History and Philosophy of Physical Education and Sport-X2023bbq

History and Philosophy of
Physical Education and Sport

History and Philosophy of
Physical Education and Sport
FIRST EDITION
Nancy Kane
SUNY — Cortland
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CONTENTS
Prefacexiii
Acknowledgments1
Chapter 1. Why Study History and Philosophy in

Physical Education and Sport? 2
Key Terms and Concepts 2
Guiding Questions 2
Introduction: How Do History and Philosophy Fit into
Kinesiology, Physical Education, and Sport? 3
Knowing What Has Been Tried Before: History 4
Researching History: Sources and Methods 4
Knowing What Guides Our Choices: Philosophy 5
What We Think We Know: Physical Education and
Sport History and Philosophy in the Early 21st Century 8
Becoming a Professional: What Does This Do for Me? 9
Summary10
Figure Credit 12
References12
Chapter 2. The Dawn of Sport 14

Guiding Questions 14
Introduction: How Can We Know Where Sports Come From? 15
Physical Activity and Survival 16
Sports and Hunter-Gatherer Societies 17
v
Sports and Agricultural Societies 19
Physical Activity and Self-Expression 19
Summary20
Figure Credits 21
References21
Chapter 3. Physical Education and Sport in Ancient

Greece and Rome 24
Introduction 25
Ancient Greece: Culture and Ideals 26
Ancient Greece: Physical Education and Physical Culture 27
Sparta 28
Athens 30
Ancient Greece: Sporting Festivals 31
Ancient Greece: The Role of Dance in Physical Education 33
Precursor to Ancient Rome: Etruscan Physical Culture and
Traditions35
Ancient Rome: Physical Education and Physical Culture 36
Galen38
Ancient Rome: Contests, Athletes, and Spectators 38
Dance in Ancient Rome 40
Summary41
Figure Credits 43
References43
Chapter 4. Early Non-Western Physical Education and Sport 46

Introduction: What Does Non-Western Mean? 47
Why Study Ancient Non-Western Cultural History and Philosophy
in Physical Education and Sport? 48
Symbolism and Magic in Sport 49
vi CONTENTS
Examples of Non-Western Sport in the Ancient World 49
The Mesoamerican Ball Game 49
Sport in Ancient Japanese Society 50
Sport in Ancient China 51
Sports in Ancient India 52
Sport and Pastimes in Ancient Egypt 53
Summary54
Figure Credits 55
References56
Chapter 5. After Rome Fell: Physical Activity and Sport

in the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Reformation,
and Enlightenment 58
Introduction59
Court and Countryside, Knights and Peasants: Survival
and Spectacle 60
The Church and Physical Activity in the Middle Ages 65
The European Renaissance and Physical Culture 66
The Protestant Reformation 68
The Enlightenment 71
Summary73
Figure Credits 74
References75
Chapter 6. Indigenous Peoples, Colonialism, Expansion,

and Revolution in North American Sport
and Physical Activity 78
Introduction79
Sports and Recreational Pastimes Among Indigenous
Peoples of North America 80
Colonial America: Sport, Recreation, and Gambling 81
CONTENTS vii
Approaching Revolution: The Founding Fathers, Physical
Education, and Sport 84
Female Physical Activity in Colonial America 85
Summary86
Figure Credits 87
References88
Chapter 7. Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 90

Introduction91
German Gymnastics 92
Danish Gymnastics 97
Swedish Gymnastics 98
The British Sports Ideal 99
Muscular Christianity, the YMCA, and Jewish Gymnastics 102
Women’s Rational Recreation 102
Social Dance in the 19th Century 103
Summary104
Figure Credits 106
References106
Chapter 8. 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 108

Introduction109
Round Hill School 110
German Gymnastics in the United States 112
Swedish Gymnastics 114
Delsartism116
Beyond the European Systems 117
The Battle of the Systems 122
Summary123
Figure Credits 124
References125
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 9. An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 128
Introduction129
From Fairs to Frontiers: Competitions and Work-Sports 130
Percussive Dance 131
Immigrants and Sport 132
Slaves and Sport 133
Organized Sports 134
Amateur Athletics, 1800–1950 135
Professional Athletics, 1800–1950 137
Intercollegiate Sports 141
Summary143
Figure Credits 144
References145
Chapter 10. Physical Education and Sport in the 20th

and Early 21st Centuries 148
Introduction149
Leaders in 20th-Century Physical Education:
The Progressive Era 150
Leisure154
Amateur Sport 157
Professionalism159
Title IX, AIAW, and NAGWS: Women in Sport 161
Adapted Physical Education and Sports 164
Summary166
Figure Credits 168
References168
Chapter 11. International Sport and Dance in the 21st Century 172
CONTENTS ix
Introduction173
International Sports Organizations 174
World Dance Traditions 179
Summary182
Figure Credits 184
References184
Chapter 12. Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 188

Introduction189
Metaphysics190
Idealism and Dualism 190
Realism 191
Epistemology192
Naturalism 192
Pragmatism 194
Existentialism 195
Phenomenology 196
Ways of Using Philosophy 198
Summary199
Figure Credits 200
References200
Chapter 13. Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 202

Introduction203
Axiology204
Ancient Greece 205
Non-European Ethics 206
Moral Reasoning: Immanuel Kant and
the Categorical Imperative 209
Moral Reasoning: John Stuart Mill and Utilitarianism 210
x CONTENTS
Professional Codes of Ethics in Kinesiology:
What Will Be Expected of Me? 210
Implications of Ethics 211
Summary212
Figure Credits 214
References 214
Chapter 14. Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport

and Physical Activity? 216
Introduction217
The Beauty of the Human Body 218
Sport as Art? 220
The Intentional Fallacy 222
The Relationships Between Play, Sport, and Art 224
Can Sport Have Meaning and Purpose? 225
Sport as Drama 227
Summary228
Figure Credits 230
References230
Chapter 15. My History, My Philosophy 232

Introduction233
Why Study Local History of Physical
Education and Sport? 234
How Can You Learn About Local History
of Physical Education and Sport? 236
How Can You Preserve Local History? 237
Your Personal Philosophy 239
Why Write a Statement of Personal Philosophy? 240
How to Write a Statement of Personal Philosophy 241
CONTENTS xi
The Future in the History and Philosophy of
Physical Education and Sport 243
Summary244
Figure Credits 246
References246
Chapter 16. Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 248

Introduction249
Media and Sport in the United States 250
Discuss 252
Youth Sports 253
Discuss 254
Interscholastic Sports 255
Discuss 256
Minorities in Sports and Dance 256
Discuss 258
Threats to the Integrity of Sport 259
Discuss 261
Violence in Sports 261
Discuss 264
Summary265
Figure Credits 265
References266
ABOUT THE AUTHOR 269
INDEX271
xii CONTENTS
PREFACE
Kinesiology, or exercise science, has relatively recent origins in the academic world.
While health and forms of exercise have been studied since ancient times, specialized
kinesiology departments in higher education are really a latter-20th-century
phenomenon. When those departments were established, classes could be divided
fairly easily into three types: lecture, lab, and activity. Those designations still exist, but
teaching methods and expectations in the information age have evolved dramatically.
When kinesiology began to establish itself as an entity related to, yet separate from,
physical education studies, there was still an understanding among academics that for
every hour spent in a class, a student was expected to spend two to three hours outside of
class on reading, reviewing, and working on assignments for that class. That expectation
persists among faculty: among students, not so much. Rising higher education costs
force many students to work while attending school, and for student athletes, their
sports commitments require many hours each day and often on weekends for training
and competition. Rare is the student in any degree program who can spend six to nine
hours per week on one class, when course loads of up to 18 or more credits are carried
in a semester.
Furthermore, today’s students have not been brought up to learn in the way that
students learned in the past. Straight lecture delivery combined with rote memorization
of voluminous texts still works for some students, but many students need different
learning modes, and some need special accommodations to address specific needs.
Smart classrooms are the norm, and students are at ease in the digital environment.
Bright, capable, inquisitive students literally hold much of the world’s knowledge in
the palms of their hands, though they may need guidance in selecting and evaluating
sources of information.
However, the amount of information students need to learn does not diminish
over time, and the study of history and philosophy often involves heavy reading and
writing. There are certain things that every student of sports-related curricula should
know about the past, and a basic grounding in relevant philosophy is essential to good
practice for future teachers, clinicians, researchers, and health care providers. How can
we reconcile the demands of the subject matter with the realities of today’s educational
environment and today’s students? Must we compromise standards to compete in what,
in some respects, has become a consumer-driven industry?
xiii
The answer is no, we do not need to compromise standards. We may, however, need to change
expectations and methods of delivery. The textbook is an important tool, and a foundation of
class work. It is a guide, to be used in conjunction with the course syllabus, the school library, the
Internet, the world of digital media, and any and all other available academic resources.
As such, this textbook is intended as an introduction to the history and philosophy of physical
education and sport, not as a definitive encyclopedic tome. It traces the essentials of the history
and philosophical underpinnings of kinesiology to provide a baseline understanding of the
discipline. However, it allows “breathing room” for faculty and students to engage in related
discussions and topics according to interest and expertise.
It is also intended to prepare students for further study, in special topics courses dedicated
to ethics, sociology, and current issues in sports, for example. It provides a framework for
understanding that encompasses a global view of history and philosophy to the extent possible
while striving for inclusivity in terms of diversity and appreciation for the scope of physical
activity worldwide. Much of the focus is still on the European and North American experience
of sport and physical education, as the textbook is intended toward those markets. Maintaining
an awareness of the fact that this is only one part of the world’s history, students are encouraged
to explore beyond their own cultures.
The book begins with a rationale for the study of the history and philosophy of physical
education and sport. The relevance of the need for this type of course in the kinesiology and
physical education curriculum is explained, and its bearing on students’ professional careers is
made clear.
Chapters 2 through 11 trace the history of physical education and sport from prehistoric
times to the early 21st century, with the inclusion of some dance history. Dance is part of a
comprehensive physical education, and dance studies have long been part of physical education
curricula. To ignore ritual, recreational, and artistic dance forms is to ignore an essential part
of the human physical experience, and this text examines a variety of ways in which dance has
been a part of our history.
Chapters 12 through 14 are dedicated to philosophical studies. In many ways, philosophical
ideas are woven throughout the book, as it is impossible to discuss the history of physical activity
without philosophical context. These chapters invite the reader to consider several branches
of philosophical study and the ways in which physical education and sport have been and are
viewed by philosophers. The interdisciplinary nature of the text opens up opportunities for team
teaching, as well.
In chapter 15, a more personal approach to history and philosophy is used to invite
students to see the history happening around them and to reflect upon their own philosophy.
Understanding their place in history is a critical conceptual leap, because many people think
only of the past when they think of history and do not see that history is happening around them
in their lifetimes. To begin to take stock of one’s own beliefs and philosophy is an empowering
step on the road to self-discovery, which is an overarching goal of the educational process.
The final chapter presents a selected variety of issues for study and discussion. For each issue,
references and basic information are provided, inviting further research or commentary. The
topics might also be useful for classroom discussions or debates, or might serve as topics for
research papers.
Each chapter includes a set of guiding questions, a list of key terms and concepts (mostly
those less likely to be familiar to readers), a summary, and a set of learning activities that may be
used at the discretion of the instructor. Unlike the other chapters, the activities in Chapters 13
xiv HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

(concerning ethics) and 16 (concerning current issues) are discussions; however, the discussion
topics could also be adapted to be done as written assignments. References are provided to
encourage further study or to serve as starting points for research papers, if assigned.
The style guide used for the in-text citations and references is that of the American
Psychological Association (6th edition), the standard for the disciplines of kinesiology and
physical education. Many, if not most, students in the first year or so of higher education are
unfamiliar with the use of APA style, but they should become more accustomed to it and use it
in their writing for classes in exercise science.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my colleague, Dr. Susan Rayl, for her inspiration and encouragement in the
writing of this book. My department chair, Dr. Phil Buckenmeyer, my dean, Dr. John Cottone,
and my colleagues in the Kinesiology Department at the State University of New York, College
at Cortland have been supportive, and I am grateful to all of them.
My research was made possible through the space provided by SUNY Cortland, and the
excellence of their holdings, online resources, and interlibrary loan officers. I would especially
like to thank Jeremy Pekarek, Archivist and Instructional Services Librarian, for access to the
SUNY Cortland College Archives (Memorial Library). Additional research was conducted at
Cornell University’s Olin and Uris Libraries.
My gratitude extends to the staff at Cognella Publishing, especially to Gem Rabanera, John
Remington, David Rajec, Alia Bales, and Susana Christie, without whom this textbook would
not have been written. Thank you for all your help and guidance through the process.
Finally, thanks to my husband, John Fracchia, for believing in this project and for helping and
supporting me every step of the way.
PREFACE 1
C H APTER 1
WHY STUDY HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT?
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS

Listed below are key terms and concepts from the These questions will guide your reading
chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, and help you identify the main topics in
skim through the chapter to locate these terms and the chapter.
concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read
• How do history and philosophy fit into
the term in context and review the definition. This will
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and kinesiology, physical education, and
with better comprehension.
sport?
Abductive reasoning: examining different hypotheses and
selecting the best logical choice to explain phenomena • How do we study the history of physical
Affective domain: emotional and subjective experiences education and sport?

related to physical activity
• What types of philosophy are studied in
Archival sources: unique collections of documents and
physical education and sport?
other media, often housed at a single location with limited
access for scholarly research • What are some current beliefs held by
Cognitive domain: knowledge about physical activity people in physical education and sport?
Deductive reasoning: starting from a major hypothesis and
• Where can we find information about
examining phenomena to determine the validity of the
hypothesis current trends in physical activity?
Descriptive historical research: presenting historical • How can studying history and
evidence using characteristics observed in case studies,
surveys, or other observational techniques philosophy help me as a future
Descriptive reasoning: observing and presenting phenomena professional?
or data; fact-gathering
Ephemera: items not originally meant for long-term use,
which may be of historical interest
External critical review: determining whether a historical
resource is genuine
Health-based physical education: activities or instruction
intended to improve cardiovascular function and other
attributes contributing to a healthy lifestyle
Inductive reasoning: observing individual instances that lead
to a generalization
2 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

(Key Terms and Concepts, continued)
INTRODUCTION: HOW DO HISTORY Internal critical review: determining the validity and
worth of a historical resource
AND PHILOSOPHY FIT INTO
Oral history: interview in order to preserve
KINESIOLOGY, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, information from an individual or individuals
AND SPORT? Paradigm: framework for understanding the world
Primary sources: historical references serving as
If we accept that the study of kinesiology includes first-person accounts
experiences in physical activities, scholarship, and cognitive Psychohistory: the study of psychological
understanding of physical activity, and professional explanations for history
practice in a kinesiology-related profession, we can see
Psychomotor domain: physical skills
that the study of history and philosophy primarily falls into
the category of scholarship and cognitive understanding. Remains/relics: evidence such as bones, tools,
However, there are professionals who research and teach and fossils which may be examined as historical
as specialists in history and/or philosophy. Often those resources
professionals start their careers in classes just like this one. Secondary sources: historical resources not based
You are about to set sail on a voyage that will span on first-person accounts, often including journal
the history of human thought, physical education, and articles and reference materials
sport across the globe. However, the journey cannot be Skill-based physical education: education aimed at
completed by any single person in any one lifetime. Many the acquisition of motor skills
gaps in knowledge and understanding exist: some have
Speculative reasoning: contemplation of theoretical
simply not been unearthed, but others are lost forever
circumstances
in the seas of time. If you continue on to a career in
kinesiology or physical education, you will be expected Synthesis: combining research findings from different
to continue the voyage and deepen your understanding sources
of history and philosophy for as long as you work as a
professional.
Consequently, you should view this semester’s work
as a beginning rather than as a comprehensive guide
to all you will ever need to know. With that in mind,
we begin with an overview of ways in which history
and philosophy are studied. Consider this chapter a
guidebook for this trip. Bon voyage!
Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 3

KNOWING WHAT HAS BEEN TRIED BEFORE: HISTORY
Most people think of history as the study of the distant past. For students whose lives are mostly
about activity in the here and now, learning about dead people and crumbling dusty institutions
holds as much interest as drinking a glass of sand after a workout. However, what you need to
realize is that history is not only about the past: it is happening all around us, and we are making
history every day. We are part of it, and it is part of who we are. It helps shape society’s beliefs
about what people do in physical education and sport, creating what is known in history as a
paradigm.
Struna (2011) defines paradigm as “an intellectual device that contains a scholar’s beliefs and
assumptions about the world, the past, and the evidence; her or his conceptions, or definitions,
of theory and data; and the questions that he or she pursues” (pp. 217–218). In other words,
it is a worldview, a mental framework that helps us make sense of things. Paradigms are not
necessarily free from bias, and historians sometimes blend paradigms in their research.
In the Middle Ages, for example, the world of European civilization revolved around the
religious, political, and social power of the Roman Catholic Church. That paradigm gave
ultimate power on earth to the pope, and the opinions and wishes of the Church were accepted
as eternal truths by European society. That paradigm gave way later when Protestantism
challenged the beliefs and assumptions about the world, removing the pope from a position of
central authority. Subsequent paradigm shifts reframed the relationship between humans and
God altogether, leading to a paradigm in which science and the scientific method became the
measure of reality. In the world of physical education, attitudes toward the physical body and
its status relative to the life of the intellect have traditionally echoed the prevailing paradigm.
That is why we must study history and philosophy together. Learning either without having
informed contextual understanding of the other gives the student an incomplete understanding
of both.
Overall, we try to answer three questions through the study of history in physical education:
1. Where are we now?

2. How did we get here?
3. Where are we going?
These questions, posed by Kirk (1992) for teaching about physical education curriculum,
clearly indicate the ongoing and forward-thinking nature of broad-based historical
understanding. Comprehension of our past helps us to understand why we do the things we
do in physical education and sport and helps us to think intelligently about where we might be
going in the future.
RESEARCHING HISTORY: SOURCES AND METHODS

Historians work in different types of history. Most history is descriptive, telling the story of what
was or is through writing or some other medium. Some historians, however, prefer to conduct
psychohistory, as psychological motives are studied to gain insight into the reasons for historical
events. Still others pursue oral history, in which living historical figures are interviewed for
posterity.

The data for historical study may be primary sources (first-person and eyewitness accounts,
including oral histories), secondary sources (books, journal articles, newsletters, magazines,
and similar items), and remains or relics of a bygone era (bones, architectural remnants, hunting
equipment, and so on). Archival sources may contain recordings, letters, and other personal
papers for a particular person or institution, and are often best visited on-site in repositories
where they are kept. For example, the archives of the Lloyd Shaw Foundation for traditional
dance and music are located in the University of Denver’s library, where they can be properly
preserved and made available to scholars. Ephemera (items that are generally used once in
passing, like a newspaper ad or a program from an All-Star game) are often stored in vertical
files or in acid-free containers and may be valuable sources of information. A student looking
for information on her college’s basketball teams might find interesting historical items with the
ephemera in her college or university library, for instance.
Ideally, evidence of history is supported by multiple sources of data, but that is not always
the case. Sometimes historians use oral traditions (the myths and legends of a group), reasoned
logical inferences (if group a lived under similar conditions to group b, they likely performed the
same or similar physical activities), or anonymous sources to help understand history.
Source data are then examined with critical thinking skills, using external and internal
critical review. External criticism uses methods to establish the validity of a source of data.
For example, the researcher examines the language of a document to determine whether it is
consistent with the language usage of other known examples of historical evidence from the
time it was purportedly written. Internal criticism follows, in which the researcher looks for
meaning and accuracy within the document or other data source. Internal criticism seeks to
find the meaning of a piece of historical evidence. For example, if we determine that a skeleton
(human remains) is indeed from the second century BC (using external criticism), we may use
understanding of bone responses to muscular stresses to determine whether the remains are
from a person who was of a nomadic culture and who walked great distances carrying heavy
loads. Drawing that meaning from the remains is an example of internal criticism.
Synthesis of source information may also be an important step in research. If we also found
relics of baskets near the skeleton, we could use the combination of evidence to give greater
accuracy to our understanding of the physical activity of the people whose remains are left
behind, even if there is no written documentation of their lives and culture. Sometimes teams of
researchers collaborate to contribute to a synthesis of understanding.
For an undergraduate studying the history of physical education, source data will most likely
come from online or library research. Students need to pay particular attention to the quality of
online sources, because they are not all equally valid. Request the advice of a librarian to help find
the most credible research materials. The librarian can help to educate you toward becoming a
more knowledgeable researcher by steering you toward sources such as peer-reviewed journals,
high-quality newspapers, and places on the Internet that have been investigated for quality
of content. A librarian would also be likely to know whether there are archival materials or
ephemera on campus that can be accessed for scholarly purposes.
KNOWING WHAT GUIDES OUR CHOICES: PHILOSOPHY

You may not realize it, but you have a philosophy that informs your life choices and behavior.
Does that make you a philosopher? Not necessarily. A philosopher is a lover of wisdom,

according to the ancient Greek roots of the word, but the term carries broader implications of
intellectual curiosity, desire to learn, and willingness to examine questions from multiple angles.
Philosophers like to ponder things in depth, sometimes seeking “truth,” other times enjoying the
mental exercise of considering alternative explanations of things without arriving at a definitive
answer.
In a world in which memorization, teaching toward standardized testing situations, and
avoidance of ambiguity are prized, the study of philosophy does not come easily to students
intent on learning the “right” answer to a question in order to ace exams, earn high marks in
a class, and achieve the validation of a college degree that can lead to profitable employment.
And yet, if college is not the place to question and probe concepts of truth and reality while
engaging in critical thinking and respectful debate, where can we go to learn those skills and
practice them? Many people turn to social media for a weaker form of philosophical debate,
but you are (hopefully) aware of the limitations of those platforms when it comes to serious
scholarly exchanges. College is about expanding your mind and your thinking abilities, giving
you endless opportunities for social interactions that range from late-night dorm talks about
everything from the relative merits of various forms of corn chips to the question of whether
football is really just simulated warfare. The topics are ultimately not important; the value of
these conversations lies in the practice of social interaction (face-to-face actual conversations
without the use of cell phones), learning to disagree without being disagreeable, developing
the courage of your convictions, and learning to communicate with other human beings. In
other words, you grow to understand what you value, why it matters to you, and whether your
opinions might change with experience and education. Philosophy becomes part of you, one
way or another.
In the course of these discussions, you realize that everyone has opinions. Opinions are
personal in nature. They do not need to be grounded in facts, and in a free society, individuals
may express their opinions (or not) as they wish. They are different from phenomena and facts,
which are grounded in observable reality. Facts may be grouped into theories: for example, facts
about the effects of weight training, observed through legitimate scholarly research, may coalesce
around theories concerning weight training effectiveness in general. Different research results
may lead to different theories, whether over time or simultaneously. Therefore, the realm of
meta-theories exists, in which different theories may be compared to each other. In discussions
of an academic and scholarly nature, as in research papers, opinions are valued below facts and
evidence. It doesn’t mean that opinions are bad or worthless—it merely means that they cannot
be proven.
meta-theoretical consideration of relevant theories

theory or theories about fact or observable phenomenon
evaluation of fact or observable phenomenon
fact and/or observable phenomenon
opinions
Figure 1.1 Inspired by Ecker & Kaelin (1972), this hierarchy moves opinion out of the
realm of historical and philosophical evaluation.
How do we discern facts from opinions, and how do we group facts to form theories? We can
describe experiences, using descriptive reasoning. Or we may start from a theory or hypothesis
and look for facts or research to support it, using deductive reasoning. Finally, we may collect

facts and research first, then use inductive reasoning to gain understanding and form theories
(Kretchmar, 2011). We may even use abductive reasoning, in which several possible hypotheses
are examined to explain phenomena, and we use logic to select the most likely hypothesis
(Thagard & Shelley, 1997).
Assuming that we are not brains being kept in tanks merely imagining we are participating
in physical activities, we can generally accept the reality of the world in which we live, gaining
information via our senses and input from other people when our own experience falls short.
We can accept Isaac Newton’s laws of physics in baseball because we can see evidence of them,
and we can consider other possibilities in the realm of physics using mathematics and abstract
thinking. Yet there is always the possibility that we are a collection of brains in tanks. Can
we ever know for sure? That branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of reality is called
metaphysics. It lies beyond our physical understanding and calls for speculative reasoning
about things that are important and meaningful to us as humans, but ultimately impossible
to prove.
In addition to metaphysics, philosophers in physical education and sport also study
axiology, or the value of things. During the late 19th century, there was no common nationwide
understanding of how physical education should be taught in schools in the United States.
Different methods and ideas about physical education competed for dominance in what came
to be known as the Battle of the Systems as educators compared the relative advantages and
disadvantages of each system and assessed the value of each for the development of healthy
children. In order to determine whether the use of conditioning machines of Harvard’s Dudley
Sargent was more valuable than was the system of training using pommel horses, horizontal bars,
hanging rings, and parallel bars that came out of the German gymnastics system, axiological
discussions took place at conferences and through scholarly writings.
Meanwhile, debates about the nature of learning, or epistemology, continued as physical
educators considered questions of human development and educational theories as they applied
to the health and physical development of students in grade schools and beyond. Motor learning
and learned behaviors form an important part of kinesiology. Searching for the best ways to raise
a physically educated person involved significant exploration of this branch of philosophy.
Ethics is the study of what is good or best to do, what we owe to our fellow humans, and what
principles should guide our personal and professional lives. Nearly all professional associations
have a code of ethics to help professionals understand their professional obligations under the
philosophy of the organization.
Another branch of philosophy deals with the study of beauty, known as aesthetics. The
study of aesthetics can inform how we perceive the human body in motion. Some sports are
scored, at least in part, by the artistry of the athlete. Ice skating and ice dancing, bodybuilding,
women’s gymnastics, women’s rhythmic gymnastics, and synchronized swimming are examples.
However, gaining an appreciation of the body in motion can lead to aesthetic appreciation of any
athlete or sport.
As you were reading about these different branches of philosophy, you may have found
yourself thinking about your own experiences and feelings about each. If so, you are beginning to
make connections between philosophical studies and the personal, subjective, lived experiences
you have as a potential philosopher. Later chapters in this text will help you deepen your
understanding of your personal philosophy, which may mirror that of established philosophers,
or combine different philosophies, or possibly find something unique about your place in—and
your way of understanding—the world of kinesiology.

WHAT WE THINK WE KNOW: PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT
HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY IN THE EARLY 21ST CENTURY
Most of your courses in your college major, whether it involves exercise science or physical
education, will focus on current knowledge, past and ongoing research, and experiential
activities. In addition to learning about exercise prescription, conditioning, exercise physiology,
and many more relevant topics, you will learn about broad concepts that are currently agreed
upon by members of the professional community. For example, current physical education
theory acknowledges three overall domains of skills acquired through physical education.
Educational theory currently holds that the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective goals of
education (sometimes known as Bloom’s Taxonomy) encompass the desired outcomes students
can hope or expect to achieve through physical education (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, &
Krathwohl, 1956; Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
• Psychomotor skills are motor skills that can be learned and practiced, such as dribbling a
soccer ball or serving a tennis ball.
• Cognitive skills are knowledge about physical activity, such as rules of games, theories in
coaching, or understanding the biomechanics of diving.
• Affective skills are comprised of subjective experiences such as the ability to rebound from a
slump using positive self-talk, feelings associated with sport participation and spectatorship,
and moral values such as a sense of fair play, good or bad sportsmanship, the ability to
cooperate with others, and team loyalty.
As you will learn in subsequent chapters, the combination of psychomotor, cognitive,

and affective domains combine in a holistic way and are reflected throughout history. People
sometimes refer to these areas as knowledge, skills, and attitude. The goal of development of all
three areas is reflected in the ancient Greek notion of aretē, through the Renaissance ideal man,
and later, the early YMCA triangular emblem linking mind, body, and spirit.
You may learn about the use of fitness testing
for K–12 education, for example. Maybe you
wonder why we use the tests we use and who sets
SPIRIT the standards. Later in this book, you will learn
about fitness testing conducted on students in
the United States, when it began, and why it was
done. Currently, many schools use an instrument
DY
MI
known as FitnessGram® for assessment and

N
BO
communication with students and parents about

D
each individual’s strengths and weaknesses in:
• aerobic capacity,
• body composition,
• muscular strength,
• muscular endurance, and
Figure 1.2 An early logo of the YMCA, showing the • flexibility.
ideal balance between body, mind, and spirit.

It can be used in conjunction with ActivityGram®, in which students record their own activity
levels (the Cooper Institute, 2014).
This testing instrument did not come about easily. It took more than 30 years and the
involvement of many groups, including the Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research (founded
by Dr. Kenneth Cooper, a leading proponent of aerobic exercise), the American Alliance for
Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD, now the Society of Health and
Physical Educators (SHAPE America)), the President’s Council on Fitness, Sports and Nutrition,
the Campbell’s Soup Company Institute for Health and Fitness, the Amateur Athletic Union
(AAU), Prudential Insurance Company, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and various
other groups, subgroups, and councils. Many meetings, discussions, and revisions were needed
to come to agreements about the philosophy, form, structure, usage, type of standards, and
control of the process.
Finally, the President’s Youth Fitness Program began to use FitnessGram® in the United States
in September 2012 with the Cooper International Youth Fitness Test (the international version
of FitnessGram®, renamed to avoid confusion over the use of the word gram, an international
unit of measurement) beginning in China in 2010. To serve students with disabilities, in 1999
the State University of New York at Brockport released the Brockport Physical Fitness Exam,
a health-based (rather than skill-based) assessment that is now used in conjunction with
FitnessGram®/ActivityGram® in schools (Plowman & Meredith, 2013).
The US government has an interest in partnering with nongovernmental organizations to
collect health and fitness data on the entire population, including and going beyond the K–12
educational realm. Resources are allocated to many federal, state, and local initiatives, but one
of the online resources you should know about is HealthyPeople.gov. Every 10 years, the Office
of Disease Prevention and Health Controls compiles the latest data on the nation’s health and
fitness and issues reports, which are available online for public information and education. Data,
resources, lessons, program planning tools, legal information, webinars, and recommendations
concerning current best practices are all available based on the most recent research. It is a
valuable collection of information for use in preparing research, presentations, grants, and
advocacy materials throughout your academic and professional career.
BECOMING A PROFESSIONAL: WHAT DOES THIS DO FOR ME?

Understanding the relationship between physical education history and philosophy and
public policy will help you and your colleagues advocate for physical education and sports
when speaking with clients, parents, and public officials. The American Kinesiology
Association (2018) includes physical education and sport history and philosophy as essential
components of its core subject areas for undergraduate kinesiology studies. Even with all the
information available, many people do not understand the importance of lifelong physical
activity for health and fitness. Your expertise and ability to formulate and answer questions
(or know where to turn for answers) as well as your ability to perceive relationships among
different disciplines and subdisciplines in kinesiology will make you a valuable resource in
your community.
You will also have a responsibility to your profession to see that standards are upheld. You
will need to read, possibly write, and have the skills to assess the worth of research and journal
articles. Knowing what has been tried before and understanding the philosophical underpinnings

of current and historical developments will help you to work with others as your profession
advances in the future. You can work more efficiently and productively, knowing why you work,
teach, guide, and coach the way you do. Your ideas for innovations can be more informed, drawn
from evidence-based research and theory and framed by philosophy.
You will be expected to participate in professional service at some level throughout your
career. Your work may be at the local level, helping to get a new swimming pool for the
community, starting or running a local amateur sports league, or writing letters to the editor of
the local paper. You may become involved at the state or regional level, advocating for funding
for physical education, coordinating an old-time baseball league, or working with statewide
sports organizations. You might even become a national leader, setting standards for physical
education, writing for publication, or serving as an officer in a national physical education
organization.
A deep respect for your profession, grounded in an appreciation for the past and an eye
toward the future, will help you inspire respect and appreciation in others in these and all your
other professional activities. Your life’s work can be more than a job: it can be a calling or a
mission of excellence. Like it or not, you are and you will become part of history. The extent of
your impact and your contributions to your profession are up to you and will be an outgrowth of
your philosophy and understanding of history.
SUMMARY
Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding
Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those
questions.
• Studying the history and philosophy of physical education and sport are essential to your
comprehensive scholarly preparation for a professional career in kinesiology, physical
education, or related professions.
• Historical study involves research into primary and secondary sources and assessment of
sources using a variety of methodologies.
• The main branches of philosophy studied in kinesiology are metaphysics, epistemology,
axiology, ethics, and aesthetics.
• Currently, physical education encompasses skills gained in the psychomotor, cognitive, and
affective domains.
• Fitness testing is widely practiced in the United States to help individuals understand the
importance of physical activity, and groups of professionals can work together to develop
measures based on experience and theoretical understanding.
• The US government works with nongovernmental agencies to collect historical and current
data and resources for research in physical activity, which is made available to the public at
HealthyPeople.gov.
• A professional needs a deep understanding of the historical and philosophical developments
that have led to today’s standards and practices of physical education and sport, and must
continue to learn about and share information in order to advance learning and public
awareness of the profession.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students
may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time
period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and
resources provided or other research.
1. Bloom’s Taxonomy Visualized (Visual): Using Bloom’s Taxonomy, categorize the

psychomotor, cognitive, and affective objectives you would want to achieve if teaching or
learning about a particular sport or dance form. For example, if you choose roller derby, a
psychomotor skill objective would be the ability to skate, a cognitive objective would be
knowing the rules of the sport, and an affective objective would be gaining confidence.
Name at least three different objectives for each of the categories in the taxonomy for
whichever sport or dance form you choose and create a diagram or visual representation
showing how they relate to each other.
2. Current Public Policy Initiatives in Physical Education and Health (Research): Visit the
website HealthyPeople.gov and click on the Healthy People in Action tab near the top of
the screen. On the next page, click on the State Plans on the left of the screen. Then
choose a state and research the public policy initiatives that are in the state’s plan. Do they
include plans to combat metabolic diseases such as diabetes? Are there plans to combat
obesity, suicide, and/or cardiovascular diseases? Find a link on the state plan page to
obtain information on progress toward achieving the initiatives, based on the most recent
research available. Create a PowerPoint presentation to explain the current state plan AND
the progress made so far in reaching the goals outlined in the state plan.
3. The Kraus-Weber (K-W) Minimum Test (Kinesthetic): During the 1940s and 1950s,
well before FitnessGram® was created, Dr. Hans Kraus and Dr. Sonja Weber developed a
physical fitness test that could be quickly and easily administered in schools to determine
fitness levels in children. The results of studies by Kraus and Prudden (Knuttgen, 1961)
indicated a failure rate of over 50% in American children. Carefully read a description of
each of the six parts of the test, including any precautionary advisories, at https://www.
topendsports.com/testing/kraus-weber.htm and work in groups to try it on volunteers from
the class. Can anyone pass? You will need a timekeeper and someone to record the results.
4. Meet the Librarian (Outreach): One of the greatest assets on campus is the library.
Sometimes certain librarians are designated as research specialists for different areas
of study, while other institutions may have more generalists on hand to help students.
Working with the library, arrange for a class meeting on-site at the library to learn about
finding the best online resources for academic research, discover what the library has to
offer in terms of periodicals and book collections and how to research using them. Find out
if there are historical archives at the library that might have information about your school’s
sports, physical education, and dance history. What kind of help can the library offer to
make student research papers go far, far beyond Wiki sources and online encyclopedia
research (also, how might those resources help students get started with research topics)?

FIGURE CREDIT
Fig. 1.2: Source: https://www.logaster.com/blog/ymca-logo/.
REFERENCES
American Kinesiology Association. (2018). Section one: The AKA undergraduate core elements.
Retrieved from http://americankinesiology.org/SubPages/Pages/Undergraduate%20Core%20
Elements
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing:
A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, NY: Longman.
Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational
objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York,
NY/Toronto, Canada: Longmans, Green.
Cooper Institute, The. (2014). Health-related Fitness Components. Retrieved from http://www.
cooperinstitute.org/fitnessgram/components
Ecker, D. W., & Kaelin, E. F. (1972). The limits of aesthetic inquiry: A guide to educational
research. In Philosophical redirection of educational research (L. G. Thomas, Ed.), pp. 258–286.
Seventy-First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicago,
IL: National Society for the Study of Education.
Kirk, D. (1992). Curriculum history in physical education. In Research in physical education
and sport: Exploring alternative visions (A. C. Sparkes, Ed.). London, England: Falmer Press,
pp. 210–230.
Knuttgen, H. G. (1961). Comparison of fitness of Danish and American school children. Research
Quarterly, 32(2), 190–196.
Kretchmar, R. S. (2011). Philosophic research in physical activity. In Research methods in physical
activity (6th ed.) (J. R. Thomas, J. K. Nelson, & S. J. Silverman, Eds.). Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics, pp. 235–251.
Office of Disease Prevention and Health Controls (2014, updated 2018). Healthy People 2020.
Retrieved from https://www.healthypeople.gov
Plowman, S. A., & Meredith, M. D. (2013). Fitnessgram/Activitygram Reference Guide (4th ed.).
Dallas, TX: The Cooper Institute: https://www.cooperinstitute.org/vault/2440/web/files/662.
pdf
Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America), Fitness Assessment Task Force.
(2017). Appropriate and inappropriate practices related to fitness testing. Retrieved from
https://www.shapeamerica.org/advocacy/positionstatements/pe/upload/Appropriate-and-
Inappropriate-Uses-of-Fitness-Testing-FINAL-3-6-17.pdf
Struna, N. L. (2011). Historical research in physical activity. In Research Methods in Physical
Activity (6th ed.) (J. R. Thomas, J. K. Nelson, & S. J. Silverman, Eds.). Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics, pp. 217–233.
Thagard, P., & Shelley, C. (1997). Abductive reasoning: Logic, visual thinking, and coherence.
Retrieved from http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/Articles/Pages/Abductive.html
Winnick, J., & Short, F. (2014). The Brockport Physical Fitness Test Manual (2nd ed.). Retrieved
from https://www.pyfp.org/doc/brockport/brockport-ch1.pdf

C H APTER 2
THE DAWN OF SPORT

• How can we know where sports come
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and from?
• What sources can we use to learn about
Primary source: historical reference serving as a first-person
account prehistoric sport?
Secondary source: historical resource not based on • Using reasoning and different forms of
first-person accounts, may include journal articles and
research, what could we surmise about
reference materials
prehistoric sport and physical education?
Deductive reasoning: starting from a major hypothesis and
examining phenomena to determine the validity of the • What do we know about the tools of
hypothesis
ancient hunters?
Inductive reasoning: observing individual instances that lead
to a generalization • How did physical activity change with
Logical (abductive) reasoning: examining different the transition to agrarian societies?
hypotheses and selecting the best logical choice to explain
phenomena • Did prehistoric physical activity have
Imitative magic: performing any ritual or dance in which expressive, spiritual, and ritualistic
activities (hunts, for example) are acted out with the
aspects?
desired outcome
Visualization: imagining a desired outcome (from a battle, for
example)
Bioarchaeology: the study of human remains in archaeology;
the study of ancient lifestyles
Osteoarchaeology: the study of human skeletal remains
Musculoskeletal stress marker (MSM): evidence of a bone’s
response to the stresses placed upon it by muscles
exerting repeated forces
Paleopathology: the study of ancient diseases

Archaeobotany: also known as paleoethnobotany, the
INTRODUCTION: HOW CAN WE KNOW study of plant remains at archeological sites, also
WHERE SPORTS COME FROM? the study of ancient plants and their cultivation
Symbolic Hunt Theory: Carroll’s (2000) theory that all
sports derive from hunting activities
Where do sports come from, and who originally taught
them? In this chapter, you will learn about the earliest Dance ethnology (also known as Dance
origins of sport, physical education, and physical activity anthropology or Ethnochoreology): the study of
related to sport. In order to develop a comprehensive dance and its place in society and culture
understanding of the history of this domain, we cannot
rely on primary source literature for information.
Instead, we must use inductive reasoning based on
artifacts from prehistory as well as deductive reasoning
based on the history we know from the earliest
documentation of the subject. Secondary sources also
inform our understanding.
As we learned in the previous chapter, using this kind
of logical (or abductive) reasoning is both an exercise
in historical research and a gateway to comprehending
why certain sports were taught, played, and valued
in ancient societies. This is important because the
study of prehistory demands that we use the creative
and imaginative parts of our brains to develop logical
frameworks of understanding in cases where the
information is not given to us directly.
The Dawn of Sport 15

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SURVIVAL
Human beings have some basic physical needs: food, shelter, defense, and regulation of their
body temperature, especially in cold climates. While humans have been evolving for about
7 million years, for most of that time, they were hunters and gatherers, living nomadic lives
following animal migrations for food sources, taking shelter in caves or natural formations, and
using animal skins to stay warm. Their lives were active out of necessity: without domesticated
animals or crops for food, their existence depended on travel by foot to hunt and to gather
vegetation on a seasonal basis.
Humans are not naturally equipped to defend themselves against predators, and hand-to-
claw combat odds did not favor humans. Additionally, many prey were too swift for hunters and
needed to be tricked, trapped, and taken down with tools and devices such as hunting projectiles,
which could even the odds between hunter and prey.
How do we know what activities were performed by our early ancestors? Our inductive
reasoning on this topic starts with examining the artifacts they left behind. We can study their
tools. We can study the cave paintings of hunts and warfare. We can use deductive reasoning
based on their living conditions and locations. For example, we can deduce that people who lived
by water and used waterways to travel must have been able to fashion and propel their watercraft.
Furthermore, using a form of bioarchaeology called osteoarchaeology, we can study the
bones of people from the area to determine what muscles were used most frequently. Research
might show musculoskeletal stress markers (MSMs): skeletal evidence of more upper body
usage for rowing versus lower body for those who primarily traveled by land, for example
(Lieverse, Stock, Katzenberg, & Haverkort, 2011; Molnar, 2005). We know from studying
MSMs that women, not men, traditionally carried children and knelt to prepare grains for meals
(Weiss, 2017).
While not all bioarchaeologists are in agreement as to the accuracy and validity of all skeletal
activity markers, the activities of squatting, sitting cross-legged, carrying goods in various ways,
prolonged walking, running, and picking have all shown MSMs. Other early physical activities
are indicated by a mixture of MSMs and reasoning, including tool manufacture and repair,
processing animals for various uses, and making and breaking temporary camps (Weiss, 2017).
Beyond rocks, which have some usefulness in hunting and preparing food, Stone Age hunters
used three main projectiles: the spear, the atlatl, and the bow and arrow (Rhodes, 2013). The
spear could function as a defensive weapon, as a hand-held attack weapon, and as a projectile.
It could hold off predators and also attack prey and rival hunting parties. Easily formed from
relatively lightweight wood, it was portable and replaceable. Evidence of spears dating from as
long as 780,000 years ago has been found (Rhodes, 2013).
The atlatl is a hollowed-out dart thrower, which can be used with feathered darts of different
sizes to increase the range and thrust power of the projectile by as much as 60%. This type of
innovation allowed the hunter to attack prey from a greater distance. Longer darts were more
powerful, but shorter ones were more accurate. Atlatls have been found all over the world, and
continue to be used by indigenous peoples of South America (Rhodes, 2013).
Bows and arrows have been used for at least 64,000 years and appear to have been first used
in Europe around 12,000 years ago (Rhodes, 2013). Bows were traditionally made of wood, bone,
and animal horns. The process of curing and crafting a bow could take months. On the North
American continent, the Shoshoni sometimes used white cedar (juniper) wood with sinew glued
to the back to strengthen the bows and improve their performance, but sometimes also made

bows out of mountain sheep horn and sinew
(Frison, 2004). Other groups used elk antlers,
yew, ash, osage orange, and other woods,
depending on what was available.
Beyond their use as a weapon for warfare
and hunting, bows could even be used to dig and
kill rodents (Frison, 2004). Most bows would
not stand up to the strain of that type of use for
long, however. The examples seen in museums
indicate that age and inferior materials used in
construction would tend to limit the lifespan
of a bow, just as weathering and water could
damage the sinew that formed the string.
Arrows could be various lengths, up to 6 feet
in some South American cases (Rhodes, 2013).
Willow was one of the better woods for arrows,
due to its lightness and flexibility. Arrows were
fletched with feathers to improve accuracy, and
arrowheads were crafted from stone, using fine
motor skills for precise flaking.
It is unlikely that a formal system of hunting
instruction was used. Rather, a child (most often
Figure 2.1 Australian hunter using an atlatl.
a boy) learning to hunt would probably imitate
his elders in dances mimicking hunting and
would play games with other children in which hunting skills were developed through practice.
A child’s first experience hunting with adults would likely form a significant rite of passage. It
would also help to prepare warriors to defend their hunting territories and their clans.
Along with imitation of experienced hunters, a child would have learned to study the animals
closely, learning the behaviors of each type of animal in such a way that stalking them became
just as important to the success of their hunt as their weaponry (Frison, 2004). The observations
would also have become part of ritualistic hunting dances in which imitative magic depicting
both hunter and prey would have been thought to increase the chances of successful hunts
through positive visualization.
SPORTS AND HUNTER-GATHERER SOCIETIES

One popular theory of sport history is Carroll’s (2000) Symbolic Hunt Theory. This theory
contends that all sports derive from hunting activities. Since all humans are logically descended
from hunters who were successful, humans have an innate urge to compete. Sports may even be
seen as symbolic warfare, in which warring groups resolve disputes over territory using more or
less regulated parameters. In other words, sports are a distilled version of violent life.
However, at a more basic level, we can see that developing the skills of hunting and warfare
through games is a natural way to keep warriors skilled and ready, to train young warriors, and
to satisfy disputes among individuals and groups while preventing bloodshed in societies where

Figure 2.2 Indigenous people performing a buffalo-hunting dance.
interpersonal cooperation was essential to survival. Here are some of the activities that we can
attribute to the dawn of sports:
• Running
• Jumping
• Climbing
• Swimming
• Throwing (spear, rock)
• Archery
• Diving
• Boating
• Wrestling/unarmed fighting
• Stick fighting
• Fishing
• Hunting
Agricultural societies developed as the Paleolithic Ice Age transitioned into the Holocene
Epoch, some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago (Bagley, 2013). The domestication of animals and the
cultivation of crops led to different physical challenges, including less movement, more carb-heavy
diets, and infections (Pinhasi & Stock, 2011; Cohen & Armelagos, 2004) possibly due, in part, to
unsanitary living conditions in close proximity to other humans and animals for long periods
of time. The study of health and disease in prehistoric cultures (paleopathology) and the study

of ancient lifestyles (bioarchaeology) indicates that humans gradually became physically smaller
during the transition to farming societies (Cohen & Armelagos, 2004; Larsen, 1982, 1984, 2011).
As the Stone Age transitioned into the Iron Age, different physical activities supplemented
hunting. Archaeobotany, the study of ancient plants and their cultivation, reveals that the tasks
of cutting, picking, flinging, cleaning, pouring, trampling, and beating were all essential to
processing grains (Viklund, 1998). While these activities were present in earlier hunter-gatherer
societies, their importance to agricultural societies called for a different emphasis on physical
activity. The cardiovascular endurance required of long hunts gave way to a modified endurance
of performing agricultural labors from sunup to sundown. The activities were still rigorous,
requiring strength and speed, but the specialization of training for such activities depended on
the part one played in the life of a farming village.
SPORTS AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES

With the pressure of constant hunting for survival somewhat alleviated by the development of
agriculture, does the Symbolic Hunt Theory of sport still hold? Yes and no. First, the deep-seated
human desire for movement, challenge, and conquest could still find an outlet in all of the activities
that the first humans needed for subsistence. On the other hand, new activities, the presence of
domesticated livestock, and the skillful use of new tools gave agrarian societies new possibilities for
variations on the sports derived from the hunting and gathering societies. Here are some examples:
• Riding horseback
• Archery from horseback
• Throwing from horseback
• Fighting bulls
• Throwing hammers
• Throwing trees
• Lifting, carrying, or dragging heavy objects
• Throwing sharp tools
• Kicking and throwing round objects such as fruits and vegetables
• Hitting round objects with sticks
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SELF-EXPRESSION

As we will see, the history of sport and physical education very often involves imagination
and creativity. Without the element of the unexpected or the ability to infuse activity with
one’s personality or expressive energy, sports would quickly become rote activity, tedious and
unattractive for participants and spectators. Two examples of expressive physical activity include
dance and ritual, which sometimes overlap.
As mentioned above, in preparation for a hunt or in celebration of a successful hunt, dancers
would perform dances in which the hunt was pantomimed. Similar dances to influence deities
to favor one side in an upcoming battle, and rejoicing after winning a battle, were also part of the
early sport experience. A heroic warrior or hunter could display strength and prowess through
the dance, expressing pride or gratitude, for example.

