UNIT-1

INTRODUCING TO SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Structure
1.0. Objectives
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Definitions of Anthropology
1.3. Scope of Anthropology
1.4. Branches of Anthropology
1.4.1. Socio Cultural Anthropology
1.4.2. Biological (Or Physical) Anthropology
1.4.3. Archaeological Anthropology
1.4.4. Linguistic Anthropology
1.4.5. Applied Anthropology
1.5. Social Cultural Anthropology: Nature, Scope And Fields
1.6. Meaning of Socio-Cultural Anthropology
1.7. Nature And Scope of Socio Cultural Anthropology
1.8. Fields of Social Cultural Anthropology
1.8.1. Economic Anthropology
1.8.2. Political Anthropology
1.8.3. Psychological Anthropology
1.8.4. Anthropology Of Religion
1.8.5. Ecological Anthropology
1.9. Let Us Sum Up
1.10. Check Your Progress
1.11. Key Words
1.12. Suggested Readings

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1.0. OBJECTIVES:
After reading this Chapter, you will be able to:
• Define anthropology and describe its basic concerns and subject
matter;
• Describe the different sub-fields of anthropology;
• Explain how and why socio cultural anthropology as a science
emerged;

1.1. INTRODUCTION:
Anthropology is the study of humans, past and present. To understand the full
sweep and complexity of cultures across all of human history, anthropology draws
and builds upon knowledge from the social and biological sciences as well as the
humanities and physical sciences. A central concern of anthropologists is the
application of knowledge to the solution of human problems. Historically,
anthropologists in the United States have been trained in one of four areas: socio
cultural anthropology, biological/physical anthropology, archaeology, and linguistics.
Anthropologists often integrate the perspectives of several of these areas into their
research, teaching, and professional lives.
The term anthropology is a combination of two words derived from Greek
language: anthropos and logos. The term anthropos is equivalent to the word
mankind or human being, while logos means study or science. So putting the two
words together, anthropology is the study or science of mankind or humanity. The
following are two important, simple, definitions of anthropology.
Anthropology is a broad scientific discipline dedicated to the comparative
study of humans as a group, from its first appearance on earth to its present stage of
development.
Anthropology as subject of study or branch of knowledge has assumed the
present form after passing through various stages of the development. It deals with the
development of man and his origin the creation and evolution. Every society and
religion has its own views about it. But there is no branch of knowledge that studies it
in a scientific manner.

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 Like every other creature, man is also an animal. To explain human variations
Anthropology combines the study of both human biology as well as part of human
behavior which is beyond biology.

Since man is a social animal, he has two dimensions; one deals with the socio-
cultural aspect whereas the other is concerned with the biological aspect. Thus
anthropology as a whole is specifically divided into two main branches, which is
discussed in detail in section

1.2. DEFINITIONS OF ANTHROPOLOGY

In German and other Central European countries, anthropologists applied the
word anthropologie as an equivalent to anthropology. The meaning they gave to the
word has the meaning which now is same as physical anthropology. Supporting this,
Magnus Hundi in his ―Anthropologie de Hominis” defines ―anthropology is a study of
human anatomy and human physiology‖.
To the German biologists and other Central European scholars, anthropology
means ‗physical anthropology‘. On the other hand, the German philosophers and
theologians defined the term anthropology as ‗study of physical and moral aspects of
man‘.
The German philosophers and theologians and the practitioners in Austria and
Russia, defined the term as ―a study of cultural and social aspect of man‖. A book
called ‗Anthropologie Abstracted‘ by an anonymous writer in 1655 depicts
anthropology as ―the history of the human soul and human anatomy‖.
Alexander Pope in his book, ‗An Essay of Man‘ wrote that, ‗the proper study
of mankind is man‘. James Hunt defines anthropology as the ‗study of man‘s nature in
its totality‘.
E.B.Tylor, in his book ‗An introduction to the study of man and civilization‘
defines anthropology as ‗a science of man‘, revealing, ‗the biological and cultural
evolution and variation of mankind all over the world‘.
Frans Boas, in his book, ‗the central Eskimo‘, writes that anthropology is the
‗science of man and it deals with the biological, social and cultural aspects of
mankind‘.

