compact body, and emitting every now and then their
sharp tweet, tweet, until out of sight and hearing.
My son John obtained several of these birds on the same island
while they were feeding on the margins of a fresh-water pond; and
we saw them on almost every island and bay on our way to the
Texas, where we also procured some on Galveston Island.
The flight of these Sandpipers is rapid and regular. They move
compactly, and often when about to alight, or after being disturbed,
incline their bodies to either side, shewing alternately the upper and
lower parts. On foot they move more like Curlews than Tringas, they
being as it were more sedate in their deportment. At times, on the
approach of a person, they squat on the ground, very much in the
manner of the Esquimaux Curlew, Numenius borealis; and their flesh
is as delicate as that of the species just named. In the stomach of
several individuals I found small worms, minute shell-fish, and
vegetable substances, among which were the hard seeds of plants
unknown to me. I suspect that in summer and autumn they feed on
small fruits and berries, though of this I have no proof.
Among those which we procured, I found the differences in the
colour of the plumage quite as great as in Scolopax noveboracensis,
some of the younger birds being yet in their winter dress, while the
older had already assumed a reddish colour on the cheeks, the top
of the head, and the breast. The females were all larger than the
males, and differed from each other not only in the markings of the
plumage, but also in the length of the bill, to the extent of a quarter of
an inch, and of the legs, to a still greater extent. Whether or not this
species assumes a uniform reddish tint in the breeding season, such
as is observed in the Pigmy Curlew, Tringa subarquata, I am unable
to say, although I am much inclined to think that it does.
Their passage through the United States is very rapid, both in spring
and autumn, Some few spend the winter in Lower Louisiana, but
nearly all proceed southward beyond the Texas.

Tringa Himantopus, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p.

316.
Tringa Douglassii, Swainson, Douglas’s Sandpiper, Richards. and
Swains. Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. ii. 379.
Tringa Himantopus, Slender-shanks Sandpiper, Richards. and Swains.
Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. ii. 380.
Long-Legged Sandpiper, Audubon’s Stilt Sandpiper, and Douglass’
Stilt Sandpiper, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 138, 140, 141.

Male in Spring. Plate CCCXLIV. Fig. 1.

Bill much longer than the head, very slender, subcylindrical, very
slightly decurved, compressed at the base, the end rather
depressed, considerably enlarged. Upper mandible with the dorsal
line almost straight, being very slightly decurved towards the end,
the ridge narrow, convex, flattened towards the tip, the sides sloping,
with a narrow groove extending nearly to the end, the edges rather
blunt and soft, the tip decurved. Nostrils basal, linear, pervious.
Lower mandible with the angle long and very narrow, the dorsal line
straight, towards the end slightly deflected, the sides sloping
outwards, with a long narrow groove, the tip a little broader.
Head small, oblong, compressed. Eyes small. Neck rather long.
Body slender. Feet long, very slender; tibia bare for an inch; tarsus
long, slender, compressed, covered before and behind with
numerous small scutella; hind toe very small, the rest of moderate
length, slender, the second very slightly longer than the fourth, the
third very little longer; short basal webs, running out along the
margins, that between the third and fourth toes larger. Claws rather
long, very slender, slightly arched, tapering, compressed.
Plumage very soft, blended; the feathers somewhat distinct on the
back. Wings very long, pointed; primaries tapering, the first longest,
the second slightly shorter, the rest rapidly graduated; outer
secondaries slightly incurved, obliquely sinuate on the outer web
towards the end, the inner web rounded; inner secondaries very
narrow, tapering, reaching to three-fourths of an inch of the longest
primary when the wing is closed. Tail of moderate length, nearly
even, but with the two middle feathers exceeding the rest by two and
a half twelfths of an inch, of twelve narrow, rounded feathers.
Bill black. Iris brown. Feet dull yellowish-green, claws black. The
upper parts are brownish-black, the feathers margined with reddish-
white, the edges of the scapulars with serriform markings of the
same; rump and upper tail-coverts white, transversely barred with
dusky; tail light grey, the feathers white at the base and along the
middle. Primary quills and their coverts brownish-black, the inner
tinged with grey, the shaft of the outer primary white, secondaries
brownish-grey, margined with reddish-white, the inner dusky. A broad
whitish line over the eye; loral band dusky; auriculars pale brownish-
red; fore part and sides of neck, greyish-white, tinged with red, and
longitudinally streaked with dusky; the rest of the lower parts pale
reddish-brown, transversely barred with dusky; the middle of the
breast and the abdomen without markings. Dimensions of five
individuals.