Women could be part of the dances of celebration, mourning, fertility, and harvest, contributing
a balance of female energy, strength, and skill. Of course, different cultures developed different
roles for women and different divisions of labor and power. Nevertheless, the female principle
was essential for reproduction, and dance could be an exciting component of courtship and
means of sexual expression for all.
From the earliest times, communal dances solidified group identity and guided expectations
of behavior within the group. Dance ethnologists (also known as ethnochoreologists and
dance anthropologists) have discovered patterns of movement related to geography. Broadly
generalized, they have observed swaying, gliding movements associated with the traditional
dances of groups living near warm seashores, and more energetic, jumping and hopping dances
associated with those living in cooler, mountainous regions. Beyond hunting, warfare, and
courtship, dance could be seen as expressive through the dancers’ imitation of natural phenomena
such as waves, wind in the trees, birds, lightning, fire, and insects. Over time, they incorporated
the use of sticks, noisemakers such as rattles, and rhythms of drums and other instruments.
Ritual dances such as those performed to bring rain or to appease deities were important
tools to help maintain peace and inspire hope in societies struggling with drought or misfortune.
Rulers and shamans could use dance to reinforce order within groups by affirming their power
and their connection to the deities. Intragroup status could be demonstrated by different roles
within the ritual: who were the leaders and who were the followers? Who had secret knowledge
of special roles within the ritual? Who would be chosen to become the embodiment of a deity?
All of these questions could provide the security of knowing one’s place in a culture and knowing
what societal expectations one needed to fulfill.
If dance could serve ritualistic purposes, could sports do so as well? We will learn the answer
to that question throughout this textbook.
SUMMARY
Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions.
Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions.
• We can use a combination of inductive, deductive, and abductive reasoning to learn about
prehistoric sports and physical education.
• Other sources we can use to learn about prehistorical physical activity include bioarchaeology,
osteoarchaeology, paleopathology, archaeobotany, and prehistoric cave art.
• Using reasoning and different forms of research, we could surmise that prehistoric sport
derived from survival skills such as hunting and warfare, and the physical education of
youth was likely informally imitative of activities of elder members of a group rather than
formal in special facilities.
• Based on archaeological evidence, the tools of ancient hunters included rocks, spears, atlatls,
bows and arrows, and fighting sticks. Boats were used for transportation, in addition to
walking and running.
• Physical activity changed with the transition to agrarian societies because of the domestication
of horses and other animals and the need for different types of work to plant, harvest, and
process plants.
• Prehistoric physical activity—especially dance—had expressive, spiritual, and ritualistic aspects.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. The Lascaux Cave Paintings (Visual): In southwestern France, a cave was discovered in
1940 with artwork depicting animals and hunting. Visit http://archeologie.culture.fr/lascaux/
en and follow the guided tour to take a virtual trip through the cave. Notice the way the
artist(s) used the contours of the rock wall to enhance the paintings. What kinds of animals
are depicted? What kinds of hunting weapons were used? How might you classify this
form of archaeological evidence? Visit the rest of the website for interpretations of the
paintings and much more.
2. Ceremonial and Ritual Dance (Research): Some ancient societies have passed down
ritual dances to the present. Research online, or in the library with the help of a librarian,
to find a ritual dance that has been preserved and is still performed. What is the meaning
of the dance? What does it tell us about the culture from which it comes? Who is allowed
to perform it, and who is allowed to observe it? Why do you think it has survived to the
present day?
3. Prehistoric Video Survival Games (Experiential): If you like video games, try out Madruga
Works’ Dawn of Man, set in 12,000 BCE, Mountainwheel Games’ Stone Rage, set in the
Pleistocene Era, or other video games with prehistoric settings. Does playing these types
of games give you insight into the physical activities of prehistoric peoples? Do they help
you understand Carroll’s Symbolic Hunt Theory in any way?
4. Museum Visit (Outreach): If there is a museum of natural history or ancient cultures

nearby, arrange to visit to see actual hunting weapons and displays. Sometimes even local
historical societies or antique shops have collections of arrowheads and similar objects.
FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 2.1: Source: https://www.loc.gov/item/2005681022/.
Fig. 2.2: Source: https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47da-dbee-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99.
REFERENCES
Bagley, M. (2013, March 27). Holocene epoch: The age of man. Retrieved from https://www.
livescience.com/28219-holocene-epoch.html

Carroll, D. M. (2000). An interdisciplinary study of sport as a symbolic hunt: A theory of the origin
and nature of sport based on paleolithic hunting. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press.
Cohen, M. N., & Armelagos, G. J. (Eds.) (1984). Paleopathology at the origins of agriculture.
Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Frison, G. (2004). Survival by hunting: Prehistoric human predators and animal prey. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press.
Larsen, C. S. (1982). The anthropology of St. Catherines Island: 3. Prehistoric human biological
adaptation. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 57(pt. 3),
157–270.
Larsen, C. S. (1984). Health and disease in prehistoric Georgia: The transition to agriculture.
In M. N. Cohen & G. J. Armelagos (Eds.), Paleopathology at the origins of agriculture
(pp. 367–392). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Larsen, C. S. (2011). Interpreting the bioarchaeological record of the foraging-to-farming
transition. In R. Pinhasi & J. T. Stock (Eds.), Human bioarchaeology of the transition to
agriculture (pp. ix–xi). Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons.
Lieverse, A. R., Stock, J. T., Katzenberg, M. A., & Haverkort, C. M. (2011). The bioarchaeology
of habitual activity and dietary change in the Siberian middle Holocene. In R. Pinhasi & J. T.
Stock (Eds.), Human bioarchaeology of the transition to agriculture (pp. 265–292). Chichester,
England: John Wiley & Sons.
Molnar, P. (2005). Tracing prehistoric activities: Musculoskeletal stress marker analysis of a
Stone-Age population on the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. American Journal of Physical
Anthropology, 129(1), 12–23. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.20234
Pinhasi, R., & Stock, J. T. (Eds.). (2011). Human bioarchaeology of the transition to agriculture.
Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons.
Rhodes, H. (2013). Taking ownership of distance in the Stone Age with spear, atlatl, and archery:
Prehistoric weapon systems and the domination of distance. Comparative Civilizations
Review, 69(69), 45–53.
Viklund, K. (1998). Cereals, weeds and crop processing in Iron Age Sweden: Methodological and
interpretive aspects of archaeobotanical evidence. Umeå, Sweden: University of Umeå.
Weiss, E. (2017). Reading the bones: Activity, biology, and culture. Gainesville, FL: University
Press of Florida.

C H APTER 3
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME

Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter These questions will guide your reading
that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through and help you identify the main topics in
the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are the chapter.
in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context
• What kinds of sources are used for
and review the definition. This will enable you to read the
chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. research into ancient Greek and Roman
Greek ideal: a combination of fine qualities of mind, body, and culture, ideals, physical education,
spirit toward which ancient Greeks strove, in imitation of
their gods festivals, and dances?
Kalokagathia: ancient Greek ideal of physical beauty and • What qualities of body, mind, and spirit
psychological goodness
were expected of the ideal Greek citizen
Areteˉ: ancient Greek ideal of virtue, especially in actions
and/or athlete?
Agoˉn: gathering for a contest; also, the struggle
• Which cultures influenced the
Athlios: an athletic contest
competitive, ritual, and recreational
Herodikos: Greek physician, father of sports medicine, and
teacher of the physician Hippocrates games of ancient Greece and Rome?
Hoplites: Greek warriors • Which doctors of ancient Greece and
Agoge: school of physical education in Sparta Rome had the most influences on
Pankration/pancratium: highly prestigious mixed–martial art Western civilization’s views of health
combination of wrestling and boxing
fitness?
Paidonomos: in Sparta, the overseer and disciplinarian of an
agoge • How was physical education different
Palaestra: in Athens and later in Rome, a school of physical between ancient Sparta and Athens, and
education including wrestling and other sports
between ancient Greece and ancient
Paidotribe: owner of a palaestra; one of the first types of
physical educators Rome?
Gymnasia: plural of gymnasium, a gathering place for men to • Why were the Olympics and other
exercise, read, and hold discussions
ancient Greek and Roman games
Olympics: one of the Panhellenic sporting events held every
four years, at which men and boys from all over Greece important to sports history?
could compete for honors

• What types of dance were performed in ancient
Stade: footrace covering the length of a stadium,
Greece and Rome? approximately 200 yards
• Why were the Colosseum and the Circus Maximus Pentathlon: in ancient Greece, consisted of running,
throwing the discus, long jumping using hand
essential to ancient Roman culture? weights called halteres, throwing the javelin, and
pankration
Orchesis: Greek term for dance, especially tragic or
INTRODUCTION comic dance
Pyrrhicheˉ: Greek term for type of armored dance used
Near the beginning point in the study of the history
in military training
of physical education and sport, students are often
introduced to the earliest concepts of those topics via the Etruscan: ancient culture of what is now central and
study of practices followed in ancient Greece and Rome. northern Italy
There are several reasons for this line of inquiry. First, Game of Phersu: in this Etruscan dance, a male
academics in Western societies tend to turn to classical (guided by the disguised Phersu character) mimics
studies of Greece and Rome by tradition and habit, which the conquest of the death demon, Calu, and
reinforce a certain bias toward Western civilization. participates in gladiatorial combat with another
Second, we have a wealth of information from literature, man or with a dog
fine arts, and decorative arts on which to base our Game of Troy: Etruscan game in which horseback
understanding. Third, many of the ideas about physical riders followed a labyrinth and performed
education and athletics that have developed (particularly complicated maneuvers on horseback. The
in Europe, Australia, and North America) throughout the popularity of this game continued in ancient Rome,
centuries trace their development back to the classical era. under the Latin names Lusus Troiae, Ludus Troiae,
As you may imagine, limiting our study of physical and Ludicrum Troiae
education and sport to Mediterranean cultures can Campidoctores: teachers of combat skills in ancient
perpetuate a relatively narrow idea of the world of physical Rome
education. To an extent, the limitation is necessitated by Thermae: Roman baths, where rich and poor could
the time allotted to the typical postsecondary course in exercise, bathe, drink, read, and converse
history and philosophy: choices must be made, and the
status quo (doing what others have done before us) will Galen: Greek doctor whose influence was felt mainly
in Rome and later beyond, due to his writings and
generally prevail. However, there is room for a wider
teachings on hygiene and physical education
scope of study, and the next chapter delves into non-
Western sports history. Colosseum: originally known as the Flavian
It is true that we have millennia of research into Amphitheater, a stadium built during the Roman
Greek and Roman history from which to draw, and Empire to showcase athletic events such as
gladiator fights
many lifetimes have been devoted to research into their
Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 25

Circus Maximus: Roman track for
horse and mule racing, chariot treasures of visual arts, literature, and performing arts.
racing, and acrobatic/trick riding Our primary source materials for that era are abundant,
Gladiator: highly trained athlete and secondary sources continue to contribute to our
(often a slave), skilled in the use understanding and appreciation of ancient culture.
of weapons, who would fight to However, it is worth a word of caution when approaching
the death in arenas such as the the literature and arts as historical evidence.
Colosseum
Salii: type of Roman military dance
ANCIENT GREECE: CULTURE AND
IDEALS
For example, consider the Greek ideal in the concept

of kalokagathia. The word implies physical beauty
and psychological goodness (Petrochilos, 2002).
Reading Greek philosophers, we are tempted to
believe that kalokagathia and its closely related
term, aretē (virtue), were the basis of the physical
education systems of ancient Greece. While to some
extent these concepts were taught and encouraged,
we risk mistaking the advice of philosophers such as
Plato for actual educational practice (Jüthner, 1930;
Lämmer, 1992). According to Lämmer (1992), many
of the ideals imputed to ancient Greek athletes and
the ancient Olympic Games came from “nineteenth-
century graecophile, neo-Humanist scholars” (p. 111).
The reality of ancient history is likely far more complex
and shaded than those scholars made it out to be.
The concept of the Greek agōn (contest or struggle)
includes the participation of athletes and spectators
and carries a connotation of gathering, as opposed to
the word athlios, which refers to the actual athletic
struggle (Hawhee, 2004). However, while athletes
were expected to display aretē in their actions, the
crowds were sometimes less well-behaved, and armed
guards were used as security forces in stadiums and
along road races. Sometimes losing competitors were
attacked and even killed by irate fans, and there are
indications that alcohol was banned from the stadiums
to reduce the risk of drunken hooliganism among the
spectators (Lämmer, 1988).
It is true that many of the ideas and ideals put forth
by classical writers and artists have indeed influenced
the study of athletics and physical education in the
Western world, so that is a good reason to pursue
this examination of their educational systems and

physical culture. Always bearing in mind that different interpretations of the historical evidence
may lead to different conclusions by different scholars, we can at least attempt to grasp a basic
understanding of this important era in human history.
ANCIENT GREECE: PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PHYSICAL CULTURE

It is a mistake to think of ancient Greece as being only one culture with one way of thinking and
moving. One of the earliest Mediterranean cultural groups we will consider came from the island
of Crete, part of ancient Greece. The Minoan culture was most prevalent from roughly 3000–1200
BCE (Howell & Palmer, 1969, p. 8-1). Pottery and similar artifacts from that time show women
participating in gymnastics, games, and even bull-fighting (Forbes, 1929; Schröder, 1927). We
can see a pattern of physical activity maintained from prehistoric times in the sports activities of
ancient Greece, with some refinements in theatrical dance performance and martial arts refined
by technological shifts in metallurgy and understanding of physics and mathematics.
Minoan men took part in a wide range of physical activities, including
• fishing,
• hunting (lions, wild goats, deer, and wild boar) using a variety of weapons and snares,
• swimming,
• boxing,
• wrestling,
• archery,
• tumbling, and
• running.
They were also apparently fond of acrobatic displays, including bull-vaulting or bull-leaping,
in which they used the back, nose, and horns of bulls or oxen to perform daring stunts. Dances
and ritual dances were part of their lives, and they enjoyed juggling, pastimes such as dice or
knucklebone games, and board games (Howell & Palmer, 1969).
Figure 3.1 Bull-leaping fresco from the Great Palace at Knossos, Crete (Heraklion
Archaeological Museum), circa 17th–15th century BCE.

A related culture to the Minoans, from 1700 BCE the Aechaeans (Mycenaean culture)
achieved dominance up to around 1184 BCE with the invasion of Troy. From approximately
the 1100s BCE to 776 BCE (the date of the first Olympic Games), the Dorians were in charge
in southern Greece and Crete. That era is sometimes known as the Homeric era, named after
the epic poet Homer. His compositions, The Iliad and The Odyssey, contain some of the earliest
known records of competitive athletics in Greece (Lumpkin, 2014).
In The Iliad (XIII), written in the 8th century BCE, funeral games in honor of Patroclus
are held, in which competitors display good sportsmanship (Spears, 1977). For example, after
winning the boxing match, Epeius helped the loser to his feet. Achilles stopped the wrestling
match and declared both wrestlers winners and settled a dispute that occurred among spectators
at a chariot race (Homer, 800 BCE/1975). Other events at the funeral games of Patroclus were
boxing, running, an armored athletic contest, discus, archery, and javelin (Zeigler, 1988). In
Book VIII of The Odyssey, the Phaeacians welcome back Odysseus with games including discus
throwing, foot racing, boxing, and a bow and arrow game (Edgar, 2013).
Several centuries later, the notion of health-related fitness began to appear in ancient Greece.
Herodikos (5th century BCE), sometimes called the father of sports medicine, was said to have
been one of the first to use physical exercise for health-related fitness and therapy. He was the
teacher of Hippocrates (c. 450–380 BCE), the father of modern medicine, whose writings—
including the Hippocratic Oath—were probably compilations of a number of physicians of the
time. The writing, known as the Corpus Hippocraticum, subdivided exercise into natural, violent,
or progressive categories and indicated that each
season had its proper diet and exercise (Boylan,
n.d. b).
Once city-states such as Corinth, Athens, and
Sparta gained prominence, disputes over territory
and trade led to the Peloponnesian Wars in Greece
and the Persian War throughout the Aegean
area during the 5th century BCE. The need for
strong warriors with physical endurance and
athletic prowess as well as military strength and
strategic understanding drove the next phase of
Greek physical education. However, the different
cultures and values in different parts of ancient
Greece led to different educational methods.
SPARTA
In Sparta, the protection of the city-state drove

all aspects of the lives of its citizens, from birth
to death. Outside threats from other city-states
combined with internal threats from the large
and potentially dangerous serf class, known as
helots, to necessitate constant military readiness.
Figure 3.2 Greek discus thrower, based on a statue by Little personal freedom was allowed. Weak infants
Myron, circa 460–450 BCE. were left on Mount Taygetus to die of exposure or

attack by wild beasts. Boys and girls alike received separate training in gymnastics (physical
exercises), but Spartans were not encouraged to pursue visual arts or literature. Music was used
to accompany exercise, and dancing to improve rhythmic awareness in combat and exercise
was part of the state-run regimen (Forbes, 1929). Xenophon of Athens (c. 431 BCE–354 BCE),
a wealthy warrior from a family famed for its equestrian skills, praised the Spartan physical
education system for its success in creating warriors, or hoplites (Bucher, 1956).
All male citizens except the heir to the throne (though the historian Plutarch, c. 46 BCE–125
CE, tells us that he could choose to participate) were required to attend an agoge, or military
training school. There were different agoge for different economic levels, and illegitimate sons of
Spartan citizens could attend, as could foreigners who came to Sparta when they were children
(Forbes, 1929). The boys were taken from their homes at age seven and placed in groups of the
same age to live, eat, and train together.
Their lives were harsh. No beds were provided, so they gathered rushes from the river Eurotas
on which to sleep. Little food was provided. Instead of professional instructors, the boys learned
from eirens, the older boys in the agoge. Discipline was strict, and beatings were common.
Beginning at age 12, discipline became even stronger, with exercises adjusted to their ages.
Typical activities included wrestling, pankration
(Greek) (aka pancratium in Latin; this was a
combination of wrestling and boxing), jumping,
dance, running, javelin, discus, stone throwing,
marching, bareback riding, and hunting. Older
boys, aged 17 and over, were called “ball-players.”
The paidonomos was in charge of the agoge,
and he demanded obedience, with the added
incentive of flogging as necessary (Forbes, 1929).
The agogic system eventually fell out of favor
around the time of Aristotle (circa 350 BCE),
though attempts were made to revive it (Forbes,
1929).
In fact, at around age 18, some noble eirens
known as melleiren took part in a flogging rite
of passage known as diamastigosis at the altar of
Artemis Orthia. With their parents in attendance
to cheer for them, the youth were whipped until
they cried out or died. The one who showed
the most ability to withstand the pain earned
a lifetime of respect and the honorific title of
altar-conqueror (Forbes, 1929; McIntosh, Dixon,
Munrow, & Willetts, 1981). From the ages of
18–20, youth could be initiated into the krypteia,
or secret police, and sent on missions in and
around Sparta (Willetts, 1981).
Females trained in gymnastics, running,
climbing up nearby Mount Taygetus, javelin and
discus throwing, wrestling, horseback riding, and Figure 3.3 Fresco (painting on wet plaster) of young
dance in public in cohort groupings according boxers from Akrotiri, Greece, circa 1600–1500 BCE.

to age. In Plato’s Laws (Book VIII), he indicates that the girls would exercise in the nude and
suggests this training continued throughout the teen years until they reached the age of 18 or
later (up to 20 years of age) (Forbes, 1929; Plato, 360 BCE). After marriage or after they reached
adulthood, they continued to train, but in private.
ATHENS
In the 6th century and the first part of the 5th century BCE, physical culture and fitness played an
important part of life for noble Athenian males. The slaves and poor had limited access to formal
physical education, but manual labor and farming provided exercise for them. The wealthier
families enjoyed leisure time and a fondness for arts and beauty in this cradle of democracy.
Females did not receive public gymnastic training or formal schooling in Athens, but some
women were trained in dance ritual and performance, which will be discussed further in
this chapter. Pottery and ancient Greek literature indicate that males participated in various
sports and games. Sports included acrobatics, running (sprints and distance, the hoplite race,
and torch races), swimming, the pentathlon, jumping, discus, javelin, pankration, swinging,
seesaw, hunting, riding, fishing, dancing, and episkyros, a ball game with some similarities to
American football. Games such as rolling hoops, board games, mora (a hand guessing game),
ephidrismos (in which the object was for a blindfolded person to guess who hit him), and
ostrakinda (a dice game in which losers had to carry partners piggyback) were all popular
pastimes (Zeigler, 1988).
From approximately ages 6 to 18, upper-class males attended a music school to learn language
arts, mathematics, and music (Forbes, 1929). For their physical education, during those years
they first went to a wrestling school, at which gymnastics and other athletics like swimming
and various field sports and games were taught and practiced. This type of open-air school was
known as a palaestra, where boys were taught by a paidotribe (meaning “boy-rubber,” so called
because of the practice of covering the body with olive oil and dust or sand before exercise).
The word palaestra might refer to the name of a mythical daughter of the god Hermes, and
both of them presided over this type of school as deities of special importance to wrestlers.
Paidotribes usually owned their schools and thus were among the first entrepreneurial physical
fitness instructors known to Western civilization.
If a boy were wealthy enough, he would also study riding at a separate school under
polodamnes (riding instructors) (Forbes, 1929). Other specialist instructor categories included
the javelin teacher (akontistikos), the hoplomachos, who taught military dances and drills in
armor, and finally (more rarely seen in Athens), the toxotes, who taught archery (Forbes,
1929). Activities at the palaestra were performed in the nude to motivate development of
physical beauty, with exercises attuned to different ages. They were often accompanied by flute
music (Bucher, 1956).
To continue their physical education, after about age 14 to 16, boys went to gymnasia, where
more varieties of recreational physical training were offered. Hunting and chariot racing were
available. From ages 18–20, young men could attend ephebia, originally military training and
gymnastic academies. As time went on, literature and philosophy were added to the curriculum,
which tended to weaken the military emphasis considerably. Similarly, in early Athens, only
children who were born to parents who were both citizens were allowed to attend ephebia. Later,
foreigners were allowed to enroll (Forbes, 1929).

Figure 3.4 Greek amphora (type of vase) featuring a chariot racer, circa
550–540 BCE.
Alternatively, in Athens and throughout the Greek world, young men could join one of the
neoi, an association for 19 to 20 year olds. This type of group was not part of the educational
system. In it, youth became part of political associations, with some exercise and recreational
activities. One of their favorite sports was the diadrome, a sort of team-race (Willetts, 1981).
Gymnasia were open to men to continue their fitness training throughout their lifetimes.
The owner of a gymnasium (gymnasiarch) presided over an institution dedicated to a particular
deity. Major cities had more than one gymnasium. In Athens, for example, the Academy was
dedicated to Athena, the Lyceum honored Apollo, and the Kynosarges paid homage to Heracles
(Bucher, 1956). During the late Athenian period, from the victory over the Persians in 480 BCE
to the defeat at the hands of the Macedonians in 338 BCE, mercenaries replaced citizen-soldiers
and the appeal of gymnasiums was for the intellectual gatherings, rather than for the physical
training. The life of the mind and the pleasures of the flesh led to a shift in priorities of education,
though Lämmer (1992) argues that most military leaders, outstanding soldiers, and political
leaders still came from strong physical education backgrounds.
ANCIENT GREECE: SPORTING FESTIVALS

Throughout Greece, festivals in honor of deities celebrated physical culture and fitness in
competitions, in which Greeks vied for glory and prestige. Of these, the most famous were the
Olympic Games in honor of Zeus, held on Olympia (Mount Olympus, the traditional home of
the gods).
Beginning in 776 BCE and lasting until they were opposed for religious reasons in 393 CE by
the Christian Roman emperor Theodosius I (though some scholars (Drees, 1964; Howell & Howell,
1980) say they continued into the reign of Theodosius II), the Olympics were held every four
years in August and September. At first, women were not allowed to attend, men competed in the

nude, and the winners of the events won an olive wreath, respect, and honors in their home cities.
Only the victors were so crowned (Spears, 1977). Later, unmarried girls and the married Priestess
of Demeter could attend the Olympics as spectators (Scanlon, 2004). Zeigler (1988) and Bucher
(1956) have found that the Olympics mainly attracted competitors from the western Peloponnesus
during the first 50 years or so, after which the popularity of the event spread.
According to Bucher (1956, p. 189), there were a number of requirements concerning
participation:
1. Free men, and later boys, were allowed to compete

2. A perfect physique was essential, as the competition honored and strove to emulate godliness.
The ideal of kalokagathia required this, in addition to
3. Good moral character, in keeping with the Greek virtuous ideal of aretē
4. Training for 10 months before competition was required, and one month spent at Olympia
right before the games
5. Participants could have no criminal record
6. Athletes had to compete according to the rules (had to take an oath not to cheat, and a
competitor’s fathers, brothers, and trainers also had to swear)
7. If accepted, an athlete HAD to compete; physical unfitness was no excuse
To accommodate fans, dignitaries, and other athletes, an oblong stadium capable of holding
over 40,000 spectators was built, with posts at each end to mark running distances. For example, a
stade was a footrace of about 200 yards, from one end of the stadium to the other, and the diaulos
and hoplite (dressed in 50 pounds of armor) races were approximately 400 yards (Zeigler, 1988).
The dolichos race could be three-quarters of a mile to two and a quarter miles (Forbes, 1929).
Over the years, different types of events were added to the games, including competitions
in music and other arts. While most events featured individual athletes, evidence suggests that
there were also events such as horse races, chariot races, and a version of field hockey (Bucher,
1956; Spears, 1977; Zeigler, 1988). Boxing, introduced in 688 BCE, was an event on its own
as well as a component of the
pankration.
Another combination event
was the pentathlon, which in
ancient Greece consisted of
running a stade, long jumping
using weights held in each hand
(halteres), javelin, discus, and
pankration. Opinions on the
importance of the pentathlon
with respect to other events vary,
with one author (Lämmer, 1992)
arguing that literary evidence show
that the pentathlon was no more
important than any other event,
and that versatility in athleticism
Figure 3.5 Ancient Greek halteres, held in hands and used to increase long held no particular appeal for the
jump distance (National Archaeological Museum, Athens). Greeks.

The idea that the Olympics were a time for all Greeks to come together in admiration of
physical beauty and athletic skill led to the establishment of the Pax Olympica, or Ekecheiria,
a truce of several months’ time allowing freedom of passage for those traveling to attend the
games (Jokl, 1969). The Spartans dominated the Olympic Games between 720 and 576 BCE, but
eventually they and the Athenians lost interest, and other Greek colonies began to dominate the
event.
Meanwhile, other games and festivals took up about 70 days of each year (Willetts, 1981). The
Pythian games honored Apollo and were held at Delphi. The Nemean games were dedicated to
Zeus and took place at Argolis. The Isthmian games celebrated the sea god Poseidon, and those
competitions were held at the Isthmus of Corinth. The Panathenaia honored the goddess Athena
with musical contests, athletic contests, boat races, torch races, and military exercises. In the
national festival called the Gymnopaidiai, for several days, teams of men and boys performed
complicated drills and staged combat, accompanying themselves with songs (Willetts, 1981).
Girls competed in tunics called chitons in footraces at the Heraean games, with victors earning a
share of a slaughtered ox as a prize. Some scholars contend that eventually, girls were allowed to
compete in the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games, though probably only against other girls
(Scanlon, 2004; Spears, 1977).
Over time, Greek athletes became more highly specialized and professional. With the loss
of the sense of idealism of the classical era, competition for more valuable prizes led to an
overall deterioration of the games in an era in which spectatorship became more popular than
participation (Lämmer, 1992; Zeigler, 1988). This was in keeping with a trend away from the
earlier emphasis on balance between physical and intellectual pursuits. During the Golden Age
of Athens, the teachings of the philosophical Sophists encouraged a life of the mind, which
tended to decrease the importance of gymnastic education and fitness.
ANCIENT GREECE: THE ROLE OF DANCE IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

What historians know about dance education in ancient Greece comes from contemporary
literature, relics such as paintings and vase decorations, and various other early and more
recent secondary sources. Some of the writing about dance in that era, such as Emmanuel’s
(1916) volume on antique Greek dance, is strongly influenced by the world-renowned dancer
and dance educator, Isadora Duncan (1877–1927 CE). However, we know that formal dance
was taught and performed for three main purposes: artistic performance, ritual, and military
training.
Theatrical performances used a group of singer/dancers known as the chorus to comment on
and amplify the action in both comic and tragic presentations. These dancers learned mimetic
dance (orchesis) under the direction of an Orkhestoidaskalos. While professional dancers were
taken from the slave classes, private citizens could also attend schools of dance, at which they
would also study gymnastics (Emmanuel, 1916).
Ritual dances could be comic or serious in nature. Wealthy patrons could have male comic
dancers (komos) perform Dionysian cultic celebrations in private homes, and komostai could also
perform in street dances. Their female counterparts were known as Bacchantes, Menades, and
Thyades. Dionysian dances such as the tyrbasia (Sachs, 1937) honored the god of wine, fertility,
and ecstasy. They were highly improvisational, violent, and individualistic. Accompanied with
castanets, cymbals, tambourines, double flutes, transverse flutes, panpipes, and bells attached

to the dancers’ clothing, the dancers also added excitement to their performances using hand
clapping and vocalizations. Sometimes, the dancers mimicked fertility rites, with males dancing
as satyrs chasing the menades, or nymphs (Emmanuel, 1916).
Serious ritual dances included funeral dances, in which dancers pulled at their hair and
scratched at their faces in grief. Other religious dances included:
• Paians to Apollo, god of healing, which were rituals against sickness and death,
• Hyporchémata, also for Apollo, which were dramatic dances of mythological topics,
• Emméleia: round solemn dances done by women in celebration of the gods, and
• Gymnopaidiai festival dances such as the korybante, performed by nude singing boys in
teams, with combative or wrestling overtones (Sachs, 1937).
Finally, the military (armored) dances were mainly performed by boys, though the pyrrhichē
(Pyrrhic) was sometimes performed by girls (especially in Sparta). The pyrrhichē dance was
taught by state teachers, primarily for military training purposes. Typical movements of this type
of dance could include running, leaping, stepping backwards, whirling, crouching, and all sorts
of arm movements with lances, shields, and swords. A chalmys (cloak) was sometimes draped on
the left arm and used as a sort of shield.
Figure 3.6 Greek pyrrhicheˉ dancers (Pyrrhic), circa 350–300 BCE.
Another armored dance was known as the dance of the Clashers. In it, dancers clashed
helmets, swords, and shields to relate the efforts of Rhea, Zeus’s mother, to save her infant son
from her husband, Kronos. The noise of the dance was meant to cover the sound of Zeus’s cries
(Emmanuel, 1916; Sachs, 1937).
Dance was a means of bringing together communities in folk dances, a way of honoring the
gods, a form of entertainment with possible moral, mythological, tragic, or comic overtones,
and a supplement to military exercises. It may also have served therapeutic and fitness goals
implicitly to the extent that dance and other forms of physical education are related.

PRECURSOR TO ANCIENT ROME: ETRUSCAN PHYSICAL CULTURE
AND TRADITIONS
Prior to the heyday of ancient Rome, the

Etruscan culture flourished in central and
northern Italy from about 900 to 100 BCE.
Little is known or understood about this
culture from primary literary sources; however,
archaeological remains indicate that they had a
fondness for arts, games, and sports, some of
which were influenced by Greek culture.
Such pastimes included music, dancing
(including armored dances), discus, javelin,
boxing, gladiatorial contests, wrestling,
jumping, hunting, horse racing, chariot racing,
hunting, fishing, acrobatics, gymnastics,
swimming and diving, board games, ascolia
(standing on a greasy goat skin vase), kottobas
(wine flinging), borsa (a purse game), tops, ball Figure 3.7 Etruscan horseback riders and a fallen man, circa
games, and dice. Men and women attended 540–520 BCE.
festivals such as those modeled on Greek games,
in honor of Voltumna, where the athletes may have been slaves or possibly a special (higher)
class of slaves (Sawula, 1969; Zeigler, 1988). The Etruscans used flute music to accompany their
contests in boxing and jumping.
In addition to athletic displays, the Etruscans were fond of ritualistic performances like the
bloody funeral mimetic ritual game of Phersu. In this dance, a male (guided by the disguised
Phersu character) mimics the conquest of the death demon, Calu, and participates in gladiatorial
combat with another man or with a dog (Avramidou, 2009; Yanko, 2015).
Funerary processionals and athletic games could include the game of Troy, wherein horseback
riders followed a labyrinth and performed complicated maneuvers on horseback. The popularity
of this game continued in ancient Rome, under the Latin names Lusus Troiae, Ludus Troiae,
and Ludicrum Troiae. The Roman poet Virgil (70–19 BCE) describes the game in The Aeneid:
As files in the three squadrons all in line
Turned away, cantering left and right; recalled
They wheeled and dipped their lances for a charge.
They entered then on parades and counter-parades,
The two detachments, matched in the arena,
Winding in and out of one another,

And whipped into sham cavalry skirmishes
By baring backs in flight, then whirling round
With leveled points, then patching up a truce
And riding side by side. So intricate
In ancient times on mountainous Crete they say
The Labyrinth, between walls in the dark,
Ran criss-cross a bewildering thousand ways
Devised by guile, a maze insoluble,
Breaking down every clue to the way out.
So intricate the drill of Trojan boys
Who wove the patterns of their prancing horses,
Figured, in sport, retreats and skirmishes. (5.5.580–593, trans. Fitzgerald)
ANCIENT ROME: PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PHYSICAL CULTURE

The time of the Roman kings (753–510 BCE) overlapped the height of the Etruscan culture, but
Rome became more powerful and influential during the Republic, 509–27 BCE. Ancient Romans
participated in hunting, fishing, swimming, boating, acrobatics, juggling, tightrope walking, bull
leaping, bull wrestling, cockfighting, hoop games, net games, cottabos (a sort of wine-flinging game,
also popular in ancient Etruria and Greece), knucklebones, and latrunculi (a form of board game).
At a time when military service was expected between the ages of 17 and 60, athletics was
prized less for play than for the maintenance of health and development of military prowess
(Bucher, 1956). Running, jumping, throwing the discus and javelin, marching, and swimming
were valuable skills to build strength, martial skills, and endurance. Instead of the gymnasia of
the Greeks, the Romans during the Republic had modest bathhouses called balneae for public
gathering, exercise, and bathing.
In the military, weapons training was done by campidoctores. Generally speaking, one-third
of the recruits learned bow and arrow, but all trained in the use of stones and lead balls as well
as sword and shield and spear. Training was done with equipment twice as heavy as that used on
campaigns. Military quick marching speed was a little less than 4 miles per hour, and soldiers
had to carry 55 pounds as far as 25 Roman miles a day (a Roman mile is 95 yards less than an
English mile) in summer training marches, though it is unknown whether that included armor
and weapons. Horseback training was accomplished using a wooden horse; recruits learned to
mount and dismount unarmed, armed, and from both the right and left sides (McIntosh, 1981).

After the Greeks were defeated at the Battle of Corinth (146 BCE), the Romans began to hire
more mercenaries to fight on their behalf, and the population became less interested in athletic
participation and more interested in spectatorship. The influence of Greek culture displeased
some Romans, who did not appreciate the nudity, physical development, and ethos of Greek
fitness training and amateur athleticism. The Roman preference for professional athletes and
gory sports caused writers such as Cicero, Horace, Lucan, Martial, and Tacitus to criticize Greek
gymnastics and physical training methods (Bucher, 1956).
Under the Roman Empire, 27 BCE to 476 CE, Rome was overcrowded and unclean. Despite
the 222,237,060 gallons of water that flowed into the city daily from the aqueducts (Carcopino,
1941), most homes did not have plumbing and sewage facilities, and those that had such luxuries
had them only on the first floor. Consequently, rich and poor Romans were drawn to the thermae
for exercise, bathing, reading, and gathering. Mixed bathing was sometimes allowed, but the
exercise facilities were separated by gender, and exercise was either done in the nude or wearing
tunics, tights, and cloaks (Ziegler, 1988).
Ball games at thermae were very popular. Among these, trigon (a three-player ball game),
hop-ball, handball, harpastum (name of a ball and the game, in which a ball stuffed with sand
had to be seized), a form of tennis/pelote, played with hands as racquets, paganica (played with
a ball stuffed with feathers), and a sort of basketball game using follis (an air-filled ball) were
often played (Carcopino, 1941; Lindsay, 1967). Huge balls stuffed with dirt or flour were used as
punching bags.
Other fitness activities of the time included running, rolling a metal hoop (popular with
women), swinging dumbbells, and fencing. Fencing practice might be done ad palum (against
a stake), according to Vegetial (De Re Militari, I, 11) and Martial (Epigrams VII, 32). Juvenal
(Satires 6, 274) mocked women for fencing ad palum. Male and female wrestlers alike grappled
in the nude, smeared with ceroma (a mix of oil and wax, to soften skin) then covered with dust
(Carcopino, 1941). Seneca (Epistles, XV, “On Brains and Brawn,” c. 65 CE) referred to some
ballplayers taking orders from instructors who were slaves, and noted the following exercises:
running, weight exercises, high jump, long jump, and jumps known as “the Priest’s Dance” or the
clothes-cleaner’s jump, which may have been a multi-jump exercise (McIntosh, 1981).
After games, Romans enjoyed bathing in five parts of the thermae.
1. Undress in a dressing room (apodyteria)

2. Sweat in a sudatoria, next to the caldarium (sort of a dry sauna experience)
3. Move to the caldarium, a slightly cooler room, where they would be sprinkled by hot water
from a tub called a labrum and have the skin scraped with a strigil (curved rod) by a servant
4. Dry off, continue to tepidarium to cool gradually
5. Immerse themselves in the frigidarium, a pool for the cold-water plunge (Carcopino, 1941,
pp. 260–261)
Thermae also had shops and services such as that of the hair plucker, who plucked the armpits
of patrons, and various food and beverage vendors. Given the importance of oratory to Roman
public life, it is not surprising that Quintilian designed and taught exercises specifically to
improve the public speaking gestures of the aristocracy as one of those services. Drinking and
socializing were also part of the experience, sometimes replacing exercise altogether (McIntosh,
1981). Thermae were not the only fitness facilities in Rome. The Campus Martius, for example,
was located on the outskirts of Rome and served as a recreational sports facility (Bucher, 1956).