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 The 20th C. witnessed a revolution in giving a definite scientific meaning to
the word anthropology. A.L.Kroeber defined anthropology as ‗the science of groups
of men and their behavior and production‘. M.J.Herskovits defines, ―Anthropology
may be defined as the measurement of human beings, it is the study of man and his
works‘. Clyde Kluckholn , in his book ‗the mirror of man‘ defines, ―anthropology is
the science of man in toto‖.
Topinard defines Anthropology as: ‗it is a branch of natural history and deals
with man and races of mankind‘. As such, Clackhon has defined Anthropology in the
following words: ―Out of all the sciences which studies various aspects of man,
Anthropology is one which comes nearest to break the total of man‖.
Lexicologists, in 2nd half of the 20th C. define anthropology as ―study of
mankind especially of its societies and customs; study of structure and evolution of
man as an animal‖. This is the same definition in Concise Oxford Dictionary.
Anthropologists like Jacobs and Stern defines, ―anthropology is the scientific study of
the physical, social and cultural development and behavior of human beings since
their appearance on this earth‖.
During 1960s and 70s there were many woman liberation movements, which
replaced the word man in the general definitions of anthropology to humankind.
So from all these aspects, the definition given by Jacobs and Stern seems to be
more convincing, comprehensive and best.
The scientific definition of anthropology involves one more factor, time and
space aspect. Hence ―anthropology is the study of human behavior aspects
irrespective of time and space‖.

1.3. SCOPE OF ANTHROPOLOGY:

The subject matter of anthropology is very vast. The subject covers all aspects
of human ways of life and culture, as humans live in a social group relationship.
Discovering the meaning, nature, origin, and destiny of humanity is one of the key
concerns of anthropology. According to the present stage of scientific knowledge
attained in anthropology, the term humanity or mankind is a very difficult term to
define. Anthropologists seem to be unsure whether humanity is absolutely
dichotomous with other lower forms of animals. Some may even tend to regard
humanity and non-humanity as something that is best understood in the form of

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continuum. This sense of continuum may be particularly in terms of time scale. Thus,
the farther we go in time backwards, the narrower becomes the difference between
humanity and non humanity. It has now become a generally accepted fact in
anthropology, although no full evidences are forthcoming, that humanity is a product
of the evolutionary processes, and that humans have evolved from their closest living
primates (Bryan, 1997; Behe,1996).

Anthropology is interested in some of the following questions and issues about

humans:
• Where did human species come from (i.e. what are the origins of
mankind)?
• Were human beings created in the image and likeness of God, or were they
just the products of millions of years of the natural, evolutionary process?
• In what ways does man differ from other animal species?
• How did mankind arrive at the present stage of biological, intellectual, and
cultural development? Is there a common human nature, and if so, what is
it like?
• In what ways do humans who live in various times and places differ?
• How can we explain why cultures vary?

Such and many other related questions are the concerns of anthropology.
Anthropologists try to know and explain about the technological, economic, political
and intellectual development of humanity. They attempt to discover the
extent to which different human populations vary in their biological and social
characteristics and to understand why these differences exist. Anthropologists are, for
example, interested to know and explain why a pregnant woman in Gumuz goes to a
bush to give birth during labour, how the Nuer practice birth control methods and why
they put horizontal line marks on their forehead, or why the Wolayta put a circular
body mark on their cheek while the Tigreans put a cross mark on their foreheads, etc.

Although anthropologists investigate the distinctive features of different

cultures, they also study the fundamental similarities among people throughout the
world (Scupin and De Corse, 1995). They try to find out what factors account for the

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similarities in certain beliefs, practices and institutions that are found across cultures.
They grapple with explaining why cultural universals exist. Are these cultural
similarities results of diffusion (i.e., a certain material culture or non-material
culture created in a certain society diffuses to other societies through contact, war,
trade, etc)? Or are they due to independent creation (i.e., certain cultural items created
by two or more societies without one copying from the other)? Anthropologists have
debated taking different sides while attempting to answer these questions.

1.4. BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY:

The mammoth tree of anthropology has several branches and many sub branches .
the elementary branches of Socio cultural anthropology is the broadest and the
longest of all, having several sub branches. Physical and /or biological
Anthropology is another major branch. Archaeological anthropology is an
interesting intermediary branch between the above mentioned two major branches.
While Linguistic Anthropology, Applied Anthropology and Ecological
Anthropology are sub branches of socio cultural anthropology, Ethno archaeology
has emerged as major methodological branch of Archaeological Anthropology. In
recent times, however, Linguistic Anthropology has assumed larger proportions, and
so has Applied Anthropology with Action Anthropology shooting prominently out
of it.

