THREE

South India: The Chola Empire

(900-1200)

Powerful kingdoms had risen in south India during the sixth and eighth
centuries. The most important among them were the Pallavas and the
Pandyas who dominated modern Tamil Nadu, the Cheras of modern Kerala,
and the Chalukyas who dominated the Maharashtra area or the Deccan. It
was the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II, who had defeated Harsha and not
allowed him to expand his kingdom towards the Deccan. Some of these
kingdoms, such as the Pallava and Pandya, had strong navies. They also
played an important role in strengthening economic, religious and cultural
relations with the countries of Southeast Asia, and with China. Their navies
enabled them to invade and rule some parts of Sri Lanka for some time.
The Chola empire which arose in the ninth century brought under its
concrol a large part of the peninsula. The Cholas developed a powerful navy
which enabled them to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its impact was
felt even by the countries of Southeast Asia. The Chola empire may be said to
mark a climax in south Indian history.

THE RISE OF THE CHOLA EMPIRE

The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory
of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in AD 850. And by the end of the ninth
century, the Cholas had defeated both the Pallavas of Kanchi
(Tondaimandalam) and weakened the Pandyas, bringing the southern Tamil
country under their control. But the Cholas were hard put to defend their
position against the Rashtrakutas. As we have noted in a previous chapter,
Krishna III defeated the Chola king, and annexed the northern part of the
Chola empire. This was a serious set-back to the Cholas, but they rapidly
recovered, particularly after the death of Krishna III in 965 and the downfall
of the Rashtrakuta empire.

AGE OF RAJARAJA AND RAJENDRA I

The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985–1014) and his son Rajendra I
(1014–1044). Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum, and attacked
Quilon. He then conquered Madurai and captured the Pandyan king. He also
invaded Sri Lanka and annexed its northern part to his empire. These moves
were partly motivated by his desire to bring the trade with the Southeast
Asian countries under his control. The Coromandel coast and Malabar were
the centres for India’s trade with the countries of Southeast Asia. One of his
naval exploits was the conquest of the Maldives. Rajaraja, annexed the
northwestern parts of the Ganga kingdom in Karnataka, and overran Vengi.
Rajendra had been appointed heir apparent in his father’s life-time, and
had considerable experience in administration and warfare before his
accession to the throne. He carried forward the annexationist policy of
Rajaraja by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera countries and
including them in his empire. The conquest of Sri Lanka was also completed,
with the crown and royal insignia of the king and the queen of Sri Lanka
being captured in a battle. Sri Lanka was not able to free herself from the
Chola control for another 50 years.
Rajaraja and Rajendra I marked their victories by erecting a number of Siva
and Vishnu temples at various places. The most famous of these was the
Brihadishwara temple at Tanjore which was completed in 1010. The Chola
rulers adopted the practice of having inscriptions written on the walls of these
temples, giving a historical narrative of their victories. That is why we know a
great deal more about the Cholas that their predecessors.
One of the most remarkable exploits in the reign of Rajendra I was the
march across Kalinga to Bengal in which the Chola armies crossed the river
Ganga, and defeated two local kings. This expedition, which was led by a
Chola general, took place in 1022 and followed in reverse the same route
which the great conqueror Samudragupta had followed. To commemorate
this occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (‘the Chola
who conquered the Ganga’). He built a new capital near the mouth of the
Kaveri river and called it Gangaikondacholapuram (‘the city of the Chola who
conquered the Ganga’).
 An even more remarkable exploit in the time of Rajendra I were the naval
expeditions against the revived Sri Vijaya empire. The Sri Vijaya empire,
which had been revived in the 10th century, extended over the Malay
peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands, and controlled the
overseas trade route to China. The rulers of the Sailendra dynasty of the Sri
Vijaya kingdom were Buddhists and had cordial relations with the Cholas.
The Sailendra ruler had built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapatnam and, at
his instance, Rajendra I had endowed a village for its upkeep. The cause of the
breach between the two apparently was the Chola eagerness to remove
obstacles to Indian traders, and to expand trade with China. The expeditions
led to the conquest of Kadaram or Kedah and a number of other places in the
Malay peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola navy was the strongest in the area,
and for some time the Bay of Bengal was converted into a ‘Chola lake’.
The Chola rulers also sent a number of embassies to China. These were
partly diplomatic and partly commercial. Chola embassies reached China in
1016 and 1033. A Chola embassy of 70 merchants reached China in 1077 and,
according to a Chinese account, received ‘81,800 strings of copper-cash’, that
is, more than four lakhs of rupees in return for the articles of‘tribute’
comprising ‘glass-ware, camphor, brocades, rhinoceros horns, ivory, etc.’
Tribute was the word used by the Chinese for all articles brought for trade.
The Chola rulers fought constantly with the Chalukyas who had succeeded
the Rashtrakutas. These are called the later Chalukyas and their capital was at
Kalyani. The Cholas and the later Chalukyas clashed for the overlordship
ofVengi (Rayalaseema), the Tungabhadra doab, and the Ganga ruled country
in northwest Karnataka. Neither side was able to gain a decisive victory in this
contest and ultimately it exhausted both the kingdoms. It also appears that
the wars were becoming harsher during this time. The Chola rulers sacked
and plundered Chalukyan cities including Kalyani, and massacred the people,
including Brahmans and children. They adopted a similar policy in the
Pandya country, settling military colonies to overawe the population. They
destroyed Anuradhapura, the ancient capital of the rulers of Sri Lanka, and
treated their king and queen harshly. The se are blots in the history of the
Chola empire. However, once they had conquered a country, the Cholas tried
to set up a sound system of administration in it. One of the remarkable
features of the Chola administration was their encouragement to local self-
government in the villages all over their empire.
The Chola empire continued to flourish during the twelfth century, but it
declined during the early part of the thirteenth century. The later Chalukyan
empire in the Maharashtra area had also come to an end during the twelfth
century. The place of the Cholas was taken by the Pandyas and the Hoysalas
in the south, and the later Chalukyas were replaced by the Yadavas and the
Kakatiyas. All these states extended patronage to arts and architecture.
Unfortunately, they weakened themselves by continually fighting against each
other, sacking the towns and not even sparing the temples. Ultimately, they
were destroyed by the sultans of Delhi at the beginning of the fourteenth
century.