GALEN
Galen, a prominent and influential physician, was born in 130 CE in Pergamos, Greece, but
achieved fame for his work in the Roman Empire. He worked as a medical officer in a school of
gladiators, and later in 170 CE was court physician to Marcus Aurelius’s son, Commodus. He died
in 200 or 201 CE. He wrote about the difference between normal fitness for health (beneficial)
and athletic fitness (potentially dangerous) and wrote Hygiene (aka De Sanitate Tuenda) as well
as other works dealing with health and wellness.
Galen generally classified types of exercises into three categories.
1. Vigorous: for strengthening without violent movement. Resistance training, rope climbing,
digging, isometric exercises (such as holding halteres in each hand steady in front or above
the body), and other muscular tension–inducing exercises
2. Training for quickness or speed: running, sparring, punching bag, rolling, etc.
3. Violent: doing the exercises from groups 1 and 2 (above) in a different way; for example,
wearing armor or carrying weights (McIntosh, 1981, pp. 56–57)
He believed that different age groups (7 and younger, 7 to 14, and 14 to 21) should perform
different exercises or modifications of exercises for health. Recommending massage before and
after exercise and advising warmups before exercise for injury prevention, he also addressed the
affective domain of physical education with his conviction that the best exercise “is that which
produces health of body, harmony of its parts, and mental excellence” (McIntosh, 1981, p. 60).
He was also known for his development of the Hippocratic idea of balancing bodily humors
(phlegm, blood, black bile, and yellow bile) to achieve
natural health (Boylan, M. n.d. a).
In his Exercises With the Small Ball, Galen presented an
inexpensive, accessible, and enjoyable means of training
body, eye, and mental faculties, while exercising all parts
of the body and improving morality. He saw the small ball
exercises as adaptable to all ages and physical conditions
and able to give delight to the spirit (McIntosh, 1981, p. 60).
In this work, he presents a system of exercise that meets
the needs of healthful exercise without undue expense and
without excluding anyone (male, female, young, old, or
infirm) who wished to pursue fitness without excess.
ANCIENT ROME: CONTESTS, ATHLETES,

AND SPECTATORS
Figure 3.8 Galen and Hippocrates, shown in a
1677 German print by Justus Cortnumm.
During the Roman Empire, some attempts were made to
Galen’s side of the rosebush has only thorns,
bring Greek-style games to Rome and Roman territories,
while Hippocrates’ side is blooming. By the
17th century, the more experimental
with limited success. Augustus revived the ancient
Hippocrates was favored over the more
Etruscan Lusus Troiae (game of Troy), but it only lasted a
theoretical Galen. few years. Nero tried to establish a cult of Greek athletics,

even building a gymnasium for them, but it did not catch on. Perhaps the most popular of these
was the Agon Capitolinus, founded by Emperor Domitian in 86 CE, which was celebrated every
four years (Zeigler (1988) says every five years) up to the 4th century CE. It featured running,
boxing, discus, javelin, and arts contests.
The Actian Games were also quadrennial events, held in Nicopolis, with competitive
footraces, wrestling, boxing, pancratium, pentathlon, and contests for heralds, musicians,
and poets. In the Greek tradition, wreaths were given as prizes. After the 1st century CE, the
Sebistia (aka Augustalia) Games were held in Naples. On a four-year cycle, competitions in
music, gymnastics, stade, diaulos, boxing, wrestling, pancratium, pentathlon, armored race, and
four-horse chariot races were held. Music and dramatic events accompanied the games (Zeigler,
1988). Annual athletic events could be found in the April 25 Robigalia footraces and the August
21 and December 15 footraces and muleback races of the Consualia (Carcopino, 1941).
Even the Agon Capitolinus, however, could not match the popularity of the games and
contests at the Colosseum and the Circus Maximus (Lindsay, 1967; McIntosh, 1981; Zeigler,
1988). Beginning as extensions of religious festivals, games eventually assumed an important
part in Roman culture, as politicians strove to keep citizens contented. During the first two
centuries of the Common Era (AD), we know that professional, highly trained athletes put on
union performances of athletic displays, and received pensions when their competition days
were over. The union, called the Synod of Rome, was entrusted by the emperors with organizing
athletic events (McIntosh, 1981).
The ludi (Roman contests) were free of charge (paid by public, and later, private, funds), and
these official festivals grew to take up 175 days of the year, with additional other games and
festivals in abundance, sometimes taking 100 days or more at a time (Zeigler, 1988). Two main
centers of Roman athletic spectacle were the Circus Maximus and the Flavian Amphitheater,
better known as the Colosseum.
Figure 3.9 The Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheater, built between 72 and 80 CE.

The Circus Maximus held up to 250,000 spectators, and is best known for its chariot and
horse races. A thriving venue, it featured 24 events in a typical day, with betting on the contests.
Charioteers such as Diocles of Spain, Thallus, Crescens, and Scorpus earned fame and made
fortunes racing (Bucher, 1956).
The ancient Greek notion of fair play did not hold sway here. Historians record that Gaius
Caesar (aka Caligula) had his rivals’ horses and charioteers poisoned. Trick riders and acrobatic
riders diverted the audiences (McIntosh, 1981). Wild beast fights were also held at the Circus
Maximus, as well as massacres of Christians. Later, those events moved to the Colosseum
(Zeigler, 1988).
Still standing today, the Colosseum (built between 72 and 80 CE) could hold 50,000 spectators.
While festivals at the Colosseum could have religious overtones, they often also served political
purposes, especially if games were sponsored or attended by political leaders. Four main types of
events or contests took place there:
1. Lusio: trained gladiators fought with wrapped swords

2. Venationes: wild animals fought each other or professional animal baiters and killers
3. Execution of criminals and Christians ad bestias (by wild beasts)
4. Hoplomachia (aka munus): gladiator fights (McIntosh, 1981; Muñoz-Santos, 2017)
Vast numbers of animals and men

were killed in the Colosseum. After
Emperor Trajan’s defeat of the Dacians
in the 2nd century CE, he returned to a
celebration that lasted 123 days. During
that time, according to Zeigler (1988),
11,000 animals were killed and 10,000
gladiators fought. Etruscan influences
on the gladiator culture are evident.
The word lanista (superintendent of
Figure 3.10 Gladiators in a mosaic at the Villa Borghese, Rome. The word gladiator gladiators) is Etruscan in origin, and
means swordsman because gladius is Latin for sword. However, not all gladiators deceased gladiators were removed from
fought with swords. the arena by slaves dressed as Charon, the
Etruscan death demon (Zeigler, 1988).
Other spectacles at the Colosseum included bloody, realistic naumachia (naval battles in
the flooded amphitheater, generally fought by prisoners) such as that put on by Emperor Titus
in 80 CE. Such battles were put on in other places in the Empire, either in artificial lakes or
amphitheaters (Muñoz-Santos, 2017).
DANCE IN ANCIENT ROME

Ancient Romans took part in ritual dances, just as the Greeks did, for the purposes of purification
and fertility, for example. The Greek and Etruscan influence on dance was evident during the
Roman Republic, inspiring the study of dance among the upper classes. It is said that Scipio
Aemilianus Africanus (the Younger) (185–129 BCE) closed the dance schools around 150 BCE
because he saw them as Greek-influenced and symptomatic of immorality.

Military dances known as Salii were characterized by
armed warriors and priests of the god Mars, who engaged in
rhythmic foot-stamping and jumping (Sachs, 1937). The Salii
were typically at the festival of Quinquatrus (March 19) and
that of Armilustrium (Oct. 19) (Carcopino, 1941).
During the years of the late Roman Republic, dancing
for personal health, fitness, or pleasure became far less
popular. Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE) argued that no
respectable man would dance. In his Pro Murena (63 BCE),
he wrote, “For no man, one may almost say, ever dances when
sober, unless perhaps he be a madman, nor in solitude, nor in
a moderate and sober party” (63 BCE/1929, vi.13).
Even though the Romans during the Empire still did not
enjoy dancing themselves, they appreciated fine mimetic
dance, in which historical and mythological stories were
told through movement. The renowned Roman tradition of Figure 3.11 Roman pantomime dancers
pantomime would continue to influence European ritual and wearing traditional masks for a stock
theater throughout the medieval period and beyond. character. A pantomime performer was
known as a pantomimus, or “imitator of
everything.”
SUMMARY
questions.
• Primary and secondary historical sources are used for research into ancient Greek and
Roman culture, ideals, physical education, festivals, and dances.
• The ideal Greek citizen and/or athlete was expected to demonstrate kalokagathia, or beauty
of body and mind, as well as aretē, or virtue (especially moral virtue in action).
• The Minoan and Etruscan cultures influenced the competitive, ritual, and recreational
games of ancient Greece and Rome.
• Doctors of ancient Greece and Rome such as Herodikos, Hippocrates, and Galen had the
most influences on Western civilization’s views of health fitness.
• Physical education systems in ancient Sparta and Rome were more militaristic than was the
physical education system of Athens. Different attitudes toward the role of physical training
and athletic training in the lives of citizens yielded different emphases on teaching methods
and practice among the city-states of ancient Greece and between Greece and Rome.
• The Olympics and other ancient Greek and Roman games were important to sports history
because of their religious significance, the written records of competitive sports and training,
their sociopolitical importance to the populace and to the leaders, and to the relationships
between athletes and spectators.
• Theatrical, ritual, and military types of dance were performed in ancient Greece and Rome.
• The Colosseum and the Circus Maximus were essential to ancient Roman culture
in providing central locations for free athletic events aimed at keeping the populace
contented.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Greek Visual Arts (Visual): Find images of Greek athletic activities, dances, and games
depicted on ancient vases, bowls, and paintings. Create a display of these, identifying the
activities and any special characteristics of the images.
2. Medicine, Physical Education, and Sports (Research): Research the writings of

Herodikos, Hippocrates (or the group of writers collectively known as Hippocrates), and
Galen, comparing and contrasting the views on physical education and fitness in each.
3. Philosophy, Physical Education, and Sports (Research): Research the writings of Plato
and Aristotle concerning physical education, and create a T-chart showing the differences
between their philosophies in terms of recommended activities, ages for different training,
benefits and risks of physical activity, and the place of physical education and sport in society.
4. Virtual Tours (Outreach): Search the Internet to find video tours of archaeological sites
such as Olympia, ancient Greek theaters where dances were performed, the Colosseum,
the Circus Maximus, thermae (baths) such as that of the Emperor Caracalla (Rome), etc.,
to get a better idea of the spaces used for physical education and sport in ancient Greece
and Rome.
5. Types of Gladiators (Research): Research the following types of gladiators to see what
types of weapons they used, what they wore, and what other types of gladiators they were
likely to fight.
Secutores
Thraces
Myrmillones
Retiarii
Hoplomachi
Provocatores
Dimachaeri
Essedarii
Andabatae
Meridiani
Bestiarii
Fiscales
Caesariani/Postulati
Catevarii
Samnites

FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 3.1: Copyright © 2008 by George Groutas, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Bull_leaping,_fresco_from_the_Great_Palace_at_Knossos,_Crete,_Heraklion_
Archaeological_Museum.jpg.
Fig. 3.2: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/statue-discobole-discobolus-3425357/.
Fig. 3.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Young_boxers_fresco,_Akrotiri,_
Greece.jpg.
Fig. 3.4: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Panathenaic_amphora_Firenze_
Museo_archeologico_97779.jpg.
Fig. 3.5: Copyright © 2008 by Portum, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Halteres_from_ancient_Greece.JPG.
Fig. 3.6: Copyright © 2013 by Sailko, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Rilievo_con_danza_pirrica_di_guerrieri,_arte_neoattica_(100-50_ac._ca.)_da_modello_
ateniese_forse_del_350-300_ac_ca..JPG.
Fig. 3.7: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Etruscan_riders_BM_3-2.jpg.
Fig. 3.8: Source: https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-101449083-img.
Fig. 3.9: Copyright © 2013 by Dietmar Rabich, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Rome_(IT),_Kolosseum_--_2013_--_3387.jpg.
Fig. 3.10: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Borghese_villa_gladiator_mosaic.jpg.
Fig. 3.11: Source: https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e4-0ec7-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99.
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Zeigler, E. F. (Ed.) (1988). History of physical education and sport. Champaign, IL: Stipes
Publishing.

C H APTER 4
EARLY NON-WESTERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

• What do you think is meant by referring
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and to non-Western cultures and countries?
• Why study non-Western history in
Non-Western: refers to countries in Africa, Asia, South
America, and others which do not share Western physical education and sport?
economies, cultures, and values • What do/can we know about sports in
Western: refers to countries in Europe and North America,
ancient world civilizations?
as well as Western-influenced Australia and New Zealand,
sharing economies, cultures, and values • How can you learn about sports in
Mesoamerican Ball Game: a game for warriors, played with civilizations of the ancient world?
a rubber ball, in which the losing side’s captain would be
executed • What societal influences had impacts on
Kisha: ancient Japanese horseback archery ancient non-Western physical education
Shukiku/kemari: ancient Japanese ball game and sport?
Dakyu: ancient Japanese game similar to field hockey
Tsu-chu: ancient Chinese ball game, thought to be a precursor
to Japanese shukiku or kemari
Pancratium: ancient Greek combination of wrestling and
boxing
Kung-fu: ancient Chinese form of martial art
Chi-kung: ancient Chinese breathing techniques
Yoga: ancient Indian form of meditative body practice with
spiritual significance for the practitioner
Asanas: yoga poses
Khazza lawizza: a form of Egyptian high jumping game
Usekh: given to winners of ancient Egyptian competitions, it
was a collar that covered parts of the chest and shoulders

INTRODUCTION: WHAT DOES NON-
WESTERN MEAN?
Sociologists and geographers disagree about the

exact meaning of the term non-Western. As a basic
geographical term, the world can be divided into four
hemispheres: north, south, east, and west. The Eastern
Hemisphere contains what is sometimes called the Old
World, and includes Europe, Africa, and most of Asia.
The Western Hemisphere is sometimes called the New
World as a consequence of colonization; however, it
is not necessarily new to the indigenous peoples who
live in that region of the earth! Nevertheless, on a
purely geographical level, the world may conceptually
be divided into East and West. Even so, what defines
East, and what defines West? Who gets to decide? Who
decides where the imaginary lines are drawn?
However, sociologists and scholars from other
academic disciplines use the term Western to refer to
countries of “Europe, North America, and other world
regions that share some economic, social, and cultural
values” (“Hemisphere,” 2018). Using this admittedly
general understanding, non-Aboriginal Australia and
New Zealand would be considered Western. Sometimes
people refer to sweeping changes in non-Western countries
in which Western values are in the process of replacing a
society’s traditional values as westernization. People rarely,
if ever, speak of easternization. That is because historically,
as a result of colonization, trade, communication, and
technology, the Western countries have imposed their
culture on other countries or the countries have adopted
Western ways of their own volition for various reasons.
The aftereffects of imperialism are often economic, social,
and cultural and may be experienced in subtle or dramatic
ways by people living in postcolonial societies. Westerners
Early Non-Western Physical Education and Sport 47

are often unaware of the cultural biases inherent in their education and their paradigms. Later in
this text, we will look at the concepts of global North and South as well.
WHY STUDY ANCIENT NON-WESTERN CULTURAL HISTORY AND

PHILOSOPHY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT?
As a consequence of a traditional academic bias toward Western culture in the study of history and
philosophy, physical education scholars from Western countries have tended to author texts that
focus on the history and philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome, Europe, and the United States.
There is nothing inherently wrong with that approach: however, it is limited and insufficient to
a complete understanding of history and philosophy. By confining our understanding to one
strain of cultural history, we mostly ignore the heritage of many of the students in kinesiology
and physical education programs while depriving ourselves of the opportunity to gain an
appreciation for the contributions of non-Western countries to sport and physical education.
Furthermore, by maintaining focus on Western contributions, an assumption of superiority
may be unintentionally conveyed to students. Opinions may be formed like this one: if we do
not study the sports of non-Western societies, it must be because they are less important, less
developed, and less popular than the sports of Western cultures. They do not appear on our
televisions, we will probably never play them, we don’t have to teach them in our curriculum,
and they do not make money from broadcast rights and merchandise sales in our country;
therefore, they are irrelevant. All of that may be true, except the irrelevant part.
It would be impossible to study every culture, philosophy, and sport in the world in the
context of a semester’s course. That is no excuse for ignoring the contributions of other countries,
however. There is much we could learn if we broaden our perspective. Later in this textbook, we
will consider global sport in the context of recent centuries and international sports competitions.
This chapter covers some limited, but illustrative, examples of ancient non-Western societies’
athletic heritage.
Figure 4.1. It takes effort and will to broaden perspectives, but the journey is worth it.

SYMBOLISM AND MAGIC IN SPORT
Some of the earliest games in sports history involve using natural materials such as sticks, stones,
fruits, and nuts. For example, we can easily imagine people tossing oranges back and forth as
a pastime. Hitting a walnut with a stick, trying to catch the walnut, and chasing someone with
a walnut to tag them could have been a simple game played anywhere such materials were
available. A large fruit could serve as a rolling ball, to be kicked and dribbled. Wicker twigs could
be woven into a ball that could be kicked over long distances. These examples are speculative,
based on later developments in sport as well as observations by people who made notes when
they encountered new civilizations.
Those activities are purely physical and social. Could there be another component to ancient
sport, beyond exercise and friendly competition? At least one scholar has done extensive research
into that possibility. Simri (1969) uncovered evidence that the physics of sport activities held
magical importance for ancient cultures. For example, the arc of a ball flying through the sky
mimicked the arc of the sun and the moon, and playing a game in honor of those entities or their
god and goddess representatives could be seen as helping to ensure the continuation of life and
the success of agricultural endeavors.
Kicking a fruit such as a grapefruit along a piece of ground eventually leads to a splitting of
the fruit and a spilling of its seeds. Such would also be the case if a fruit were struck by a stick.
Any resulting seedlings emerge as a blessing, encouraged by the human intervention of sport.
Consequently, the sporting activity acts as a fertility ritual in agrarian societies, according to
Simri. Ball games and their ritual importance have been studied by Henderson (1947) in Egypt
and Krickeberg (1966) in Central America (Simri, 1969).
The significance of magic and religion in ancient sports helps explain part of their popularity
and reveals cultural underpinnings that are not immediately obvious to anyone who sees the
sport as simply physical activity. Many ancient non-Western sports had purposes beyond
physical fitness and recreation, and those purposes have, in some cases, remained embedded as
part of the sport’s appeal.
EXAMPLES OF NON-WESTERN SPORT IN THE ANCIENT WORLD

As a distillation and representation of war games, ball games in which two opposing teams
compete against each other are a natural development in civilizations in which maintenance
of fighting skills and physical fitness are valued, especially among young men. Some would be
considered brutal by today’s standards. We will begin with a game played by indigenous peoples
in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, a region roughly between what is now central Mexico and the
countries of Central America.
THE MESOAMERICAN BALL GAME
According to legend, the Mesoamerican ball game honored the memory of a ball game
played by the Mayan gods Hun Hunahpú and Vucub Hunahpú. In another tradition, the Aztec
rulers Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin and the ruler of Texcoco were the first to play the game, for
the conquest of territory. In either case, warriors were always important participants. The

game was sometimes used to divine
the future, such as the outcome of an
upcoming battle. Furthermore, the
movement of the ball could symbolize
the sun’s or moon’s passing from the sky
through the underworld or the earth
and back (Cartwright, 2013; Glassford,
1969).
The game was played on stone courts
in many cities throughout Mesoamerica,
by players ranging from professionals
to captives taken in war. Players could
use any body part except their hands
to get the ball through a stone ring on
the side of the court. The rubber ball
used in the game was heavy enough to
break bones, and defeat carried serious
consequences for the losing team: the
captain (and sometimes his entire team)
Figure 4.2 The Mesoamerican ball game, sometimes called would be decapitated to appease the
pok-ta-pok. gods (Cartwright, 2013).
SPORT IN ANCIENT JAPANESE SOCIETY
The ancient Japanese hunted and fished for sustenance. In the second century BCE, Japanese
society was becoming more agrarian. The religious festivals held at their shrines included archery
contests, early sumo wrestling, and ritual dances to ensure a good harvest. Weather prediction
was sometimes based on the outcome of horse races. The relationships between earth, people,
livestock, game, and crops were played out in sport by people at all levels of Japanese society
(Sasajima, 1969, 1988).
Figure 4.3 Sumo wrestling bout. A gyoji, or referee, carries a wooden war-fan, while a shimpan
(umpire) watches on the right. Mid-19th-century woodcut.

Japanese nobility in the first century CE enjoyed hunting for recreation and later for physical
education in the pursuit of military might. While archery had long been a popular sport, select
noble warriors were allowed to practice varieties of kisha, or horseback archery, during this later
time period (Sasajima, 1969). Hunting with falcons also became popular with the nobles.
Ball games such as shukiku (an early form of the Chinese import kemari, in which players
try to keep a ball aloft using their feet) were played by nobles as well. In fact, during the Heian
Period between 794 and 1192 CE, male nobles were required to play shukiku. The game, which
survives today (often as an exhibition sport), was played on a 15-meter square court with forked
pine, cherry, willow and maple tree branches in which the players placed the ball as part of the
religious rituals surrounding this sport. They also placed the balls at Shinto altars for religious
observance, and players wore different-colored traditional robes and hats to symbolize the
different skill levels they attained in the game (Hays, 2009). Over time, the best athletes in this
sport became the physical educators of the aristocracy (Sasajima, 1988).
Commoners had little leisure time or energy to participate in recreational sports, but were
among the earliest sumo wrestlers (Sasajima, 1988), although later the sport was taken over by
the nobles and then the samurai warrior class. As the influence of Buddhism spread to Japan
in the 6th century CE, hunting fell out of favor, and sports such as dakyu, a form of polo or
hockey imported from China, gained favor among the upper classes. Dakyu is related to kemari
as another variation of an earlier kicking game known as tsu-chu (Simri, 1973).
SPORT IN ANCIENT CHINA
The ancient Chinese kicking game of tsu-chu is first mentioned in writings of the third century
BCE, but it may, in fact, be much older than that. Players used their feet to kick a ball over a net,
into a hole in the ground, or through a hole. Remnants of the game survive today throughout Asia
and southeast Asia as sepak takraw, or sepak raga, and as kemari in Japan. Its many variations
have been used for military training and for recreation over the years (Simri, 1973).
The Chinese philosopher and teacher Confucius (551–479 BCE) recommended that upper-
class males study archery, charioteering, and music (which also meant dance) as part of their
development of diplomatic skills. They were not expected to serve in the military, so they did
not train in the martial arts (Brownell, 2017). On the other hand, ancient Taoist principles of
Chinese philosophy found in the book, the Chuang-tzŭ, also recommend that people seek “the
fast of the mind” (hsin chai) and “sitting in forgetfulness” (tso wang), or meditative practices for
health and well-being (Feng, 1952, p. 241). In general, a sense of balance and equilibrium was
considered essential to the simplicity of being for many followers of the Tao.
Confucius’s contemporary, general and author of The Art of War Sun Tzu (544–496 BCE),
remarks on only one form of exercise for warriors: squatting. For those who studied the martial
arts in the Warring States Period (450–221 BCE), wrestling and tsu-chu were part of their physical
training regimen. There is some evidence that Greek physical education habits and sports skills
were brought to China via trade routes through Macedonia, where gymnasia were to be found
thanks to the spread of Greek culture by Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) (Christopoulos,
2010; Finn, 1988). Alexander was a friend of the Olympic champion of the pancratium
(combination of wrestling and boxing) (336 BCE), Dioxippus. The armies of Alexander, under
his influence, took tents with them on their military expeditions and practiced the pancratium
and in 326 BCE carried the sport with them across the Himalayas, where it may have become a

forerunner of Chinese kung-fu (ch’uan-shu) as well
as of today’s mixed martial arts (Corcoran & Farkas,
1983).
The martial art of kung-fu was practiced in the
Shaolin Monastery, a temple founded in the fifth
century CE on Song Mountain in China. According
to legend, the Bodhidharma brought Zen Buddhism
from India to China around 520 CE, and taught
the monks martial arts to keep them “alert, fit and
able to protect themselves” (Finn, 1988, p. 14).
Monks also studied chi-kung (breathing exercises),
horsemanship, and both armed and unarmed combat
skills (Corcoran & Farkas, 1983) and healing arts.
SPORTS IN ANCIENT INDIA
The practice of mind-body centering known as

yoga originated in ancient India as part of a greater
Figure 4.4 A Shaolin student practicing kung-fu. way of life in which practitioners sought health
Performing groups of Shaolin students demonstrate and connection with the gods or spiritual center
skills and training techniques around the world. using meditation and, in some cases, various
systems of poses (asanas) and breathing techniques
(“Sports and Games in Ancient India” (n.d.)).
There have long been many types of yoga in addition to the physical purification training of
hatha yoga, a form practiced widely in the West in the 21st century. Hindus, Buddhists, and
Figure 4.5 A modern Indian yogi in a meditative pose.

members of the Jain faith share the heritage of yoga; however, the Hindu faith and practice of
yoga predate the other two by thousands of years, and different faiths have used yoga in different
ways with different goals.
Other popular sports in ancient India included chariot racing, javelin throwing, wrestling,
archery, hunting, weightlifting, swimming, and discus throwing. Men and women alike enjoyed
self-defense training, cockfighting, and other forms of animal fights (“Sports and Games in
Ancient India,” (n.d.). India’s military history provides examples of combat training with knives,
swords, javelins, and maces (“The Military of Ancient India” 2012).
While not a sport, a popular pastime originating in India is the game of chess. Legend has it
that the game was invented by a demon king for his wife’s amusement (and she immediately beat
him at it). The game is also featured in the Arthashastra of the 3rd century BCE, a political text
(Anand, 2008).
SPORT AND PASTIMES IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Ancient Egyptians were fond of games, acrobatics, juggling, and dance. In some cases, gymnastics
and acrobatics were performed by female dancers as part of cult celebrations (Trigger, 1993). For
those who did not have to spend their lives building its architectural marvels, according to some
authors, leisure time allowed for fishing, field hockey, running, swimming, boxing, gymnastics,
jumping, walking, archery, javelin throwing, wrestling, and boating (Decker, 1992; Mark, 2017).
People of all non-slave social classes participated in games and sports, and physical fitness was
highly prized in ancient Egyptian society.
Figure 4.6 An Egyptian dancer/acrobat, from a painting on pottery, circa 1292–1186 BCE.

Physical fitness was considered so important for a pharaoh that part of the Heb-Sed festival,
held after the first 30 years of a king’s reign to rejuvenate him, focused on his ability to run a
course and engage in different tasks along the way (including his skill in archery) (Mark, 2017,
para. 17).This jubilee festival run is believed to have been more ritualistic than competitive, as the
king would not be allowed to engage in actual competition for religious reasons (Decker, 1992;
Kyle, 1993; Trigger, 1993). As the descendant of the gods, defeat would have been disastrous for
the status quo of Egyptian politics and religion.
Special facilities for sports were unknown in Egypt, and there was no formal tradition of
competitions such as were found in ancient Greece, though festival games featuring races,
gymnastics, and acrobatics in honor of Min (the god of fertility) were recorded (Mutimer, 1974),
and there may have been funeral games played by soldiers with competition in wrestling and
fencing to honor pharaohs (Kyle, 1993). Significantly, although there was no ancient Egyptian
word for sport (Kyle, 1993; Mutimer, 1974), athletic games such as khazza lawizza, a type of high
jumping game (Brewster, 1960; Kyle, 1993), and competitions were popular, with the winner
possibly receiving money and a special collar known as a usekh (Alchin, 2018). Tug-of-war was
depicted in hieroglyphs, as was fencing.
Animals were part of several types of pastimes. In royal tombs, there are paintings featuring
hunting with hounds, for example, though whether the paintings depict actual events or ritual
expressions of rebirth remain indeterminate (Trigger, 1993). There were also acrobatic performances
involving bulls, in which the participants would leap or vault over bulls, often performing flips and
other acrobatic tricks before landing. Bull-leaping was a favorite sport throughout that part of
the Mediterranean, including Crete and ancient Greece as well as Egypt (McInerney, 2011), and
vestiges of this activity remain visible in the French course landaise to this day.
SUMMARY
questions.
• Non-Western refers to countries of the world which do not include Europe, North America,
Australia, and other countries sharing a similar world economy as well as societal values and
other cultural similarities.
• We study non-Western history in physical education and sport in order to understand other
cultures to broaden our understanding and appreciation of their contributions to the world
of sport and physical education.
• While more research is needed to expand our understanding of sport and physical education
in ancient cultures, there is much we can learn about sports in ancient world civilizations
in Mesoamerica, Japan, China, India, and Egypt that can serve as a starting point for
understanding ancient non-Western sport.
• We can learn about sports in the ancient world through ancient texts, artworks, legends,
architecture, decorative arts, and modern-day vestiges of ancient sports.
• Societal influences such as religion, class structures, traditions, women’s roles, and
socioeconomic differences can be seen to have impacted ancient non-Western physical
education and sport.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Watch Modern Versions of Ancient Non-Western Sports (Visual): Do an online search

for videos of kemari, tsu-chu, and course landaise (bull leaping). Notice the clothing worn
to participate in these sports. What sorts of athletic skills are needed to do them well? Are
you able to connect them conceptually with any sports with which you are more familiar?
Would you like to try them yourself?
2. Sports and Games in Non-Western Cultures (Research): Select a sport or game such
as bo-taoshi, sepak takraw, sumo wrestling, fireball soccer, or buzkashi. Write a research
paper of approximately three to five pages about the pastime. Where is it played, and by
whom? What are the basic rules? What is its history? What is its place in the culture? This
would be an excellent opportunity to work with your librarian to find resources.
3. The Experience of Yoga (Kinesthetic): There are many ways to experience yoga. The best
is to take a class, if there is a qualified teacher nearby. If not, you might try following
along with a beginner video online, or even consulting a book that can guide you through
some basic asanas. Be aware of recommendations about correct form, the use of breath,
and focus. What benefits do you think you would derive if you were able to practice yoga
long term? If you have experienced yoga before, try a different type of yoga for a new
experience.
4. Cross-Cultural Experience (Outreach): If there is an opportunity to see the Shaolin monks

perform, a Japanese taiko drumming concert, an African dance ensemble, a Chinese
acrobatic troupe, or a similar event, arrange to attend. Alternatively, try a kung-fu class or
invite a kung-fu instructor to visit your class to do a lecture/demonstration. Discuss the
experience in class briefly, sharing your impressions and observations.
FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 4.1: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/isolate-top-mountains-alone-cliff-1209275/.
Fig. 4.2: Copyright © 2006 by Sputnik, (CC BY-SA 2.5) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=785963.
Fig. 4.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kunisada_Sumo_Triptychon_c1860s.jpg.
Fig. 4.4: Copyright © 2009 by Kevin Poh, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Art_of_Shaolin_Kung_Fu.jpg.

Fig. 4.5: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/yoga-indian-indian-yogi-symbol-2232810/.
Fig. 4.6: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Female_topless_egyption_dancer_
on_ancient_ostrakon.jpg.
REFERENCES
Alchin, L. (2018). Ancient Egyptian sports. Retrieved from http://www.historyembalmed.org/
ancient-egyptians/ancient-egyptian-sports.htm
Anand, V. (2008). The Indian defense [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://content.time.com/
time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747_1815707_1815674,00.html
Brewster, P. G. (1960). The Egyptian game khazza lawizza and its Burmese counterpart. Zeitschrift
für Ethnologie 85(2), 211–213.
Brownell, S. (2017). Sport in China. In R. Edelman & W. Wilson (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of
sports, 241–256.
Cartwright, M. (2013, September 16). The ball game of Mesoamerica. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/article/604/the-ball-game-of-mesoamerica/
Christopoulos, L. (2010). Early combat sport rituals in China and the rise of professionalism
(475 BC to 220 AD). Nikephoros, 23, 19–41.
Corcoran, J., & Farkas, E. (1983). Martial arts: Traditions, history, people. New York, NY: Gallery
Books.
Decker, W. (1992). Sports and games of ancient Egypt (A. Guttmann, Trans.). New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
Feng, Y-L. (1952). A history of Chinese philosophy, Vol. I: The period of the philosophers (2nd ed.).
(D. Bodde, Trans.) Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Finn, M. (1988). Martial arts: A complete illustrated history. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press.
Glassford, R. G. (1969). The Mesoamerican rubber ball games. In Proceedings of the First
International Seminar on the History of Physical Education and Sport (April 9–11, 1968). (Uriel
Simri, Ed.) Netanya, Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education, pp. 22-1–22-13.
Hays, J. (2009). Games in Japan: Go, shogi, kemari, and children’s games. Retrieved from http://
factsanddetails.com/japan/cat21/sub144/item791.html
Hemisphere. (2018). National Geographic Society. Retrieved from https://www.
nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hemisphere/
Henderson, R. W. (1947). Ball, bat and bishop: The origin of ball games. New York, NY: Rockport
Press.
Krickeberg, W. (1966). El juego de pelota mesoamericano y su simbolismo religiose. In P.
Kirchhoff (Ed.), Traducciones mesoamericanistas (pp. 191–313). México: Sociedad Mexicana
de Antropología.
Kyle, D. G. (1993, May). Decker on sport in pharaonic Egypt: Recreations and rituals, combats
and ceremonies, agonism—and athletics? Sports and games of ancient Egypt [Review of the
book Sports and games of ancient Egypt by W. Decker (A. Guttmann, Trans.)]. Canadian
Journal of History of Sport, 24(1), 75–83.
Mark, J. J. (2017). Games, sports & recreation in ancient Egypt. Retrieved from https://www.
ancient.eu/article/1036/games-sports--recreation-in-ancient-egypt/
McInerney, J. (2011). Bulls and bull-leaping in the Minoan world. Expedition, (3), 6–13.

Military of ancient India, The. (2012). Retrieved from http://ancientmilitary.com/ancient-india-
military.htm
Mutimer, B. T. P. (1974, December). Sport in ancient Egypt [Review of the book Sport in ancient
Egypt by A. D. Touny & S. Wenig (T. Becker, Trans.)]. Canadian Journal of History of Sport &
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Simri, Ed.). Netanya, Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education, pp. 14-1–14-8.
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of ancient Egypt, by W. Decker]. International Journal of African Historical Studies, 26(1),
204–206.

C H APTER 5
AFTER ROME FELL: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SPORT IN THE MIDDLE
AGES, RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION, AND ENLIGHTENMENT

• When political control of the Roman
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and Empire shifted to Constantinople, what
kinds of sports were popular there, and
Diversium: unique to the Eastern Roman Empire, in this
type of chariot race, the winner of a morning race could how were they different from what had
challenge the loser to a rematch the same afternoon, with been played in Rome?
each using the other’s horses and chariot, to prove that the
win was the result of skill, not mere luck • How did social class structure in the
Tyzkanion: type of polo played in Byzantium, more akin to Middle Ages influence which sports and
lacrosse than to modern polo
pastimes were enjoyed by commoners,
Lapka: Ukrainian ball and bat game, derived from a game
played by a fertility cult clergy, and nobility?
Feudalism: social, economic, and political structure of Europe • What were knighthood and chivalry, and
in the Middle Ages
how did they influence spectator sports
Scutage: a fee knights could pay to avoid military service
in medieval times?
Squire: a stage in knightly training, in which a youth aged
14–21 serves a knight • How did religion influence sports,
Chivalry: an ideal of courtesy, loyalty, valor, and generosity in fitness, and games in the Middle
the Middle Ages
Ages, Renaissance, Reformation, and
Tournament, or melee: Medieval mock warfare, with the aim
to capture opponents for ransom Counter-Reformation?
Joust: Medieval sport of one-on-one riding in armor toward an • Where was the technique of classical
opponent and using a lance to unseat him
ballet developed?
Knights-errant: knights who roamed the country to
participate in tournaments (melees) to make their fortunes • How did the Enlightenment philosophers
Lists: name for a jousting arena affect the way educators thought about
Quintain: target for jousting practice; examples might be a the mind and body?
simple shield, or a rotating man-shaped target

INTRODUCTION Dualism: beginning with Plato (in Western civilization),
the idea that the body and mind are separate
After Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor, entities
was deposed by the Germanic leader Odovacar in 476 Monism: body and mind/spirit are considered to be
CE, political control of the Empire was dispersed among fully integrated
many different rulers in different parts of Europe. The Dance of Death: during the time of the Black Death,
Eastern Roman Empire, however, continued to hold any allegorical artistic representation of death
the imperial regalia, and Constantinople was the legal personified, leading people in a dance
center for the Roman Empire from that point until
Renaissance: French for “rebirth”
Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800
CE by Pope Leo III. Sprezzatura: casual nonchalance, exhibiting superior
Sports in what later came to be known as Byzantium skill without ostentation
continued Greek and Roman traditions, though gladiatorial Jeu de paume: early form of tennis, played without
contests and the killing of wild beasts quickly fell out of racquets in a walled court
favor. Chariot races thrived, and in fact, the hippodrome
Pall-mall: early form of croquet
in Constantinople was connected to the imperial palace,
and the emperor himself was an important part of racing Morris dancing: performance dance in which teams
days (Cameron, 1976; Schrodt, 1981). of dancers wearing bells use sticks and swords as
Chariot racing teams were divided by colors: red, props
white, blue, and green. The chariot races in Byzantium Protestant Reformation: religious, social, and political
featured a unique type of race known as the diversium. upheaval beginning in 1517; caused by objections
To prove that a win was the result of skill and not merely to abuses of the Catholic Church
of equipment, the winner of a morning’s race could Book of Sports Controversy: King James I allowed
challenge the loser in the afternoon, with each using the people to play sports and games on Sundays
other’s chariot and horses. as long as they did not interfere with religious
Fans of each color’s team sat in different places in observances, but Puritans wanted all Sunday
the stands, and rivalries were intense. In fact, one fan sports banned
riot in 532 CE, the Nika Revolt, led to a massacre of Restoration: King Charles II restored the monarchy to
30,000 people in the hippodrome. Whether because England after the Interregnum under Puritan Oliver
of the status of women in the Eastern Roman Empire Cromwell, bringing back science, arts, and greater
or for their safety, women were not allowed to attend enjoyment of sports
the chariot races, though they were allowed to watch
Ballet: a classical theatrical dance form which grew
through grilled windows and were known to have had out of the courtly dances of the Renaissance;
preferences for different factions of racing teams. One its technique was first codified in France, where
exception may have been the dancers who performed to techniques for transcribing dance were also
organ music between races (Schrodt, 1981). developed
After Rome Fell 59

Age of Enlightenment: sometimes
called the Age of Reason, refers Another popular sport for the Byzantine nobility
to the late 17th through the 18th was polo. The particular form of polo played by young
centuries, an era of profound liberal
men at this time went by the name tyzkanion. Rather
humanistic philosophical thought
than using polo mallets, the riders used sticks with
John Locke: English philosopher; nets on the ends, and the game resembled a kind of
in Some Thoughts Concerning horseback lacrosse (Schrodt, 1981). Horsemanship was
Education, recommended play for a skill prized by the aristocracy of this era, and playing
children and the development of a
tyzkanion was a way in which they could demonstrate
sound mind in a sound body
adroitness and strategy on horseback. Following a
tyzkanion match, players might go to the Turkish baths,
which were similar to the Roman thermae.
Fortunes shifted over the years between 500 and
800 CE, and power and wealth were more
concentrated in the western part of the Empire by the
time Charlemagne was crowned. Among the various
cultural groups that populated Europe, remnants of
pagan religions were interspersed among what became
predominantly Christian territories. For people who
followed the old ways, magic and symbolism continued
to be a part of their reason to participate in sports.
For example, in eastern Europe, in an area now
known as Ukraine, an ancient fertility cult used a
bat and ball to play what became known as lapka,
an early form of baseball. The round shape of the
ball, imitative of the sun and moon in their celestial
trajectories, could also be used for summoning rain.
A crack of a bat could imitate thunder, frightening
away evil, and awakening the earth and encouraging
the growth and fertility of crops and women. Another
ball and bat game was knattleikr, played by the Vikings
during certain seasons of the year, possibly for similar
purposes (Simri, 1969). As time went on, games
and sports continued to be associated with religious
festivals such as Shrove Tuesday (the Tuesday before
the Catholic Lenten season, now called Mardi Gras in
the United States), Easter, and Whitsuntide (Pentecost,
the seventh Sunday after Easter), among others.
COURT AND COUNTRYSIDE, KNIGHTS

AND PEASANTS: SURVIVAL AND
SPECTACLE
Despite the violent upheaval of the political structure
of Europe in the early Middle Ages, daily life for

the lower classes continued much as it had before. Work in fields and towns relied on manual
laborers to harvest crops, build castles and churches, and provide services and artisanal goods.
While the Church frowned on remnants of Roman athletics and excessive physical training at
the expense of intellectual work and spirituality, on the local level, parish priests were more lax
with rules and sometimes took part in games themselves. In the monastic centers of learning,
manual labor kept many of those in religious orders physically fit.
While farmers had their physical labors, their nutritional intake may have been limited by
trade disruptions and the vicissitudes of weather and plant infestations, which could reduce
harvests. For those near bodies of water, boating and/or fishing were good forms of recreation
that could also supplement protein intake (Hoffmann, 1985). Animal protein could also come
from trapping small game or birds. Women also worked in physically demanding jobs, either in
agriculture or in the various trade guilds (Howell & Howell, 1986).
A notable example of a contemporary observation on the physical fitness of farmers is Lambert
of Hersfeld’s Annales Lamberti (1075), in which there is a notation that the farmers do not have
the physical strength to carry arms for battle. On the other hand, peasant dances, footraces,
wrestling, swimming, and various pastimes provided recreational opportunities. Professional
performers (from the lower classes) such as tumblers, jugglers, dancers, and vaulters maintained
their physical condition and were fed at the castles, feasts, and fairs at which they performed.
Their survival depended on their ability to perform the feats for which they were paid.
In England, prior to the Norman Conquest in 1066, freeholders were allowed to hunt on
their own land. However, William the Conqueror restricted about 25% of the country for the
“king’s forest,” where hunting without permission under different rulers could result in being
maimed, tortured, fined, blinded, castrated, or even killed (Henricks, 1982, pp. 24–25). If dogs
Figure 5.1 Cistercian monks at work in the fields.
After Rome Fell 61

of commoners were found in the king’s forest, a fine might be paid, or the dog might have the left
claws of its feet removed (Strutt, 1898, referencing Blount, 1679).
The next level up the social ladder, we find the clergy, whose positions afforded them some
of the privileges of the aristocracy. They were often granted licenses to hunt in the chases (game
preserves) and parks, which were off-limits to the peasantry. They were also allowed to own birds
of prey for hunting, though their birds were generally less imposing than were those of the upper
echelons.
For the nobility, hunting by men and women made for a pleasant, though sometimes dangerous,
pastime. Scent hounds, sight hounds, lances, bows and arrows, and nets could be used to trap and
kill game for meat and furs. One source for research into medieval hunt is tapestries from that
era. Falconry and hunting are seen in the Bayeux Tapestry (Bayeux, France) (Carter, 2006); a stag
hunting series is now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City); and exquisite unicorn
tapestries (depicted as a stag hunt) are at the Cloisters (also in New York City). Various stages of
the hunt are shown, and we see that horns are used to announce each phase (Forsyth, 1952). Books
about hunting in this era include Le Art de Venerie (1327), The Master of Game (1406–1413), and
Frederick II of Hohenstaufen’s work on falconry, De Arte Venandi cum Avibus (1247).
Figure 5.2 A hunting party leaving the castle. From a tapestry circa 1495–1515, the
Netherlands.