We shall here examine the focus of the branches of Anthropology

1.4.1. Socio cultural Anthropology

Socio cultural anthropologists examine social patterns and practices across
cultures, with a special interest in how people live in particular places and how
they organize, govern, and create meaning. A hallmark of socio cultural
anthropology is its concern with similarities and differences, both within and
among societies, and its attention to race, sexuality, class, gender, and
nationality. Research in socio cultural anthropology is distinguished by its
emphasis on participant observation, which involves placing oneself in the
research context for extended periods of time to gain a first-hand sense of how
local knowledge is put to work in grappling with practical problems of

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 everyday life and with basic philosophical problems of knowledge, truth,
power, and justice. Topics of concern to socio cultural anthropologists include
such areas as health, work, ecology and environment, education, agriculture
and development, and social change.
The life of people has several dimensions, and the attempts to study
each one in detail has resulted in the origin and growth of several sub branches
from the elementary branch of Socio cultural Anthropology, such as Economic
Anthropology, Political Anthropology, Psychological Anthropology,
Anthropology of Religion, and so on and forth.

1.4.2. Biological (or Physical) Anthropology:

Biological anthropologists seek to understand how humans adapt to
diverse environments, how biological and cultural processes work together to
shape growth, development and behavior, and what causes disease and early
death. In addition, they are interested in human biological origins, evolution
and variation. They give primary attention to investigating questions having to
do with evolutionary theory, our place in nature, adaptation and human
biological variation. To understand these processes, biological anthropologists
study other primates (primatology), the fossil record (paleoanthropology),
prehistoric people (bio archaeology), and the biology (e.g., health, cognition,
hormones, growth and development) and genetics of living populations.

1.4.3. Archaeological anthropology:

Archaeologists study past peoples and cultures, from the deepest
prehistory to the recent past, through the analysis of material remains, ranging
from artifacts and evidence of past environments to architecture and
landscapes. Material evidence, such as pottery, stone tools, animal bone, and
remains of structures, is examined within the context of theoretical paradigms,
to address such topics as the formation of social groupings, ideologies,
subsistence patterns, and interaction with the environment. Like other areas of
anthropology, archaeology is a comparative discipline; it assumes basic human
continuities over time and place, but also recognizes that every society is the

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 product of its own particular history and that within every society there are
commonalities as well as variation.

1.4.4. Linguistic Anthropology:

Linguistic anthropology is the comparative study of ways in which
language reflects and influences social life. It explores the many ways in
which language practices define patterns of communication, formulate
categories of social identity and group membership, organize large-scale
cultural beliefs and ideologies, and, in conjunction with other forms of
meaning-making, equip people with common cultural representations of their
natural and social worlds. Linguistic anthropology shares with anthropology in
general a concern to understand power, inequality, and social change,
particularly as these are constructed and represented through language and
discourse.

1.4.5. Applied Anthropology:

Applied Anthropology can well be defined as the organized interaction
between professional anthropologists and policy making bodies public or
private. In this sense, the administration can well utilize the services of the
anthropologists and their works for policy making and administration of
various regions in a heterogeneous or multinational state by utilizing their
knowledge of the cultural variations and felt needs of the people,
Anthropologists can render greater service in terms of action anthropology by
involving themselves in planning, administering the policy of development
and advising the administration. The services of anthropologists and
anthropology and action anthropology have been precious to the society.

Anthropologists are required most urgently in the third world countries

for its progress, but are neglected. This is because an anthropologist has a
genuine concern for the society but an administrator or a politician has to
achieve his selfish ends while following the policy of development. Applied
Anthropology is concerned with techniques based on the recognition of
scientific principles.

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 According to Eliot D. Chapple, ―Applied Anthropology is regarded as
that aspect of anthropology which deals with the description of changes in
human relations and in isolation of the principles that control them and
includes an examination of those terms and factors which restrict the
possibility of change in human organization‖.

Applied Anthropology is useful for people taking community decisions

to know something about the population for which they are responsible. It can
be applied to any kind of inquiry into the customs of non-European people
subject to the rule of European‘s rule.