Length to end of tail, 8 3/4 8 1/4 7 3/4 8 7 1/2

................................wings, 9 1/4 8 3/8 8 1/2 8 3/4 8 3/4
................................claws, 11 1/4 10 5/8 10 10 1/2 10 7/8
Extent of wings, 16 3/4 16 15 1/2 17 16
Weight of an individual, 2 3/4 oz.

Female. Plate CCCXLIV. Fig. 2.

The female is considerably larger, but otherwise resembles the male.
Dimensions of five individuals.

Length to end of tail, 10 1/2 11 9 1/4 10 3/

4 8 1/
2
................................wings, 11 10 3/4 11 3/4 11 1/
2 10 1/
8
................................claws, 13 1/4 12 1/2 11 1/2 12 3/
4 11 3/
4
Extent of wings, 18 16 1/2 16 7/8 16 1/
2 17 3/
4
Weight of two individuals, 4 oz., 3 3/4 oz.

The winter plumage differs considerably; the bill, iris, and feet, are as
above. The upper parts are brownish-grey, the head narrowly
streaked with dusky; the rump as in summer; the scapulars plainly
margined with whitish; the quills as in summer. The band over the
eye lighter, the loral space grey; the fore part and sides of the neck
greyish-white, longitudinally streaked with grey, the sides similar, and
with the lower tail-coverts barred with grey, the rest of the lower parts
white.
Length to end of tail in a male 9 inches; extent of wings 16 1/2; wing
from flexure 5 1/4; tail 2 4/12; bill along the ridge 1 6/12, along the edge
of lower mandible 1 7/12; bare part of tibia 1; tarsus 1 7/12; hind toe
1/ 1/ 1/
and claw 4 /12; middle toe 9
2 /12, its claw 2
12 /12.
2

The roof of the mouth is flat, with three rows of papillæ. The tongue
is 1 inch 5 twelfths long, emarginate and papillate at the base, very
slender, concave above, tapering to a point. The œsophagus is 4
inches long, very narrow, its diameter 2 twelfths. The proventriculus
is oblong, 7 twelfths in length, 3 1/2 twelfths in diameter. The stomach
is a strong gizzard of a roundish form, compressed, 8 twelfths long,
7 1/12 twelfths broad; its lateral muscles large, its epithelium very
dense, thick, longitudinally rugous, and of a reddish-brown colour.
The intestine is 12 1/2 inches long, its anterior part 2 3/4 twelfths in
diameter, the hind part 1 1/2 twelfth. The rectum is 1 1/2 inch long; the
cœca 11 twelfths long, 1 twelfth in diameter, obtuse.
The trachea is 3 inches long, slender, its diameter at the upper part
1 3/4 twelfths, gradually diminishing to the lower part, where it is 1
twelfth. The rings, about 110 in number, are slender and unossified,
the two last divided. The bronchi have about 15 half rings. The
contractor muscles are thin, the sterno-tracheal slender; and there is
a pair of inferior laryngeal muscles going to the first bronchial rings.
In another individual, the intestine was 13 1/4 inches long, the rectum
1 1/2 inch, the cœca 1 inch.
The contents of the gizzard in both were fragments of shells, small
black seeds, and much sand and gravel.
 AMERICAN WIDGEON.

Anas Americana, Gmel.

PLATE CCCXLV. Male and Female.