Falconry, riding, dancing were all physical activities available to aristocratic males and
females, and both genders also enjoyed chess and card games (Haskins, 1927; Vaucelle, 2006).
Bridge fights such as the Gioco del Ponte in Pisa, Italy, and horseracing events such as the Palio
di Siena (Siena, Italy) provided exciting diversions at certain times of the year; the Palio di Siena
endures in modified form to this day (Heywood, 1969; Mandell, 1984). However, in terms of
display of status, nothing compares to the medieval sports of knightly tournaments and jousts. To
understand their place in European society, we need to understand what it meant to be a knight.
The European social, economic, and political structure of society during the Middle Ages was
hierarchical. The Pope, designated as the voice of God on earth, held power over feudal society,
especially over the many religious orders, cardinals, archbishops, and bishops. Kings were
acknowledged as the rulers of their lands and all those in them. The lords owed allegiance to
their king, but in turn were owed fealty (allegiance) and military service by the knights and all
who served under them on their lands. Limitations on social and geographic mobility meant that
most people stayed near where they were born, working the same sorts of occupations their
forefathers had worked before them or ruling estates. Primogeniture, the rule of first-born
inheritance, meant that eldest sons inherited titles, but younger sons might join the clergy or
enter military service. It is worth noting that feudalism as a social structure was not practiced
over all of Europe; Italy, for example, is an exception (Leibs, 2004).
Given the risks of infant and childhood mortality, families often had more than one son to
ensure the succession of titles. While boys might receive the physical training of a knight, in
reality the ruling class often tried to avoid actually going to war and could even pay scutage,
Figure 5.3 From the Allegory of Good Government by Ambrogio Lorenzetti, a fresco at the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena,
Italy, mid-14th century. This detail shows dancing as one of the benefits of good government.
After Rome Fell 63

a fee to avoid it (Henricks, 1982). However, war was sometimes an economic, political, or
social necessity, and training for it followed established structures in the life of a nobleman
(Huizinga, 1954).
Until the age of seven, a boy was kept at home, after which he was sent to the home of
a powerful lord or the king to train as a page. This practice, like that of strategic marriages,
strengthened the bonds between members of the ruling class. As a page, he learned courtly
manners, served his lord and lady, and observed the customs of the aristocracy. At 14, he became
a squire, training in knightly activities, caring for a knight’s horse and equipment, and serving
a knight. If his valor and resources were sufficient, at age 21 he might become a knight himself;
otherwise he might remain a squire (Zeigler, 2006).
Not all scholars believe that the training in seven-year increments was the prevalent
educational pattern for knighthood (Beeler, 1971; Hollister, 1962). Indeed, some knights
belonged to monastic orders such as that of the powerful Knights Templar, protecting pilgrims
and fighting in the eight Crusades after Pope Urban II called for the First Crusade in 1095 CE.
The concept of chivalry was part of the fabric of society in the Middle Ages, especially
during and after the 11th century. Following the Norman Conquest, when military training was
tempered with Christian values, a knight was expected to display courtesy, loyalty, generosity,
and physical ability, all qualities of chivalry. The attitude of the nobility toward education began
to include more awareness of health fitness and conscious study of the physical, sometimes at the
expense of the intellectual. Whereas in medieval universities, the Seven Liberal Arts of grammar,
rhetoric, and dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy were taught, most knights
did not attend university (Broekhoff, 2006).
Petrus Alfonsus (1062–1140) introduced the parallel Seven Knightly Arts—sometimes
known as the Seven Free Arts (Wilds, 1938)—as a form of physical education to pair with mental
education. In Disciplina Clericalis, Alfonsus included riding, swimming, archery, boxing (more
like pancratium, a mixture of boxing and wrestling), falconry, chess, and verse-making, in
addition to the regular combat training (“The Pedantic Swordsman,” n.d.). These are described
in the Song of Roland and later in Johannes Rothe’s German chivalric poem, Der Ritterspiegel
(The Knight’s Mirror).
While chivalry may have been more of an ideal than a reality, its values were reflected in a
popular spectator sport of the time, the tournament, or melee, and its later development, the
joust. The ancient Roman horseback game, the Ludus Troiae, continued to be performed in
London in the Middle Ages (Strutt, 1898). A variation known as the tournament involved teams
of knights engaging in mock combat as a form of training
and entertainment. By capturing opponents and holding
them for ransom, knights could earn horses, equipment,
and money. While not intended to be mortal combat,
knights sometimes died from heart attacks, overheating,
or accidents during such events. Knights-errant were
knights who roamed the country to participate in such
events to make their fortune (Hardy, 1974).
At first, tournaments were held in city streets.
However, eventually they were moved to a field where
Figure 5.4 Tilting: a medieval joust. Knights tents and pavilions could be set up for viewing and rituals
riding horseback would try to unseat their of pageantry and courtesy observed toward ladies and
opponents using blunt lances. royalty. Jousts became popular around the 13th century

as a form of mock combat between two armored opponents on horseback, who rode toward
each other in the lists to try to unseat each other with lances, with results displayed on some of
the first scorecards in sports history (Anglo, 1988; Henricks, 1982). Minstrels and heralds could
be hired to promote the knights’ reputations, functioning as early public relations specialists
(Carter, 1992). Training for tilting (another word for jousting) was done using various forms of
quintains, or targets, which varied from simple shields to rotating man-shaped targets to real
men. Water jousts in boats were another form of practice and were events in their own right
(Strutt, 1898).
THE CHURCH AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN THE MIDDLE AGES

It would be too easy to claim that the solemn authority of the Church exerted extensive power
over physical education and sports in the Middle Ages. With its emphasis on spiritual life
and intellect, its encouragement toward heaven-focus rather than body-focus and its ascetic
tendency to treat the body as unworthy and deserving of scorn and abuse, it is tempting to
believe that denial of the physical pleasure of exercise and competition would be a social norm.
Yet we have seen that sports and physical pastimes during this era flourished, often during feast
days and Church festival days. Once again, we must consider the evident disconnect between the
idealized philosophy of medieval Christianity and the secular reality of the people’s lives.
True, the Greek philosopher Plato was among the first in Western civilization to suggest the
idea of dualism, in which the body is separate from the mind (soul), as opposed to monism,
in which body and mind/spirit are fully integrated. However, early Christians demonstrated
several ways in which the body is revered or celebrated. For example, during Mass, the miracle
of transubstantiation is said to turn bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ for the
consumption of the worshipper. Resurrection of bodies happens at several points in the Bible. In
I Corinthians, 6:19–20, Christians are told to glorify God in their bodies, because it is a temple
of the Holy Spirit (Ballou, 2006).
Therefore, while some monks mortified their bodies, scourging them with whips and
wearing uncomfortable clothing, subjecting them to extreme conditions of poverty or solitude,
others, like the robust and militaristic Knights Templar, took an entirely different approach
toward the physical. Furthermore, recruits to monastic life tended to come from the upper
classes, where their secular lives had accustomed them to vigorous physical activities such
as tournaments and hunting (Carter, 1992). The Church, therefore, bowed to the inevitable
and worked to Christianize sport, as it had worked to Christianize knighthood. In the 12th
century, writers often learned from classical Greek and Roman texts that fitness and physical
activity might be seen as beneficial, so long as pagan extremes such as gladiator contests
were avoided.
One of the most important chroniclers of medieval sport was William Fitzstephen, a clerk
who had served Thomas Becket as his chancellor and wrote his biography. While not a member
of the clergy himself, his close association with the Church helped him to bridge the secular
with the religious worlds. Between 1173 and 1175, he wrote a preface to his Life of Saint Thomas,
calling it Description of London, and detailed then-current sports and pastimes. He vividly
described sports such as horseracing, ball games, bear-baiting, ice skating, and cockfighting,
dividing them into seasonal categories. His firsthand descriptions form an important primary
source in sports history, corroborated by public records of the time (Carter, 1988).
After Rome Fell 65

It bears mentioning that the Black Death during the mid-14th century created significant
strains on the European population. In some areas, deaths of farmers had the effect of reducing
harvests, so nutritional food supplies were diminished significantly. Woodcuts and other artworks
from the time depict the so-called Dance of Death, in which the figure of Death leads people in
an allegorical dance, reminding the faithful that life is brief and that all are equal in death.
Figure 5.5 Replica of a Dance of Death fresco. The original fresco is in the Church of the Holy Trinity, Hrastovlje, Slovenia.
THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE AND PHYSICAL CULTURE

Renaissance is a French word meaning “rebirth.” When we refer to the Renaissance in Europe,
we mean a time in history in which there was a widespread change in social attitudes, arts,
sciences, and literature. A flowering of culture is evident during that era, with a resurgence of
interest in the classics of Greece and Rome.
The exact dates of the Renaissance are not fixed, partially because different parts of Europe
experienced this change at different times, and partially because it depends on which significant
events historians use to mark the beginning and end of the era. Roughly speaking, the Renaissance
is considered to have occurred between the 14th and 17th centuries. It can generally be said to
encompass the time between the Black Death and the beginnings of what would become known as
the Enlightenment. Some scholars might refer to it as the Early Modern Period (Guttmann, 2011).
While a more humanistic and secular attitude toward the human body emerged among the
aristocracy during this period, important elements of religion continued to inform thoughts and
values. For example, the use of dueling as a means of settling disputes was a human physical activity
in which the outcome was viewed as God’s judgment (Mandell, 1984). Dueling in central and
eastern European universities became fashionable in the 1300s (Zeigler, 2006), and a ritualized
version of the duel, known as the Mensur, continues to this day as a student rite of passage. On
the other hand, tournaments continued to be popular into the late 1500s, though chivalric ideas
were fading (Strutt, 1898). In terms of education, the very notion of childhood changed from
the perspective that children were simply smaller versions of adults to the understanding that
children have developmental needs unique to that stage in life.
Publications created throughout the Renaissance provide us with a glimpse of changing ideas
about physical education. Vergerio’s De Ingenuis Moribus et Liberalibus Studiis (On the Manners
of a Gentleman and Liberal Studies) (1402–1403) maintained that physical education should be
directed toward militaristic ends, and he disdained dancing. By the following century, however,
Vives’s pamphlet, De Concordia et Discordia in Humano Genere (Harmony and Discord in the
Human Race), called for peace and the use of sports and games to promote physical growth.
Falling in the middle ideologically, in 1528 Baldassare Castiglione published Il Cortegiano (The
Courtier), in which the ideal courtier would be capable of military skills but not expected to use
them to a great extent. Rather, he should attain a figure that was pleasing to the eye and take part in
dancing, archery, fencing, tennis, running, swimming, and hunting, all with sprezzatura, or casual
nonchalance (McIntosh, 1981). Sir Thomas Elyot recommended similar activities in his Book of the

Governor (1531) but drew upon Galen’s work to note the physical benefits of specific categories of
exercise for different purposes, emphasizing the importance of physiology in physical education in
addition to character building and social graces (Leibs, 2004; McIntosh, 1981).
In keeping with the Renaissance interest in classical learning, Galen’s influence was felt
throughout Europe in translations of his De Sanitate Tuenda (Care of Health). A book of the
same title, written by Girolamo Cardano in 1560, drew heavily from Galen’s work. Hieronymus
Mercurialis’s De Arte Gymnastica (1569) also relied on Galen, but also referenced over 100 other
Greek and Latin authorities in a prescriptive and wide-ranging description of sports, games,
exercises, posture, and dance, intended for an audience that included the general public as well
as physicians (McIntosh, 1981; McClelland, 2007).
Books about social dance and manners written during the Renaissance included Guglielmo
Ebreo’s De Pratica Seu Arte Tripudii (On the Practice or Art of Dancing) (1463), Jehan Tabourot’s
Orchesography (1589, written under the name Thoinot Arbeau), and Fabritio Caroso’s Nobiltà
di Dame (1600). These books, written by continental dancing masters who traveled and taught
among the nobility, not only provide valuable information about dance steps and music but also
reveal the importance of dance as required education for the upper classes. While Vives did not
believe women should dance, that attitude was not prevalent during the Renaissance (Howell &
Howell, 1986). In England, performances of morris dancing (in which teams of dancers wearing
bells dance using sticks and swords as props), hopping dances, and festival dances such as the
maypole dance delighted the commoners (Strutt, 1898).
Women began to be educated along with men in schools such as La Casa Giocosa of Vittorino
da Feltre, tutor for the Gonzaga family and other nobles of Mantua. Ball games, outdoor exercise
in all kinds of weather, fencing, snowball fights, swimming, and jumping games were included
in his curriculum, and it is noteworthy that he himself took part in the activities rather than
directing them at a distance (English, 1981; McIntosh, 1981). Royalty set examples of female
participation in physical activity, particularly in the person of Queen Elizabeth I, whose love of
hunting, riding, archery, bull-baiting, bear-baiting, and dancing endeared her to her subjects.
Women continued to participate in hawking, fishing, bowling games, and other ball games
(English, 1981; Howell & Howell, 1986; Vaucelle, 2006).
One of the ball games that gained popularity during the Renaissance, especially in France
and England, was jeu de paume, an early form of tennis, which was played in a walled court and
created many opportunities for wagering on the players (Guttmann, 2011; Simri, 1969; Strutt,
1898). Women also enjoyed pall-mall (a forerunner of croquet) and golf, though Mary, Queen of
Scots, was criticized for playing them when she was supposed to be in mourning for her husband.
There are records of women participating in women’s regattas in Italy, but the women involved
were not likely to have been from the upper classes (Howell & Howell, 1986; Mandell, 1984).
In England, beginning with the reign of Edward III (1312–1377), royal decrees against
participation of the lower classes in certain pastimes forbade (among other things) some ball
games, throwing weighted stones, and football because the important military skill of archery
was being neglected (Semenza, 2003; Strutt, 1898), continued throughout the Renaissance in
that country. While enforcement of the bans varied, this is another example of a way in which the
playing (or disapproval) of various sports continued to denote social class. However, restriction
on the playing of sports was not always limited to the lower classes. Universities such as Oxford
and Cambridge frowned on student participation in sports because of the distraction they
offered from studies. McIntosh (1981) notes that students caught playing football at Oxford in
1584 might be imprisoned, fined, or flogged.
After Rome Fell 67

Figure 5.6 A modern-day morris dance team.
English physical education for younger students during this period often lacked formality
in private homes. However, at Merchant Taylors, an upper-class institution founded in 1347,
Headmaster Richard Mulcaster (who administered the school from 1560–1586) wrote books on
education that included supervised physical education beyond informal games. Influenced by
Castiglione as well as a militaristic attitude, he believed that athletics should develop motor skills
and physical exercises should help with health fitness or
rehabilitation after illness (McIntosh, 1981; Semenza,
2003).
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

On October 31, 1517, a German Catholic theology
professor named Martin Luther (1483–1546) sent an
inquiry entitled The Ninety-five Theses or Disputation on
the Power of Indulgences to his bishop, protesting (among
other issues) the sale of indulgences by the Church as a
means of avoiding repercussions for sins. Copies were
printed and distributed, first in Latin and then in German,
by friends of Luther. This was the beginning of what
became the Protestant Reformation, a religious and social
upheaval that spread, mainly across northern European
Figure 5.7 Portrait of Huldrych (Ulrich) Zwingli, countries and to the North American continent with the
created after his death, by Hans Asper. Puritans. As different factions developed and were either

accepted or rejected by various rulers, struggles between belief systems led to suppression of one
faith or another and culminated in wars based on religious dogma.
Within five years, a Swiss humanist reformer named Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) had
published Christian Education of Youth (1523), the first Protestant work on education. In it, he
allowed that, in moderation, public festivals and parties could be part of Christian life. Activities
to strengthen the body such as fencing, wrestling, throwing stones, running, and jumping would
contribute to health, and games like chess would sharpen the mind. Although he believed the
spirit to be more important than the body, he believed that the body should be kept fit for vigor
and possible military service. Games that relied on chance rather than skill, such as cards and
dice, were frowned upon as contributing nothing to the enhancement of the body, intellect,
or spirit (Androne, 2014a; Cho, 2016). Other Reformation authors of the time echoed the
recommendation for physical activity in moderation, including Humphrey’s Of Nobilitye (The
Nobles) (1563), which was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth I.
In England, Henry VIII had rejected the Catholic Church when they would not grant him
a divorce, and he established himself as the head of the Church of England in 1534. Struggles
between Catholics and Protestants would continue throughout the 1500s, notably under the reign
of Mary I (known as Bloody Mary, reigning
from 1553–1558), who tried to reverse the
Reformation. Elizabeth I then ruled from 1558
until her death in 1603. As we have seen, under
her rule, sports and dance flourished.
In 1599, the ruler James I (at that time known
as James VI of Scotland) wrote Basilikon Doron
(Royal Gift) for his son, in which he detailed
the expectations of a ruler. According to James,
a Protestant, football should be avoided due
to the dangers it posed, but running, leaping,
wrestling, fencing, dancing, playing catch or
tennis, bowls, archery, pall-mall, horseback
riding, cards, dice, and billiards were all
suitable for courtiers, within moderation.
When he ascended to the throne of England
in 1603 upon Elizabeth I’s death, he quickly
outlawed Sunday bear-baiting, bull-baiting,
profane dancing, and bowling as unlawful
(meaning excessive) exercises or pastimes. His
desire was that sports and games should not
interfere with required worship services on
the Sabbath, but he allowed that people could
exercise and pursue recreational activities on
Sundays outside of the times that they needed
to be in church.
Sundays were particularly significant to
the people in his kingdom because it was the
only nonworking day for most of his subjects. Figure 5.8 Title page from The King’s Declaration of Sport,
Beginning in 1616 in Lancashire, he overruled also known as The Book of Sports, 1633.
After Rome Fell 69

a local magistrate’s edict forbidding all sports and games on Sundays, and in 1618 he issued
a controversial The King’s Declaration of Sport (aka the Book of Sports). The Book of Sports
continued to restrict unlawful sports (and made bowling at any time illegal for the lower classes),
but made it possible for people to pursue recreational physical activities on Sundays so long as
they did not cause them to miss religious services. It is unclear to what extent violations of the
Book of Sports were prosecuted, and it is likely that enforcement varied across the land; however,
the controversy continued throughout the Jacobean era.
In 1642, the First Civil War broke out in England, and in 1644 Puritans were burning the Book
of Sports because it did not forbid sports and games on the Sabbath. It was at this time that the
author John Milton wrote a tract entitled On Education (1644), calling for physical education to
encourage a sound mind in a sound body, using Spartan-style militaristic exercises and the need
for recreational activities to rest from daily labors.
Charles I was forced to ban all sports and
pastimes on Sundays. This ordinance held
throughout his reign and after his death in 1649,
when a period known as the Interregnum began
and Charles II fled to the Continent. However, with
the 1660 Restoration of Charles II (1630–1685),
maypoles went up across the land, theaters
reopened, and pleasurable pastimes abounded.
Known as the Merry Monarch, Charles II was
famously fond of athletics and women. He was also
known for his interest in scientific experiments,
and he was careful to weigh himself before and
after exercise as a measure of the effectiveness of
his play. On a social note, his public participation
in sports and games served to expose him to the
populace in a way that was unusual for rulers of the
time and served to demystify the English monarchy
to an extent (Semenza, 2003).
John Playford, a bookseller and music
publisher, recorded English popular dances in
his bestselling book, The English Dancing Master
(1651), with lists of dances, figures, and music.
Exact instructions for performing the movements
were not included; however, it remains a valuable
record of English dance. Across the English
Channel, like many of his predecessors, King
Louis XIV (1638–1715) (known as the Sun King)
loved to dance. He founded the Académie Royale
de Danse in 1661, with the aim of developing
dance and choreography for his courtiers. In 1672
its director, Italian-born dancer and composer
Figure 5.9 The Royal Gift of Healing, printed in 1684. For centuries,
Jean-Baptiste Lully, opened a dance school that
in England the populace believed that the touch of a king could
was to become the training ground for dancers of
cure sickness. the Paris Opera Ballet (Kassing, 2017).

At this school, what we know today as the technique of ballet as a theatrical dance form was
first developed, and to this day, dancers around the world use French vocabulary to describe
ballet movements. The king also directed Pierre Beauchamp to devise one of the earliest ways of
writing dances, and his technique shows a Baroque fascination with symmetry, intricacy, and
elegance. Raoul-Auger Feuillet later expanded on this method of transcribing dances, and the
records of choreography from that time have allowed dance historians to work on performed
reconstructions of period pieces.
Royalty such as Charles II and Louis XIV set the tone of intellectual curiosity and love
of spectacle in their courts. The power of monarchs rose as that of the Church diminished.
However, Catholicism still played a major role in European thought and society. The Church
had found a response to the Reformation in the Counter-Reformation, and Pope Julius III (with
Ignatius Loyola) founded the Collegium Germanicum in Rome for religious education in 1552.
Loyola’s Society of Jesus (Jesuits) followed his lead in Counter-Reformation spiritual and physical
exercise regimens, maintaining a sense of balance between training and rest along with respect
for hygiene and the role of maintaining the body to do holy work (Casalini, 2014).
THE ENLIGHTENMENT
The Age of Enlightenment, sometimes
called the Age of Reason, refers to the late
17th through the 18th centuries, an era of
profound liberal humanistic philosophical
thought. During the Enlightenment, men
such as Descartes and Kant pondered the
nature of being, mind/body duality, and
morality. Descartes’ famous insight, “I
think, therefore I am,” in Discourse on the
Method of Rightly Conducting One’s Reason
and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences (1637)
appeared on the early end of this period.
Kant’s works, published in the late 1700s,
light the latter side. We will revisit Kant in
a later chapter because his work on ethics is
also part of our studies.
A recurring theme throughout this text
has been the foundational educational
notion that bodily health and fitness are
important to intellectual health and well-
being. In Western thought, we have seen it
since the Greek ideal of aretē, and the
Roman author Juvenal (60 CE–130 CE)
reiterated it in his Satires as “mens sana in
corpore sano,” (X, 356), which means “a
sound mind in a sound body.” That refrain Figure 5.10 An example of Feuillet dance notation, from John
was taken up by English philosopher Weaver’s book, Orchesography, 2nd edition, 1721.
After Rome Fell 71

John Locke (1632–1704) in his 1693 book, Some Thoughts Concerning Education. Locke
recognized the need for children to have time to play to develop a sense of freedom. Adults, he
believed, owed children a balanced intellectual and physical education in order to help them
achieve the greatest happiness in life. Overall, while the mind is more important than the body,
the body must be maintained in good physical health, in order to meet life’s challenges and adapt
to changes in the environment (Androne, 2014b).
Another important Enlightenment thinker whose influence was felt in education was Swiss-
born Jean-Jacques Rousseau. We will return to his thoughts on physical education as seen
through his book, Émile, or Treatise on Education (1762) in a later chapter. For now, suffice it
to say that his writing encouraged the natural development of physical abilities in childhood
education and he recognized the importance of physical activity as part of a comprehensive
education. His influence would be profound on educational theory and practice throughout
Europe and in North America.
Figure 5.11 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, author of Émile, or Treatise on Education. Notice the natural
setting and the book he carries, representing learning from both.

Liberal educational and political thought reached their height in action through the American
and French revolutions, both of which presented visceral and bloody challenges to social and
political structures that had existed for centuries, eroding the paradigm of the monarchies’ divine
right to rule. The invention of the printing press made books available to common people, often
in their own languages, and critical thinking and discussions were facilitated by that innovation.
With greater awareness came rising expectations of life’s possibilities, resulting in a wider view of
learning that encompassed the classics as well as new, sometimes revolutionary, thoughts.
The ways in which the intellectual climate of the Enlightenment supported physical education
throughout Europe will be explored further in an upcoming chapter, but that journey must wait.
We have bypassed investigation into the sports and physical activities of another part of the
world that had suddenly vaulted into importance, and it is time to go back and consider the
history of North America during the colonial era.
SUMMARY
questions.
• When political control of the Roman Empire shifted to Constantinople, chariot races and
a form of polo known as tyzkanion became popular. Women were not allowed to attend
chariot races, and the gory gladiatorial events of Rome were less welcome in Byzantium.
• Commoners, clergy, and nobility each had different types of sports and recreational
pastimes during the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation, sometimes by choice and
sometimes by decree.
• Knighthood was a status achieved through military training and valor in medieval times,
and chivalry was the code by which an ideal knight lived.
• Overall, sports and games were tolerated and often encouraged by clerics from the Middle
Ages through the Counter-Reformation so long as they were practiced in moderation and
did not interfere with religious obligations.
• The technique of classical ballet was developed in France, and ballet dancers still use French
vocabulary throughout the world to describe its movements.
• The Enlightenment philosophers gave deep consideration to the relationship between the
mind and the body, generally encouraging health fitness for the sake of mental fitness.
After Rome Fell 73

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
resources provided or further research.
1. The Education of Nobility (Research): Search online or in your library for Vergerio’s
De Ingenuis Moribus et Liberalibus Studiis (On the Manners of a Gentleman and Liberal
Studies) (1402–1403), Castiglione’s Il Cortegiano (The Courtier) (1528), and James VI’s
Basilikon Doron (Royal Gift) (1599). According to these sources, did the expectations of
participation in sport and recreational games change over the course of the 15th and 16th
centuries? If so, how?
2. Spectacle and Performance (Visual): Clothing styles affected posture, carriage, everyday
movement, and dance. For early court dances and ballets, costumes could be even more
restrictive. Use websites such as http://world4.eu/history-of-costumes/, http://www.vam.
ac.uk/content/articles/o/origins-of-ballet/, and https://www.fashion-era.com/undergarments.
htm to download images of dancers and nobles, noting how undergarments, clothing weight,
and fashions might have affected movement for dance and recreational pastimes.
3. Timeline (Conceptual Understanding): Create a timeline showing the period from the fall
of the Roman Empire (476 CE) through the Enlightenment (early 1800s). Note the major
social, political, religious, and educational events and indicate which sports and games
were popular for men and women in each era.
4. Jousting Training (Kinesthetic): Using Strutt’s The Sports and Pastimes of the People
of England or a similar historical source, find out how different quintains were used and
develop safe modern-day versions. For example, use pool noodles and bicycles, kayaks,
piggyback carries, wheelchairs, or scooters to tilt at targets. Video-record your efforts to
share with other students. Period costumes are optional.
FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 5.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cistercian_monks_at_work.jpg.
Fig. 5.2: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_Hunting_Party_Leaving_a_Castle_
(From_Incidents_in_a_Stag_Hunt)_MET_152384_1.jpg.
Fig. 5.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lorenzetti_Good_Govt_Detail.jpg.
Fig. 5.4: Copyright © by Supersabre. Reprinted with permission.
Fig. 5.5: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dance_of_Death_(replica_of_15th_
century_fresco;_National_Gallery_of_Slovenia).jpg.

Fig. 5.6: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/morris-dancing-men-outside-summer-235876/.
Fig. 5.7: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bild_Zwingli_Asper.jpg.
Fig. 5.8: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Book_of_Sports.jpg.
Fig. 5.9: Source: https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_
details.aspx?objectId=1667527&partId=1.
Fig. 5.10: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Feuillet_notation.jpg.
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After Rome Fell 77

C H APTER 6
INDIGENOUS PEOPLES, COLONIALISM, EXPANSION, AND
REVOLUTION IN NORTH AMERICAN SPORT AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

• What are some sports we know were
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and played by indigenous peoples in North
America?
Indigenous peoples/First Nations peoples: people who are
native to a certain area rather than who are brought to that • What part did sports and recreational
area; First Nations is the preferred terminology in Canada gambling play among indigenous
Lacrosse: game played with netted stick and ball, popular
peoples and colonists?
among the indigenous peoples of the Eastern Seaboard
and mid-Atlantic areas of North America • Were different sports and pastimes
Double-ball: game mostly played by Native American women, played in different regions of colonial
in which sticks were used to throw two balls tied together
America?
Shinny: game similar to field hockey, played by indigenous
peoples • Did Puritan and Quaker beliefs affect
Gambling: an important part of spectator participation in participation in physical activities?
sporting events among indigenous peoples and settlers
• Which of the Founding Fathers of the
Work bees: community gatherings to perform work such
as baking, barn-raising, corn-husking, quilting, and American Revolution wrote about
pea-shelling
exercise?
Skittles: a form of bowling done on a wooden alley rather
than on a lawn (bowling green) • Did women participate in sports and
Minuet: a stately dance of the 18th century, exemplifying the dance in colonial America?
grace, symmetry, and elegance of the time
Contra dance: longways dances, in which groups of two or
three couples dance repeated figures before progressing
up and down the lines to dance with other groups of
couples
Folk dance: participatory dances from different nations, using
the music and clothing of the country from which they
originate

INTRODUCTION
American history, like all history, is constantly challenged
when new archaeological evidence and research is
presented. The belief that human beings arrived in
North and South America exclusively via a land bridge
from Asia was challenged by Thor Heyerdahl when in
1947 he showed that the crew of his raft, Kon-Tiki, were
able to travel from Polynesia to South America. While
this physical feat was impressive, it failed to convince the
majority of scholars that sea travel provided a means of
human migration to the Americas.
Likewise, the view that the “New World” was
“discovered” is problematic in several ways. First, it
implies that there were no human inhabitants in the
Americas before discovery. Unfortunately, the view
that indigenous peoples were uncivilized, inconvenient
residents led to centuries of genocide and various
mistreatments that continue to the present. Second, the
question of who discovered the continents generally
implies that Caucasians did the discovering, despite the
questions raised by Heyerdahl’s successful experiment.
Third, the implication that any discovery gave rights
of conquest to the explorers ignores the human rights
issues of colonization. As historians, we need to consider
the assumptions we might make when we discuss the
identities and activities of those who were already in the
“New World” when it was “discovered.”
For example, historically speaking, we should
acknowledge the existence of indigenous cultures in
these lands. Referring to these cultures as those of the
First Peoples (they were and are many cultures, not just
one) rather than Indians is a good start. In Canada, First
Nations is sometimes the preferred nomenclature. Even
discussing “Native Americans” as such uses an other-
oriented nomenclature implying a European perspective
Indigenous Peoples, Colonialism, Expansion, and Revolution 79

on indigenous peoples. However, it is still preferable to the derogatory terms still in use in some
sports team names (Taylor, 2018). Wherever possible, we will make efforts to specify groups
rather than generalizing and refer to different nations by their preferred designations, such as
Lakota instead of Sioux. That being said, many historical resources do not make such careful
distinctions, and myriad important details have been lost or have yet to be recovered by scholars:
this is an area of sports history in need of continued research.
SPORTS AND RECREATIONAL PASTIMES AMONG INDIGENOUS

PEOPLES OF NORTH AMERICA
Can you name a sport or recreational pastime that was traditionally played by indigenous peoples
in North America? Aside from footraces, swimming, horseback riding, archery, hunting, fishing,
canoeing, and climbing, many people nowadays would name the game we now know as lacrosse.
Versions of that game were known in southern parts of American colonies as toli or kabucha
(Choctaw), anetsó (Cherokee), hótti icósi (Creek), and sometimes as bagataway or the Creator’s
Game among Great Lakes and mid-Atlantic groups such as the Huron, Algonquin, Mohawk,
Onondaga, Ojibwe, and other Six Nation Iroquois tribes to help keep peace among them (Haag
& Millis, 2001; Rasmussen, 2018). The Haudenosaunee know it as their medicine game, and to
this day they play it with deep spiritual intent to help heal the sick (Jacques, 2018, personal
communication).
Figure 6.1 A 19th-century lithograph of indigenous ball players by George Catlin.

The game was originally played with curved sticks that reminded a Jesuit French missionary,
Jean de Brébeuf, of a shepherd’s crook or bishop’s crozier (crosse), so any jeu de la crosse (game
of the crozier) became known to Europeans as lacrosse. It was a game that could be played
by teams of up to 1,000 per side, on fields up to a mile and a half (2.5 km) in length (Becker,
1985). Among the Choctaw, months of preparation would precede a match, with feasting and
dancing while shaking lacrosse sticks toward the sky in ritualistic pleas for divine help in the
game (Zirin, 2008).
Indigenous women played all the ball games that men did, but often played using different
rules from those used by the men. Similar to lacrosse, double-ball was almost always played by
women. Two balls were tied together and thrown using decorated sticks over a field that could
be a mile long or more (Keith, 1999).
Ritual was also part of kickball or stick-kicking races that were meant to promote fertility.
Male or female runners in these races could cover 25 miles in a day’s game. Running games also
served as cardiovascular training for war, hunting, and carrying messages over long distances.
According to Gems, Borish, and Pfister (2017), Aztec relay runners covered 260 miles (420 km)
in one day to tell King Montezuma of the arrival of Hernán Cortés. To this day, the Tarahumara
(Rarámuri, as they call themselves, means “the running feet”) of northern Mexico continue to
play long-distance kickball, often covering 50 to 100 miles or more over several days (Irigoyen-
Rascón & Batista, 2012).
Another game of endurance was called shinny, a sort of field hockey game in which players
used individually decorated, curved sticks of 2 to 4 feet in length. Shinny was played throughout
North America, most often by women, though only men played it in Northern California (Gems,
Borish, & Pfister, 2017). Teams might consist of more than 100 players on a field up to a mile
long (Keith, 1999).
Sports fulfill important cultural and physical needs. As we have seen indicated in Carroll’s
Symbolic Hunt Theory, many of the sports of First Nations peoples helped with survival and taught
observation, endurance, tolerance of pain, and cooperative competition while building strength
and skills. Socially, improved interpersonal relationships, individual and group motivation,
leadership skills, and fairness to others were additional important benefits of sporting events
(Keith, 1999). As with other Native American sports events, gambling on shinny was open to
men and women, and gambling was an important part of spectatorship among indigenous
peoples (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017; Lumpkin, 2017). It was part of the nexus between sports
and their social, economic, and spiritual lives.
COLONIAL AMERICA: SPORT, RECREATION, AND GAMBLING

Sheridan’s (1780) A General Dictionary of the English Language defines sport as “play, diversion,
game, frolic, and tumultuous merriment; mock contemptuous mirth; that with which one plays;
play, idle gingle; diversion of the field, as of fowling, hunting, fishing” (II, no page; Davis, 1972,
p. 2). This meaning differs from the early 21st-century definition, and the added allusion to
athletic competition is missing from that reference. However, historical evidence indicates
that colonists competed in many types of sporting events; competitive sport was merely one
component of the total picture of physical activity. As we will see, the types of activities varied
between indigenous peoples, settlers, and slaves and free blacks, and there were regional and
socioeconomic class differences as well.

In New England, for example, we know that many colonists were Puritans who had emigrated
in order to find a land where they could live according to their religious beliefs, founding
Plymouth Colony in 1620. However, as our look at Puritan England showed us in the last chapter,
those beliefs did not necessarily preclude all recreations, but served to discourage anything that
interfered with religious services on Sundays or might cause immorality and frivolous wasting
of time. Many leisure and survival-related sporting activities could keep people from idleness,
which was considered detestable, and improve health, the better to facilitate religious observance
and to do work that needed to be done in the community.
For example, hunting, fishing, trapping, work bees (community baking, barn-raising, corn-
husking, quilting, pea-shelling, etc.), and militia training days afforded opportunities for
recreational social interaction, competition, and physical activity. The militia training days were
days in which militiamen would gather to work on military skills like marksmanship, and since
they brought large numbers of families together, they eventually took on the atmosphere of fairs
(Davis, 1972). As the Counter-Reformers had learned in Europe, diversions served to increase
productivity during working hours. Prominent clergymen such as Cotton Mather (1721) and
Joseph Seccombe (1739) praised fishing as suitably refreshing to the mind and spirit, the latter
going so far as to approve fishing on Sunday.
Figure 6.2 In this painting, Militia Training (James G. Clonney, 1841), the general mood of merriment and carousing is evident
with depictions of dancing, drinking, and a shooting competitor.

Cruelty to animals and blood sports in which animals fought, were taunted, or were used
cruelly (e.g., cockfighting, bear-baiting, and duck hunting using owls) were frowned upon in
New England. We should also bear in mind that not all colonists were Calvinist Puritans, and
many people took part in what Zeigler calls “trespass sport” (1988, p. 177), which meant any
recreational diversion that ignored Puritan regulations. Card and dice games, quoits (a game
similar to horseshoes), bowls, wrestling, boxing, shuffleboard, and dancing were available at
inns, coffee houses, and taverns. Horseraces were organized and popular in the northern as
well as in the southern colonies (Ballou, 1976; Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017; Zeigler, 1988;
Zirin, 2008).
In the mid-Atlantic region, New York’s Dutch settlers brought outdoor traditions of ice
skating, sleigh riding, a form of ice hockey, bowling (which was usually done outside on a grassy
bowling green), and skittles (a form of bowling) (Zeigler, 1988). While William Penn’s Quaker
beliefs had initially restricted many active leisure pastimes using blue laws, Pennsylvania had
a somewhat more relaxed view of sports than did New England during the 18th century due
to more relaxed Anglican and Presbyterian settlers’ influences in the middle of that century.
Upper-class sports fishermen near Philadelphia formed the Schuylkill Fishing Company in 1732,
and the Philadelphia Jockey Club was created in 1766 to promote horseracing (Gems, Borish, &
Pfister, 2017; Zeigler, 1988).
In the southern colonies, landowners enjoyed displaying their wealth through horseracing,
gambling, and cockfighting, even when laws were passed to try to restrict them. Only upper-
class men had the means to participate in high-stakes gambling, and wagers were points of
honor as well as subjects of legal contracts and disputes. North Carolina enacted Sabbath-day
laws forbidding any “Game, Sport, or Play, on the Lord’s Day” (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017,
p. 20), and South Carolina had similar laws governing colonists. Penalties for violations were
usually fines.
Other popular sports in the south were tennis, fencing, fox hunts, bowling, footraces, and
various ball games. Along with the usual outdoor sports such as hunting and fishing, southerners
were fond of horseback rides and walks.
When the weather permitted, they
partook of winter sports as well. However,
these pursuits often differed from those
of the enslaved plantation slaves in that
region.
Despite living lives of arduous
physical toil, slaves had some leisure
time and regular plantation work paused
on Sundays. In the time available for
recreational activities, they could play
games and learn dances and music
passed down from their ancestors. In
marked contrast to their white neighbors,
black men and women often excelled in
swimming and diving. They earned local
fame with their swimming competitions
and pearl-diving abilities. More bloody
water spectacles involved bravado as men Figure 6.3 Logo of the Schuylkill Fishing Company, founded in 1732.

fought sharks and alligators. Horseraces, boating, cards, footraces, and dice games all afforded
gambling opportunities (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017, p. 20).
However, when it came to children’s pastimes, an interesting sociological pattern emerged, in
which players were kept from being tagged out of games. For example, Zirin (2008) notes that
“If they played dodgeball, then no one would be eliminated” (p. 5). Games could therefore build
cooperation, community, and a sense of safety in a brutal and unpredictable world.
Up and down the Eastern Seaboard, the relatively safe lifestyles in the more populated areas
of the colonies found a sharp contrast with the lives endured by those living further inland in
frontier lands. Rugged isolation was a common way of life for frontiersmen, by choice or by
necessity. Under those circumstances, gatherings providing opportunities for such competitions
as axe-throwing, shooting, ball games, wrestling (including eye-gouging), boxing, tree-felling,
and racing were welcome diversions (Zirin, 2008). Survival skills often morphed into recreational
opportunities, bringing people of different classes, national origins, and ethnicities together in
the wilderness. These occasions afforded opportunities for trade, communication, and even
courtship, especially when dances were part of the events.
Among the sports of this era, baseball in its 18th-century form was recorded as having been
played in New York City before the Revolution, in Valley Forge in 1778, and in New Jersey at
Princeton in 1787 (Betts, 1968; Ballou, 1976). Apparently Princeton was a campus especially
fond of sports. Moreau de St. Méry, an author of the late 18th century, noted “at Princeton
College, … sport and licentious habits are said to absorb the pupils more than study” (Ballou,
1976, p. 6; Moreau, in Roberts & Roberts, 1947).
APPROACHING REVOLUTION: THE

FOUNDING FATHERS, PHYSICAL
EDUCATION, AND SPORT
In colonial times, several well-known future leaders
of the American Revolution recorded their opinions
concerning health and fitness. Benjamin Franklin, Dr.
Benjamin Rush, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson,
all signatories to the Declaration of Independence
in 1776, contributed to the literature and thought
concerning physical activity and sport. Their thoughts
would have been noteworthy even if they had not
been revolutionary leaders, but they offer a glimpse
into the Enlightenment in the American colonies.
Franklin’s 1749 pamphlet Proposals Relating to
the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania advocated
for boys’ activities such as wrestling, running, and
Figure 6.4 Dr. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813), an
jumping. He also favored swimming as a healthful
Enlightenment thinker, exerted great influence over
activity suitable for youth. The proposals in this
the attitudes toward physical activity and health in document were incorporated into the founding of
the late 18th century, just as the United States was the Academy of Philadelphia, which later became the
becoming a nation in its own right. University of Pennsylvania.