The first attempt of the British anthropologists to turn their knowledge

to practical use came at the close of the South African War of 1899-1902.
Thus the enlightened policy of administration was provided for that nation.
Then came the administrative officials, their training, government sociologists.
The study of tribals gave rise to many applications as such the administrative
plans for their welfare and development. The population genetics gave new
arena to the application of family planning programmes etc which is a applied
branch of the anthropology.

Health studies with specializations gave impetus to nutritional

anthropology and have given remedies to many diseases. Also Forensic
anthropology helped in individual detection during complications in criminal
cases. The paternity and maternity disputes can now be solved through various
applied techniques. Anthropology of sports have helped us to improve the
physique and healthy activities of sports persons. It can be applied in a limited
extent to persons other than sports personalities. Anthropologists are employed
as consultants in a no. of technical-assistance projects undertaken by the
governments. They have most to offer in health projects, agricultural projects
and community development projects.

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 Anthropologists are still not invited to pass judgment on the merits of
the projects in which their cooperation is sought, but these are in practice
congenial to most of them in a way that moral-improvement policies often
were not. They are not asked, nor do they now seek, to advice on the total
process of social change; their role is now to indicate where existing social
structures and idea systems may present obstacles to specific projects.

1.5. SOCIAL CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY: NATURE,

SCOPE AND FIELDS

INTRODUCTION:
This is also often called social anthropology or cultural anthropology. It is
concerned with the social and cultural dimensions of the living peoples and with the
description and analysis of people‘s lives and traditions Socio-cultural anthropology
studies the social, symbolic or nonmaterial and material lives of contemporary and
historically recent human societies, taking the concept of culture central to its goal
(Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992).

Cultural anthropologists conduct studies of living peoples, most often by

visiting and living among a particular people for an extended period of time, usually a
year or longer (Keesing 1981). They conduct fieldwork among the people they study
and describe the results of their investigations in the form of books and articles called
ethnographies. Cultural anthropology is also concerned with making generalizations
about, and seeking explanations for, similarities and differences among the world's
people. Those who conduct comparative studies to achieve these theoretical goals are
called ethnologists. Thus, two important aspects of social/cultural anthropology are
ethnography and ethnology. The former is more of empirical study or description of
the culture and ways of lives of a particular group of people, while the latter is more
of a theoretical study of the similarities and differences among the human groups of
the world, past or present.

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 There are many other specialized fields of study in social or cultural
anthropology. Some of these include: anthropology of art, medical anthropology,
urban/rural/economic anthropology, political anthropology, development
anthropology, anthropology of religion, legal anthropology, demographic
anthropology, ecological anthropology, psychological anthropology,
ethnomusicology, etc.

1.6. MEANING OF SOCIO-CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:

Social anthropology in England and Cultural anthropology in USA became
duplicating sciences for both proved to be dealing with cultures as well as society.
A.L.Kroeber merged both social and cultural anthropology into a single branch in
1948.
R.H.Lowie preferred a neutral term like ethnography to refer to the study of
both society and culture, but it was not accepted by many scholars who already
favored the term ―socio-cultural anthropology‖.

Kroeber defined it as ―a study of culture and society which are distinguishable

yet inseparable‖. Dube describes: ―Social Anthropology is the part of Cultural
Anthropology which devotes its primary attention to the study of social structure and
religion rather than material aspects of culture‖. He further explains that ―the part of
cultural anthropology which studies social phenomenon is called social
anthropology‖.

Srinivas defines ―it is a comparative study of human societies. Ideally it

includes all societies, primitive, historic and civilized‖. According to Charles Winick
― Social anthropology is the is the study of social behaviour, especially from the point
of view of systematic comparative study of social forms and institutions‖.

Nadel is of the opinion that ―The primary object of social anthropology is to

understand primitive people, the cultures they created and the social systems in which
they live and interact‖.

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 Thus we may conclude that whereas cultural anthropology is beyond
biological anthropology and is learned as a member of the society; social
anthropology is the comparative study of social phenomenon of men as it occurs in all
the societies.

1.7. NATURE AND SCOPE OF SOCIO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

The scope of Socio Cultural Anthropology is universal. But from its origin
and before World war –II was limited to the study of primitive societies and cultures.
The scope widened in the second quarter of the 20 th C. At present anthropologists
study more than just primitive societies. Their research now extends from village
communities to cities and even industrial enterprises.