CHOLA GOVERNMENT—LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT

The king was the most important person in the Chola administration. All
authority rested in his hands, but he had a council of ministers to advise him.
The kings often went on tours in order to oversee the administration. The
Cholas maintained a large army consisting of elephants, cavalry and infantry
which were called the three limbs of the army. The infantry was generally
armed with spears. Most of the kings had bodyguards who were sworn to
defend the kings even at the cost of their lives. The Venetian traveller, Marco
Polo, who visited Kerala in the thirteenth century, says that all the soldiers
who were bodyguards burnt themselves in the funeral pyre of the monarch
when he died—a statement which may well be an exaggeration. The Cholas
also had a strong navy, as we have seen, which dominated the Malabar and
Coromandel coast and, for some time, the entire Bay of Bengal.
The Chola state included area of central control, and loosely administered
areas under different types of local control. The state was interpersed with hill
people and tribals. The basic unit of administration was the nadu which
consisted of a number of villages having close kinship ties and other close
associations. The number of nadus increased as fresh lands were brought
under cultivation by means of irrigation works such as ponds, wells, etc., and
by converting hill or tribal people into agriculturists. Grants to Brahmans and
temples increased, both of which helped in expanding cultivation.
In the Chola kingdom, nadus were grouped into valanadus. The Chola
state was divided into four mandalams or provinces. Sometimes, princes of
the royal family were appointed governors of provinces. Officials were
generally paid by giving them assignments of revenue- bearing lands.
The Chola rulers built a network of royal roads which were useful for trade
as well as for the movement of the army. Trade and commerce flourished in
the Chola empire, and there were some gigantic trade guilds which traded
with Java and Sumatra.
 The Cholas also paid attention to irrigation. The river Kaveri and other
rivers were used for the purpose. Many tanks for irrigation were built. Some
of the Chola rulers carried out an elaborate survey of land in order to fix the
government’s share of the land revenue. We do not know what precisely the
government’s share was.
In addition to land tax, the Chola rulers drew their income from tolls on
trade, taxes on professions, and also from the plunder of the neighbouring
territories. The Chola rulers were wealthy, and could afford to build a number
of towns and magnificent monuments, including temples.
We have already referred to local self-government in the villages in some
areas in the Rashtrakuta empire. We know more about village government in
the Chola empire from a number of inscriptions. We hear of two assemblies,
called the ur, and the sabha or mahasabha. The ur was a general assembly of
the village. However, we know more about the working of the mahasabha.
This was a gathering of the adult men in the Brahman villages which were
called agraharams. These were villages with Brahman settlements in which
most of the land was rent-free. These villages enjoyed a large measure of
autonomy. The affairs of the village were managed by an executive committee
to which educated persons owning property were elected either by drawing
lots or by rotation. These members had to retire every three years. There were
other committees for helping in the assessment and collection of land
revenue, for maintenance of law and order, justice, etc. One of the important
committees was the tank committee which looked after the distribution of
water to the fields. The mahasabha could distribute new lands, and exercise
ownership rights over them. It could also raise loans for the village and levy
taxes.
The self-government enjoyed by these Chola villages was a very fine
system. To some extent this system worked in the other villages as well.
However, the growth of feudalism which is discussed in an earlier chapter,
restricted their autonomy.