Another proposal for an institution of higher learning, in this case a federal university, was put
forth by a physician from Philadelphia, Dr. Benjamin Rush. He was in favor of any exercise that
could lead to better health, elegance, and strength following the classical ideal of mind, body, and
spirit (morals). He agreed with Franklin that swimming could be beneficial, but he also favored
tennis, golf, skating, jumping, quoits, horseback riding, and bowling. Counseling healthful diet,
exercise, and avoidance of hard liquors, his writings achieved wide popularity and continued to
be circulated well into the 19th century. Among other works, his Sermons to Gentlemen Upon
Temperance and Exercise (1772) and his On the Amusements and Punishments Proper for Schools
(1790) are of particular interest to scholars in physical education and kinesiology.
A copious writer, colonial lawyer John Adams was a lifelong proponent of exercise for health
and well-being. “Exercise invigorates, and enlivens all the Faculties of Body and of Mind. It
arouses our Animal Spirits, it disperses Melancholy. It spreads a gladness and Satisfaction over
our minds and qualifies us for every Sort of Buisiness (sic), and every Sort of Pleasure,” he
wrote (Adams, in Butterfield, 1961, p. 27). His views were shared by his contemporary, Thomas
Jefferson, who advocated two hours per day of walking, riding, and shooting (Betts, 1968).
FEMALE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN COLONIAL AMERICA

For colonial women, the amount of physical activity varied between the upper and lower classes
and between different ethnic groups. Like the men of the time, most women were expected to be
industrious, and the need for physical labor required strength and endurance. The demands of
childbirth and motherhood added to the need for health fitness.
Many women of the time participated vigorously in the same types of sports men enjoyed.
In New York, for example, women played tennis, bowling, ninepins, fishing, shooting, riding,
and ice skating. Generally, their pastimes were spontaneous, pleasant diversions rather than
organized competitions.
The most popular exercise for women (and men) was social dance. Rich and poor, regardless
of age, ethnicity, or national origin, all groups danced with great enjoyment, except where
forbidden by religious restrictions. Dances travel with immigrants, so the latest European dances
migrated as well. Slaves not only had the dances of their African countries’ traditions, but they
also imitated the manners and movements of the plantation owners in their fancy dress dances.
The dances of the different Native American groups reinforced traditional roles for men and
women while celebrating their cultures, histories, physical strength, and endurance.
While the stately minuet suited the clothing and hair fashions of the upper class with its
gently rising and falling steps, courtly dances of English and Scottish provenance also found
favor in the posh ballrooms of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. Contra dances, or longways
dances in which groups of two or three couples dance repetitive patterns, then move up or
down opposing lines to dance with different groups, could be danced by as many people as
could fit in the dancing space. Folk dances from different countries helped immigrants maintain
their traditions and their music within their communities. Folk dances and dances of slaves or
indigenous peoples often contained ancient ritualistic elements, moving them beyond mere
physical activity to a religious or spiritual realm.

Figure 6.5 This 19th-century wood engraving by Winslow Homer shows a contra dance, or longways dance,
taking place after a work bee of corn husking.
SUMMARY
questions.
• Among the sports we know were played by indigenous peoples in North America are
versions of lacrosse, double-ball, shinny, and footraces.
• Sports and recreational gambling were common among indigenous peoples and colonists.
• Different sports and pastimes played in different regions of colonial America, depending on
socioeconomic status, ethnicity, religion, climate, topography, and immigration patterns.
• Puritan and Quaker beliefs affected participation in physical activities, often restricting
them with legislation concerning Sabbath-day activities; those restrictions were relaxed over
time and did not forbid all physical exercises and pastimes.
• Of the Founding Fathers of the American Revolution, most prominently, Benjamin Franklin,
Dr. Benjamin Rush, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson promoted exercise through their
writings.
• Women of all socioeconomic strata and ethnicities participated in sports in colonial America.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Cross-cultural Understanding (Discussion): Watch the film Spirit Game: Pride of a Nation
(available from XLRator Media, http://www.xlratormedia.com/film/spirit-game-pride-nation)
to see how the game of lacrosse continues to serve as a vital part of the culture of the
Iroquois Nation. Hold a class discussion about the film and what it reveals about the role
of the game in their culture, the place of the Iroquois people in international sports, and
perceptions of the Iroquois in North American sports history.
2. Primary Sources Research (Research): Read Joseph Seccombe’s Business and diversion
inoffensive to God, and necessary for the comfort and support of human society. A
discourse utter’d in part at Ammauskeeg-Falls, in the fishing-season, available at https://
www.library.unh.edu/special/images/finaid/milne/seccombe.pdf. Starting at page 16, how
does he justify the sport of fishing from the standpoint of his religious beliefs?
3. Education Through the Physical (Research): Discuss the beliefs of Benjamin Franklin
and Dr. Benjamin Rush as they pertained to the development of educational institutions in
Pennsylvania (see text and References list for sources). What forms of physical education
did they recommend? For whom (e.g., men, women, different ethnicities, socioeconomic
levels)? At what institutions? Were their ideas implemented in schools?
4. Dance Reconstruction (Kinesthetic): Using the cue sheets available under “Education” at
www.lloydshaw.org and music recordings available at that site under “Store,” reconstruct
and dance a typical colonial American contra dance that came from England: the Virginia
Reel, Thady You Gander, or Weaver’s Reel. For additional research, do an online search for
the Virginia Reel and related dances. Notice that instructions and figures vary between
different sources. Why do you think that is? Is it important to always dance only the original
version? How could you research to find out what the earliest known version of the dance
might have been?
FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 6.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ball_players.jpg.
Fig. 6.2: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%27Militia_Training%27_by_James_G._
Clonney,_1841.JPG.
Fig. 6.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schuylkill_Fishing_Company.png.

Fig. 6.4: Source: https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-101428039-img.
Fig. 6.5: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_dance_after_the_husking_
(Boston_Public_Library).jpg.
REFERENCES
Ballou, R. B. (1976, April). Sports, physical activity and recreation in early American history.
Paper presented at the meeting of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education
(NASPE), American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (AAHPER),
Milwaukee, WI.
Becker, M. J. (1985, January). Lacrosse: Political organization in North America as reflected in
athletic competition. Expedition Magazine [Penn Museum], 27(2), 53–56.
Betts, J. R. (1968). Mind and body in early American thought. Journal of American History, 54(4),
787–805.
Butterfield, L. H. (Ed.). (1961). Diary and autobiography of John Adams, Vol. I: Diary 1755–1770.
Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Davis, T. R. (1972). Puritanism and physical education: The shroud of gloom lifted. Canadian
Journal of History of Sport & Physical Education, 3(1), 1–7.
Franklin, B. (1749). Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania. Retrieved from
https://archives.upenn.edu/digitized-resources/docs-pubs/franklin-proposals
Gems, G. R., Borish, L. J., & Pfister, G. (2017). Sports in American history: From colonization to
globalization. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Haag, M., & Millis, H. (2001). Choctaw Language & Culture: Chahta Anumpa. Norman, OK:
University of Oklahoma Press.
Irigoyen-Rascón, F., & Batista, J. M. P. (2012). Rarajípari: The kick-ball race of the Tarahumara
Indians (3rd ed.). Chihuahua, Mexico: Centro Librero la Prensa. Retrieved from https://www.
amazon.com/Rarajipari-Kick-Ball-Tarahumara-Indians-ebook/dp/B0092IUWFE
Jacques, A. (December 2018). [Conversation at Onondaga Nation from the Earth Craft Fair,
December 8].
Keith, S. E. (1999). Native American women in sport. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation,
and Dance, 70(4), 47–49.
Lumpkin, A. (2017). Introduction to physical education, exercise science, & sport (10th ed.). New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Mather, C. (1721/1968). The Christian philosopher: A collection of the best discoveries in nature,
with religious improvements. Gainesville, FL: Scholars’ Facsimiles & Reprints.
Rasmussen, H. C. (2018). The life and death of raquette in nineteenth-century New Orleans.
Sport History Review, 49(1), 23–38.
Roberts, K., & Roberts, A. M. (Eds.). (1947). Moreau de St. Méry’s American Journey (1793–1798)
(K. Roberts & A. M. Roberts, Trans.). Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Runes, D. D. (Ed.) (1947). The selected writings of Benjamin Rush. New York, NY: Philosophical
Library.
Seccombe, J. (1739/1743). Business and diversion inoffensive to God, and necessary for the comfort
and support of human society. A discourse utter’d in part at Ammauskeeg-Falls, in the fishing-
season. Boston, MA: S. Kneeland and T. Green. Retrieved from https://www.library.unh.edu/
special/images/finaid/milne/seccombe.pdf

Sheridan, T. (1780). A General Dictionary of the English Language. Menston, England: Solar
Press, 1967.
Taylor, M. (November, 2018) The Native American athlete. Lecture presented at State University
of New York, College at Cortland.
Zeigler, E. F. (1988). History of physical education and sport (rev. ed.). Champaign, IL: Stipes.
Zirin, D. (2008). A people’s history of sports in the United States: 250 years of politics, protest,
people, and play. New York, NY: New Press.

C H APTER 7
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN 19TH-CENTURY EUROPE

• How did the political changes in
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and 19th-century Europe affect physical
education?
Rationalism: philosophical viewpoint that reason is the basis
of knowledge, rather than emotion or experience • Who were the main proponents
Temperance: avoidance of alcohol; temperance movements of German, Danish, and Swedish

in the 19th century sought to curtail or stop alcohol
gymnastics?
consumption
• What were the goals of the British
Women’s suffrage: the right of women to vote; a suffragette
is a woman working toward that goal sports model?
British public school: a private (usually boarding) school for • How did the idea of muscular
ages 11–19, open to the whole of Britain rather than to
local students only; examples are Rugby, Eton, and Harrow Christianity reverberate through the
Muscular Christianity: use of athletics to develop self- work of the YMCA?
discipline, endurance, strength, and fortitude for a life of
Christian values and service; primarily evident in British • How did the waltz challenge social
sports from the Victorian era and exemplified through the
dance traditions?
novels of Thomas Hughes
Corps de ballet: the ensemble dancers of a ballet, whose job
is to provide living frames for the principal dancers and to
dance large group pieces
Character dance: in classical ballet, dances loosely based on
the folk dances of various countries such as Spain, Poland,
Italy, Hungary, and Russia
Divertissements: in classical ballet, dance diversions that
are meant to entertain but do not necessarily advance the
narrative plot; may be character dances, duets, or smaller
groups of the corps de ballet, or dances of the entire corps
de ballet

INTRODUCTION En travestie: in ballet, dancing in the clothing and
character of the opposite gender
The 19th century was a turbulent one, filled with Waltz: a social dance form for couples based on
exciting historical events and changes. Under the turning steps, done to music that has three beats
influence of rationalism, the people of 18th-century per measure
Europe had embraced a reasoned, fact-based paradigm Philanthropinum: founded in Dessau, Germany, in
that continued to present challenges to the remaining 1774 by Johann Bernhardt Basedow, this school
European traditions of class structures. From the featured daily physical education and healthy
Napoleonic Wars through various countries’ efforts at physical activity
national unification, from the War of 1812 through the
Schnepfenthal Institute: founded by Christian
Franco-Prussian War, from the US Civil War through Salzmann in 1784, this German boarding school
the Spanish-American War, the emphasis in Western was patterned after the Philanthropinum and was
cultures was on increased industrialization, imperialism, home to Johann GutsMuths’s physical education
and social Darwinism. The need for military readiness system of gymnastics for youth
inspired many educators to embrace physical education
Nationalism: any extremist form of patriotism;
as a vital component of the educational process, resulting may include denigrating people of other nations,
in the inclusion of physical education in public schools advocating purity of language, and promoting
throughout Europe as well as in the United States. military readiness and might
During this part of the modern era of sports, a
Turnverein: organization devoted to the pursuit of
different ideal of sports developed in England, partially
German gymnastics and patriotic nationalism
influenced by British public school sports. Christianity
continued to be an important influence, too, through Turners: German gymnasts
the YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association) and the Turnplatz: an outdoor space for gymnastics, generally
idea of muscular Christianity. Muscular Christianity featuring a horse-like vault, rings, ladders, ropes,
used athletics to encourage male health and fitness for a high bar, parallel bars, and room for fencing and
life of Christian service and self-discipline. other exercise and sports
Social changes for women included efforts to make Turnfests: outdoor physical contests for German
useful leisure activities available to all classes as well as gymnasts
active involvement in the temperance (anti-alcohol) and
suffragette (women’s voting rights) movements during Turnvater: gymnastic father; a term of honor for
Friedrich Jahn, who started the turnverein
this era, and the changes were reflected in the sports and
movement and developed the turnen system
recreational opportunities afforded to women. We will
examine these in more detail in the following chapter, Sokol gymnastics: a Czech-centric gymnastic system
but this chapter will provide some additional historical developed in contrast to the German gymnastics of
context for European girls and women in physical Friedrich Jahn
education and recreational sports. Ordnungsübungen: ordered exercises done on
command under the method developed by Adolf
Spiess for German public school physical education
Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 91

Normal schools: teacher training
schools, where prospective In the world of dance, great schools of classical
instructors could learn the norms ballet were developed in Italy and Russia. The ballets
expected of educational institutions
Swan Lake, The Nutcracker, Sleeping Beauty, and Giselle
Boom: a piece of Swedish gymnastic were choreographed featuring the corps de ballet in
equipment, resembling a wooden long white tutus and dances of different nationalities
ship’s mast laid horizontally on in character dance segments called divertissements.
supports Unfortunately, as the century wore on, fewer and
Stall bars: a form of wooden ladder fewer males were attracted to the art form, and by the
attached to walls in the Swedish end of the 1800s, women often took on male roles en
gymnastics system travestie (dressed as males) out of necessity.
British public school ideal: an However, in the ballrooms, the waltz was king,
emphasis on sports, even at though it initially shocked the society matrons of the
the expense of academics, was time. Contrasted with the stately minuet of the previous
seen as leading to ideal character century, the waltz gave dancers a new standard of
traits of loyalty, honesty, good public intimacy with their partners. Contra dances
sportsmanship, teamwork, and and quadrilles continued to enliven ballrooms and
leadership, all of which were felt to taverns, but the waltz was revolutionary in more ways
be desirable in Britain’s upper classes
than one.
Women’s rational recreation:
middle- and upper-class women
in Great Britain used settlement GERMAN GYMNASTICS
houses and groups of religious
women to provide physical
Have you ever wondered where the equipment for
education to lower-class girls and
women; their purpose was to guide men’s and women’s gymnastics competitions comes
their recreational activities into from? Who invented the equipment, where was it used,
wholesome pastimes and how long has it been around? For the answers, we
need to turn to Germany.
YMCA: founded in London in 1844 by
After losing to Napoleon’s army at the Battle of
George Williams, the Young Men’s
Christian Association began as a Austerlitz in 1806, the last Holy Roman Emperor,
prayer and Bible study group but Francis II of Germany, abdicated—though he
eventually embraced muscular remained emperor of Austria—and the Holy Roman
Christianity and incorporated Empire was essentially dissolved after a thousand years
athletics and recreational pastimes of European political, social, and religious influence.
Muscular Judaism: in the late 19th The French influences of humanism and Rousseau’s
century, some Jewish leaders naturalism caught hold in the city of Dessau, where
hoping for establishment of a Jewish Johann Bernhardt Basedow (1724–1790) had founded
state encouraged gymnastics to what he called a Philanthropinum, the first educational
build the self-assurance, health, and institution in Europe to offer daily physical education
strength of Jews (Zeigler, 1988).
Quadrille: dance for four, French in The Philanthropinum (which roughly translates as
origin “a place for friends of humanity”) was a revolutionary
educational institution. Recognizing that children
Cotillion: dance for four couples in
were not merely little adults, the school uniform did
which the basic sequence of steps
alternates with changes or variations away with powdered wigs, formal attire, and other
trappings of the 18th century. Only half the school
Round dances: dances in which day was devoted to academics, with the rest being
couples dance around a room in a
circle, generally counterclockwise

Figure 7.1 A drawing of Basedow’s carpentry workshop, showing the freedom of movement possible
in the school uniform of the Philanthropinum.
allocated to physical activities. The revised simple clothing allowed great freedom of movement,
which was helpful because students spent three hours per day in physical recreation (dancing,
riding, and fencing, for example) and two hours per day in manual activity (carpentry, masonry,
and crafts). During the summer months, Basedow had the children learn to live in tents while
they practiced hunting, swimming, fishing, and boating. Basedow hired a teacher who is now
considered by many scholars to have been the first physical educator of the modern era, Johann
Friedrich Simon (Dixon, 1986; Mechikoff & Estes, 1998).
Johann Friedrich Simon’s curriculum was developmental and attuned to the natural
development of children. For younger children, participation in ancient Greek games and
contests strengthened their muscles and allowed for rough-and-tumble recreation. Older
students refined their physical skills with knightly activities such as riding, dancing, vaulting
(over live horses!), and fencing. Hand-eye coordination was encouraged through tennis, ball
games, and skittles, among other games (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998).
Despite Basedow’s reputation for being a difficult colleague, his novel approach to education
drew great educators to the Philanthropinum, including Christian Salzmann (1744–1811), who
worked under Basedow and founded his own school in 1784. Salzmann’s Schnepfenthal Institute
was patterned after Basedow’s Philanthropinum. A greater emphasis on outdoor activities,
healthy living with good food and lots of sleep and recreation time, and classrooms streaming
with light all contributed to the success of the Schnepfenthal Institute, which has survived to the
present (Dixon, 1986).
Saltzmann hired a young geography professor named Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1759–
1839) whose additional abilities as a physical educator soon became apparent. GutsMuths took

Basedow’s writings and developed experimental exercise regimens with important theoretical
and practical implications. In Gymnastik für die Jugend (Gymnastics for Youth, 1793), he
emphasizes the interconnections between mind and body, describes gymnastic exercises and
other recreational activities, and argues for physical education for girls to encourage health and
beauty. In 1796, he went on to write another book, in which he described international games
and discussed the nature of play. His final book was a practical guide for swimming instruction
(1798), which he viewed as an essential safety concern at a time when many people did not know
how to swim because fashionable people simply bathed without actually knowing how to perform
swimming strokes.
GutsMuths used climbing ropes, exercises to train sensory awareness, rope ladders, vaulting
equipment shaped like a horse, exercises to train the aesthetic sensibilities, dance lessons,
fencing, balancing equipment, swimming, camping, archery, military drills, and speech
exercises, all often performed in outdoor settings, though indoor equipment was also available
to the students. His work as an advocate
for gymnastics and physical education to
promote health and fitness as part of a strong
nation had lasting impact, and demand for
gymnastics programs led to greater demand
for teacher training in his methods. He
taught gymnastics to the age of 76, and his
50 years of service and writing earned him
a place in history as the founder of modern
physical education (Dixon, 1986; Mechikoff
& Estes, 1988).
Figuratively standing on the shoulders of
Basedow, Simon, Salzmann, and GutsMuths,
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778–1852) was a
German nationalist whose lifelong goal was
to promote German spiritual renewal and
strength, nationwide physical education,
unification of Germany’s various states, and
patriotic pride. He felt humiliated by the
defeat of the Prussian army by Napoleon
at the Battle of Jena and Auerstedt, and his
militaristic zeal led him to work for physical
education of all Germans, regardless of age
or class differences (Polidoro, 2000).
After founding a secret society called
the German League with two compatriots,
Jahn began teaching gymnastics and
physical exercise in Berlin. Beginning in
1811, he created what would be known as
the turnverein movement. Using exercises
similar to those of GutsMuths’s, his turners
Figure 7.2 Boys climbing ropes, from GutsMuths’s book, (German gymnasts) practiced their skills
Gymnastics for Youth (1793). at a turnplatz (an outdoor gymnastics area

with apparatus) and engaged in turnfests (outdoor gymnastics festivals). Consequently, he was
called Turnvater (gymnastics father) Jahn (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998).
German gymnastics encouraged manly development of strength through use of apparatus
including parallel bars, ropes, horse-shaped vaults, and balance beams. Women were generally
excluded from the turnplatz not only to preserve their modesty (they could only exercise in
skirts), but also to minimize the risks to health and attractiveness that were believed to accompany
vigorous exercise, according to the physicians of the time (Dine, 2003). Their energies were
needed for motherhood; any excessive attention to their bodies could be a potential threat to
their femininity and morality. It was even feared that since their bodies opened at the genital
area, strenuous exercise could induce prolapse, in which inner tissues would protrude through
the openings of their nether regions (Pfister, 1981).
Jahn and other gymnasts fought with the Lützow Free-Corps in the revolution against
the French occupation, where he achieved great success as an army recruiter of volunteers.
With Prussia liberated, his attention became more focused on the turner societies, which had
become popular throughout Germany, believing that they alone (rather than the military or the
educational system) held the key to true German nationalism. Students at the University of Jena
took up the cause and formed a Burschenschaft (student society) following the ideals of Jahn’s
German League in 1815. German students and turners became more violent over the next few
years, with activities culminating in acts of vandalism, riots, and murder.
Figure 7.3 Photo taken in 1931 of the oldest horse-vaulting apparatus in Germany.

The result was the banning of turner societies and gymnastics from 1819 to 1842. Jahn was
arrested and detained at Spandau Fortress, then at another prison, and later under house arrest,
between 1820 and 1825. The charge was vague, involving activities of a secret and treasonous
nature. The German princes and King Friedrich Wilhelm III had been alarmed by the populist
nature of turner societies and the political implications of an egalitarian class-free society. While
the turnvereine were closed, German gymnastics continued under different names in schools,
emphasizing healthful fitness, military readiness, and manliness. It was only after the more
liberal King Friedrich Wilhelm IV came to power that the gymnasts were able to meet openly
again, although Jahn himself was nevermore permitted to live in a town containing a university
or even a gymnasium (Dixon, 1986; Mechikoff & Estes, 1998; Polidoro, 2000).
Jahn did not live to see the eventual unification of Germany under Otto von Bismarck, which
came only after the defeat of the French in 1871 in the Franco-Prussian War. Following the
creation of Bismarck’s Second German Reich that year, the organization of the turners fell to a
new group, the Deutsche Turnerschaft (the German Turners’ Association). The societies became
less political and more focused on calisthenics, competitions, and group functions, eventually
even letting women perform exercises for an exhibition at the 1896 turnfest. Females were
eventually allowed to compete in turnfests in the 1920s (Polidoro, 2000).
According to Ueberhorst (1979), Jahn’s influence throughout Europe was considerable.
Wherever Germans settled, gymnastics clubs followed: London, Paris, Luxembourg, Switzerland,
the Netherlands, Italy, Russia, Romania, Hungary, Greece, and Austria all had clubs. In Belgium,
educators took up German gymnastics and morphed it into a Belgian method. An alternative
gymnastics method called Sokol (falcon) gymnastics began in Bohemia (an area inhabited by
Czech-speaking citizens). Developed by two doctors, Miroslav Tyrš and Henry Fugner in the
Figure 7.4 Drawing of the Spiess turnplatz in Basel, Switzerland (1847), from his book on gymnastics for schoolchildren.

1860s, it offered a similar populist, liberal philosophy to that of German gymnastics, but with a
Czech-centered focus on national customs and language. Sokol gymnastics was open to women
as well as men (Mandell, 1984).
It is important to note that an alternative to Jahn’s more liberal turner beliefs came to Germany
through the Prussian Cabinet’s recommendation of a system devised by Adolph Spiess
(1810–1858) in the 1840s. Spiess’s curriculum allowed for the inclusion of girls in physical
education classes and eventually became the official public school model throughout Germany.
His developmental approach included examinations to qualify to move up to the next level of
exercises, Ordnungsübungen (ordered exercises on command), colleges of physical education to
produce qualified instructors, and inspectors to supervise and provide assistance and guidance.
The goal of Spiess’s curriculum was authoritarian, based on submission and obedience on
command, rather than the more democratic method of the turners (Dixon, 1986).
Although German gymnastics exerted tremendous influence throughout Europe (and the
United States, as we will see in the next chapter), the history of physical education includes other
important contributions, particularly from the countries of Denmark, Sweden, and Great Britain.
Other countries employed physical educators, of course, but their methods and philosophies
are less well known: it is another of the areas
ripe for historical research. We turn our
attention next to the Scandinavian countries,
beginning with Denmark.
DANISH GYMNASTICS
In the history of Danish physical education,
one name stands above all in terms of
influence. Early in life, Franz Nachtegall
(1777–1847) had been an outstanding
fencer and gymnastic vaulter. When his
father, a German tailor who had settled in
Copenhagen, passed away, Nachtegall left
university studies to become a tutor. Like
GutsMuths, he taught geography. After
reading GutsMuths’s Gymnastik für die Jugend,
Nachtegall began teaching GutsMuths-style
gymnastics in addition to tutoring other
subjects. He opened a successful gymnasium
(using the familiar hanging ladders, balance
beam, vaulting horse, and poles) and also
taught at public and private schools.
It was perhaps also GutsMuths’s influence
as well as his own humble beginnings and love
of swimming that led Nachtegall to create the Figure 7.5 Danish physical education pioneer Franz Nachtegall
Society for Promoting the Art of Swimming, (1777–1847). His influence led to Denmark’s becoming the first
serving poorer Danish children with lessons European country to include physical training in its schools as
and competitive opportunities. He was soon an essential part of coursework.

appointed as a professor of gymnastics at the University of Copenhagen and became Director of
the Military Gymnastic Institute, which gave a nationalistic tinge to his system.
Nachtegall advocated for required physical education in Danish schools, and his efforts
(along with the help of former student Prince Frederick) led to laws requiring gymnastics in
secondary schools and later also (for boys only) in elementary schools. Despite a law compelling
teacher training colleges to require gymnastics training, proper and thorough physical education
coursework lagged, and qualified teachers were hard to find. However, his efforts continued and
eventually led to relatively short-lived normal schools for physical education instructors, first for
men, and later for women, in the 1830s.
He had worked with several colleagues to publish a Manual of Gymnastics for the Village and
Town Schools of Denmark (1828), which led the king to command that gymnastics instruction
be included in all Danish schools. Still, owing to a lack of qualified instructors until the normal
school graduates were able to assume positions, many of Denmark’s early instructors came from
a military background. After the normal schools closed in the late 1850s, military gymnastics
achieved lasting prominence in that country (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998).
In addition to his work on behalf of girls in physical education, Nachtegall was notable for his
energy and persistence in advocacy. His combination of natural physical abilities, teaching gifts,
written communication skills, networking, and administrative adroitness served his goals well.
He is a model of inspiration for those with vision and self-discipline in the physical education
field, even though his version of GutsMuths’s gymnastics was destined to remain somewhat
geographically isolated.
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS
The Swedish system was created by Per Henrik Ling (1776–1839), who had studied with
Nachtegall in Denmark. Like many physical educators of the time, he had had some university
education but had dropped out and become a private tutor in academic subjects. However, his
decision to enroll in the University of Copenhagen and take up gymnastics and fencing changed
his life as he discovered the physical benefits of exercise in his own body.
Sweden suffered political losses in the Napoleonic wars due to an alliance with England that
allowed ships to use the ports of Sweden. In retribution, the Russians attacked Finland (in 1808,
it was part of Sweden), taking a vast amount of land. Following losses to the French in the
southern parts of the kingdom, King Gustavus IV Adolf of Sweden was removed by his own
forces in 1809 and replaced by his childless uncle, Charles XIII, whose powers were limited by
a new constitution and the Swedish Diet (ruling entity). An heir was found in a related French
aristocrat, who became Charles XIV in 1818.
Ling had been appointed fencing master of the Royal Military Academy in 1813, but with
the financial support of King Charles XIII, he established and directed the Royal Gymnastics
Central Institute in 1814. There, he devised a system using four general aspects of exercise:
• aesthetic,
• military,
• pedagogical, and
• medical.

Figure 7.6 A postcard from 1902 showing a Swedish gymnasium at the Norrköping Military School. Notice the
resemblance to a ship’s rigging, with ladders, ropes, and a central mast (boom).
With goals including harmonious development of the body following gradually increased
difficulty of exercises, a strong nationalist sentiment, and healthful unity of the mind and bodily
systems, Ling’s gymnastics differed from Jahn’s system mainly in the degree of complexity of the
exercises. Swedish gymnastics emphasized correct posture, sometimes forcing students to hold
positions for extended periods of time while teachers made corrections to achieve the precise
effect demanded by Ling (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998; Polidoro, 2000).
The equipment also varied from that used by German gymnastics. As a nation with extensive
coastlines, it was perhaps natural that a piece of wooden apparatus resembling a ship’s mast,
called a boom, was featured. Wooden stall bars were another innovation, resembling a ladder
with close-spaced rungs attached close to a wall. Oblique ropes, resembling a ship’s rigging, were
part of the gymnasium. In place of the German vault resembling a horse, Ling’s vaulting apparatus
was an ingenious set of interlocking boxes that could be adjusted to the height requirements of
different ages (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998).
In the realm of health, Ling is known as the father of physical therapy and developed the basis
of what came to be known as Swedish massage. His medical gymnastics was popularly called the
Swedish Movement Cure (Beck, 2010).
Ling’s son, Hjalmar Ling, carried Swedish gymnastics into the public schools throughout
Sweden. He initiated a series of exercises known as the Day’s Order, which covered 11 different
parts of the body in a systematic directed set of movements, providing an apparatus-free workout
that could be learned and used across the country by instructors of varying degrees of experience.
THE BRITISH SPORTS IDEAL

Contrasting the ordered, instructor-led Swedish gymnastics model, physical education in Great
Britain developed along very different lines. In order to understand the difference, it is essential
to grasp a broad overview of British education. For pupils who were not taught at home or

in private lessons with a local cleric, for example, the grammar schools of the 17th and 18th
centuries offered local education for younger students. In the 18th century, private local schools
emerged as an alternative for a rising middle class with the means to pay for them. Some of
the grammar schools, meanwhile, had turned to taking in boarding students (as Eton and
Winchester always had), which meant that they could accept students from local gentry and
the entire country as well as foreign students. Hence, Winchester, Eton, Westminster, Harrow,
Charterhouse, Shrewsbury, and Rugby became the seven main “public” schools (Money, 1997).
Students in these schools likely grew up playing local games and sports as children,
participating in contests of a folk version of football on holidays such as Shrovetide (the last
Tuesday before the traditional Christian Lenten season). The expectation of their parents on
sending their boys to public schools was that their children would be brought up with self-
discipline, fortitude, and the ability to become leaders in British society.
To this end, sports were encouraged to develop traits of loyalty, honesty, teamwork, good
sportsmanship, and leadership as parts of the British public school ideal. It is not too great a
leap to see the connection between this ideal and the Greek and Roman ideals; after all, students
would be studying the classics at these schools (Anderson, 2010). A public school education
included academics, of course, but outstanding scholarship was not the ultimate goal for most
students. The British sports ideal fostered a sense of fellowship with one’s teammates, forging
connections that would maintain the social status quo while encouraging fond memories of
school days. Games such as fives (handball), cricket, football, and pastimes such as fishing,
archery, boating, and swimming were promoted as healthy recreation.
One author who reminisced about his school days at Rugby (and later at Oxford) was Thomas
Hughes, who wrote Tom Brown’s School Days (1857). This ode to childhood hijinks in a public
school, complete with bullies, sporting matches, and many opportunities for recreational play
and pastimes, presents the quintessential novel of what would become known as muscular
Christianity. Muscular Christianity takes its name from a passage in the Bible: “What? know ye
not that your body is the temple of the Holy Ghost which is in you, which ye have of God, and
ye are not your own?” (I Corinthians, 6:19, King James Version). The body was seen as a gift
from God, and Christian people therefore had a responsibility to develop its strength and keep it
healthy in order to live full, cheerful, manly lives as servants of God on earth.
In the chapter of Tom Brown’s School Days entitled Tom Brown’s Last Match, Tom and a
schoolmaster have a conversation about the nobility of cricket.
“Come, none of your irony, Brown,” answers the master. “I’m beginning to understand
the game scientifically. What a noble game it is, too.”
“Isn’t it? But it’s more than a game. It’s an institution,” said Tom.
“Yes,” said Arthur, “the birthright of British boys old and young, as habeas corpus and
trial by jury are of British men.”
“The discipline and reliance on one another which it teaches is so valuable I think,” went
on the master, “it ought to be such an unselfish game. It merges the individual in the
eleven; he doesn’t play that he may win, but that his side may.” (Hughes, p. 290)

Figure 7.7 Muscular Christianity in action: the cricket match,
from the 6th edition (1911) of Tom Brown’s School Days by
Thomas Hughes.
Rather than practice sports drills or spend time trying to become virtuosic players, the British
schoolboy simply learned by playing the game. In terms of football (what we now call soccer), this
was not as simple as it sounds, because each public school had its own rules, and the rules were
different from the many versions of folk football played throughout Great Britain. Sometimes
even within a public school, the different houses (dormitories) would have different rules, and
negotiations over how many people could play for each side, how big the pitch (playing field)
would be, what would serve as goals, how big the goals would be, would holding or tackling be
allowed, and so forth could take a while. The games were self-regulated by students, so there
were no referees or coaches to determine boundaries or rules.
This obstacle to interschool play and intercity games led to different solutions. In the case
of Rugby, the school maintained its traditional rules and their game is now known by the name
of the school. For town residents who wanted to play, a different solution was found. In 1863,
the Football Association was formed to reach a standardized set of rules that would allow for
municipal teams to play other municipalities (Mangan, 1988). That led to what became known
as association football. The word soccer comes from British slang for the abbreviation for
association, or assoc. Fun fact. But we digress.
The British sports ideal carried over into the realm of amateur sport as a means of class-
consciousness. While the Football Association made intercity league play possible, it also led
to the rise of professional players, often from lower classes, who played for money rather than
for love of the game. They honed their skills with practice and dedication, devoting more time
and energy to their sport than could upper-class athletes who played on a much more casual
basis, as they had learned in their public school days (Harvey, 1999; Lewis, 1999). Despite initial
resistance by upper-class amateurs, eventually professionalism became the norm in league play,
and aristocrats found recreation in the more exclusive sporting pastimes of yachting, horseracing,

big game hunting, and polo, for example. This was an example of Darwin’s theory of evolution as
it was interpreted into social Darwinism through exclusion of lower classes from certain sports
activities. In some ways, it was a continuation of the older British rules concerning sports, when
commoners were forbidden to hunt in the king’s forest or play skittles on the Sabbath, their only
day off from labor.
MUSCULAR CHRISTIANITY, THE YMCA, AND JEWISH GYMNASTICS

All classes of society were welcome at the new Christian Bible study group founded in 1844
by a group of 12 men led by a London draper named George Williams. Primarily organized
to provide a place of prayer and refuge from the clamor and temptations of London’s streets, it
would be decades before gymnasiums would become a regular part of the newly formed Young
Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) (Baker, 1994). In fact, sports were seen as just another
temptation, encouraging people to wager and spend money on sporting equipment and sporting
event admissions, when funds might be put to better use on charitable programs for the poor. It
was felt that physical development could lead to vanity and sinful self-adulation.
However, over the years it became apparent that membership in YMCAs was faltering across
Britain, and some local chapters began to offer athletic activities and facilities as an enticement
for young men to join. As youth left agricultural towns for industrial cities, the idea of having
clubs open to all, with fitness opportunities and Christian morality readily available, gained
traction. Despite objections over the association with smoking and gambling, billiard rooms
were eventually added to many YMCAs by popular demand.
As a way to attract and keep young men engaged and strong for the work of spreading the
Christian gospel, the YMCA seemed a natural vehicle for the spread of muscular Christianity.
Far from the prevalent stereotype of the weak, slender, stoop-shouldered, wan cleric, muscular
Christians provided a healthy, attractive model of manliness. They were fit for missionary work
at home or abroad (Garnham, 2001).
Christianity was not the only religion to embrace physical fitness in the 19th century. Jewish
sports clubs calling themselves “Maccabi” or sometimes “Bar Kochba” were formed. Sometimes
clubs were established in reaction to anti-Semitism encountered in German patriotic turnvereine;
this was the case with expatriate German Jews who founded the Israelitische Turnverein
in Constantinople in 1895, for example, as well as in Bulgaria in 1897. Muscular Judaism
(Muskeljudentum) also found adherents in the Zionist movement, where leaders like Theodor
Herzl and Max Nordau (also known as Max Südfeld) encouraged gymnastics as a natural and
necessary component of a longed-for Jewish state. Not all Jews favored the attention these efforts
drew to their people, and the real threat of anti-Semitic repercussions caused some to reject the
efforts of Herzl and Nordau (Mandell, 1984).
WOMEN’S RATIONAL RECREATION

While muscular Christianity and muscular Judaism encouraged physical fitness in men, women’s
reform societies in Great Britain flourished in the late Victorian era, with the goal of preserving
morality among lower-class women by providing interactions with upper- and middle-class
female associates, who were seen as genteel examples of feminine modesty and refined education.

Examples of such groups were the Girls (sic) Friendly Society (GFS), the Women’s Protective and
Provident League (WPPL), and the Women’s Industrial Council (WIC), all of which were aimed
at the improvement of the lower classes. With a somewhat condescending view of laboring
women, these groups worked to expose working girls and women to lectures, formal dinners,
education, lending libraries, and arts and crafts.
These efforts were the basis of women’s rational recreation, and groups of women met regularly
to try to improve the lot of poor women through guided recreational activities. Physical activities
were part of the programming, too, in private settings, settlement houses, or institutions such as
Madame Bergman Osterberg’s Physical Training College. Dancing lessons, gymnastics classes,
military drill classes, swimming, and excursions were included among the activities meant to
“improve” the girls. Prayers and the singing of hymns would complete the meetings, rounding
out the wholesome gatherings. Whether the motivation behind these efforts was altruism or a
subtle means of reaffirming class consciousness, the efforts must be recognized as an important
part of physical education activities for women in the 19th century (Parratt, 1999).
SOCIAL DANCE IN THE 19TH CENTURY

The minuet having passed into disuse, what types of dances would have been taught in the
19th century? Country dances for the common folk remained as popular as ever, and ballroom
versions of country dances likewise continued to enliven dances of the gentry. The Scottish reel
and strathspey were sometimes danced, though they were not entirely accepted in the beginning
of the century (Aldrich, 1991).
The grand march would always open a ball, and led dancers to form groups for the next
dance. Group dances like the quadrille (of French origin, it had a basic figure that could be
done with just four dancers), the cotillion, in which four couples face inward and dance as a
set following a caller’s instructions, the mazurka (of eastern European origin), the galop (as
energetic as its name suggests), the Lancers (a group dance for four couples), and contra dances
made up the program of a typical ball. However, in the 19th century, the waltz reigned supreme.
Certain German and Austrian folk dances under the collective name of German Dances were
round dances (danced in a circle around the room) in triple time, meaning the rhythm was
1-2-3, 1-2-3. The tunes and rhythm are important, because manual laborers would often sing
work songs in which the first of every three beats was accompanied by an effort such as swinging
a hammer or a scythe (Quirey, 1987; Carner, 1948). The Austrian ländler, the waltz’s immediate
predecessor, was originally sung and danced at the same time, as were the carols of old France
and England. In the taverns, woods, and river inns of Vienna in the early 1800s, tunes of Joseph
Lanner and Johann Strauss the Elder accompanied the dancers (Carner, 1948).
While the waltz nowadays seems an innocent and old-fashioned dance, its closed dance hold
with a man’s arm around a woman was a radical departure from polite ballroom dance of the
time. Imagine a young woman of the mid-1800s, tightly laced in her corset per the fashion, in a
late-night ballroom heated by candles, held close by a man with the scent of liquor and perhaps
tobacco on his breath, whirling repeatedly in his arms. The effect was intoxicating, dizzying,
and either romantic or repugnant, depending on one’s point of view and one’s partner. Could
we blame her for needing to step out onto the balcony or into the garden for some fresh air? Of
course, her partner could not let her go alone if he was a gentleman. Therein lies a risk to morality,
and part of the reason for society’s objection to waltzing. Nevertheless, for reasons that may be

obvious to you now, the dance’s
popularity only grew throughout
the 19th century. The shock it gave
the older generation was probably
an element of the attraction; our
era had a similar reaction to “dirty
dancing” and grinding.
Insofar as the waltz encouraged
recreational exercise, the pleasure
it gave men and women in that
era was important as an affective
motivation for movement. We
must remember that opportunities
for women to experience such
giddy exhilaration were extremely
limited at the time. Learning
to waltz well was an expected
accomplishment for people of
means and leisure, and a graceful
performance of the dance gave
pleasure to spectators as well,
once the initial shock wore off.
Quirey (1987) does not exaggerate
with the comment, “The advent of
Waltz in Polite Society was quite
simply the greatest change in
Figure 7.8 Engraving of a waltz, based on a painting by James Stephanoff dance form and dancing manners
(1839). The manners and demeanor of polite society are evident, as are the that has happened in our history”
joys of waltzing and being invited to join the dance. (p. 66).
SUMMARY
questions.
• Numerous wars and rising nationalism in the 19th century led to increased demand for
physical education to improve health and strength along with patriotism.
• The main proponents of German gymnastics were Johann GutsMuths, Friedrich Jahn, and
Adolph Spiess. The main proponent of Danish gymnastics was Franz Nachtegall. The main
proponents of Swedish gymnastics were Per Henrick Ling and his son, Hjalmar Ling.
• The goals of the British sports ideal were to develop traits of loyalty, honesty, teamwork, good
sportsmanship, and leadership. Professionalism and excessive drilling in skills were seen as
incompatible with this model, which emphasized participation for the sake of playing the
game.

• The YMCA used the idea of muscular Christianity to encourage membership and to prepare
young men for the physical challenges of spreading the Gospel and living moral, manly lives.
Later in the 19th century, muscular Judaism was used by Zionist leaders in Maccabi and Bar
Kochba gymnastic clubs to encourage health and fitness among Jewish youth.
• The waltz challenged social dance traditions with its closed dance position, in which couples
were brought into close, intimate physical proximity, contrary to the norms of previous
social dances.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Evolution of Gymnastics Apparatus (Visual): Find illustrations and photographs of

gymnastic apparatus from the time of Johann GutsMuths to the present, including German
and Swedish systems. Which apparatus have changed, and how? Which of the apparatus
remain part of gymnastics training today? Which are no longer used?
2. Advocacy Research (Research): GutsMuths, Jahn, Nachtegall, Ling, and others succeeded
in convincing their countries’ leaders of the importance of physical education. Find at least
three translations of different authors who wrote about German, Danish, and Swedish
gymnastics in 19th-century Europe. What arguments did they use in their writing to
promote physical activity? Could some of the same arguments be used today? How did
they perceive the role of exercise for female education?
3. Literature, Film, and the British Sports Ideal (Research): Read or watch Tom Brown’s
School Days or Tom Brown at Oxford. What specific examples of incidents in the book or
film can you find which support the British sports’ muscular Christianity? Does this ideal
persist in Great Britain’s public schools today?
4. Physical Experience (Kinesthetic): To get a better understanding of Hjalmar Ling’s Day’s

Order, read and try to demonstrate movements from one of the texts used by a later
proponent of the system in the United States, Claës J. Enebuske. The text is available online
through Google books under the title Progressive Gymnastic Day’s Orders: According to
the Principles of the Ling System. First Collection. Arranged for Class Work in Schoolrooms
Without Gymnastic Apparatus. Note that the exercises were performed to music. Try doing
them to music from the 19th century and then to popular music suggested by the class.

FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 7.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chodowiecki_Basedow_Tafel_21_a_Z.jpg.
Fig. 7.2: Copyright © by Wellcome Images, (CC BY 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Gutsmuths,_Gymnastik_fur_die_Jugend._Wellcome_L0026823.jpg.
Fig. 7.3: Copyright © 1931 by BArchBot, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-12352,_%C3%84ltestes_Turnpferd.jpg.
Fig. 7.4: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Basel_Turnplatz.jpg.
Fig. 7.5: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Franz_Nachtegall,_Director_of_
Gymnastics_at_the_Civil_Gymnastic_Institute_of_Denmark.jpg.
Fig. 7.6: S ource: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Norrk%C3%B6ping,_
milit%C3%A4rskolans_gymnastiksal_1902.jpg.
Fig. 7.7: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tom_Brown_6th_ed-p339.png.
Fig. 7.8: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Waltz_by_J_Stephanoff.png.
REFERENCES
Aldrich, E. (1991). From the ballroom to Hell: Grace and folly in nineteenth-century dance.
Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
Anderson, N. F. (2010). The sporting life: Victorian sports and games. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger/
ABC-CLIO.
Baker, W. J. (1994). To pray or to play? The YMCA question in the United Kingdom and the
United States, 1850–1900. International Journal of the History of Sport, 11(1), 42–62.
Beck, M. F. (2010). Theory and practice of therapeutic massage. Clifton Park, NY: Milady (Cengage
Learning).
Carner, M. (1948). The waltz. London, England: Max Parrish.
Dine, P. (2003). For health and beauty: Physical culture for Frenchwomen, 1880s–1930s [Review
of the book For health and beauty: Physical culture for Frenchwomen, 1880s–1930s, by M. L.
Stewart]. International Journal of the History of Sport, 20(3), 164–165.
Dixon, J. G. (1986). Prussia, politics and physical education. In P. C. McIntosh, J. G. Dixon, A.
D. Munrow, & R. F. Willetts (Eds.), Landmarks in the history of physical education (rev. ed.)
(pp. 112–155). London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Garnham, N. (2001). Both playing and praying: “Muscular Christianity and the YMCA
in north-east County Durham. Journal of Social History, 35(2), 397–407. doi: 10.1353/
jsh.2001.0122
GutsMuths, J. C. F. (1793/1803). Gymnastics for youth, or, a practical guide to healthful and
amusing exercises: For the use of schools; an essay toward the necessary improvement of
education, chiefly as it relates to the body (unknown translator). Philadelphia, PA: P. Byrne.
Harvey, A. (1999). Football’s missing link: The real story of the evolution of modern football. In
J. A. Mangan (Ed.), Sport in Europe: Politics, Class, Gender (pp. 92–116). London, England:
Frank Cass.
Hughes, T. (1857/1923). Tom Brown’s school days. Philadelphia, PA: George W. Jacobs.
Lewis, R. W. (1999). “Touched pitch and been shockingly defiled”: Football, class, social
Darwinism and decadence in England, 1880–1914. In J. A. Mangan (Ed.), Sport in Europe:
Politics, Class, Gender (pp. 92–116). London, England: Frank Cass.

Mangan, J. A. (1988). Pleasure, profit, proselytism: British culture and sport at home and abroad,
1700–1914. London, England: Frank Cass.
Mechikoff, R. A., & Estes, S. G. (1998). A history and philosophy of sport and physical education:
From ancient civilizations to the modern world (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: WCB/McGraw-Hill.
Money, T. (1997). Manly and muscular diversions: Public schools and the nineteenth-century
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Parratt, C. M. (1999). Making leisure work: Women’s rational recreation in late Victorian and
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In E. Jokl (Ed.), Medicine and Sport, Vol. 14 (pp. 58–65). Basel, Switzerland: S. Karger.
Polidoro, J. R. (2000). Sport and physical activity in the modern world. Needham Heights, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.
Quirey, B. (1987). May I have the pleasure?: The story of popular dancing. London, England:
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Zeigler, E. F. (1988). History of physical education and sport (rev. ed.). Champaign, IL: Stipes.

C H APTER 8
19TH-CENTURY PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES

• How did European teachers of
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and gymnastics influence early American
physical education?
Settlement houses: community centers in large cities, at
which immigrants and the poor could learn basic skills, • Who were some of the pioneers of
languages, and civics along with games and sports physical education in the United States?
YMCA/YWCA: Young Men’s Christian Association/Young
• Why do cities have playgrounds?
Women’s Christian Association; a membership organization
originally founded for religious study and prayer; often • What was society’s view of women and
included gymnasiums, fitness centers, and gathering
places for recreational pastimes exercise in the United States during the
YMHA/YWHA: Young Men’s Hebrew Association/Young 19th century?

Women’s Hebrew Association; similar to Christian
associations, but designed and managed to serve Jewish
members
Manifest Destiny: the 19th-century belief that the United
States was destined to spread its territory, democracy, and
capitalism across the continent of North America, from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean
Round Hill School: first school in the United States to require
daily physical education as part of the curriculum; also first
in the United States to have a physical education instructor
and to introduce German gymnastics
Monitorial system: a model in which more advanced students
assist the teacher with other students, learning by teaching
Forty-Eighters: German immigrants to the United States
who arrived after the failed German Republican revolution
of 1848 and founded turnvereine (German gymnastics
clubs) in many cities throughout this country, beginning in
Cincinnati

INTRODUCTION Swedish movement cure: based on the
physiotherapy of Per Henrik Ling, the ideas
In the previous chapter, the growing importance of contained within the cure encompassed
Swedish gymnastics, massage, diet, hygiene,
physical education as part of a comprehensive education
and environmental controls such as light and
in Europe was outlined. Now it is time to turn once temperature
again to the United States and learn the ways in which
physical education began to be recognized as part of the Kinesiology: literally, the study of motion, especially
educational process there. Immigrants brought their ideas human movement
about physical education, as well as sports from their Anthropometrics: recording of body measurements,
countries, to influence physical activities in educational sometimes to be used as a means of comparing
and social realms. Settlement houses, YMCAs, YWCAs, bodies to a standard
YMHAs, and YWHAs began to flourish in large cities to Calisthenics: fitness exercises requiring no special
welcome immigrants and help them become established apparatus or equipment, developed by Catharine
in an unfamiliar land, often using physical fitness to Beecher
encourage membership and usage.
Delsartism: a system of expressive gymnastics
There were many firsts in the 19th century in the (“applied aesthetics”) developed by French singing,
United States. The first school to offer physical education acting, and dancing instructor François Delsarte,
as part of its daily activities was founded. The first normal popular in the late 19th century
schools to provide teacher training in physical education
Tableaux mouvants: (also known as tableaux vivants)
were established. The first intercollegiate athletic
staged recreations of famous events or paintings
competitions were held. The first college degree program using Delsarte’s system of gymnastics and
in physical education was created. The first public parks movement expression
and playgrounds were planned and maintained.
There were many blights on this era, however. Phrenologist: one who studies the human skull as a
guide to character and intellectual ability; this study
Indigenous peoples were slaughtered, slaves were used
(phrenology) was popular in the 19th century
and abused, and women were afforded few rights and
privileges during this century. Wars, disease outbreaks, Light gymnastics: exercise system developed by
racial and social inequality, and economic disparity Diocletian Lewis (who called it “new gymnastics”),
caused stresses within the population. Meanwhile, the often done to music using small apparatus such
as wands, rings, Indian clubs, light dumbbells, and
concept of Manifest Destiny led to territorial battles and
beanbags
rugged frontier living, where physical labors required
especially strong, resilient men and women. From Common schools movement: led by Massachusetts
meat cutters to miners, factory workers to farmers, educational reformer Horace Mann, a 19th-century
shopkeepers to sailors, the need was obvious for healthy push for public, nondenominational education as a
basis for citizenship in a democratic society
laborers and women strong enough to bear and raise
children. In this chapter, you will gain an overview of Body building: a term coined by Boston YMCA
employee Robert J. Roberts in 1877
19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 109

Mintonette: original name of the sport
of volleyball, created by YMCA the efforts of the pioneers of physical education in the
employee William G. Morgan United States and some of the challenges they faced.
in 1895
Playground movement: in the late
1800s, efforts to provide natural ROUND HILL SCHOOL
open spaces for children and others
to play, exercise, explore, relax, and In 1820, a traveler returned to the United States
learn
from Europe to take up a position as a professor and
librarian at Harvard University. Joseph Green Cogswell
(1786–1871) had been traveling for four years abroad,
where he had studied the educational theories of Swiss
educational reformers Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
(1746–1827) and Philipp Emanuel von Fellenberg
(1771–1844). According to Geldbach (1976),
Cogswell visited Salzmann’s Schnepfenthal Institute
in Germany, where the gymnastics curriculum of
GutsMuths impressed him deeply (Geldbach, 1976).
However, Bennett (1969) disagrees somewhat on the
details of that visit, saying there is no evidence he met
directly with GutsMuths.
Growing restless at Harvard, in 1823 Cogswell
teamed up with a powerhouse of American education,
George Bancroft, whom he had known in Europe.
They were determined to try out their experimental
educational ideas at their new Round Hill School in
Northampton, Massachusetts. The school taught over
300 boys, ages 9 to 16, over the 11 years of its existence
before it closed due to financial difficulties. The
school’s prospectus promised to mold “not laborious
students only, but faithful and useful citizens”
(Cogswell & Bancroft, 1823, p. 10). In addition to
opportunities to study seven different languages,
courses in mathematics, sciences, history, geography,
and religious studies were offered. Most notably from
the perspective of this textbook, physical education
was an important part of the curriculum, making
Round Hill School the first boys’ school in the United
States to require physical education (Bennett, 1969).
Beginning in early 1825, Round Hill became the
first in the United States to have a physical education
teacher, when a student of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn,
German refugee Charles (Karl) Beck, joined the faculty
and brought German gymnastics to the students. He
built a turnplatz and translated Jahn’s textbook on
gymnastics (Deutsche Turnkunst) into English (Treatise
on Gymnastics Taken Chiefly from the German of F. L.

Figure 8.1 Lithograph of Round Hill School, Northampton, Massachusetts: the first boys’ school in the United
States to require physical education as part of the curriculum.
Jahn, 1828). For five years he contributed immensely to the school’s reputation for healthy
students, and his background as an ordained Lutheran minister dovetailed nicely with Bancroft’s
background in theology and concerns for the moral character of the students (Bennett, 1969).
Cogswell himself had initially taught physical activities, including football, swimming,
archery, ice hockey, dancing, riding, jumping, leaping, hunting, baseball, running, hiking,
wrestling, and camping. Beck’s contribution gave each student three hours per week of systematic
training, drawing on naturalistic methods derived from Jahn’s work. Games and sports were also
meant to “promote hilarity,” according to the founders (Cogswell & Bancroft, 1826, in Geldbach,
1976, p. 239). The fact that “hilarity” was one stated goal of required physical activity in an
academically rigorous school of that time period implies a positive affective culture at the school
without negating the importance of the physical training.
Cogswell served as a kindly father figure who sought balance between the necessity for
disciplined work and the need for rest and recreation. After Round Hill School closed, he went
on to found a similar school in Raleigh, North Carolina, and then to serve as a librarian for the
wealthy Astor family in New York City. Bancroft moved on to write histories and to serve in the
cabinet under President James Polk as Secretary of the Navy, where he created the United States
Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland. While neither made great contributions to the history
of physical education following their time at Round Hill, their careers further demonstrate
the caliber of these two men who believed vehemently in the roles of physical education and
dance should play as important components of comprehensive education. Through their efforts,
German gymnastics established its place as a leading system of fitness training. It would fall to
others to build on that foundation.

GERMAN GYMNASTICS IN THE UNITED STATES
Beck’s friend and fellow German turner refugee, Charles (Karl) Follen (1796–1840), later got him
a job teaching Latin at Harvard University. Follen had established the first US college gymnasium
at Harvard in 1826. Follen’s gymnasium included German gymnastics apparatus such as parallel
and horizontal bars, ropes, ladders, climbing poles, vaulting bars and horses, dumbbells, jumping
stands, and more. He was named superintendent of the facility and served as an instructor for
two years, after which he became a professor in Harvard’s school of theology. The apparatus was
left without a caretaker and the last piece was taken out by 1830 (Geldbach, 1976).
However, Follen had also established the first public gymnasium in the United States in
Boston in 1826, where he tried unsuccessfully to lure Jahn from Germany to teach gymnastics.
Instead, another German refugee, Franz Lieber (17981872), immigrated and added a swimming
school to the gymnasium. As at the most liberal of the turnvereine in Germany, men of different
socioeconomic classes exercised together regularly at the Boston Gymnasium. That principle
of democratization did not extend to African Americans, who were excluded from northeast
gymnasia despite the active antislavery leanings of Follen and Lieber and the efforts of John Neal
to allow them access at his Portland, Maine, gymnasium (Geldbach, 1976).
Women were likewise generally excluded from physical education classes in the early 1800s
(as they were often excluded from other subjects), though they participated regularly in active
pastimes such as swimming, walking, skating, and sledding (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017) and
hunting and angling (McMurray, 2008).
Since his arrival in the United States,
Lieber had advocated for select gymnastics
for women to improve their health and
well-being. He noted that women’s “mental
improvement” had become more of a
societal norm, so that “care should be
taken that the body is not sacrificed to the
mind, not health to intellect” (quoted in
Geldbach, 1976, p. 271).
Another instance in which girls were
afforded the opportunity to participate in
German gymnastics was due to William
Fowle of the Boston Monitorial School,
who had begun offering gymnastics to his
female pupils since 1825 with great success
(Geldbach, 1976). The monitorial system
was a popular educational model in the
early 1800s in which more skilled students
served as helpers to the instructors and
learned by teaching. This would have been
particularly useful in a school where a
male instructor was teaching gymnastics
to females and hands-on corrections
Figure 8.2 The frontispiece from Charles Follen’s Collected Works might be needed.
(1841), showing gymnastics exercises he taught.

From the 1820s through the remainder of the 19th century, immigration to the United States
rose dramatically. German immigrants escaping a failed republican revolution in their country
in 1848 founded turnvereine in many US cities, starting in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1848. These
Forty-Eighters, as they were known, were often professionals and intellectuals who had been part
of the turner movement in their homeland. Other German immigrants were laborers who had
come for work on railroads, canals, in meat-processing facilities, and on farms. All were welcome
at the turnvereine, where their language, customs, reform-minded ideas, and gymnastics were
celebrated.
As a bulwark against the American nativists of groups like the American Party (also called
the Know-Nothings), these turners banded together to protect their lives and property (Barney,
1982; Munrow, 1981). Efforts to establish schools to train teachers in German gymnastics reaped
only limited success, but a move to establish a national United Turnvereine of North America
beginning in 1850 proved valuable for the cohesion of the movement. Libraries, national
and regional gymnastics festivals (turnfeste), and a national newspaper (called Turnzeitung)
helped to connect the various clubs and gave support to their political efforts in the areas of
anti-prohibitionism and the antislavery movement while supporting the turners’ defiance
of Sabbath-day prohibitions through activities like gymnastics, dancing, shooting, and beer
drinking (Barney, 1982; Hoffmann, 2001; Mechikoff & Estes, 1998).
While turnvereine exist in the United States to this day, their influence has lessened
dramatically. However, the work they did in the 19th century led to the inclusion of German
gymnastics in many schools and postsecondary institutions of higher learning as well as in
Figure 8.3 Gymnasts of the Milwaukee Turnverein, 1866.

YMCA/YWCA and other gymnasiums nationwide. While some within the movement urged
the inclusion of women and girls in their exercise classes, and some turnvereine successfully
opened classes for women in the latter part of the 19th century, full membership for females
in this male-dominated world was still being debated as late as 1998. The organization is now
open to males and females, with many clubs relying on women for club work and membership
revenues (Hofmann, 2000). In the 1800s, the turnvereine ensured that the German gymnastics
influence surpassed that of another European transplanted gymnastic system, Per Henrik Ling’s
and Hjalmar Ling’s Swedish gymnastics.
SWEDISH GYMNASTICS
Swedish immigration to the United States rose after 1860, and the influence of Swedish gymnastics
was not felt until the latter part of that century. There was interest in the physiotherapeutic
work of Swedish gymnast Per Henrik Ling, whose work on a precursor to what became known
as Swedish massage made quite an impact in the medical community. George Taylor (1860)
was among those who brought Ling’s principles to North America during the early upsurge in
medical treatment issues, with a lengthy volume extolling the virtues of the Swedish Movement
Cure. The movement cure consisted of prescribed exercises for various parts of the body (medical
gymnastics) and massage, along with recommendations for diet, hygiene, and environmental
factors such as light and temperature. Women and men were encouraged to use the cure in
Taylor’s book, and a section on education reflects Hjalmar Ling’s Day’s Order (see Chapter 7) and
strongly urges that physical education be included in schools.
Figure 8.4 Advertisement for mechanical massage appliance available at George Taylor’s Movement Cure Institute
in New York City, 1887.

Meanwhile, the work of Swedish teacher Anton Santesson (1825–1892) in educational
gymnastics for women and girls found some adherents in those who wanted to expand on
Hjalmar Ling’s work. Santesson himself, however, was never able to create a comprehensive
female curriculum for Ling’s methods, nor was he able to significantly alter the prevailing bias
toward improving the male physique in Swedish gymnastics (Westberg, 2018).
Despite that mid-century burst of interest, Swedish gymnastics did not really gain traction in
the United States until the 1880s, when immigrants Hartvig Nissen (originally from Norway)
and Baron Nils Posse of Sweden were supported by private funding from Mary Hemenway
(mother of the man who donated Hemenway Gymnasium to Harvard) to open the Boston
Normal School of Gymnastics in 1890. The Swedish system as taught by the graduates of this
school became more popular with women and girls than with men and tended to be used more
in New England than elsewhere in the country. In some ways it was felt to be too controlled,
restrictive, and formal—not to say boring—at a time when individualized programs and leisurely
recreational activities were in fashion (Munrow, 1981). One source asserts that Posse coined the
term kinesiology from the Greek origins of kinesis (motion) and logos (discourse or study)
(Kennard, 1994).
The Swedish system nevertheless exerted lasting influence through a number of pioneers in
physical education, notably doctors who were understandably interested in the medical benefits
of Ling’s work. Three of those doctors, Edward M. Hartwell, Dudley Allen Sargent, and Edward
Hitchcock drew on the legacy of Ling’s work in their own endeavors. Hartwell became principal
of the Boston Normal Gymnastics School, was director of physical training for the Boston
Public Schools and was an instructor in physical culture at Johns Hopkins University (Munrow,
1986; Park, 1987).
Following a career as a “strong man” boxer and
gymnast touring with circuses, Sargent served as
director of Bowdoin College’s gymnastics program.
He then worked as the director of physical
education at Harvard’s Hemenway Gymnasium,
where he melded what he saw as the best of the
German and Swedish gymnastics systems in an
eclectic blend. His individualized programs used
free weights, and innovative machines in which
the weights and pulleys provided resistance to
build balanced muscle strength. His inventions
and versions of Swedish physician Gustav
Zander’s machines would be more or less familiar
to anyone who works with machine weights today.
When students were initially unable to work with
cumbersome heavy weights but rejected as a sign
of weakness the Indian clubs and light barbells he
had offered as an alternative, he devised adjustable
weight machines to allow for progressive overload
of muscles according to individual needs (De la
Peña, 2003).
Whether using gymnastics or other apparatus, Figure 8.5 One of Gustav Zander’s medical machines,
Sargent’s work incorporated anthropometrics, the adapted by Dudley Sargent for strength training.

careful recording of measurements aimed at the development of a well-balanced, symmetrical,
and well-proportioned ideal body. He noted the strengths and weaknesses of each student as
compared to a standard male body. While he did not invent anthropometrics, his use of them
was a hallmark of his teaching, and this method was used widely based on his work. He used the
same technique at Yale as well as at Harvard (De la Peña, 2003).
Many of his students were unused to physical labor, given their upbringing as members of a
privileged class, and the work reconnected them to their physicality while encouraging scientific
development of strength and muscle tone. Sargent’s academic appointment as a professor, his
use of scientific methods of research and analysis, and his creation of the Harvard Summer
School for Physical Education (an independent teacher training program) helped to increase the
acceptance of physical education as a subject on a par with other academic disciplines in higher
education (Shimon, 2011).
Sargent revised his work and applied it to women who frequented his Cambridge and New
York City gymnasiums, at separate hours from those in which men exercised there (De la Peña,
2003). He founded the Sargent Normal School of Physical Education, with courses in anatomy
and physiology as well as gymnastics, later combining it with Boston University to create the
Sargent College of Physical Education (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998). Like Edward Hitchcock, he
served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education
(AAAPE) (Park, 1991).
Hitchcock also used anthropometrics, charting the measurements of all Amherst College
students from 1861 to 1901 via required physical exams. He served as a professor of physical
education and hygiene, and like Sargent, he used the results of his studies to quantifiably research
human physical ideals, meaning average or normal measurements. He became the first president
of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (AAAPE), providing
leadership service to the profession while it was still in its early phase of acceptance in higher
education. Hitchcock recommended three to four hours of daily physical activity for optimum
health (Betts, 1968).
It must be understood that both he and Sargent were working with a population that was heavily
skewed to the white, middle- to upper-class part of humanity. While their research activities
gave them status that helped to establish physical education as a valid academic endeavor, it was
eventually realized that anthropometrics were compounding invalid and prejudicial views of
racial and socioeconomic inequality (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998).
DELSARTISM
During the last three decades of the 1800s, students of French singing, acting, and movement
instructor François Delsarte (1811–1871) shared his Delsarte System of Physical Culture
in the United States via classes and performances using his teachings (Polidoro, 2000).
Expression and relaxation through movement was at the core of Delsartism, which he called
applied aesthetics. Steele Mackaye, Emily Bishop, Genevieve Stebbins and Henrietta Hovey
were among the most important teachers of Delsartism in North America. Performances of
costumed enactors posed as statues, performed dances and pantomimes, and made living
recreations of famous paintings (often with classical themes) known as tableaux mouvants or
tableaux vivants. These were commonly featured in amateur and professional variety shows,
community celebrations, recitals, and school presentations across the country, reaching a peak

in the 1890s. Men who trained in Delsartism generally
used the work as an enhancement of their oratorical skills
on the lecture podiums, but men and women also arranged
nonverbal performances using the system (Ruyter, 1999).
For middle- and upper-class women especially, Delsarte
exercises allowed more freedom of movement and a more
confident use of their bodies than was generally accepted in
an era of stiff corsets and strict societal rules. Bishop shared
the system through her writings and teaching, especially
at Chautauqua in western New York. Various summer
institutes had attracted numerous students to Chautauqua
Lake’s resorts, beginning in 1874. Bishop’s first invitation
to teach there came in 1888 through the department of
physical culture that had been established there in 1886
by Dr. William G. Anderson, who desired that she share
the gymnastic elements of Delsartism rather than the Figure 8.6 Example of a tableau vivant, circa
more expressive components. Her students were mostly 1891. This image depicts reconciliation using
women and girls, but her 1892 publication of Americanized typical Delsartean poses.
Delsarte Culture emphasized the importance of health and
grace with applications for men and women (Ruyter, 1999).
Notably, Bishop recognized the benefits of an eclectic approach to fitness: she encouraged people
to combine Delsartism with other gymnastics systems as part of a total rational gymnastics
education (Bishop, 1892).
BEYOND THE EUROPEAN SYSTEMS

One notable pioneer of physical education in the United States desired the benefits of exercise
for women but rejected the German system as too taxing. Catharine Beecher (1800–1878), sister
of Harriet Beecher Stowe (author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, an antislavery tome) and an abolitionist
herself, devoted her life to education for women. Her views were typical of the 19th century in
that she believed a woman’s place was as a homemaker. On the other hand, she recognized the
need for an understanding of female physiology and activity.
Two of Beecher’s books dealt specifically with fitness: A Course of Calisthenics for Young
Ladies (1831) and Calisthenic Exercises for Schools, Families, and Health Establishments (1856).
Like Mary Lyon, her fellow exercise advocate who founded what became Mount Holyoke
College, Beecher founded female seminaries in which she stressed the need for daily physical
exercise (Polidoro, 2000). Her calisthenic exercises achieved lasting popularity, as they required
no special equipment and apparatus and could be done by men as well as women and children.
At the time of her writing, women were thought to be weakened first by menstruation,
then childbirth, then menopause; the strain of normal physical functions required that their
vital energies be optimized for their roles as wives and mothers. Unfortunately, the medical
establishment believed that too much intellectual stimulation and education would tax the
body’s energies, to the detriment of the delicacy of the female constitution. Catharine Beecher
was an important advocate for women’s fitness at a time when the risk of carrying and bearing
children was often literally a question of life and death (Atkinson, 1985).

Figure 8.7 Calisthenic exercise showing a girl performing a Figure 8.8 Calisthenics were not just for women. Here a
punching movement, from Catharine Beecher’s Calisthenic boy is shown doing an exercise requiring no special
Exercises for Schools, Families, and Health Establishments equipment. Such movements could be done in the home or
(1856). schoolroom.
Beecher’s calisthenics were the basis of physical education for girls at Emma Willard’s Troy
Female Seminary in New York State. Women’s fitness advocates Mary Lyon of Holyoke and
Catharine Beecher both encouraged Willard to include physical education in her academy from
1821, early in its history. Sports were also part of the educational program there. While Round
Hill School is generally cited as the first school in the United States to require physical education,
Round Hill was actually the first to have a physical education teacher, but not the first to require
physical education: that honor goes to Emma Willard’s school (Kendall, 1973; Leepson, 1992).
During the mid-1900s, tremendous interest in health education and reforms swept the
United States in response to urbanization and industrialization. In Boston, William Ellery
Channing and Dr. Lemuel Shattuck studied overcrowding in Boston, and in New York City, an
Association for the Improvement of the Condition of the Poor published its first report in 1845.
Scotsmen George Combe, author of Constitution of Man (1828) and Dr. Andrew Combe (his
younger brother, fellow phrenologist, and author of Principles of Physiology (1834) and Physiology
of Digestion (1836)) exerted tremendous influence in the United States toward modernization of

medical treatments and recommendations for exercise. They were joined by voices from
Philadelphia’s professional Journal of Health, the Graham Journal of Health and Longevity
(published by Sylvester Graham of graham cracker fame), the Medical Magazine, and the Boston
Health Journal and Advocate of Physiological Reform as well as newspapers such as New York’s
Mirror (Betts, 1968).
Later in the century, settlement houses would provide health education, recreational and
physical activities, day care, language classes, and social services to the millions of poor and
immigrant urban dwellers in cities like Boston, Chicago, and New York City. Some of the most
famous of these volunteer community centers
were Jane Addams’s Hull House in Chicago,
Lenox Hill Neighborhood House, University
Settlement House, and Henry Street Settlement
in New York City, and Denison House in Boston.
These institutions helped socialize immigrants
through sports activities as well as through
their other social and educational programs
(Husock, 1992).
Growing partially out of this general interest
in the health and well-being of all citizens
(including schoolchildren), the organizers of
the 1860 Boston Convention of the American
Institute of Instruction asked Diocletian “Dio”
Lewis (1823–1886) to demonstrate his new
system, which he called “New Gymnastics”
but became known as light gymnastics (Wosh,
1982; Zeigler, 1974). Drawing on the work of
Per Henrik Ling as well as Catharine Beecher
and her calisthenics, he added apparatus
such as wands, rings, Indian clubs (so named
because British colonialists found them being
used for fitness in India), light dumbbells, and
beanbags. He also encouraged the use of music
in his system to improve rhythmic activity
(hearkening back to the early Greeks as well as
some European gymnastics). He advocated for
women’s exercise and for temperance, achieving
success and influence as the founder of Lewis’s Figure 8.9 Light gymnastics for men and women using
Normal Institute for Physical Education in 1861 dumbbells, from Dio Lewis’s book The New Gymnastics for
(Welch, 1994; Zeigler, 1974). Men, Women, and Children (10th ed., 1869).
As the first school in the United States
designed for physical education teacher
preparation, this institute ensured that students were prepared to meet the growing need for
qualified physical educators. The small pool of existing trained teachers was a roadblock in
the efforts of New England cities, and then later states (beginning in California in 1866) to
implement laws passed to require physical education in all public elementary and secondary
schools (Polidoro, 2000). Lewis’s normal school predated the 1866 founding of the New York

City turner school for the German gymnastics system, but both institutions helped to advance
opportunities for consistent quality teacher preparation in the United States.
In addition to light gymnastics, calisthenics, and the European gymnastics methods, the
YMCA was also active in promoting fitness in the United States, though as in Europe, the initial
Y associations served as missionary organizations rather than exercise facilities. Thomas
Valentine, a captain and missionary, opened the first American YMCA in Boston in 1851. A
freed slave, Anthony Bowen, founded the first African American YMCA in Washington, DC, in
1853 (“History—1800s–1860s,” 2019), and the first US YWCA followed in New York City in
1858. Gymnasiums began to be part of new YMCA buildings beginning in 1869, though exercise
classes were offered before that with the intention of integrating mind, body, and spirit in
Christian practice. The term body building was coined by a Boston YMCA employee named
Robert J. Roberts in 1877 (Rock, 2008).
A school to train YMCA workers opened in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1885, and it added
a physical education component in 1887. By 1891, the physical education part of the school had
separated and become the international YMCA Training School, which developed curricula
and trained instructors for worldwide physical education in association gymnastics, fitness,
and health. That same year, a Canadian graduate student invented the game of wbasketball
there, and James Naismith’s original written rules for the game helped promote the sport for
recreation and competition, since players could be confident that the rules were understood
and agreed upon.
Figure 8.10 Early-20th-century YMCA basketball players.

A fellow student at the Training School and later a YMCA worker, William G. Morgan,
observed the success of the basketball program with great interest. He went on to invent a game
called mintonette, which he thought would appeal to older players at his Holyoke, Massachusetts,
facility in 1895. The sport became known as volleyball.
Between the inventions of basketball and volleyball, in 1889 the YMCA appointed Luther H.
Gulick (1865–1918) to supervise physical training at the Training School. He was a former
student of physical education pioneer Delphine Hanna (who had studied with both Sargent and
Lewis and was among the first to advocate for lifelong, outdoor carryover sports) at Oberlin
College in Ohio (“Brief Outline,” 1941; Lynn, 1960). Gulick was a force of nature. He was heavily
influenced by the positive aspects of organized sports and games and dedicated to muscular
Christianity, and it was partially through his influence that the British school sports ideals were
brought to North America. In 1903, he became the director of the Public Schools Athletic League
in New York City, where he organized competitive events and championships. He also initiated
the Girl’s Branch of the NYC Public Schools Athletic League, in which he vigorously promoted
dancing as a controlled, healthful exercise which could help immigrants maintain a sense of
cultural heritage while also learning dances that would help them become part of their new
American communities (Putney, 2011). His observations on this and his essays on physical
training for women were published in 1911
as The Healthful Art of Dancing (Winter,
1999).
In this Gulick was given support by a
graduate of the Boston College Sargent
School of Physical Education, Elizabeth
Burchenal (1875–1959), whom he hired
to work for the Girl’s Branch. Burchenal’s
interest in folk dancing led her to teach
dances, organize folk dance festivals, and
share her ideas about the integration of
folk dance into comprehensive physical
education in New York, across the country,
and around the world. She founded the
American Folk Dance Society in 1916 and
authored many books on folk dancing
and singing games, which made it easier
for teachers to introduce students to the
positive social, physical, and emotional
benefits of dance education.
Gulick’s energies extended to outdoor
activities, and he was instrumental in the
founding of the Boy Scouts of America,
the Camp Fire Girls, and the Playground
Association of America (PAA, which
eventually became the National Recreation
and Park Association, or NRPA). The Figure 8.11 Elizabeth Burchenal in folk dance attire. Her influence
playground movement of the late 1800s, helped to secure the place of recreational folk dance in physical
of which Gulick was a part, drew on the education.

outdoor influence of German physical education and concern for the well-being of youth,
especially in congested, dirty inner cities. Parks like those in New York designed by landscape
architects Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, open spaces, sand gardens, school gardens,
and arboretums provided opportunities for play, recreation, education, relaxation, and exercise.
This was important because rapid expansion of urban areas led to overcrowding, industrialization
(including child labor), and unsanitary living conditions for many city dwellers. Creating
and maintaining open green spaces became an important part of public policy (Frost, 2012).
Eventually, state and national movements to preserve natural wonders and recreational areas
would expand on the efforts Gulick and others had made in the 1800s through the playground
movement.
THE BATTLE OF THE SYSTEMS

Educational reformers, notably including Massachusetts’ Horace Mann (father of the common
schools movement), had been calling for inclusion of physical education in schools without much
success, but Lewis’s system spurred greater inclusion of fitness activities in schools. Mann was
an admirer and friend of George Combe’s, and the latter’s Constitution of Man was influential in
Mann’s writings in his Common School Journal beginning in 1838 (Betts, 1968).
Lewis’s use of small, relatively inexpensive apparatus that could be used anywhere—as
opposed to the large, more expensive apparatus and gymnasiums required in the German and
Swedish systems—was a significant element of the success of light gymnastics. During that
century, many schools were one-room community-centered buildings with only one teacher for
all subjects and ages, especially in sparsely
populated rural areas. The burden of expense was
combined with a commonly held belief that
physical fitness had no place in the academic
environment.
William G. Anderson brought together
representatives of various methods, normal
schools, gymnastic systems, measurement
techniques, and fitness equipment manufacturing
to a meeting at Adelphi Academy in Brooklyn
in 1885. This meeting led to the founding of
an important professional organization for
physical education and allied professions, the
Association for the Advancement of Physical
Figure 8.12 Washington, DC, students at the end of the Education (AAPE), which was eventually known
19th century, doing light gymnastics in the schoolyard as the American Alliance for Health, Physical
with dumbbells. The mixed-gender exercise class is Education, Recreation, and Dance (currently the
progressive for its time. Society of Health and Physical Educators, SHAPE
America) (SHAPE America, n.d.).
A few years later, a conference was held in 1889 in Boston, called A Conference in the Interest
of Physical Training. Representatives from most of the major methods of physical education
(with the exception of organized sports) met to debate the relative merits of each system. While

they did not reach a consensus, Dudley Sargent called for an eclectic mix in which the best of
each system would combine with the best of others to provide an ideal balance.
What America needs is the happy combination which the European nations are trying
to effect: the strength-giving qualities of the German Gymnasium, the active and
energetic properties of the English sports, the grace and suppleness acquired from
French calisthenics, and the beautiful poise and mechanical precision of the Swedish
free movements, all regulated, systematized, and adapted to our peculiar needs and
institutions. (Sargent, 1889)
The Swedish gymnastics instructor Hartvig Nissen later commented in 1892 that the Swedish
system was a good one when funding for fully equipped gymnasia was not possible, but he also
recommended the additional use of German gymnastics for strengthening (Nissen, 1892). Like
the Delsarte teacher Bishop, he believed a mixture of different systems would yield the best
physical results.
There was no clear winner, nor even an exact time period, for the so-called Battle of the
Systems. It was less a battle than a national conversation. The era of the founding of AAPE and
the Conference in the Interest of Physical Training, however, represents a moment in time in
which diverse practitioners of physical education were beginning to work together toward the
goal of providing fitness opportunities for all, recognizing the benefits of alternative methods.
SUMMARY
questions.
• European teachers of gymnastics influenced early American physical education through

educational institutions, establishment of gymnasiums and gymnastics clubs, founding of
normal schools to standardize instruction, writing, and translations of works by European
gymnastics teachers into English.
• Some of the pioneers of physical education in the United States included the founders and
teachers at Round Hill School, Catharine Beecher, Dudley Sargent, Edward Hitchcock,
Delphine Hanna, Luther Gulick, and Elizabeth Burchenal.
• Cities have playgrounds because the playground movement of the 1800s led to the
establishment of open spaces for recreation, relaxation, education, and exercise. This was
important because rapid expansion of urban areas led to overcrowding, industrialization
(including child labor), and unsanitary living conditions for many city dwellers.
• Society’s view of women and exercise in the United States during the 19th century was
that limited exertion was beneficial for their health and their ability to survive the physical
demands of childbirth and parenting.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Mental Mapping (Visual): Find images of major leaders and teachers of 19th-century
physical education in the United States. Create a sort of “family tree” (or several trees),
showing the connections between the earliest teachers of German gymnastics, Swedish
gymnastics, and other systems as they evolved over the course of the century.
2. Research and Reflection (Research): Hartvig Nissen wrote in 1892 that the
Delsarte system was hardly a system at all, and that it was not based on physiological
principles. He said that it was sometimes being used simply to make money. Read
Bishop’s Americanized Delsarte Culture (1892) at https://books.google.com/books/
about/Americanized_Delsarte_Culture.html?id=FEoMAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcove
r&source=kp_read_button#v=onepage&q&f=false. What do you think? Do you agree
or disagree with Nissen’s assessment, and why or why not? For additional research,
see Genevieve Stebbins’s Society Gymnastics and Voice Culture: Adapted from the
Delsarte System (1888) at https://books.google.com/books?id=af7_D1n6rtUC&printse
c=frontcover&dq=Stebbins+gymnastic&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjt0ZSZvb7hAhW
tm-AKHeZVBdAQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Stebbins%20gymnastic&f=false.
3. Calisthenic Exercises (Kinesthetic): Find Catharine Beecher’s book of calisthenics at https://

babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112039722522;view=1up;seq=5. Create a sequence of
exercises from the book, targeting a specific area of the body. If working in a group, have
different students create sequences for other parts of the body.
4. Field Trip (Outreach): Is there a turnverein near your school? Arrange a visit and speak with
someone there about current turner activities in the United States, or invite someone to
come speak to your class. For a list of American turners, see http://www.americanturners.
com/Districts.
FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 8.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RoundHillSchool_ca1830s_
NorthamptonMA_byPendleton.png.
Fig. 8.2: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vita-follen.jpg.
Fig. 8.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Milwaukee_Turnverein_1866.jpg.

Fig. 8.4: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Improved_Movement_Cure_
Institute.png.
Fig. 8.5: Copyright © 2014 by Tekniska museet, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Zanders_mediko-mekaniska_gymnastikredskap.jpg.
Fig. 8.6: Source: https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3b11290/.
Fig. 8.7: Source: https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/bookviewer?PID=nlm:nlmuid-61360580R-
bk#page/220/mode/2up.
Fig. 8.10: Source: https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47de-4d30-a3d9-e040-
e00a18064a99.
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C H APTER 9
AN OVERVIEW OF SPORTING ACTIVITIES: 1800–1950

• What opportunities for work-related
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and sports activities developed in North
America in the 1800s?
Work-sport: competition related to a particular occupation, • What is percussive dance, and how can
such as lumberjack or cowboy
it be used in physical education?
Percussive dance: dance movements in which sounds are
made by striking parts of the body against the floor or • What are some examples of sports
against other body parts; examples include Irish step
brought by immigrants during this time
dance and tap dance
period?
Caledonian games: a group of athletic games brought to
North America by Scottish settlers; these include the • What opportunities did African
hammer throw, stone putting (like shot put), and caber toss
Americans have to participate in sports
Shinty: a Scottish form of field hockey, similar to Irish hurling
before and after the Civil War?
Hydropathy: “taking the waters” at a spa, including bathing in • What are amateur athletics, and why are
and drinking natural mineral water
they important?
Amateur Athletic Union (AAU): formed in 1888 to define
amateurism in sport, sanction athletic events • What types of professional sports were
Telegraphic meet: form of competition in which the popular in the late 19th and early 20th
participants compete at different campuses and send the centuries?
results via telegraph to another location, where winners
are determined • How did society view women’s inter
Intramural sports: sports in which all competitors are from collegiate athletics during this time
the same institution; literally, “within the walls” of a single
period?
college or university, for example
Fleadh, oirachtas, or feis: types of Irish competitions at

which one might see competitive dance, sport, and other
events

INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 8, we considered the ways in which European
and American systems of physical education were
developed and disseminated in the United States during
the 1800s. In this chapter, we will focus on the sports
and recreational pastimes and institutions that gained
popularity in the 19th and early 20th centuries, especially
in North America. You may want to skim Chapter 6 for a
quick review of colonial-era physical activities and sports
in the United States because most of those activities simply
continued into the 19th century.
What changed? As we saw in the last chapter, German
immigrants ignored the Sabbath (“blue”) laws prohibiting
dancing, sports, and related activities on Sundays. For
working people, the weekend literally had not been
invented yet, so the only day off for recreational activities
was Sunday. Effectively, that had limited competitions
and active pastimes. The vast influx of Germans and
their turner societies (see Chapter 8), which flouted the
laws, rendered the restrictions ineffective: locally, the
prohibitions were often ignored. Other immigrant groups
brought new types of games, dances, and contests to
North America, where traditions were either preserved or
modified, or both.
In different parts of the continent, rural agricultural
economic bases gave way to industrial manufacturing
centers during the course of the 19th and early 20th
centuries, changing people’s work habits and providing a
basis for socioeconomic changes as well. Naturally, these
changes were reflected in the educational opportunities
afforded to different groups of people. They also
continued to stratify sports on a class-conscious basis. As
in British society of the same era, the tensions between
amateurs and professionals in sport were evident.
Tensions between immigrants and among different
ethnic groups also contributed to changes.
An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 129

The emergence of college sports, collegiate and professional sports leagues, and associations
designed to regulate sports were all logical extensions of changes in attitudes toward physical
fitness and recreation, especially for men. However, women continued to participate in sports
and physical pastimes, though to a more restricted degree than their male counterparts. We will
see that women’s suffrage and their activities during the wars of the 20th century would boost
their opportunities. Overall, sports historians sometimes refer to the years between 1919 and
1930 as the “Golden Age of Sports,” in which Americans developed a deep love of sports along
with the infrastructure to market them and profit from them (Polidoro, 2000).
The late 19th and early 20th centuries were also a time of technological advances in media that
would impact the participants and spectators of sports in myriad ways. Photography, newspapers
and other periodicals, the telephone, the telegraph, the radio, film, and early television would all
change the experiences of players, judges, and enthusiasts around the world. Once it was possible
to enjoy competitions at a distance, more people could become part of larger fan bases, gamble on
events, and appreciate athletics on a larger scale than had previously been possible (Shergold, 1979).
FROM FAIRS TO FRONTIERS: COMPETITIONS AND WORK-SPORTS

You may recall that from ancient times, sporting activities often took place during religious
festivals, during which people had leisure time to participate. In the United States, games and
competitions were often held at local and state agricultural fairs. Agricultural life was sometimes
idealized in the 1800s by authors like Catharine Beecher, who saw farm work as healthy and
robust. The workers themselves, however, sometimes perceived the toils as exhausting to the
point that it was detrimental to their health, and many left that life to move to towns for work in
mills and factories (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017).
Figure 9.1 Engraving of famous mid-19th-century trotting horse Artaxerxes, from American Turf
Register and Sporting Magazine (1839).