In turn with its universal scope, Gopala Sarana defines socio-cultural

anthropology as ―the study of relations and patterns of life among all societies as seen
through the institutions and groups such as marriage, family, kinship, economic
activities, political life, religious beliefs and practices, folklore, mythology, symbols
and so on‘.
Michael Howard also emphasizes the universal scope of socio-cultural
anthropology as ―socio-cultural anthropology is the study of social, symbolic and
material lives of humans‖. Conrad Philip Kottak says ―socio-cultural anthropology
studies society and culture describing and explaining social and cultural similarities
and differences and while considering diversity in time and space, it distinguishes
between the universal, generalized and the particular cultural and social features of
humans‖.

Social-Cultural Anthropology studies human behavior in its social and cultural

forms in all places and at all times. The term social-cultural refers to human actions,
interactions, and interrelations and products as governed by the customs, traditions,
programmes, and norms. Social-Cultural items include sociofacts, mentifacts and agro
facts .They are transmitted through learning from generation to generation. They
present variation in time and space all over the world.

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 Social-Cultural Anthropology is concerned with particular, generalized and
universal features of culture and society .It studies human species at all levels of
social-cultural development ,tribes, peasants, urban groups and all other peoples
living in different environments. In short , its subject matter is as infinite and as
fascinating as the social-cultural life of humanity itself. Therefore the scope of social-
cultural is universal.

Social-Cultural Anthropology studies societies and cultures at all levels of

development. It studies with the total life of society or an aspect of society. Or it may
compare different cultures and societies .It examines growth and development of
societies and cultures in terms of evolution or diffusion of cultural items. It depicts
the structure organization and function of societies and cultures or their specific
systems. It examines the thought processes, patterns of behavior and the social-
cultural variations. It also describes and explains the relation between individual,
culture and society.

Social-Cultural Anthropology may either describe life of a society or some

aspect of it or take up the task of classifying, comparing and interpreting the available
facts about different societies and cultures.

The major points concerning the Socio-cultural Anthropology can be noted as

below:
a) To impart education and training in professional anthropology to
those decisions of making a career in the field of Anthropology.
b) To develop knowledge and skill to work with both the tribal and rural
communities.
c) To provide interdisciplinary collaboration for the better understanding
of cultural practices and health, family planning progranme,
community development programme etc.
d) To promote among students a sense of dedication and commitments for
appropriate service to the problems of culture contact problems of
natural integration etc.

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 e) To promote anthropological knowledge, practice in the field of
industrial and urban problems.

1.8. FIELDS OF SOCIAL CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:

There are many other specialized fields of study in social or cultural
anthropology. Some of these include: anthropology of art, medical anthropology,
urban/rural/economic anthropology, political anthropology, development
anthropology, anthropology of religion, legal anthropology, demographic
anthropology, ecological anthropology, psychological anthropology,
ethnomusicology, etc.

We shall here examine the focus of major fields of socio cultural anthropology

1.8.1. ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY:

Economic anthropology studies how human societies provide the
material goods and services that make life possible. In the course of material
provisioning and during the realization of final consumption, people relate to
each other in ways that convey power and meaning.

The degree to which something is `necessary' for life has long been
debated and differences between one society and another have environmental,
historical, and cultural reasons; but some wants must be inescapably satisfied,
otherwise death ensues. Therefore, there is a physical limit to relativism
regarding material means of livelihood. On the other hand, nonmaterial goods
such as the goodwill of deceased ancestors might be conceived as essential for
the reproduction of a society. Most nonmaterial needs, however, have some
material expression, such as food sacrifices during ancestor worship or wealth
exchange during mortuary ceremonies. The domain of economic anthropology
covers the recurring interaction of individuals, within and between social
groups and with the wider environment, with the object of providing material
goods and services necessary for social reproduction.

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 Traditionally, economic processes have been divided into production,
distribution and circulation, and consumption. These analytical categories
respond to observable social interaction in all societies, although the
categories themselves are a product of scholarly Western tradition. People,
however, engage in social relations that can be described as `economic' and
which can be analyzed as participating simultaneously in the production,
distribution, and consumption categories. Economic anthropology originally
focused on the Economic Life of Primitive Peoples (Herskovits 1960) where
many of the elements present in the Western economy (such as money, a
market system) were absent. Direct observation of non capitalist societies
through ethnographic fieldwork produced impressive and contextually rich
information on economic activities worldwide. The way in which
anthropologists reacted to the confrontation of this diversity and how they
coped with it in theoretical terms, generated most debates within economic
anthropology.