This lively and very handsome Duck is abundant during winter at

New Orleans, where it is much esteemed on account of the juiciness
of its flesh, and is best known by the name of Zinzin. In the Western
Country, and in most parts of the Eastern and Middle States, it is
called the Bald Pate. Early in September it enters the United States
by their northern extremities, as well as from the Texas; and in both
these regions it is now well known to breed in nearly equal numbers.
Those which retreat south-westward remain along the coast and in
the interior of the Floridas, as well as all that portion of the Gulf of
Mexico extending to the mouths of the Mississippi, where they
remain until the latter part of April, sometimes even until the middle
of May, as they have but a comparatively short journey to perform in
order to arrive in Mexico in time to breed. On the coast of the Atlantic
they keep in the marshes in company with various species of the
same family, being in a manner indifferent as to their associates.
During early spring, in Louisiana, they are often seen alighted on
extensive plains that have very little water on them.
While advancing along the shores of the Bay of Mexico, in April
1837, I and my party observed this species in considerable numbers;
and during the whole of our stay in the Texas, we daily saw and very
frequently procured Widgeons. There they were found in ponds of
brackish water, as well as in the fresh-water streams. Before we left
that country they were all paired, and I was informed by the
Honourable M. Fisher, Secretary to the Texian Navy, that a good
number of them breed in the maritime districts, along with several
other Ducks, and that he annually received many of the young birds.
Their manners at this time fully proved the correctness of the
statements of all those who spoke to me on this subject. Indeed my
opinion is that some of these birds also propagate in certain portions
of the most southern districts of the Floridas, and in the Island of
Cuba, as I have seen Widgeons in the peninsula in single pairs, in
the beginning of May.
Their retrograde movements in spring, like those of other species,
depend much upon the temperature or the advance of the season;
and those which proceed northward set out on their journey much
earlier than those which move in the opposite direction, the former
departing from the middle of March to the 20th of April. Their first
appearance on the waters of the Ohio takes place late in September
or early in October, when they at once throw themselves into the
ponds of the interior, and there remain until the waters are closed by
ice, scarcely any betaking themselves to the rivers, unless to repose
on the sand-bars. They are there, however, less abundant than
nearer the sea-coast, and usually associate with Pintails and Teals,
but rarely with Mallards or Dusky Ducks. Whilst in those retired
ponds of the forest, from one to another of which they roam in quest
of food, they are less noisy than most other species, even than the
Pintails, and in this respect resemble the Blue-winged Teals, whose
notes are feeble and delicate. Those of the Widgeon are a soft
whistle somewhat similar to the word Sweet, enunciated as if
produced by a flute or a hautboy, and in my judgment not at all like
the hew hew spoken off by Wilson. They are less shy in those
retired places than most species, or are to appearance less aware of
the danger of allowing the sportsman to approach them.
In feeding they immerse their neck and the anterior part of the body,
generally swimming closer together than other Ducks, in
consequence of which habits they are easily neared and often shot
in great numbers at a single discharge. During their stay in those
districts they feed on the roots and seeds of grasses, water-insects,
beech-nuts, small fry, and leeches, and are not so delicate as an
article of food as those procured in the rice-fields of South Carolina,
or in the plantations of Louisiana and Florida. On their return in
spring (for in mild winters they remain all the season in Kentucky),
they generally continue until the end of April, and usually pair before
they depart; which induces me to believe that numbers of them
breed within the northern limits of the United States, although I have
not heard of any having actually been seen doing so.
On the lakes near New Orleans, as well as on the Chesapeake, they
are not unfrequently found in company with the Canvass-back
Ducks. Wilson mentions their being partially supplied with food by
the industry of the latter; but they manage very well in most parts
without such assistance. When in full security, the Bald-pates feed at
all hours of the day; but in thickly inhabited parts of the country, they
usually seek for food at night or early in the morning.
The flight of this species is rather swift, well sustained, and
accompanied by the whistling sound of the wings usual in birds of
this family. They move in flocks of moderate size, and without much
care as to the disposition of their ranks, being sometimes extended
into a front line, sometimes in single file, frequently mingled
confusedly, and flying at a moderate height, whether over the land or
over the water. When they are first started, they fly almost
perpendicularly, in a hurried and rather irregular manner. They walk
prettily and with ease. After heavy falls of rain in our Southern
States, they often alight in the corn fields, in company with other
Ducks, where the ploughed earth, being quite moist and soft, yields
them an abundant supply of worms and insects, as well as grains of
corn, pease, and other equally nutritious substances.
Dr Richardson informs us that this species breeds in the woody
districts of the Fur Countries, up to their most northern limits, in
latitude 80°; and Dr Townsend states that it is abundant on the
Columbia River; but he has not furnished me with any account of its
breeding, and I have not had an opportunity of observing it during
the season of propagation, as I left the Texas without having found a
nest or young.

Anas Americana, Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 526.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p.
861.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 384.
American Widgeon, Anas Americana, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. viii. p. 86, pl.
69, fig 4.
Mareca Americana, Stephens, American Widgeon, Richards. and Swains.
Fauna Boreali-Americana, vol. ii. p. 445.
American Widgeon, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 389.

Adult Male. Plate CCCXLV. Fig. 1.