Nevertheless, Americans did not lose their connection to the soil, and beginning in 1810,
fall agricultural fairs drew people together to view advances in equipment, to see competitions
of livestock, to dance, and to compete in events from plowing and driving draft teams of horses
to horseracing, boxing and wrestling, and many more sports and games. Men and women
were known to compete on horseback at these events. Women’s participation in agricultural
fair competitions, however, was largely limited to events featuring more traditional women’s
activities such as baking, canning, and needle arts (“New Haven County Agricultural Show and
Fair,” 1843; Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017).
Some fairs featured racing on horseback, while others had trotting (harness) races in which
riders sat behind the horses in lightweight carriages called sulkies. During the mid-1800s, many
aficionados of equestrian racing followed the sport in the monthly American Turf Register and
Sporting Magazine, which had racing and trotting calendars, reports, and lists of winning horses
for the United States and Canada. Similar periodicals of the time included the United States
Sporting Magazine, the Farmer’s, Mechanic’s Manufacturer’s and Sportsman’s Magazine, and the
Gentleman’s Magazine (Gee, 1971; Henderson, 1977).
While agricultural fairs highlighted contests related to agricultural work, they were far
from the only gatherings at which occupation-related competitions took place. With work on
the transcontinental railroad as well as many other rail beds, track-laying contests motivated
workers to complete their portions more quickly than competing teams. Firemen, stonecutters,
typesetters, drillers, office workers, and lumberjacks also had their work-sport contests.
Lumberjack competitions, sometimes called logging sports or timbersports, are still being held
to this day, as are cowboy (and cowgirl) rodeos (Zarnowski, 2013).
PERCUSSIVE DANCE
Factory workers sometimes engaged in a different type of competition. To alleviate the tedium
of long hours on the factory floor, workers would sometimes shuffle and stamp their feet,
mimicking and dancing in rhythms that complemented the regular sounds of the machines.
The striking of their hobnailed or heavy boots on the floors was a form of percussive dance.
Other forms of percussive dance include American tap dance, Appalachian clogging, hambone
(in which the hands strike the thighs and torso), Spanish zapateado, German Schuhplattler, some
Native American dances, Lancashire and Cape Breton clogging, Argentinian malambo, South
African gumboot dance, stepping (or step dance) of US historically black college and university
fraternities and sororities, a form of Indian Kathak dance, and Tibetan step dance.
Immigrants brought these percussive dances with them from abroad, and in some cases they
influenced other dance forms. For example, the dances performed by slaves and freedmen were
sometimes performed in proximity to the dances of Irish immigrants, in carnivals, medicine
shows, riverboats, inner-city bars, minstrel shows, and variety shows, with dancers trading (not
to say stealing) each other’s steps as the form now known as tap dance evolved. After the Civil
War, migration of freed slaves toward the northern cities of Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston,
and New York City combined with national tours of minstrel shows, variety shows, and later
vaudeville to popularize percussive dance across the continent.
There was a downside, however. Racial stereotypes carried over into tap performances,
with both black and white minstrel show performers working in blackface and perpetuating
the myth of the happy, dancing African American. The stereotype was so pervasive that even

black performers like Dewey “Pigmeat” Markham wore
blackface well into the 20th century, even after it had
fallen out of favor as being a racist practice. On the other
hand, performers like William Henry Lane (Master
Juba), Bill “Bojangles” Robinson, John Bubbles, Honi
Coles, Jimmy Slyde, the Nicholas Brothers, and many
others earned good salaries and brought percussive
dance to a high art form through their energetic pursuit
of tap dance excellence on stages and later through film
and television (Tap LegacyTM Foundation, 2004). They
created an art form that became known and admired
around the world.
In the United States, tap dancing in schools became a
regular part of physical education classes in the early 20th
century. Duggan (1932) begins the foreword to the book
Tap Dances by writing that “Within the last few years, tap
dancing has become established so firmly upon the physical
education programs of our schools and colleges that its
place there scarcely needs further defense” (p. vii). One
of her contemporary leaders in physical education, Jesse
Williams, wrote the introduction to her text, encouraging
the place of tap dance in schools. “Whatsoever gives youth
Figure 9.2 Sprinter Jesse Owens (left) and tap dancer Bill
“Bojangles” Robinson after Owens’s return from his success in
the idea that wholesome play in game, dance or other form
the 1936 Olympics.
is a legitimate, indeed, an imperative part of fine living is
good education,” he noted (p. xii).
IMMIGRANTS AND SPORT

From the first colonists onward, immigrants had brought games and sports from their home
countries to North America. We have seen how gymnastics competitions in the German system
flourished in the US turnvereine (gymnastics clubs). Other European sports and games, including
bowling, croquet, tennis, fox hunting, and cricket had crossed the ocean and become part of the
culture on the North American side of the Atlantic.
With the Scottish settlers came a group of athletic events known as Caledonian games, or
Scottish games. So-called “heavy” athletic events in this group were (and remain) the hammer
throw, stone putting (like shot put), and caber toss, in which a long tree trunk is thrown end over
end and the result judged upon the angle at which it lands. At a Scottish festival or gathering,
these games, as well as footraces, dance, archery, shinty (a sort of field hockey, similar to Irish
hurling), and football competitions celebrated Scottish culture. In this context, they reinforced
the pride in the emigrants’ ancestry, which had been wounded when Scottish rebels (Jacobites)
were soundly defeated at the battle of Culloden in 1746, after which many had fled or been
transported as prisoners across the Atlantic.
During the Irish cultural revival of the 1890s and 1900s, nationalistic Irish diaspora
immigrants in cities like Philadelphia promoted a masculine, militant identity of the
Irish American as athlete. Clubs were formed for Gaelic football, hurling, and rifle drilling

Figure 9.3 Stone putting at the Fergus (Canada) 2014 Scottish Festival and Highland Games.
(Mullan, 2012). Retaining a sense of cultural identity through active traditions such as these
was an important part of the immigrant experience for many of the millions who left their
homelands for new opportunities.
SLAVES AND SPORT

Obviously, not all who came to the United States came willingly. Slavery brought millions of
Africans to the southern United States as well as to the Caribbean and South America. Work
schedules usually involved long hours with little time or energy for recreational activities.
Religious holidays, weddings, anniversaries, and weekend days were times when slaves might
have leisure to pitch quoits or engage in other recreational activities, work requirements
permitting (Wiggins, 1977).
However, the institution of slavery did not permit activities that would encourage the
maintenance of African heritage among the workers. While work-related competitions,
swimming, cockfighting, hunting, fishing, boating, horseracing, and certain dances were
allowed, for example, overseers would not have allowed martial arts training or anything that
would encourage male slaves to demonstrate their strength.
A notable exception would be boxing or wrestling competitions. Sometimes fights would be
used as informal conflict resolution or rituals of community building between slaves, but some
fights were organized by plantation owners among slaves or between slaves of rival plantations.
First-person accounts of fighting during the antebellum South were recorded as oral interviews

of former slaves in the early 1900s through the Federal Writers’ Project, a part of the Works
Project Administration (WPA) (Lussana, 2010).
In the Western Hemisphere, remnants of other African sports such as stick fighting could
be seen in the Caribbean kalenda (calinda) and N’golo, a predecessor of the Brazilian martial
art/game/dance known as capoeira. Games and dances of African heritage were sometimes
preserved by freed slaves in isolated locations like Georgia’s Sea Islands, and escaped slaves
(known as maroons) who established hidden homesteads in remote mountainous regions of the
south. Examples of physical activities harbored in this way include clapping games and preserved
dances like the ring shout (Jones & Hawes, 1972).
The history of slavery in the Western Hemisphere is tragic, and nothing can ever erase the
suffering of the millions who endured it. The history of sports and physical activity in that
part of the world is fundamentally impacted because it happened. The contributions made by
African American athletes have been profound—but
came at a great cost. Because of the biases of 19th- and
20th-century academic researchers (who tended not to
be people of color), much of the history that should be
recognized and honored has been lost.
ORGANIZED SPORTS
The history of organized sports in the United States.
during the time period of this chapter follows three
pathways: amateur sport, collegiate sport, and
professional sport. There are overlapping individual
and group histories within each of these areas, but let’s
take a look at some examples of each, contextualizing
some events and highlighting others.
Several technological advances changed the world
of competitive sport during this time. The telegraph,
for example, was patented in 1837 and telegraph lines
had been installed worldwide by 1902. The rapid
communication afforded by this device facilitated travel,
gambling, and reporting of results of competitions.
In the late 1800s, the telephone provided even more
convenience. Rail, subway, and canal travel, all great
innovations in themselves, were supplemented or
replaced by automotive and plane travel, expanding
opportunities for spectators and competitors alike to
Figure 9.4 Known as “the father of physical culture,” Bernarr experience sports beyond their local facilities and teams.
Macfadden (1868–1955) promoted health through Society was changing, too. As early as 1908, a
hydrotherapy, fasting, fitness, and a healthy lifestyle. His spinning mill in New England began operating on a
magazine company, Macfadden Publications, published a five-day week to give Jewish workers their Sabbath
number of fitness and sports magazines, often featuring his
on Saturday. Other manufacturers followed, and with
photograph in various poses. Some of his recommendations
the weekend established, more recreational time was
drew the ire of the medical community for his promotion of
nonmedical “cures.”
made available. Leisure time allowed for more sporting

activities, but that alone is insufficient to account for the growth of sporting activity during this
time; the situation was far more complex.
For those not obliged to work, exclusive spas and sanitariums for relaxing vacations didn’t always
encourage sports participation. For example, at Battle Creek Sanitarium (the “San”) in Michigan, Dr.
John Harvey Kellogg went beyond the work of Sylvester Graham (who was mentioned in Chapter
8) and used unusual contraptions and practices, vegetarianism, and sometimes dubious science to
increase vitality and help curb what he saw as unhealthy sexual impulses (Bullough, 1987; Whorton,
1981). The San did not provide facilities for billiards or bowling, though, which were common to
sanitariums of the time. On the other hand, spas like that at Saratoga Springs in New York offered
hydropathy (mineral waters for drinking and bathing) and the excitement of horseracing for society
patrons. Priessnitz’s European “water cure” included pedestrian exercise, but refined ladies of the
time did not wish to be seen jumping and skipping (Betts, 1968, p. 803). For those who wanted even
more vigorous physical culture, amateur clubs were formed to meet their needs.
AMATEUR ATHLETICS, 1800–1950

The British sports ideal found adherents in North America, and pastimes like cricket and rowing
were among the first to have organized clubs in the United States. Cricket clubs were established
from coast to coast, often in places where British immigrants worked. Copper miners in Montana,
stone cutters in South Dakota, and steel workers in Wisconsin and upstate New York all had
clubs. Many of these working-class clubs were organized by the industrial companies that hired
them, through efforts to improve morale and labor relations. However, the descendants of these
Figure 9.5 The New York Athletic Club four-oar senior crew of 1911.

workers tended not to play that sport and often turned to the emerging sport of baseball
(Sentance, 2006). Meanwhile, female cricket players were more likely to come from the upper
classes, playing at places such as New Jersey’s Seabright Lawn Tennis and Cricket Club or at
private girls’ schools (Melville, 1998).
For upper class urban men, membership in a sports club offered exercise, relaxation, and
social opportunities. In New York City, the Racket Court Club was formed in 1845 offering
racket (or racquet) sports, reading, billiards, cards, and chess, all catering to the wealthy. Public
courts followed. When the Racquet Court Club Building opened in 1875, an indoor tennis court
was part of the facility, providing a place to play year-round to its members (Gems, Borish, &
Pfister, 2017). The New York Athletic Club (opened in 1868) offered boating and track and field.
The New York Yacht Club, the Mobile Yacht Club in Alabama, the Myopia Polo Club of
Salem, Massachusetts, and the Aiken Polo Club of South Carolina all catered to 19th-century
elite athletes of means and leisure. The status and prestige of belonging to clubs such as these
also gave families opportunities to socialize with others of the same class, encouraging what were
considered suitable courtship opportunities and engagements for the children of the members.
The origins of organized baseball are more convoluted. The same year as the Racket Court
Club was formed (1845), Alexander Cartwright established the rules of baseball, and given the
rising importance of New York as a metropolitan leader and the fact that the Boston version of
the sport was played until 100 runs were scored, his rules were more widely accepted (Tyrrell,
1979). Earlier baseball clubs such as the Hoboken Turtle Club, the Washington, the Gotham Club
and the New York Ball Club merged, coexisted, and competed with Cartwright’s Knickerbocker
Club in the middle of the century. While clubs like the Knickerbocker were initially open only
to gentlemen of breeding and social status (Tyrrell, 1979), it quickly grew with players as diverse
as butchers and lawyers (Morris, Ryczek, Finkel, Levin, & Malatzky, 2013). By 1865, the National
Association of Base Ball Players,
originally an amateur club,
included men from many walks
of life in 91 clubs over 10 states
(Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017).
Cycling was another sport
that tended to be open to all
classes, but with an interesting
characteristic. From the sport’s US
inception, beginning in Boston
in 1878, there were clubs for
different socioeconomic classes.
Additionally, from the early 1900s
onward, many cycling clubs tended
to be formed by immigrants for
others who came from the same
country. Unione Sportiva Italiano,
formed in New York City in 1908,
opened a pathway to assimilation
Figure 9.6 Cartoon showing a strong, defiant woman in breeches (not afraid of the mice at for Italians, who could be sponsored
her feet), surrounded by women riding bicycles in various roles and occupations. From Puck, a for work opportunities through
popular US humorous magazine of the late 1800s. their connection to the club.

Unfortunately, racism tainted the sport with exclusion, too. The League of American
Wheelmen excluded African Americans from their clubs in 1894, barring blacks from
participating in bicycle races. Caricatures of Chinese riders exaggerated stereotypes. This pattern
forced the development of cycling clubs along the lines of national origins and races (Friss, 2019;
Goodman, 2010).
Women wearing bloomers or divided skirts were able to ride bicycles, but the question of
whether they should remained. In Nova Scotia, authors such as the editor of the Dominion
Medical Monthly believed that sexual excitement and miscarriage were possible side effects
of riding, and a reporter for the Acadian Recorder went so far as to say that “it appears to be
generally agreed that overindulgence in bicycling will induce one of the most malignant forms
of insanity, owing to the long continued pressure on the spine” (Smith, 1988, p. 130). The worries
over riding astride did not necessarily seem to extend to horseback riding; at the exclusive Vassar
Female College, young women were offered equestrian opportunities complete with a German
riding instructor beginning in 1866 (Atkinson, 1985).
During the Victorian era, some young unmarried men took part in urban masculine sports
via what has been called “the sporting fraternity,” or “the fancy.” Some were Irish immigrants,
who did not shy away from the bare-knuckle fights, gambling, competitive racewalking, and
footraces (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017). The fraternity was not an organized club but rather a
loose designation for a group of men who enjoyed sports, drinking, and other pleasure-seeking
activities.
The development of many amateur clubs of all kinds led to a desire for a governing body that
could regulate amateur athletics. The National Association of Amateur Athletes of America was
founded in 1879 but gave way to the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) in 1888 when William
Buckingham Curtis combined several clubs together to define amateurism in sport, sanction
athletic events, and disqualify athletes who competed in unauthorized meets from competing in
AAU contests (Ricker, 1969).
PROFESSIONAL ATHLETICS, 1800–1950

During the Victorian era, some young unmarried men took part in urban masculine sports via
what has been called “the sporting fraternity,” or “the fancy” (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017,
p. 105). Some (but by no means all) were Irish immigrants, who did not shy away from the
bare-knuckle fights, billiards, cockfights, horseracing, drinking, gambling, and pedestrianism
(competitive race walking and footraces) that characterized the sporting fraternity’s activities.
Various events, organized by individuals such as famous race walker Mensen Ernst, through
taverns or billiard halls, generated income for the athletes and those who gambled on them.
Over time, the fancy favored mostly the wealthy, who were able to afford to keep and
breed horses. They formed the American Jockey Club in Westchester in 1866 as an exclusive
and luxurious establishment (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017), for instance. As we have seen,
horseracing had been popular in the United States since colonial times. In the 1800s, racing
became more organized—and more exclusionary. The first Kentucky Derby was held in May
1875; in that race, 14 of the 15 jockeys were African American.
In fact, most of the best riders in the late 19th century were black, which caused some concerns
among biased observers. Change came before the end of the century, when a new administrative
arm of horseracing, the Jockey Club, was created in 1894. It kept (and still keeps) the registry

Figure 9.7 Print of horserace from 1892. This predates the 1894 Jockey Club change that excluded African Americans from
racing by refusing to reregister them as jockeys.
of all Thoroughbred horses in the American Stud Book, a genealogy of horses. It also took on
the task of licensing jockeys, and since they did not reregister blacks after the Jockey Club was
founded, it effectively barred them from that sport (Zirin, 2008).
Prizefighting (fighting for money or other benefits) was nothing new, and it could be brutal.
Bare-knuckle fighting had been outlawed in many parts of the United States by the middle of the
1800s. Those modern gladiators, however, were assisted by the efforts of a P. T. Barnum–like
promoter named Richard Kyle Fox, owner of the National Police Gazette. He was known for
publicizing sports such as canoeing and archery, and the banner of the publication called it the
“leading illustrated sporting journal in America” (Reel, 2001, p. 74), though its pages awarded
prizes to dancers, egg-eaters, drinkers, and oyster shuckers as well as more athletic events. One
unusual award was the belt given by Fox to Billy Wells because he was named “champion of
allowing his head to be pounded through an iron block by means of a sledge hammer” (Reel,
2001, p. 74).
Fox capitalized on boxing matches, especially those featuring John L. Sullivan, by sponsoring
ring matches, with prizes, cash, and belts as incentives for the fighters. The National Police
Gazette, in turn, sold more papers, and the increased circulation and related business ventures
made him a millionaire and allowed Fox to award more costly belts and prizes. Along the way,
he fought for the legitimization of bare-knuckle fighting through a court case and in his books
on boxing (Reel, 2001).
A more genteel sport, rowing nevertheless did not have a pristine history during the 19th
century. Professional rowers had competed since mid-century, sometimes alongside amateur

competitors in various clubs and regattas. It was a sport
that generated gambling revenue, and its popularity
continued to swell throughout the latter part of the century.
Unfortunately, its reputation suffered as cheating scandals
plagued the professional circuit. Theodore Roosevelt
praised amateur athletics, but denounced rowing in
1890. “[P]rofessionalism is the curse of many an athletic
sport, and the chief obstacle to its healthy development.
Professional rowing is under a dark cloud of suspicion
because of the crooked practices which have disgraced it”
(Roosevelt, 1890, p. 191).
Professional sport was not exclusively male in the
United States. Female professional swimmers, golfers,
tennis players, basketball players, and ice skaters were
celebrated in the early 1900s. Superb athletes such as
Mildred “Babe” Didrikson Zaharias, who had earned track
and field medals in the 1932 Olympics, made the women’s
professional golf tour possible (Simri, 1981). She also
pitched in major league exhibition games, played softball,
was an excellent pool player, and could dive, roller skate,
and bowl.
While professional opportunities for women in sport
remained limited, between 1943 and 1954, the All-
American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL)
was a breakthrough for women’s sports. The brainchild
of Philip K. Wrigley (of chewing gum and Chicago Cubs/
Wrigley Field fame), the league began in response to the Figure 9.8 Mildred “Babe” Didrikson Zaharias (1911–1956),
threat of the cancellation of Major League Baseball due to one of the 20th century’s most versatile and talented
player shortages during World War II. The initial novelty athletes.
aspect of the league was replaced by acknowledgment of the
excellence and athleticism of the league’s players. Gender
and racial issues continued throughout their history, however, as management preferred to hire
only white women who fit feminine stereotypes (Kenow, 2010).
While baseball was becoming a professional sport in the mid-1800s, some African
Americans played professionally but were banned officially by the National Association of
Base Ball Players in 1867. Relaxation of that part of the organization’s constitution resulted in
unspoken agreements among club owners to refuse to hire black players. Hotel owners began
forming professional all-black teams for these disenfranchised players in the 1880s, but it
wasn’t until 1920 that the Negro National League was created. The country’s economic woes
during the Great Depression forced the dissolution of that league, but another Negro National
League was started by Pittsburgh Crawfords’ owner Gus Greenlee in 1934. The Negro American
League was founded in 1937, allowing for a Negro World Series and All-Star games. After
Jackie Robinson was signed to the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947, the two Negro leagues merged in
1948, and eventually interest waned when baseball became more integrated. During the 1960s,
notably, the recent history of baseball integration was seen as an early triumph for civil rights
in the United States (Heaphy, 2003).

Figure 9.9 The Pittsburgh Crawfords, 1932. Leroy Robert Paige, aka “Satchel,” is third from left in the back row. He went on
to pitch for the Cleveland Indians in 1948 and became the first African American inductee to the National Baseball Hall of
Fame in 1971.
The rise in professional sports from its amateur beginnings is thanks in large part to the efforts
of sports promoters and entrepreneurs who built empires out of professional clubs, merchandise,
stadiums, and equipment. By the middle of the 20th century, professional:
• baseball (1869 first professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings/1871 National
Association of Professional Base Ball Players (player-centered)/1876 National League
(club-centered)),
• boxing (1921 National Boxing Association),
• football (1920, American Professional Football Association, became National Football
League in 1922),
• basketball (1925 American Basketball League/1949 National Basketball Association;
1978 Women’s Professional Basketball League/1997 Women’s National Basketball
Association),
• ice hockey (1917, National Hockey League, in Canada), and even
• professional wrestling (a combination of sport and theater) were all well established.
(Polidoro, 2000; Zeigler, 1988).
It is important to note, however, that in many cases throughout history, players were paid
openly or secretly, before professional associations were formed. This is especially evident in
boxing, which was formerly known as prizefighting. Organizations were formed to regulate what
was already happening to one degree or another.

INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Students controlled the first college sports teams in the 1800s, forming clubs, buying their own
equipment, maintaining fields, and organizing competitions. While history records indicate the
first intercollegiate matches for sports like rowing (for which the first intercollegiate match was
between Harvard and Yale in 1852), baseball, football, track and field, and swimming, it was
also possible for postsecondary educational institutions to play against nearby high schools and
clubs in a variety of sports. Limited budgets and time constraints limited travel in the late 1800s,
leaving college athletes with few choices.
Initially, students also took responsibility for developing standardized rules that would allow
for intercollegiate competition, organizing governing bodies for rowing, football, and track and
field, for example (Polidoro, 2000). Football provided an especially interesting complication,
because early American football resembled soccer or was essentially rugby. In 1876, Rutgers, Yale,
Princeton, and Columbia universities agreed to form the Intercollegiate Football Association
(IFA). In 1879, led by Yale student and later football coach Walter Camp, rules were adopted that
essentially established the sport that came to be known as football in the United States.
Nevertheless, problems developed along with college athletics. Nonstudent players were
often allowed on teams, absences from classes, and rising commercialization were some of the
issues. Harvard actually banned football in 1885, citing demoralization and physical danger. One
way to reduce demoralization caused by unequal teams as well as absences caused by long-
distance travel for competitions was to institute league conferences. The first of these was the
Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives (formed in 1895), now known as the Big
Ten. Greater control of sports by faculty and administration, with input from student and alumni
stakeholders, became more common in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The dangers of football, which had led to many injuries and a number of deaths (18 in
1905 alone), prompted the establishment in 1905 of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association
Figure 9.10 Members of the 1913 Cornell University football team. This photo was taken long before helmets were
mandatory in college football.

of the United States. It was soon renamed the National Collegiate Athletic Association and
revised rules to reduce the dangers of the game and to allow for the forward pass. In the era
before helmets were worn, when players used long hair or hardened leather as protection, the
risks continued, and in 1909, there were 33 deaths (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017). The plastic
helmet would not appear until John Riddell invented it in 1939. That same year, helmets
were declared mandatory in college football (the NFL would not require them until 1943)
(Stamp, 2012).
Women in colleges such as Smith and Vassar in the late 1800s participated in sports like
tennis, basketball, archery, golf, and bicycling, but were discouraged from engaging in athletic
competitions for medical and societal reasons. As the 20th century began, women were permitted
to play more sports at the college level, but competition was still less acceptable than was mass
participation. Their efforts were directed into play days, field days, indoor meets, open days, and
telegraphic meets (Gerber, 1975). A telegraphic meet was an early form of intercollegiate
competition in which races were run or other events were held, and the results were sent by
telegraph to another location, where winners were determined. The emphasis remained on fun
and social gathering for the competitors, but along with intramural sports (competitions within
a single college or university), telegraphic meets broadened sporting opportunities for women
somewhat during that era.
There were exceptions. Women’s basketball intercollegiate play occurred in 1896 in
California (Berkeley versus Stanford) and the University of Washington versus Ellensburg
Figure 9.11 The Oregon Agricultural College (now Oregon State University) women’s basketball team, 1900.

Normal School. Nonetheless, the Committee on Women’s Athletics (CWA, founded 1917),
the women’s division of the National Amateur Athletic Foundation (NAAF, founded 1923),
the Athletic Conference of American College Women (ACACW, founded 1917) and various
sections on women’s athletics within the American Physical Education Association (APEA;
Women’s Athletic Section founded in 1927 and National Section on Women’s Athletics founded
in 1932) continued to promote women’s participation rather than competition in the early
1900s (Szady, 1987).
These organizations and college administrators went along with the fears perpetuated by
doctors and societal norms; e.g., that the strains of competition would be too much for women’s
bodies and minds, that they might become “mannish,” and that they would become less virtuous
or womanly if allowed to compete (Park, 1991; Pepper, 2015; Polidoro, 2000; Struna & Remley,
1973). Over time, with changes in societal norms brought about by women’s activities in two
world wars during the early 1900s, participation in the modern Olympics, and examples set by
female professional athletes, women gained more opportunities for intercollegiate competition.
We will continue that discussion as part of the next chapter.
SUMMARY
questions.
• Some opportunities for work-related sports activities in North America in the 1800s included
agricultural competitions at fairs, lumberjack sports, rodeos, and office work contests.
• Percussive dance includes dance movements in which sounds are made by striking parts of
the body against the floor or against other body parts. It can be used in physical education
to teach rhythm, agility, coordination, balance, and sociocultural history.
• Some examples of sports brought to North America by immigrants during this time period
are Caledonian games like caber tossing and Irish sports such as hurling.
• Before and after the Civil War, enslaved African Americans participated in swimming,
horseracing, fighting, bicycling, and dancing, to name a few recreational activities. After
the Civil War and well into the 20th century, freedmen and their descendants sometimes
became professional jockeys, baseball players, and dancers, but regulations and unwritten
rules severely limited their opportunities or denied them altogether.
• Amateur athletics, strictly speaking, are events in which unpaid athletes compete for the
love of sport rather than for money. They are important during the era covered by this
chapter not only because they provided countless opportunities for participation in sports
for all, but also because, in some cases, clubs established for amateurs formed the basis for
professional athletic activities.
• Among the most popular professional sports of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were
rowing, prizefighting, baseball, and horseracing.
• During this time period, society viewed women’s competitive intercollegiate athletics as
unfit for women, potentially dangerous to their bodies and minds, and a threat to their
morality and femininity.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Popcorn and a Movie (Visual): Many popular films and excellent documentaries about the
history of sports during this time period are available. Individually, in groups, or as a class,
gather and watch a film such as A League of Their Own, 42, Life in the Negro Leagues:
There Was Always Sun Shining Someplace. All are available for online streaming. Discuss
reactions to the presentation. Popcorn is optional (but highly recommended).
2. War and Sports History (Research): War has had significant effects on sports throughout
history. In the era covered by this chapter, reconstruction aides in World War I developed
early methods of physical therapy, baseball pitcher Christy Mathewson served in the United
States Army Chemical Development Unit in World War I and was exposed to chemicals that
cut short his career, and the National Football League lost so many players to the World
War II draft that the Steelers and Eagles had to combine to become the Steagles (the
Phil-Pitt Eagles-Steelers Combine) in 1943. Research one of these topics and give a brief
presentation to the class using classroom technology such as PowerPoint.
3. Try Tapping (Kinesthetic): If one of the students in your class knows how to tap dance,
have him or her teach a short combination of easy steps to the class. Alternatively, invite a
tap dance teacher to visit the class, or watch and learn from an online video such as https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=_FnNPHTpJ8Y
4. Caledonian Games or Irish Competitions (Outreach): If you live near a place that holds
Scottish games or Irish competitions during the semester, arrange a field trip or invite
someone who participates in Irish or Scottish athletic or dance competitions to visit your
class. Lists of competitions can be found online. (Note: an Irish competition might also be
known as a fleadh (pronounced flah), oirachtas (o-ROCK-tus), or feis (pronounced fesh.)
FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 9.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Artaxerxesengravingamturfregister
sportingmag.jpg.
Fig. 9.2: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jesse_Owens_and_Bill_Bojangles_
Robinson_1936.jpg.

Fig. 9.3: Copyright © 2014 by Angus Chan, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:2014_Fergus_Scottish_Festival_and_Highland_Games_IMG_9738_(14705591589).jpg.
Fig. 9.4: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Harvard_Theatre_Collection_-_
Bernarr_Macfadden_TCS_1.2400.jpg.
Fig. 9.6: Source: https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3b49127/.
Fig. 9.8: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Babe_Didrikson_Zaharias_1948.jpg.
Fig. 9.9: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1932_Pittsburgh_Crawfords.jpg.
Fig. 9.10: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cornell_football_team_line-up_
LCCN2013646100.jpg.
Fig. 9.11: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oac_womens_basketball_1900.jpg.
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C H APTER 10
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN THE 20TH AND EARLY 21ST CENTURIES

• Who were some of the early-to-
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and mid-20th-century leaders in physical
education in the United States?
The American Century: a vision for the responsibility of the
United States in the 20th century, written as an editorial in • What motivated the rise of leisure
1941 by Life magazine editor Henry Luce studies and outdoor education?
The progressive era: from roughly 1890–1920, reforms and
• What laws address physical education
social activism efforts were made to address problems
of immigration, industrialization, urbanization, and political gender equity and students with special
corruption
needs?
The New Physical Education: (sometimes called modern
physical education, though that term has broader • How did amateur and professional
implications): emphasized more outdoor activities,
sports change in the 20th century?
individual-centered activities, natural exercises, physical
examination, and separation of the sexes at age 12
Normal schools: training schools for teachers, at which
the norms (current theory, practice, and educational
expectations) of various subjects were taught
Education through the physical: a philosophical component
of the new physical education, this view promoted physical
education as a way of life that would set high standards
like courage and endurance along with imagination, play,
pride, and joyful living
Natural gymnastics: Thomas Wood’s alternative to European
gymnastics; natural gymnastics used games, sports,
dance, athletics, and modified gymnastics
Pragmatism: a philosophy developed during the progressive
era in the United States, in which education toward the
service of lifelong goals and purposes was seen as more
important than education for its own sake

INTRODUCTION Education of the physical: a philosophy of physical
education especially promoted by Charles McCloy,
Henry Luce, the creator, publisher, and editor of who believed that physical education did not
necessarily need to promote aims and values
Time and Life magazines, wrote an editorial in Life in
beyond its own domain; physical education and
February 1941, calling the 20th century The American health were sufficient justifications for the inclusion
Century (Luce, 1941). He argued that Americans had a of the subject in schools
responsibility for leadership on the world stage to use
technology for good, to work toward world peace even if FitnessGram®: the national test of the Presidential
Youth Fitness Program, used to test physical and
war was a necessary step toward peace, and to recognize
aerobic fitness in schoolchildren of the United States
that freedom and abundant living were within the reach
of all humanity. His editorial was seen as controversial Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU): physical
at the time, especially since the United States was not yet education model developed by British educators
at war with the Axis powers in World War II, and some Thorpe, Bunker, and Almond, in which modified
games are used to present strategic problems for
interpreted his words as imperialistic and warmongering
students to solve; the process leads to deeper
(Boucher, 2015). Others, however, embraced the more understanding of the games for application in
altruistic elements of this viewpoint and considered its full-scale sports
myriad ramifications in the years to follow, including
its applications to the realms of physical education, Sport Education curriculum and instructional model
(SEM): known also as the Sport Education Model,
recreation and leisure, and sport.
this philosophy of physical education was developed
In this chapter, we will consider the achievements by Siedentop; it emphasizes the positive outcomes
and philosophies of 20th-century American leaders in of competitive sports, such as cooperation,
physical education. We will examine the ways in which leadership, peer teaching, and shared responsibility
sports and physical activity opportunities for all were
The leisure society: the notion that as a society
expanded through collegiate and professional sports,
develops technology to replace human labor and
outdoor leisure and recreation, and K–12 educational efforts, humans will be able to work less and spend
settings. We will see how the amateur ideal and more time in leisure pursuits
definition have been altered and look at some changes in
professional athletics over the past century. Intersectionality: people have multiple identities such
as race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender,
As we skim the timeline of recent history, be sure
ability status, and sexual orientation; researchers
to take a few moments to reflect on the big picture: the should be aware of, and contextualize, this
greater arc of physical education and sport history in the multidimensional complexity of identities
Western world from ancient civilizations to the present.
Where have we been, and where are we now? What ideas Lifetime (carryover) sports: sports that can be played
throughout life such as golf, tennis, and bowling
and events have impacted you in your life? Whether
it’s a memory of the way a physical education teacher National governing body (NGB): an organization
approached learning that inspired you, or the joy you felt responsible for sanctioning athletic competitions in a
specific sport such as gymnastics or track and field
Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 149
Semiprofessionals: athletes who are paid but
do not work as paid competitors full time when your team won a championship, or the freedom
or year-round you feel when you are engaged in physical activity,
Pro-am: athletes who compete for cash prizes consider why those opportunities and events are part
at tournaments but are not fully employed of your story and your place in the world, and how
as professionals or whose status fluctuates they connect you to the wider history and philosophy
through time; could be classified in the of sport and physical education.
professional amateur category; some
events, like pro-am golf tournaments,
combine professionals and celebrities for
charitable causes LEADERS IN 20TH-CENTURY PHYSICAL
Free agency: the ability of a professional EDUCATION: THE PROGRESSIVE ERA
athlete to negotiate their own contracts
and solicit offers to change teams, with
In response to the problems of early-20th-century
some restrictions
society such as urbanization, industrialization,
Reserve clauses: under professional sports immigration, and corruption at all levels of government,
contracts, players could be traded, sold, various reforms and efforts at social activism ushered
released, or reassigned by the owners of in the progressive era (roughly 1890–1920) in the
a team with whom they signed a contract;
United States and Canada. Educational reform was
these controls were known as reserve
clauses and have largely been eliminated part of these efforts. The direction taken by physical
educators during that time and into the mid-20th
Title IX: an amendment to the Civil Rights Act of century became known as the new physical education
1964, prohibiting discrimination in education (or sometimes, modern physical education).
against anyone on the basis of sex
The new physical education emphasized more
The 13 program areas: in Title IX, a list of outdoor activities, individual-centered activities,
program areas to be checked for compliance natural exercises, physical examination, and separation
with the law; these include things like of the sexes at age 12. It deemphasized health as a main
provision of equipment and supplies, goal of physical education, and it downplayed—but
publicity, and travel per diem allowance
did not eliminate—many of the artificial exercises
Individualized education plan (IEP): a and activities used in calisthenics and European
document developed by schools in gymnastics systems. Generally speaking, the goals
cooperation with parents of children with were:
special needs to describe what programs
or services will be provided to the student;
•
corrective (overcoming postural defects with
the student may be involved, if appropriate
assessment help from the Bancroft Posture Test,
Inclusion: placing a student with special needs for example),
into a classroom with peers and support •
educational (for motor, social, and expressive
services skills as well as moral training),
Individualized transition plan (ITP): a plan to • hygienic, and
help students with special needs transition • recreative (Barber, 1923).
from school to community living; this is a
part of an IEP for students aged 16 and over Spontaneous play, athletics, games, dancing,
Paralympics: founded by Ludwig Guttmann in and sports were all part of the new programming,
1960, these are elite athletic competitions in which school activities were supplemented by
for persons with disabilities the availability of playground facilities, the YMCA
and similar associations, improvement in physical
educator training through normal schools and higher

Special Olympics: begun by Eunice Kennedy
education programs, and the popularity of outdoor Shriver in 1968, Special Olympics gives
recreational camping. people with intellectual disabilities
opportunities for athletic competitions in a
Thomas Wood (1865–1951), who had been a student
supportive atmosphere
of Delphine Hanna at Oberlin College in Ohio, was
one of the first leaders in the new physical education. Deaflympics: international athletic competition
The philosophy he shared with Luther Gulick and for people with hearing impairments;
others (see Chapter 8) was one of education through competitors must have at least 55dB of
hearing loss in their better ear and may not
the physical. This viewpoint placed physical education
use hearing aids or cochlear implants
squarely within the realm of modern education as
part of idealistic comprehensive training for a full Tip: in square dancing, a set of two dances,
and fine life. Despite opposition, he championed the often done to contrasting styles of calling
use of sports, dance, and games as well as modified
European gymnastics and called his program natural
gymnastics.
The motivation for physical activity and its
purpose, he believed, was to enhance the experience
of living so that individuals and society would strive
for excellence using values and lessons learned from
physical education. Wood was also a health educator,
but believed that health would be a natural byproduct
of proper physical education (Davenport, 1984). He
wrote The New Physical Education (1927) with fellow
educator Rosalind Cassidy (1895–1980) as a guide
to this philosophy. Many of the ideas of the “new”
physical education were, in fact, taken from older
ideas of naturalism that had influenced German
gymnastics teachers from Johann Basedow onward.
The key difference was the influence exerted on Wood
and others by another educational philosophy from
the early 1900s known as pragmatism (Kretchmar,
1984).
Pragmatism will be covered in more depth in
Chapter 13, but as it concerns us here, it was a belief
in the importance of education for greater social and
democratic purposes in life. Purposiveness in terms of
physical education meant that activities were not only
undertaken for their own sake, but also for the sake of
wider life goals, in which cooperation, leadership, and
teamwork, for example, would resonate throughout
one’s existence. In some ways, this reflected back on
the British sports ideal and muscular Christianity,
but the work of American philosophers such as John
Dewey (1859–1952) popularized this point of view.
Jesse Williams (1886–1966), a colleague of Wood
at Teachers College of Columbia University in New
York City, affirmed the views put forth by Wood
and Cassidy, but went even further in his belief
that athletics, games, and dancing should all be
organized and directed toward the function they
can play in the lives of the participants (Williams,
1930, 1939). For him, the three aspects of life most
affected by physical activities are “the biologic, the
social, and the political” (Williams, 1926, p. 292).
Proper and sufficient motor development, he
believed, was the basis of physical education at the
most basic neuromuscular level. However, some
social goals such as the reduction of delinquency
and maladjustment could be attained by teaching
youth to use their leisure time wisely in wholesome
recreational pursuits. Those habits would hopefully
continue past the school years, with morals and
good character instilled by physical education.
Finally, the physical and moral development of
students would contribute politically to national
strength and safety while instilling lifelong habits
of vitality and health (Williams, 1926).
Clark Hetherington (1870–1942) actually
coined the phrase New Physical Education
in his 1910 article, “Fundamental Education”
(Thomas, 1985). Like his contemporaries Wood
Figure 10.1 The Bancroft Test: using a pole (such as
and Williams, he was influenced by Rousseau’s
those used to open high windows), the observer can see
naturalism, Friedrich Froebel’s views on play as
whether a body is in correct alignment. essential to child development, and G. Stanley
Hall’s interest in childhood play. Hetherington
believed in education as a socializing influence on
children, which helped them to adjust to society’s expectations and demands. Through his work
in various institutions of education across the United States, particularly at the Universities of
Missouri, Wisconsin, and California (Berkeley), he advocated for the place of physical education in
higher education as a requirement for graduation from secondary and postsecondary educational
institutions and for the creation of undergraduate and postgraduate physical education teacher
preparation programs (Bandy, 1985).
His work was not always appreciated by his colleagues. After he had founded the Missouri
Valley Conference for collegiate athletics in 1907 and worked as a representative to the
Intercollegiate Athletic Association (now known as the NCAA), Hetherington’s strong views
concerning intercollegiate athletics as play rather than as spectacle led him to propound strict
ideas about the value of amateurism over professionalism. Those ideas were not in keeping with
those of his fellow administrators at Missouri and led to his resignation from that institution in
1910 (Bandy, 1985; Thomas, 1985; Tipton, 2013).
Another early-to-mid-20th-century leader, Charles McCloy (1886–1959), also found himself
at odds with other physical educators from time to time. His education of the physical was
seen by some, including Williams, as a retreat from what were then current views on physical
education, in which athletics and games for the development of social, moral, and physical

Figure 10.2 Jesse Williams believed that biological, social, and political aspects of life are affected by
physical activity. These western square dancers are wearing traditional outfits, including crinoline petticoats
for the women. Nowadays, some square dancers reject traditional gender roles and dancewear, and there
are square dance clubs for the LGBT and ethnic minority communities.
education were in vogue. This came about partly because he had called for more strength training
and concentrated on the physical (psychomotor) side of physical education more than on the
affective domain in his research and writing (English, 1983/2013).
Arguably, the characterization of his work as education of the physical might have been due, at
least in part, to his focus on the development and use of updated and improved measurements for
physical fitness. He himself denied that classification: his belief in the power of physical education
to promote mental and emotional health, for example, is clear in his writings (McCloy, 1933,
1937). That being said, tests such as the McCloy Strength Test, the McCloy Test of Present Health
(a cardiovascular rating scale), a General Motor Capacity Test, and a General Motor Ability Test
were only a few of the many instruments he designed. His textbook, Tests and Measurement in
Health and Physical Education (1939), and his work with the Research Council of AAHPERD
drove scientific research in kinesiology forward at a time when national interest in physical
education tests was being driven by concerns for health and national security (English, 1983).
AAHPERD’s successor organization, SHAPE America, continues the research work of
McCloy in measurements of physical fitness in schoolchildren. In a lecture for SHAPE America,
Welk (2017) credited McCloy for having laid the groundwork for such widely used testing
instruments as Charles L. Sterling’s FitnessGram®. McCloy’s legacy of professional research in
physical testing set a high standard for physical education and kinesiology studies, furthering
the academic stature and credibility of the profession.
Figure 10.3 Students at an elementary school on a military base in Okinawa running a FitnessGram® pacer test.
In the latter half of the 20th century, revisions to physical education pedagogy have often
tended toward more student-centered and analytical models. Mosston’s 1966 textbook Teaching
Physical Education helped instructors rethink teaching strategies. The possibility of allowing
more student decision-making about their participation was considered revolutionary during
an era of teacher-directed instruction. The British public school sports model found new life in
the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) model, updated by three teachers at England’s
Loughborough University in the 1980s. Thorpe, Bunker, and Almond modified game structures
to create strategical problems for students to solve. This gave their students skills and a deep
understanding of strategy to apply in actual games (Metzler, 2007). Griffin, Mitchell, and Oslin
brought the use of games to teach skills to the United States in 1997 with their book Teaching
Sport Concepts and Skills: A Tactical Games Approach.
Further emphasis on the affective domain of physical education continued on the work of the
British sports model and American pioneers such as Wood and Williams. Hellison’s Teaching
Responsibility Through Physical Activity (2003) promoted purposive physical education via his
Personal-Social Responsibility (PSR) model, and Siedentop’s Sport Education curriculum and
instructional model (SEM), expounded in Sport Education: Quality PE Through Positive Sport
Experiences (1994) emphasized the positive outcomes of competitive sports, such as cooperation,
leadership, peer teaching, and shared responsibility (Metzler, 2007).
LEISURE
Throughout the history of the United States, a work ethic derived from religious and societal
imperatives has often impeded the pursuit of leisure as a good or worthy objective. We have

seen how legal restrictions on leisure-time activities were challenged or ignored, and how
humans have consistently exhibited a love of sport and games throughout history. With greater
industrialization and automation, the Great Depression, and the advent of a 40-hour workweek
by congressional amendment of the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1940, leisure time was becoming
more abundant (Evans, 1969; Williams, 1939).
John Maynard Keynes, an economist who had studied the causes and impact of the Great
Depression, foretold of a leisure society and concluded that an era of abundance and leisure
would arrive within his lifetime, with all necessary goods and services of the world capable of
being produced using only one quarter of the human work that was needed in 1930 (Elliott,
2008; Keynes, 1930/1932). People would have far more leisure time, and the question arose as
to how they would spend it. European universities in the 20th century began studying leisure as
part of sociology, and universities in the United States began offering similar classes in the 1940s.
Since around 1970, leisure studies as an academic discipline has developed into an area of
study distinct from sociology and can now include topics such as tourism and outdoor education
(also known as environmental education, sometimes integrated with ecological education)
(Borland, 2011; Stebbins, 2018). The notion of a leisure society was revisited during the 1960s in
response to computing technology and continues to be a periodic topic of popular and scholarly
discussion, although the leisure society has never emerged, for a variety of sociological, economic,
and political reasons (Veal, 2019; Vickerman, 1980). Currently, diverse research methods and
theories for the study of race, ethnicity, intersectionality, and leisure are being developed and
tested worldwide (Stodolska, Shinew, Floyd, & Walker, 2014).
An important part of leisure and recreation, the building and maintenance of playgrounds
continued in the 20th century. Luther Gulick and Henry Curtis founded the Playground
Association of America (PAA) in 1906. The name was changed to Playground and Recreation
Association of America (PRAA) in 1910, then to National Recreation Association (NRA) in
Figure 10.4 Fishing has long been regarded as an excellent outdoor leisure activity.
1930. During the mid-1960s, the organization combined with other similar groups and became
known as the National Park and Recreation Association (NRPA) (Frost, 2012).
Two associations within the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation
and Dance (AAHPERD), the American Association for Leisure and Recreation (AALR, founded
1939) and the American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness (AAALF, founded 1949)
merged to become the American Association for Physical Activity and Recreation (AAPAR) in
2005. In 2013, AAPAR was folded into AAHPERD, which became the Society for Health and
Physical Educators (SHAPE America) and essentially disappeared along with the recreational
councils (the Council for Aquatic Professionals, for example) that had been founded under
AAPAR (Katchmarchi & Lorenzi, 2016).
One of the leaders in recreation studies in the 1900s was Jay Nash (1886–1965). Nash was a
student under Clark Hetherington at UC Berkeley and before that had played football at Oberlin
College, coached by Jesse Williams. As a recreation professional, he convinced the city of Oakland,
California, to fund two camps in the Sierra Mountains and to open schools, community buildings,
and parks for recreation during evening hours, weekends, and even holidays. One of the five
original founders of the American Academy of Physical Education (AAPE), he became president
of AAHPER during World War II. During his tenure, AAHPER used the theme National War
Fitness in support of sports and games to teach physical conditioning, endurance, agility, team
cooperation, courage, combat, ruggedness, and the will to win (Jable, 1985; Nash, 1943). While
he acknowledged that this initiative was primarily directed at men, he also explicitly stated that
it applied to females (Nash, 1928, 1943).
The influence of John Dewey on Nash’s beliefs was evident in his pragmatic commitment
to the preservation of democracy and individual freedoms through education. Athletics and
productive use of leisure time (such as camping) would help Americans fight the scourges of
Figure 10.5 Jay Nash favored so-called “carryover sports,” which participants could do throughout their lives.
Golf, tennis, and swimming were examples of these types of sports.