1.8.2. POLITICAL ANTHROPOLOGY:

Political anthropology is a discipline of study that covers the political
and social makeup of a society. The founding fathers of political anthropology
are considered to be Charles-Louis de second at, Baron de Montesquieu and
Alexis de Tocqueville.

The focus of Political anthropology is on the following aspects: the

ubiquity of political process and the function of legitimate authority, Law,
justice and sanctions in simple societies; political organisation in egalitarian
and stratified societies; focus of power and leadership the anthropological
points of view in the formulation of the typology of political structure based
on differences and similarities observed among the societies of the world; the
political process emerging among nation and complex societies; political
system of the world is perceptible the undercurrent of the socio cultural mains.

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1.8.3. PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY:
Psychological anthropology is the study of psychological topics using
anthropological concepts and methods. Among the areas of interest are
personal identity, selfhood, subjectivity, memory, consciousness, emotion,
motivation, cognition, madness, and mental health. Considered thus, there is
hardly a topic in the anthropological mainstream that does not offer grist for
the analytical mill. Like economic or political anthropology, psychological
anthropology can be seen as a perspective on the social as well as being a
subfield of the broader discipline. The overlap in subject matter with the
related discipline of psychology is obvious, but the approach, grounded in
ethnographic fieldwork and comparativism, is usually quite different.
Moreover, as a reflexive endeavour, psychological anthropology shines a light
not only on the cultural vehicles of thought (language, symbolism, the body)
but on the concepts we use to think about those means. Psychological
anthropologists are concerned, for example, not merely with emotional
practices in diverse cultures (what angers people? how do they express it?),
but in the shape and cross-cultural validity of the concept of emotion. To the
ethnographic question, ―How do the Nuaulu classify animals?‖ they add,
―How is their classification structured and what does that structure reveal
about broader processes of cognition?‖ Some of the basic categories of
psychology—self, mind, emotion—turn out, in cross-cultural perspective, to
be less self-evident, less transparently objective than expected. While rough
equivalents can often be found in other linguistic traditions, the scholar soon
finds that English (or French or Malay) is not a neutral inventory of
psychological universals. Comparison can be corrosive of confidence. And
perhaps more than in other subfields, in psychological anthropology there is a
full spectrum from the hard scientific to the soft interpretive. Indeed, a
divergence between a scientific, positivist psychology—confident in its
categories and methods, bent on universals—and a relativist, meaning-
oriented, often doubt-ridden constructionism is one of the productive tensions
that animate enquiry. Until recently, the subfield has fared very differently on
either side of the Atlantic. With some exceptions, anthropologists in Britain

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 and France until at least the 1960s pursued strongly sociological or
structuralist agendas unsympathetic to psychological anthropology.

American anthropologists, with their broader conception of culture and

interest in individual experience, led the way with culture and personality
studies, a diverse body of work that has a recent reinvention in person-
cantered anthropology. Parallel endeavours in psychoanalytic anthropology
and cognitive anthropology drew on different intellectual traditions. These
complementary, sometimes rival, approaches span and crosscut in surprising
ways the scientific-humanistic division that characterizes anthropology
generally.

1.8.4. ANTHROPOLOGY OF RELIGION:

The anthropologist has formulation many theories to account for the
origin of religious among people. Some of the major theories are animism,
animatism, manaism and primitive monotheism. The perception of people
regarding the difference between man and women are studied first of all. The
belief in natural forces and supernatural forces and being are investigated. The
operation of religious traditions including the rituals and ceremonies among
primitive and peasant societies are studied in detail. Practices which fall within
the domain of religion such as taboo and totemism are also examined. The
differences between magic, religious and science are discussed and debated.
The status and role of shamans, medicine-men, priests etc., as important
personalities in the magico –religious fields are also studied. Witchcraft and
sorcery are examined as important aspects of primitive magic. Above all, the
social and psychological functions of magic and religion are emphasized.

1.8.5. ECOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY:

The relationship between human being and their environments has
been the subject matter of study for a long period. In the anthropological
context, the concept of environment has been used to explain both the origin
of different cultural elements and also the diversity of cultural groups.
Ecological Anthropology attempts to understand the relative influences of

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 environment on human societies and how it is used by different societies. The
roots of ecological anthropology are found in several different traditions of
environmental explain.