CULTURAL LIFE

The Chola rule saw the further growth and climax of the bhakti movement
The Chola rule saw the further growth and climax of the bhakti movement
which we have discussed separately. The movement was closely linked to
temples. The extent and resources of the Chola empire enabled the rulers to
build great capitals, such as Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram, Kanchi, etc.
The rulers maintained large households and large palaces with banquet halls,
spacious gardens and terraces. Thus, we learn of seven or five-storeyed houses
for their chiefs. Unfortunately, none of the palaces of the period have
survived. The Chola capital, Gangaikondacholapuram, is now just a small
village near Tanjore. However, descriptions of the magnificent palaces of the
rulers and their ministers, and of equally magnificent houses in which the
wealthy merchants lived, are to be found in the literature of the period.
Temple architecture in the south attained its climax under the Cholas. The
style of architecture which came into vogue during this period is called
Dravida, because it was confined largely to south India. The main feature of
this style was the building of many storeys above the garbhagriha (the
innermost chamber where the chief deity resides). The number of storeys
varied from five to seven, and they had a typical style which came to be called
the vimana. A pillared hall called mandap, with elaborately carved pillars and
a flat roof, was generally placed in front of the sanctum. It acted as an
audience hall and was a place for various other activities such as ceremonial
dances which were performed by the devadasis—the women dedicated to the
service of the gods. Sometimes, a passage ran around the sanctum so that the
devotees could go round it. Images of many other gods could be put in this
passage. This entire structure was enclosed in a courtyard surrounded by high
walls, which were pierced by lofty gates called gopurams. In course of time,
the vimanas rose higher and higher, the number of courtyards were increased
to two or three, and the gopurams also became more and more elaborate.
Thus the temple became a miniature city or a palace, with living-rooms for
priests and many others being provided in it. The temples generally enjoyed
revenue-free grants of lands for their expenses. They also received grants and
rich donations from the wealthy merchants. Some of the temples became so
rich that they entered business, lent money, and took part in business
enterprises. They also spent money on improving cultivation, digging tanks,
wells, etc., and providing irrigation channels.

An early example of the Dravida style of temple architecture is the eighth

 An early example of the Dravida style of temple architecture is the eighth
century temple of Kailasanath at Kanchipuram. One of the finest and most
elaborate examples of the style is, however, provided by the Brihadiswara
temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I. This is also called the Rajaraja temple
because the Cholas were in the habit of installing images of kings and queens
in the courtyards of the temples. The temple at Gangaikondacholapuram,
though in a dilapidated condition, is another fine example of temple
architecture under the Cholas. A large number of temples were also built at
other places in south India. However, it may be well to remember that the
proceeds for some of these activities were obtained from the plunder of the
population of the neighbouring areas by the Chola rulers.
After the fall of the Cholas, temple building activity continued under the
Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Hoysalas. The district of Dharwar and the
Hoysala capital, Halebid, had a large number of temples. The most
magnificent of these is the Hoysalesvara temple. It is the best example of what
is called the Chalukyan style. Apart from the images of gods and their
attendants, both men and women (yaksha and yakshini), the temples contain
finely sculptured panels which show a busy panorama of life, including dance,
music and scenes of war and love. Thus, life was closely integrated with
religion. For the common man, the temples were not merely a place for
worship but the hub of social and cultural life as well.
The art of sculpture attained a high standard in south India during this
period. One example of this was the giant statue of Gomateswara at Sravana
Belgola. Another aspect was image-making which reached its zenith in the
dancing figure of the Siva, called Nataraja. The Nataraja figures of this period,
particularly those in bronze, are considered masterpieces. Many fine
examples of this are to be found in museums in India and abroad.
The rulers of the various dynasties also patronized arts and letters during
this period. While Sanskrit was regarded as the language of high culture and a
number of kings as well as scholars and court poets wrote in it, a remarkable
feature of the period was the growth of literature in the local languages of
India. A number of popular saints called Nayanmars and Alvars who were
devotees of Siva and Vishnu respectively, flourished in the Tamil kingdoms
between the sixth and the ninth centuries. They composed their works in
Tamil. The writings of the Saivite saints, which were collected into eleven
volumes under the name Tirumurai in the early part of the twelfth century,
are considered sacred and are looked upon as the fifth Veda. The age of
Kamban who is placed in the second half of the eleventh and the early part of
the twelfth century is regarded as a golden age in Tamil literature. Kamban’s
Ramayana is considered a classic in Tamil literature. Kamban is believed to
have lived at the court of a Chola king. Many others too took their themes
from the Ramayana and Mahabharata, thus bringing these classics nearer to
the people.
Though younger than Tamil, Kannada also became a literary language
during this period. The Rashtrakuta, the Chalukya and the Hoysala rulers
patronized Kannada as well as Telugu. The Rashtrakuta king, Amoghavarsha,
wrote a book on poetics in Kannada. Many Jain scholars also contributed to
the growth of Kannada. Pampa, Ponna and Ranna are regarded as the three
gems of Kannada poetry. Although they were under the influence of Jainism,
they also wrote on themes taken from the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Nanniah, who lived at the court of a Chalukyan king began the Telugu
version of the Mahabharata. The work begun by him was completed in the
thirteenth century by Tikkanna. Like the Tamil Ramayana, the Telugu
Mahabharata is a classic which inspired many subsequent writers. Many folk
or popular themes are also to be found in these literatures. Popular themes
which were not derived from Sanskrit and which reflect popular sentiments
and emotions are called desi or rural in Telugu.
We can, thus, see that the period from the eighth to the twelfth century was
not only remarkable for the growth of regional kingdoms and regional
integration, but was also a period of cultural growth, and the development of
trade and commerce and agriculture in south India. Merchants and artisans
increased their strength with the development of foreign trade under the
Cholas.