Bill nearly as long as the head, deeper than broad at the base,
depressed towards the end, the sides nearly parallel, the tip
rounded. Upper mandible with the frontal angles short and obtuse,
the dorsal line at first sloping, then concave, at the end decurved, the
ridge broad and flat at the base, then broadly convex, the edges soft,
with about fifty-five internal lamellæ, the unguis obovate, curved
abruptly at the end. Nostrils sub-basal, lateral, near the ridge,
oblong, pervious. Lower mandible flattened, its angle very long and
rather narrow, the dorsal line very short, slightly convex, the edges
soft, with about seventy lamellæ.
Head of moderate size, oblong, compressed. Neck rather long,
slender. Body elongated and slightly depressed. Feet very short;
tibia bare for about a quarter of an inch; tarsus very short,
compressed, anteriorly with two series of scutella, the outer shorter,
the rest covered with reticulated angular scales; toes obliquely
scutellate above; first very small, free, with a narrow membrane
beneath; third longest, fourth considerably shorter, second shorter
than fourth; their connecting webs entire, on the edge crenate; the
second or inner toe with a membranous margin. Claws small, slightly
arched, compressed, rather acute; the hind one very small and more
curved, that of the middle toe curved outwards, and having the inner
edge dilated.
Plumage dense, soft, blended. Feathers of the head and upper neck
oblong, small, those along the crown and occiput longer; of the lower
parts ovate, glossy, with the extremities of the filaments stiffish.
Wings rather long, little curved, narrow, pointed; the first quill longest,
the next scarcely shorter, the rest rapidly graduated; secondaries
very short, broad, obliquely rounded; the inner elongated and
tapering; the tips of the filaments of the outer web of the first primary
are separated and curved a little outwards. Tail short, rounded and
pointed, of sixteen feathers, of which the middle pair are more
pointed and project considerably.
Bill light greyish-blue, with the extremity including the unguis, and a
portion of the margins, black. Iris hazel. Feet light bluish-grey, the
webs darker, the claws dusky. The upper part of the head is white,
more or less mottled with dusky on its sides; the loral space and
cheeks reddish-white, dotted with greenish-black; a broad band from
the eye to behind the occiput deep green. The lower part of the hind
neck, the scapulars, and the fore part of the back, are minutely
transversely undulated with brownish-black and light brownish-red;
the hind part similarly undulated with blackish-brown and greyish-
white. The smaller wing-coverts are brownish-grey; the primary quills
and coverts dark greyish-brown; the secondary coverts white, tipped
with black. The speculum is duck-green anteriorly, bounded by the
black tips of the secondary coverts, black behind, internally black
with white streaks, the inner elongated secondaries having their
outer webs black, margined with white, their inner webs brownish-
grey. The tail-feathers are light brownish-grey. The throat is
brownish-black; the lower part of the neck in front, and the fore part
of the breast, light brownish-red; the breast, belly, and sides of the
rump, white; the sides of the body finely undulated with white and
dusky; the rump beneath and the lower tail-coverts black.
Length to end of tail 20 1/2 inches, to end of claws 21; extent of
1/2
wings 34 1/2; bill to frontal processes 1 7 /12, along the edge of
lower mandible 1 7/12; wing from flexure 11; tail 4 1/2; tarsus 1 7/12;
1/2 1/2
hind toe 4/12, its claw 2 /12, middle toe 1 8/12, its claw 4 /12. Weight
1 lb. 14 oz.
Adult Female. Plate CCCXLV. Fig. 2.
The female is considerably smaller. The bill, feet, and iris are
coloured as in the male. The head and upper part of the neck all
round, are white or reddish-white, longitudinally streaked with
brownish-black, the top of the head transversely barred; the lower
part of the neck in front and behind, the fore part of the back, and the
scapulars, are blackish-brown, the feathers broadly margined with
brownish-red, and barred with the same, the bars on the back
narrow; the hind part of the back dusky; the upper tail-coverts barred
with white. The wings are greyish-brown; the secondary coverts
tipped with white; the secondary quills are brownish-black, the inner
greyish-brown, all margined with white. The tail-feathers are greyish-
brown, margined with white. All the lower parts are white, excepting
the feathers of the sides, and under the tail, which are broadly barred
with dusky and light reddish-brown.
Length to end of tail 18 inches, to end of claws 19 1/2; extent of
wings 30; bill along the ridge 1 6/12; wing from flexure 9 3/12; tail
3 9/12; tarsus 1 6/12; middle toe 1 9/12, its claw 3/12. Weight 1 lb. 5 oz.