Man environment relationship objectively from the observers‘ point of

view. But a different approach, which gained popularity, attempts to study
man –environment relationship from the participants‘ points of view, the
‗cognized‘ environment that is perceived by the cultural group. Ethno
ecologist‘ aim is primarily to elucidate what people thin and perceive about
natural and secondarily, to describe how people use this knowledge to get
along in the world. This is done through constructing folk classification of
nature with the surrounding environment.

1.9. LET US SUM UP:

Anthropology is broad scientific discipline, which was born lately in the 19th
century, with the major aim of scientific study and documentation of the physical,
socio-cultural and other diversities among people, past and present. It specially
studies simple, small-scale societies in the non-western world. Its holistic,
comparative and relativistic approaches, its unit of analysis and method of study along
with its broad scope make it unique. However, it shares many things with the other
sciences. The science of anthropology has many theoretical and practical importance
and contributions.

The four main branches of anthropology are physical anthropology, socio

cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology and archaeological anthropology.
Applied anthropology is sometimes regarded as a fifth sub-filed. Each of the major
branches of anthropology has several specialized areas of study within it.
Anthropology as a science has as its major goal the making, accumulation and
dissemination of scientific knowledge on society and culture.

1.10. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is anthropology?
2. Define anthropology; indicate the scope and nature of anthropology?

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 3. Bring out the distinctive nature of anthropology as a discipline.
4. Differentiate between socio-cultural anthropology and Physical anthropology?
5. What is the nature of application of anthropology in the contemporary society?
6. Give a brief description of the various branches of anthropology?
7. Explain the application of applied anthropology
8. Explain the development of anthropology
9. Define social-cultural anthropology
10. Discuss the nature, scope and fields of social-cultural anthropology

1.11. KEY WORDS:

a. Anthropology: Anthropology is the study or science of mankind or
humanity
b. Social Anthropology: The study of societies through ages.
c. Cultural anthropology: The study of human behaviour that is learned,
rather than transmitted.
d. Ethnography: description of the culture of a certain group of people.
e. Ethnology: Anthropological attempt to discover universal human
atterns and the common bio psychological traits that bind all human
beings.
f. Applied anthropology: Is the fifth major field of anthropology which
is concerned with the application of anthropological knowledge,
methods and approaches to the solving of human problems.
g. Archaeological anthropology: A branch of anthropology which
studies the ways of lives of people who lived in the remote and recent
past.

1.12. SUGGESTED READINGS:

1. Beals, R.LHoijer H ‗An Introduction to Anthropology‘ Macmillian
Pub,co., Newyork
2. K.N.Das (2004) introduction to social and cultural anthropology, Atlantic
publication and distributors. New Delhi.
3. Doshi S.L and Jain P C (2001) ―Social Anthropology‖ Raw publication,
New Delhi

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4. Dr. Ramanath Sharma (1998) ― Social Cultural anthropology‖ Surjeet
Publication, kamalanagara, Delhi.
5. Dr. Ramanath Sharma and Rajendra K Sharma (1983) ―Social
Anthropology and Indian Tribes‖ Media Promoters &Publishers Pvt. Ltd
Bombay
6. Herskovits, Melville J, (1965 ) ‗Economic Anthropology: The Economic
Life of Primitive Peoples‘ New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
7. Howard, Michael C and Janet D.H.1992. Anthropology. Understanding
Human Adaptation. New York: Harper Collins
8. K. Singh ―Social and cultural Anthropology‖ Prakashana Kendra,
Lucknow.
9. Lewellen, Ted (1983). Political Anthropology: An Introduction. Boston,
MA: Bergin and Garvey. pp. 2–4.
10. Majumdar D N and Madan T N (1994) ―An introduction to social
anthropology‖ mayor paperbacks ,NOIDA
11. Scupin, Raymond and Christopher R. DeCorse.1995. Anthropology, a
Global Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
12. Sing.K. ‗Social and Cultural Anthropology‘, Prakasjana Kendra, Lucknow
13. Wilk, Richard R. (2002) ‗When Good Theories Go Bad: Theory in
Economic Anthropology and Consumer Research‘. In Theory in Economic
Anthropology. J. Ensminger, ed. Pp. 239-250, Vol. 18.
14. Zerihun Doda, M.A.(2005) introduction to sociocultural anthropology,
Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education.

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