A very great diversity of colouring exists in this species, which,

however, is not yet properly understood. Although males are often
found as described above, and as represented in the plate, others
have a very different appearance. Thus, an individual shot at the
mouth of the Mississippi, in the beginning of April 1837, has the head
and neck brownish-orange, the feathers all minutely tipped with dark
green, the lower fore neck lilac; all the upper parts finely undulated
with white and dusky, as are the sides; the wing-coverts light
brownish-grey; the other parts as described above, but the upper
tail-coverts black at the end. In some individuals the top of the head
is reddish-white, in others light red, in others pure white; in some,
most of the smaller wing-coverts are white, in others grey or
brownish-grey; in some the throat is whitish, in others black. These
differences, no doubt, depend upon age and season.
The American Widgeon has been considered distinct from the
European; not on account of any difference in size or form, or texture
of plumage, but because it has in certain stages a green band on the
side of the head, which the European bird is said not to have. The
mirror is the same in both; the wing-coverts are white or grey in both;
the crown is white, or cream-coloured, or orange-brown, in both; but
in the European the head and neck are described as reddish-
chestnut, and in the American as yellowish-white. Now, in fact,
American birds sometimes have the head and neck red, and
European Birds sometimes have the green streak on the side of the
head. In short, on comparing specimens from America, with others
from India and Norway, I cannot perceive any essential difference. At
the same time, not having traced our Widgeon through all its
gradations, and being equally unacquainted with all those of the
European and Asiatic Widgeon, I cannot positively affirm that Anas
Americana is identical with Anas Penelope.
A male preserved in spirits presents the following characters.

The roof of the mouth is deeply concave, with a median prominent

line, and numerous irregular small tubercles on the sides, with
several larger ones at the fore part. Two large branches of the supra-
maxillary nerve run in this ridge, as in other ducks. The tongue is 1
inch 5 twelfths long, with numerous straight, pointed papillæ at the
base, a median longitudinal groove, and a thin broadly rounded
point. The œsophagus, a b c d, is 10 inches long, narrow, dilating a
little on the lower part of the neck, where its diameter is 1/2 inch. The
proventriculus, b c, is 8 twelfths broad; its glands oblong, 2 twelfths
in length, and occupying a belt 1 inch 4 twelfths in breadth. The
gizzard, e f g, is extremely large, of a nearly regular elliptical form,
placed obliquely, its length 1 inch 8 twelfths, its breadth 2 1/2 inches;
its lateral muscles extremely large, the left, e, 1 inch 2 twelfths in
thickness, the other, f, 1 inch and 1 twelfth; the inferior muscle, g,
only 1 twelfth. In the œsophagus are contained slender leaves of
grasses; in the gizzard some of these leaves and other vegetable
matters, small seeds, and a great quantity of sand. The cuticular
lining or epithelium is dense, slightly rugous, much thickened on the
spaces opposite the middle of the lateral muscles. The duodenum, g
h i, is 5 1/2 inches in its first curve, g h, and is then reflected for 7
inches, passes backwards under the kidneys and forms several
convolutions. The intestine, g h i j k l, is 6 feet 2 inches long, 1/2 inch
in diameter in its duodenal portion, gradually contracts to 4 twelfths
at the distance of 18 inches from the pylorus, again enlarges to 5
twelfths, and near the rectum to 7 twelfths. The rectum is 4 1/2 inches
long; the cœca 9 inches, their diameter for nearly 2 inches being 2
twelfths, after which they are enlarged, their greatest diameter being
4 twelfths. The liver is large, the right lobe being 3 1/2 inches long,
the left 2 1/2.

The trachea, m, is 7 1/2 inches long, of moderate diameter, the rings

roundish and ossified, about 140 in number, its breadth at the top
4 1/2 twelfths, gradually diminishing to 3 twelfths. At the lower part
several of the rings are united so as to form an irregular dilatation,
bulging out into a rounded sac, n, on the left side, its greatest
diameter being 10 twelfths. The bronchi are of moderate length,
wide, with about 25 half rings. The contractor muscles are rather
strong; and besides the sterno-tracheals, o, p, there is a pair of
cleido-tracheals.
In a female, the gizzard is 2 inches in its greatest diameter; the
intestine is 5 feet 2 inches long. The contents of the œsophagus and
stomach as in the male.