inactivity (Nash, 1950). Among his many publications, his 1932 book Spectatoritis and his
Philosophy of Recreation and Leisure (1953) were calls for active lifelong participation in lifetime
(carryover) sports and recreational pastimes rather than passive viewing of films and listening
to radio. In 1958 he proclaimed, “To use leisure intelligently and profitably is a final test of
civilization” (Nash, 1958, p. 456), and he went on to call for more respect for leisure activities. He
saw recreational time as a potential gateway to mental and physical health, creativity, volunteer
service to communities, and relief of boredom (Nash, 1958).
AMATEUR SPORT
In 1909, Hetherington had described amateurism as “sport for sport’s sake” (p. 568), and he went
on to form an Athletic Research Society to study amateurism and athletic program administration
(Tipton, 2013). The question of what makes an athlete a professional goes beyond Hetherington’s
belief that external motivations such as being paid and pleasing spectators are what determine
professionalism. Even in his day, gray areas existed. Collegiate players were sometimes paid
to play sports like football, and 1912 Olympian Jim Thorpe’s medals were rescinded (restored
in 1983) when he was ruled by the International Olympic Committee to have violated the rules
of amateur standing because he had played semiprofessional baseball.
Since the beginning of the modern Olympics
in 1896, founder Pierre de Coubertin and the
International Olympic Committee had tried
to restrict the Olympics to nonspecialists in
sports to promote fairness in the competitions.
This attitude of amateurism had been prevalent
in British sports and was, to a large extent, a
remnant of the aristocratic class privilege of the
1800s, when specialization and dedication to
a sport were considered vulgar and worthy of
disdain. Only people of a lower socioeconomic
standing accepted money for athletic contests
because they needed to be paid in order to
have financial support while they trained for
competition. However, when professionals
competed against amateurs, the professionals
were seen as having an unfair advantage due to
their ongoing training regimens.
As of 2019, the line between amateurs
and professionals in the Olympics has all but
been obliterated. Whereas at one time, even
accepting money for teaching a sport qualified
an athlete as a professional under Olympic Figure 10.6 James Francis Thorpe (Jim Thorpe, 1887–1953)
standards, nowadays, professionals often was a member of the Sac and Fox Nation. He was the first
compete along with amateurs. This is partially indigenous American to win gold medals in the Olympics,
due to the late-20th-century practice of winning both the pentathlon and the decathlon in the 1912
Eastern Bloc countries (during the Cold War, Stockholm Olympic Games.
any who were under Soviet Union influence),
which trained athletes year-round under a
professional amateur state-sponsored model.
The lines were blurred even further with
corporate sponsorships of athletes and the
general rise of commercialism in the Olympics.
Particularly in the television age, the political
importance allocated to nationalistic medal
counts and the desire to see professionals in
the competitions exerted pressures to satisfy
spectators, thus selling more tickets to events
and generating higher viewership ratings.
The notion of fairness has gradually shifted
away from an unfair advantage on the part
of professionals to an unfair advantage of
some amateurs over others; slowly, the myth
Figure 10.7 Venus Williams, professional tennis player, at the
of the amateur ideal is fading as reality sets in
French Open in 2012. Later that year, she and her sister,
(Higdon, 1979; Llewellyn & Gleaves, 2016).
Serena, earned Olympic gold medals in doubles competition, A desire to preserve American athletic
and Serena won the singles event. prestige abroad and the recognition of
the Soviet dominance in the Olympics of
the 1960s and 1970s were key factors in the
passage of the 1978 Amateur Sports Act. The act centralized control of US athletic participation
in international competitions and placed it in the hands of the US Olympic Committee and
various sport governing bodies. The Amateur Sports Act has benefited mostly elite athletes
and has been criticized for not providing more opportunities for mass participation, especially
during the current obesity epidemic in the United States. Despite a 1998 revision specifically
requiring that Paralympics be included, in practice funding and administrative efforts have
not resulted in equal opportunities for athletes with disabilities (Hunt, 2007). On the other
hand, opportunities for advanced kinesiology and sports medicine research eventually
benefited elite athletes through national governing bodies (NGBs). Subsequent legislation
and cooperation between sports medicine groups and NGBs has continued to benefit athletes
(Burke, 1981).
The Amateur Sports Act reduced the role of the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) and the
NCAA in international competition qualification events but left them with authority in their
spheres of national events. The AAU continues to provide amateur competitive opportunities
and physical fitness. It still coordinates the AAU Junior Olympics and provides diverse sports
opportunities for its 700,000 members of all ages. Dance, baton twirling, trampoline, sport cup
stacking, and jump rope are also offered through the AAU.
The NCAA, meanwhile, continues to require amateur standing for collegiate athletes. Their
position on this has become problematic in an age of astronomical coaching salaries for some
Division I revenue-generating sports such as football and basketball. Commercial sponsorship
by corporations such as Nike and Adidas has allegedly led to some issues concerning payments
for recruitment of players.
International students who are recruited to play Division I have faced additional difficulties
due to differences in regulations abroad. For example, the court case of Buckton v. NCAA (1973)

found that young Canadian hockey players who accept room and board and educational expenses
in exchange for playing on a civic group team are penalized by the NCAA rules on amateurism
if they want to play for a US college team. At that time, a typical American student who accepted
a preparatory school scholarship as a hockey player would not have been considered to have
violated amateur status (Kaburakis, 2007).
Conversations about whether it would be fair to pay student athletes (beyond their athletic
scholarships) continue, with debates surrounding questions of amateurism and exploitation. In fact,
the possibility of having some college teams leave the NCAA to form a professional college league
has been advanced (Staurowsky, 2011). Clearly, amateurism in sports is not what it once was.
PROFESSIONALISM
As the notions of amateurism have changed over the course of the 20th and 21st centuries,
designations of various levels of payment for engagement in sport have been developed. Some
athletes are paid but don’t play their sport full time or year-round. Semiprofessionals fall into
this category. Junior ice hockey players in Canada, indoor American football players, lower-level
baseball players, and American lacrosse players are among those competing in this economic
category. Some short-term sporting events like charity golf tournaments in which celebrities
are teamed with professional golfers are designated as pro-am (professional-amateur). Many
in the dance world earn at least some of their annual income working in these categories, due
to employment in part-time or short contracts for seasons, rather than year-round salaried
positions.
Professionals, generally speaking, have lives dedicated to the sport(s) in which they
specialize. It is extraordinary for an athlete to achieve professional status in more than one sport.
American Bo Jackson was the first professional of the modern era to compete in both football
and baseball in the same year, earning him a contract with crossover Nike footwear in the Bo
Knows marketing campaign. Others,
like Dave DeBusschere (baseball, then
basketball), Tim Tebow (football, then
baseball), and Deion “Neon Deion”
Sanders (football, then baseball), have
had successful consecutive careers. In
fact, Sanders was the only individual to
have played in both a Super Bowl and a
World Series.
Such athletes are extremely rare.
Most earn their salaries while they are
still young enough to play and risk
injuries (sometimes irreversible) or
even death to compete while they can
in their respective sports. These risks,
combined with the relatively short Figure 10.8 Many dedicated professional dancers study dance
career spans and market forces, are throughout their childhood and professional careers, investing their
used to justify astronomical salaries money and time in their training, but are unable to secure year-round
such as that contracted by Venezuelan paid dance employment.
baseball player Ronald Acuna. He signed an eight-year/$100,000,000 contract in 2019 with the
Atlanta Braves. Salaries for professional athletes have risen steadily over the past century due to
a number of factors, including things like changes to labor practices and commercial influences.
Along with racial integration of professional sports, the changes in sports management have
been among the most dramatic paradigm shifts in the sports history of the 20th and early 21st
centuries.
Figure 10.9 Deion Sanders, the only individual to have played in both a Super Bowl and a World Series.
The ability of players to negotiate their own contracts and play on the teams of their choosing
(known as free agency) was a hard-fought right. In baseball, basketball, football, and hockey,
the team owners used to hold reserve clauses over players when their contracts were up. Players
could be traded, sold, released, or reassigned without control over their careers. Rules have
changed so that, with some restrictions, players are able to become free agents after a certain
point in their contracts. In 2019, only Major League Soccer (MLS) still holds reserve clauses
over players.
Over the years, contract disputes between players and owners have led to work stoppages.
A National Football League (NFL) strike in 1987 caused a shortened season. In 1994, baseball
players on their eighth walkout in Major League Baseball (MLB) history effectively ended
the season that year. The resulting strike was embarrassment for MLB, financial losses for
broadcasters, and fan dismay. The National Hockey League lost an entire season, 2004–2005, to
labor disputes. Professional athletes have had to fight for their employment rights, but they have
been very successful in advocating for themselves.
The situation for female professional athletes has improved over the past 100 years, but the
rewards are far less lucrative. Women in professional sports have struggled to earn comparable
salaries and infrastructure support, and opportunities in coaching and related professions

are not yet on a par with those of men
(Schultz, 2018). For example, many rookie
women in the WNBA in 2018 had a starting
salary of $41,202, while starting salaries in
the NBA were approximately $560,000. The
WNBA spends around 25% of its revenue
on player salaries compared to 50% of
NBA revenues (Hill, 2018). In the Women’s
Professional Soccer League (WPSL), until
2018, teams could call up amateur players
without remuneration (apart from basic
living expenses) to fill out their rosters
when players were away on international
competitions. The minimum salary for the
WPSL in 2017 was $15,750, with a maximum
of $44,000 (Goldberg, 2018).
Women often play overseas to supplement
their incomes, in many cases playing year-
round, increasing the strain on their bodies
and the risks for injuries. Overall, women
face career time limits and risks just as men
do, but the economic rewards and playing
conditions are obviously far from equitable.
One National Women’s Soccer League
(NWSL) player, Cari Roccaro, describes Figure 10.10 Women’s soccer superstar Megan Rapinoe in the 2012 Summer
the type of conditions faced by female Olympic Games, USA versus Japan.
professionals:
“Last year, my salary was below poverty level when I looked it up,” Roccaro said. “In
terms of facilities, we don’t even have a locker room at our practice field and I do my
own laundry. I have one pair of cleats that I’m trying to use during the offseason and
make it through until I can get another pair, as opposed to college where you get five
pairs at a time.” (Withiam, 2017, para. 18)
In 2019, the US Women’s Soccer Team sued US Soccer for gender discrimination, and it is not
the first lawsuit to have been filed by women against US Soccer and FIFA, the governing body of
worldwide soccer (Das, 2019). To be sure, women in professional sports have come a long way
since the days of Babe Didrikson Zaharias, but there is much room for improvement in terms of
equality of pay.
TITLE IX, AIAW, AND NAGWS: WOMEN IN SPORT

If we consider the advances made in women’s physical education and sports opportunities in the
past half century or so, we can point to federal legislation and the work of key organizations as
drivers of change. Have you ever heard of the Patsy T. Mink Equal Opportunity in Education
Act (2002)? You may know it by its prior designation, Title IX of the Education Amendments of
1972. It is part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and it covers discrimination in a wide variety of
areas beyond sport, although that is the most widely known aspect of the law. The law applies to
K–12 as well as postsecondary education.
Here is the law: “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from
participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education
program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.” Whether public or private, unless an
institution receives a waiver (usually for religious reasons), acceptance of federal money means
the school must remain in compliance with the law.
For athletics, three aspects of Title IX are critical:
1. Participation: equal opportunities for male and female participation in sports. The sports do
not need to be identical, but the number of spots available needs to be equal
2. Scholarship money: where scholarships are granted, males and females must be granted
proportional dollars according to their participation
3. Amenities, also known as the 13 program areas: facilities, medical services, scheduling of
games and practices, coaching, publicity, recruitment, tutoring, and room and board are
among the benefits that must be equitable between male and female athletes. Equitable does
not mean equal, but implies a fair and just availability of benefits. These are listed in section
106.37 of the regulations.
Since the law was passed in 1972 and the athletic implications went into effect in 1975,
women’s participation in intercollegiate athletics rose over 700% overall, though participation
rates vary across the United States by region, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity (Schultz, 2018).
In order to ensure compliance, a three-prong test is used as a tool to measure equitable
participation opportunities under Title IX. A school must only meet one of the prongs in order
to qualify for funding.
1. Participation opportunities for male and female students are provided in substantially
proportionate numbers, based on respective enrollments. For example, if 51% of the student
body is female, then females would have to be provided roughly 51% of participation
opportunities for intercollegiate athletics.
2. Demonstration of a history and ongoing practice of program expansion responsive to the
changing interests and abilities the underrepresented sex.
3. Demonstration that the current athletic program fully and effectively accommodates the
interests and abilities of the underrepresented sex.
The underrepresented sex is not necessarily always female, but that has often been the case.
Most schools use the first prong because it is the easiest to quantify. The methods and legitimacy
of determining proportionality have been challenged, however.
There is no requirement for male sports to be cut in order to accommodate women’s sports; in
fact, that practice is considered by the Office for Civil Rights to be a “disfavored practice” (Schultz,
2018, p. 36). However, there have been cases in which that has happened, without violating Title IX
(Carpenter and Acosta, 2005). Legal challenges have been brought by wrestlers and advocates for
other men’s sports in which the validity of the three-part test has been questioned. The National
Wrestling Coaches Association, along with athletes and alumni from Bucknell, Marquette, and
Yale universities, sued the Department of Education in 2003. In another case, a suit was brought

against the Department of Education
and James Madison University after
a 2006 decision brought cuts to men’s
and women’s teams. The courts sided
with the universities in these lawsuits
(Brake, 2010).
The influence Title IX has had
on women’s participation in sports
has been remarkable, but it was not
created in a vacuum. Support for the
athletes’ desires and recognition of the
proven abilities of females in athletic
competition at all levels rose throughout
the 20th century (Brake, 2010; Gerber,
1971, 1975). As society, educators, and
the medical profession acknowledged
the benefits and made more realistic
assessments of risks, girls and women
ventured into a wider variety of
sports, eventually including those
contact sports traditionally considered
masculine, such as football and boxing.
Girls are as likely to be found in martial
arts classes as are boys now and enjoy
mixed martial arts as well as rugby and
wrestling. Traditional expectations of Figure 10.11 Iranian karateka (karate competitor) Nasrin Dousti (b. 1988),
femininity still affect women, even at gold medalist in karate kumite -50kg, at the 2017 Islamic Solidarity
the highest echelons of sport: skirts are Games. Women around the world in many diverse cultures have
still standard attire for some sports, and benefited from the strides made in women’s sports in the 21st century.
female athletes are often objectified no
matter what they wear.
Organizations founded to promote women’s participation in sports have not always favored
competition because of the perceived threat to femininity and morals. For example, the Division
for Girls and Women in Sport (DGWS) did not state that women may participate in intercollegiate
competitions until 1957 and did not say that it was desirable for them to do so until 1963. In
1966, the DGWS founded a Commission on Intercollegiate Sports for Women to help organize
competitions; that commission eventually became the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics
for Women (AIAW) in 1971. Still, the AIAW emphasized education and sports participation
over winning, in contrast to the NCAA’s more competitive athleticism.
Following the passage of Title IX and after losing an attempt to exclude athletic departments
from Title IX, the NCAA formed a Women’s Committee and began to move toward more
national control of women’s intercollegiate athletics. Halfhearted attempts to fold the AIAW into
the NCAA failed. Eventually, using its wealth to promise scholarships and other incentives and
using its power over broadcast coverage to promise media exposure, it swayed institutions to
leave the AIAW and become affiliated with the NCAA. Consequently, the AIAW was forced to
disband in 1982 (Bell, 2018).
The National Association for Girls and Women in Sport (NAGWS) began in 1899 as a
committee focused on developing rules and guidelines for sports for female participation. As
one of the associations under the umbrella of AAHPERD, NAGWS became a powerful voice
for the importance of women in sport, providing awards, promoting leadership through sport,
and working with Congress to establish a National Girls and Women in Sport Day in 1987. The
day marks the struggles women have had, and continue to have, in sports. It also celebrates the
achievements and progress made thus far. Celebrated annually on the Wednesday of the first
full week of February, it is a time to reflect on the past and a time to envision the future (Wade,
2004). When AAHPERD was changed into SHAPE America in 2014, NAGWS was effectively
eliminated as an organization.
ADAPTED PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS

Significant developments in physical education came about in the last quarter of the 20th century.
For the first time, federal legislation was passed on behalf of persons with disabilities, to remove
physical and institutional educational barriers. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
(PL 93-112) requires that any institution accepting federal funding must be physically accessible to
persons with disabilities. It also implicitly (without saying so outright) calls for physical education,
intramural sports, and interscholastic sports to be open to all, with any necessary modifications.
Going even further, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (EHA) (PL 94-
142) focused explicitly on the needs of individual students with disabilities, ages three through
21, including physical education as a mandatory educational component. The congressional
committee responsible for the bill believed strongly that physical education is an integral part
of education for all, and that parents should bear no additional cost for students’ access to
programs. Revisions to the law, including the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of
1990 (IDEA) (PL 101-476) and subsequent revisions, have not only changed the language of
the legislation (handicapped was replaced by disability, for example), but also strengthened the
rights of students and parents to demand appropriate special physical education.
Under IDEA, physical education means the development of a) physical and motor fitness;
b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and c) skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and
group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports), and includes special physical
education, adapted physical education, movement education, and motor development (34 CFR
300.39, Ch. III, 1 July 2007). An individualized education plan (IEP), if needed, must be discussed
between the parents and the school (and possibly the child) and written to clearly specify what
services will be provided by the school to meet special needs for inclusion (Kelly, 2020). Since
1990, an IEP for any student aged 16 and over must include an individualized transition plan
(ITP) to help the student transition from school life to community living. For students with
disabilities attending colleges and universities, guidelines from the National Association for Sport
and Physical Education call for college basic instruction programs (CBIPs) in physical activities
to provide appropriate activities for all students, regardless of disabilities. Instructor knowledge of
how to modify activities, and the use of games in structured teams (Siedentop’s Sports Education
Model (SEM), for example) are helpful in these instances (Allar, Baek, & Taliaferro, 2014).
The Amateur Sports Act of 1978, discussed earlier in this chapter, also had a provision
incorporating the Paralympics and giving greater attention to integrating sports for athletes
with disabilities. The Paralympics were founded by Sir Ludwig Guttmann (known as the “father

Figure 10.12 Runner in the 2016 Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
of wheelchair sports” (Horvat, Croce, Pesce, & Fallaize, 2019, p. 476). Begun in 1960, the
Paralympics are specifically for elite athletes with disabilities. Such athletes sometimes compete
in the Olympics as well. This has led to some controversy. For example, when Oscar Pistorius
competed in the London 2012 Olympics running the 400-meter and 400-meter relay races on
carbon-fiber Flex-Foot Cheetah blade prostheses, the question arose as to whether his adaptation
gave him an unfair advantage. No definitive conclusion has yet been reached (Greenemeier,
2016). Adaptive accommodations for competitors with mobility impairments have been added
to events such as the TCS New York City Marathon (sponsored by Tata Consulting Services), the
Boston Marathon, and even the X Games (Sagert, 2009).
Athletes who compete in the Paralympics do not compete in the Special Olympics, which
were founded by Eunice Kennedy Shriver in 1968 specifically to provide people with intellectual
disabilities opportunities to compete in athletics in a supportive atmosphere. However, certain
disabilities have their own international competitions. The Wayfinder Paralympic Games used
to be known as the Junior Blind Olympics when they began in 2005. Athletes in those games
are restricted to ages six to 22 and may be blind, visually impaired, or multi-disabled. The
International Games for the Deaf (sometimes called the International Silent Games) are now
called the Deaflympics. Competitors in the Deaflympics must have at least 55dB of hearing loss
in their better ear, and may not use hearing aids or cochlear implants.
Other sport organizations for people with disabilities include Adaptive Sports USA, Disabled
Sports USA, the National Wheelchair Basketball Association, the United States Association
for Blind Athletes, BlazeSports America, Inc., National Sports Center for the Disabled, Dwarf
Athletic Association of America, and International Federation for Athletes with Intellectual
Impairments (Horvat et al., 2019).
Figure 10.13 A Special Olympics athlete receives a balloon and welcome from Kadena Air Base Special Olympics
volunteers in Okinawa, Japan (2016).
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) (PL 101-336) prohibits private sector
businesses and agencies that do not receive financial assistance from the government from
discriminating against individuals with disabilities. Prior to the ADA, the Rehabilitation Act
of 1973 had only applied to institutions and agencies receiving federal money. Pursuant to the
ADA, recreational facilities must be accessible to people with disabilities. For example, swimming
pools open to the public must include lifts, and bowling alleys need to have bowling ramps so
that bowlers may roll the ball into the lane while seated if needed (Horvat et al., 2019).
SUMMARY
questions.
• Some of the early-to-mid-20th-century leaders in physical education in the United States

were Thomas Wood, Jesse Williams, Clark Hetheringon, Charles McCloy, and Jay Nash.
• Greater industrialization and automation, the Great Depression, the advent of a 40-hour
workweek, and the experience of two world wars were among the factors that motivated the
rise of leisure studies and outdoor education in the 20th century.
• The main law prohibiting discrimination against women in sports is Title IX of the Education
Amendments of 1972, an amendment to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Students with special

needs are covered under laws including the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act of 1990, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.
• The distinction between amateur sports and professional sports became less clear over the
course of the 20th and early 21st centuries. Professional salaries and negotiating freedoms in
major professional sports rose significantly, at least for men. Women’s professional sports
salaries and opportunities for coaching continue to lag behind those of men.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. The Legislative Effect on International Competition (Visual): Create Excel charts

showing the effects of legislation on athletic participation and/or competition. For example,
for the Amateur Sports Act of 1978, list the Olympic medal counts for the United States and
other top scoring countries beginning in 1972 compared with 1988, for example. Be aware
that political conflicts caused the USA to boycott the 1980 Summer Olympics; the USSR
and Eastern Bloc countries boycotted the 1984 Summer Olympics. You could also chart
participation in the Paralympics pre- and post-1978 (Amateur Sports Act influence). Another
possibility could be to chart female participation in the Olympics pre- and post-1972, the year
Title IX was passed into law. Be aware that implementation took several years; you might
look at numbers of participants and/or numbers of sports in which women competed.
2. College Sports and the Sanity Code of 1946 (Research): Research the Sanity Code
proposed to the NCAA membership in 1946. What was it? What effect did it have? What was
its nickname? Why was it repealed? What have been major subsequent rules concerning
regulation of student athlete scholarships and payments?
3. Traditional Square Dance (Kinesthetic): American GIs returning home from World War II
had had square dances on bases all over the globe. Many started clubs and popularized the
traditional squares or invented new patterns at various levels of difficulty in Modern Square
Dance Clubs. After seeking permission from the organizers, attend a beginner square
dance to try a tip (a set of two dances, often done to calls of contrasting styles), or invite a
caller to teach your class some traditional square dances.
4. Special Olympics Experience (Outreach): Does your school have a Special Olympics
club? If so, attend a practice session or better yet, go to a competition. Consider gathering
classmates to participate in an event to raise money for Special Olympics, such as a Polar
Plunge, if one happens nearby. The motto for Special Olympics is “Let me win, but if I can’t
win, let me be brave in the attempt”—can you see that in action? Here is a list of programs:
https://www.specialolympics.org/programs
FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 10.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_posture_of_school_children,_
with_its_home_hygiene_and_new_efficiency_methods_for_school_training_(1913)_
(14592018098).jpg.
Fig. 10.2: Copyright © 2006 by Dierdre, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Western_Square_Dance_Group.jpg.
Fig. 10.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USMC-13883.jpg.
Fig. 10.4: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/fisherman-man-fishing-water-sport-1439699/.
Fig. 10.5: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/swimmer-floats-river-summer-sun-251031/.
Fig. 10.6: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Photograph_of_Jim_Thorpe_-_
NARA_-_595347.jpg.
Fig. 10.7: Copyright © 2012 by Yann Caradec, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Venus_Williams_(7305501948).jpg.
Fig. 10.8: Copyright © 2016 by Dancermorgan, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Modern_dancer_1.jpg.
Fig. 10.9: Copyright © 1993 by Jim Accordino, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Deion_Sanders_Braves_1993.jpg.
Fig. 10.10: Copyright © 2012 by Joel Solomon, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Women%27s_Soccer_-_USA_vs_Japan_(6).jpg.
Fig. 10.11: Copyright © 2017 by Mehdi Marizad/Fars News Agency, (CC BY 4.0) at https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nasrin_Dousti_2017b.jpg.
Fig. 10.12: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/action-adult-paralympics-prosthetic-1867014/.
Fig. 10.13: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kadena_Special_Olympics_
opening_ceremony_welcomes_athletes_161105-F-YW474-118.jpg.
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C H APTER 11
INTERNATIONAL SPORT AND DANCE IN THE 21ST CENTURY

• What are some sociological issues to
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and be aware of when studying international
sports?
The global North: in the philosophy of Boaventura de Sousa • What programs and services does the
Santos, this is metaphorical, not geographical; it refers to
the colonial and capitalist powers of nations and groups International Olympic Committee offer
who hold power over discourse and socioeconomic
structures aside from the Olympic Games?
• What other international sports
The global South: unlike the global North, this refers to
societies that have endured inequalities imposed by organizations work toward improving
colonial and capitalist powers, and also implies progressive
thinking about time, relationships, and cross-cultural physical education worldwide?
communication (intercultural translation)
• What organizations promote
Positionality: understanding your social and political place understanding of international dance?
in the world, along with your biases and the influences at
work on your identities; the concept is used in research • Apart from ballet, what are some
ethics to acknowledge and address the power dynamics
that are present in all inquiries examples of classical dance traditions
around the globe?
Youth Olympic Games (YOG): held every four years, the
YOG provide elite athletes ages 15–18 with international
competition experience alongside a Culture and Education
Program (CEP)
Competition manipulation: intentionally losing an athletic

competition
Olympism: the International Olympic Committee (IOC)

defines Olympism in their charter:

INTRODUCTION Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and
combining in a balanced whole the qualities of
This chapter will help to raise and answer some of the body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture
“Where are we now?” questions of physical education and education, Olympism seeks to create a
and sport. In Chapter 4, we covered some of the history of way of life based on the joy found in effort, the
educational value of good example and respect for
ancient non-Western sports. In this chapter, we will look
universal fundamental ethical principles. (“Promote
at key events and organizations in international sports Olympism in Society,” 2019, para. 1)
and physical education as we take a more global view of
physical activity and culture. As you will see, the history Female athlete triad: physical conditions of low
of international competitions is often complicated by energy, amenorrhea (stoppage of menstrual cycle),
politics and various interests, but interest in international and osteoporosis, brought on by eating disorders
physical education opportunities continues to grow. combined with high levels of physical activity
Metaphorically speaking, in reading this chapter, Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD): a condition in
you might also consider another way of looking at which someone obsesses about a real or perceived
the world of sport: imagine a world divided into the body flaw
global North and the global South, as proposed by the
Clean athletes: athletes who do not use performance-
philosopher Boaventura de Sousa Santos. In his view,
enhancing substances or procedures to improve
the world was not divided so much into eastern and their athletic performances
western hemispheres as into northern and southern
worldviews. Laboring under capitalism and colonialism, Classical ceremonial ritual dance: dance performed
the global South has also had the mindset of resistance in a highly esteemed ritual setting, often using
and overcoming. The power and traditions of capitalism costumes, masks, and music, possibly with mime
and colonialism, on the other hand, hold sway in the or storytelling
global North. There are also voices of the global South Created dance: any choreographed dance made
in the north, in the form of marginalized groups such by amateur or professional dance creators for
as unemployed people or those of lower socioeconomic the entertainment of an audience; may include
status, or silenced ethnic and religious groups (De Sousa elements of traditional or ritual dance
Santos, 2012).
Cultural imperialism: when a politically or
What does this have to do with sport? Everything. economically dominant culture overpowers another
Think about the Olympics, for example. Which countries culture; used in colonization
get the most medals? When you watch the games on
television, do you see every heat or event, or only those Cultural appropriation: inappropriate use of another
in which a more wealthy country has a contender? How culture’s ideas, customs, arts, etc., by a dominant
does the International Olympic Committee (IOC) decide culture
which sports are included in the games? Moreover, who Concept mapping: concept maps are visual
has the power to finance the athletes’ training, pay for representations of the interrelationships between
concepts; concept mapping is the process of
creating such representations
International Sport and Dance in the 21st Century 173

sponsorships, and decide who gets to sit on the IOC? Are indigenous sports necessarily forgotten
when political and economic colonialism invade a country? There have been recent developments
toward addressing these issues, and we will see where some efforts are being made to identify and
address international concerns for justice and equity in international sports and physical education.
If you consider the training, support, and facilities needed to prepare international athletes
for competition, you will see significant disparities in opportunities for participation that go
beyond mere geography. A global consciousness should lead to questions of access to physical
education and athletic training. It should also lead to questions of environmental concerns.
Who contributes to pollution via travel to competition? What chemicals and water resources
are used to maintain golf courses? Where are the guidelines for sustainable stadium buildings?
The benefits of competition are not equally distributed across all countries in the world—while
we appreciate the gathering of the world’s elite athletes and their quests for glory, we must
acknowledge that the playing fields are not level. They never have been.
Positionality means that you understand your social and political place in the world, along
with your biases and the influences at work on your identities. In considering intercultural
translations, you cannot change who and what you are. If you keep an open mind, you may find
that it is more educational to consider the sports in this chapter as expressions of humanity’s love
of active competition, regardless of geographical origin. It may be difficult to understand them
because they are unfamiliar, and the people who play them are different from you in some ways.
You are an outsider, most likely, raised in a different culture. That does not mean that the sports
of other cultures are less worthy than yours, or that their merit should be judged on whether or
not they are included in the Olympics, for instance.
In this chapter, we will also introduce several important dance traditions from non-Western
cultures. History, arts, social customs, and religious traditions combine in many of the world’s
dances in ways that are unique and highly valued in their societies. While it is beyond the scope
of this text to do an in-depth dance ethnography, we can gain a better (if limited) awareness of
and appreciation for the artistry, physicality, and deeper meanings of dances from other cultures
through education and awareness of resources for further study.
INTERNATIONAL SPORTS ORGANIZATIONS

For many North Americans, the most visible international sports events are the Summer and
Winter Olympic Games. The modern Olympics began in Athens in 1896, and the Winter Olympics
began in 1924. From then until (and including) 1992, the Summer and Winter Olympics took
place in the same year. The Winter Olympics were also held in 1994, and have continued on a
four-year cycle, alternating even-numbered years with the Summer Olympics.
Most people do not realize that there are a number of other aspects to the Olympics, however.
An overarching goal of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is the promotion of
Olympism, which is defined as follows in the IOC Charter:
Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the

qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism
seeks to create a way of life based on the joy found in effort, the educational value
of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles (“Promote
Olympism in Society,” 2019, para. 1).

Every four years, youth ages 15–18 can participate in the Youth Olympic Games (YOG)
as athletes, reporters, ambassadors, and role models. The attendees take part in a Culture and
Education Program (CEP) to learn “Olympism, Social Responsibility, Skills Development,
Expression and Well-being and Healthy Lifestyles” (“What is YOG?,” 2009, para. 1). Youth who
cannot attend the YOG can learn about citizenship, health, social interaction, respect, and more
through the free Olympic Values Education Programme (OVEP). Educational programs to
combat abuses of athletes, doping, and competition manipulation (a form of cheating in which
the athlete intentionally loses an event) are in place to preserve the integrity of the games.
One of the fundamental goals of the Olympic ideal is peace, and toward that end, the IOC has
a number of social development initiatives to provide funding for developing countries. They
also have created a refugee team for athletes who have had to flee their countries. Their sport and
active society program serves all ages, promotes gender equality, and provides resources for
sport and physical activity in urban settings.
Figure 11.1 The Olympic Rings are the symbol of the Olympic Games. They represent (left to right) the continents of Europe,
Asia, Africa, Oceania (including Australia), and the Americas (considered as one continent). The logo was designed by the
founder of the modern Olympic Games, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, in 1913. They were first used for the 1920 Summer Olympics
in Antwerp, Belgium.
In several ways, the promotion of healthy living through sport is an ongoing concern of the
IOC. They have a healthy body image program to combat eating disorders and help females
avoid the female athlete triad of low energy, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis that can occur when
high activity levels and insufficient caloric intake are combined. This aspect of the IOC works
to fight body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), a condition in which a person obsesses about a real
or perceived body flaw. A program to combat homophobia and harassment is in place. An IOC
certification course to combat doping and encourage clean athletes has been created, as have
diploma courses in sports medicine, sports nutrition, and sports physical therapies.
The IOC works with world governments, the International Council of Sports Science and
Physical Education (ICSSPE), the International Council for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation, Sport, and Dance (ICHPER-SD), International Sports Federations, National
Olympic Committees, and many associations worldwide (“Recognized Organizations,” 2019) to
respond to international issues in sports, lifelong physical activity, and physical education. Their

International Olympic Academy and their Athlete365 Career+ programs provide educational
opportunities and also help athletes transition into post-competition life.
What becomes clear from a close examination of the scope of activities conducted by the
IOC is that it is a multifaceted organization responsive to a broad range of issues related to
sport and physical education. The actual Olympic Games are only the most visible part of a
structure that continues to adapt to scandals, challenges, and socioeconomic needs to provide
services and support around the world. It is part of the global North and is firmly connected to
capitalist frameworks, but we can see evidence of the progressive influence of the global South
in the adaptations it has made over the years. Whether such influence can withstand increasing
commercialization and professionalization of international athletics remains to be seen.
Research has shown that for the municipalities hosting the Olympics, short-term economic
gains are often followed by losses over time. Preuss (2004) has developed general and specific
economic models showing the cost-benefit analysis and impact of the games on host cities and
their regions. Locations are chosen by competitive bids, and the IOC helps to fund the selected
cities’ development of infrastructure such as stadium buildings or renovations to accommodate
the games. However, host cities must have sufficient lodging and nearby competition facilities
suitable to the events as well as utilities grids that can support the influx of athletes, media, and
spectators, not to mention strong political approval for the proposed location. For example,
downhill skiing requires 8,000 feet of well-maintained surface steeps, located close enough to
a town big enough to make it viable as a tourist ski attraction in the years following the Winter
Olympics. Facilities such as stadiums or waterfront structures constructed for the Summer
Olympics need sustainable plans for maintenance. Over time, the countries best able to provide
the funds needed for bids, investment in the chosen location, and post-Olympics maintenance
tend to be from the global North, even with IOC subsidies.
Sometimes, other international competitions are able to use Olympic facilities after the games
(and sometimes host cities like Beijing host again), but many venues, especially in economically
strapped countries, are simply abandoned or demolished (Grebey & Shaw, 2018). The Fisht
Olympic Stadium in Sochi, Russia, was used for several of the 2018 Fédération Internationale
de Football Association (FIFA) World Cup soccer matches. However, its location well outside
the city center makes it unattractive to organizations that might want to use it (“Sochi’s Empty
Stadium,” 2018).
As when governments lose interest in preserving and maintaining facilities for international
sports, decreased government funding for international preservation of traditional sports and
their cultural importance also takes a toll on historic preservation attempts. In some cases,
corporate donations can make up the difference. For example, in 2003, the United Nations
Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) published a World Sports
Encyclopedia of traditional sports and games and has worked with a Chinese IT company,
Tencent, to develop an interactive open digital library of traditional games (“UNESCO and
Tencent Partner,” 2015).
Since 2010, UNESCO has had a listing of sports considered “examples of intangible heritage”
(“Traditional Sports and Games,” 2017, para. 1). Some of these cross geographical barriers, with
special importance to a region or group of countries. An example would be tugging games, which
are listed in UNESCO as important to Cambodia, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, and
Vietnam. Others have crossed from one country to another and retained a different country’s
identity, such as the horsemanship of the Spanish Riding School of Vienna (Austria), home of
the Lipizzaner stallions.

In 2015, UNESCO cosponsored
a unique international competition
with the Indigenous Games in Brazil.
Two thousand athletes representing 30
nations and 24 ethnicities participated
in traditional games and sports (both
competitive and demonstrations), as
well as one Western sport: soccer. In
terms of promoting peace, cultural
preservation, understanding, and
appreciation of indigenous people
and their traditions, the work on
these games reinforced the United
Nations Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Peoples (2007) and the
Declaration of Punta del Este (1999). Figure 11.2 The XIX Winter Olympics (2002) were held in Park City, Utah (USA), near Salt
Both of those declarations call for Lake City. The facilities are still used by recreational and elite athletes. This photograph
of USA Luge Junior National Team athlete Matt Wolbach was taken in 2010 at the Utah
nations to value their indigenous Winter Games.
sports, games, and performing arts
(such as dance).
The Declaration of Punta del Este is of particular interest
to students of physical education because it was crafted
as Annex 1 of the Final Report of the third International
Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for
Physical Education and Sport (MINEPS III) specifically to
urge governments, organizations, and individuals worldwide
toward “North-South dialogue and cooperation” (1999,
para. 3). Articles 2 and 3 of the declaration specifically
stated the ministers’ call for recognition of the importance
of physical education and sport as Human Development
indicators at the same level as health, education, and the
environment:
[T]he importance of physical education and sport as an

essential element and an integral part in the process of
continuing education and human and social development.
These activities can also contribute to social cohesion,
mutual tolerance and the integration of different ethnic
and cultural minorities at a time when migration
concerns all continents. They underline the importance
of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) as a focal point for sport and
Figure 11.3 The Lipizzan, or Lipizzaner, breed of horse
physical education in the United Nations system (Third
originally came from Lipica in Slovenia in the 16th
International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials century. The horses have traditionally been trained at
Responsible for Physical Education and Sport (MINEPS the Spanish Riding School in Vienna, Austria, to be able
III), Declaration of Punta del Este, 1999, para. 2–3). to perform difficult and complex dressage maneuvers.

Other declarations call for
• girls and women to be better represented as athletes, “coaches, officials, and decision-
makers” (para. 5),
• a provision for anti-doping efforts and commitment to ethical behavior (para. 7),
• recognition of the importance of media in improving awareness of the socioeconomic
benefits of sport and physical education (para. 14), and
• the need for sufficient funding and human resources to support the efforts of MINEPS
(para. 10).
In the document, they endorsed the Berlin Agenda for Action for Government Ministers (1999)
that had been created at the ICSSPE World Summit on Physical Education, which called for all
schools to include physical education with well-qualified instructors. Recognizing the potential
benefits of sport and physical education toward achieving “social cohesion and democracy”
(para. 13) toward a “Culture of Peace,” (para. 15), the authors of the Punta del Este declaration
also noted that financing physical activity could save medical costs and aid socioeconomic
development (para. 4, 9).
International meetings and policy resolutions concerning physical education were watched
closely by the World Health Organization (WHO). In cooperation with ICCSPE (which has
associate status with UNESCO), WHO has released reports such as An Up-date on the Status
of Physical Education in Schools Worldwide: Technical Report for the World Health Organization
(Hardman, n.d.) and Global Action Plan on Physical Education 2018–2030: More Active People
for a Healthier World (2018). UNESCO has published World-Wide Survey of School Physical
Education (Hardman, Murphy, Routen, & Tones, 2014) and a host of survey reports, regional
studies, directories, and proceedings of conferences. The conclusions reached in these types of
documents indicate a number of ongoing issues.
1. Policies and implementation are often far different: legal provisions for physical education
are often unmet in actual practice.
2. The legal and perceived status of physical education instructors and classes are lower than
those of other subject areas.
3. While quality physical education is receiving more acceptance worldwide, competitive
sports and track and field activities are used most often, resulting in increasing numbers of
students rejecting those activities; this leads to inactivity and obesity.
4. Insufficient numbers and quality in physical education teacher training programs,
combined with gaps in oversight, diminish the overall level of quality physical education
worldwide.
5. The availability of facilities and the maintenance of facilities for physical education and
sports varies significantly.
6. Barriers to inclusion based on gender and disability continue to impede efforts toward
quality physical education for all.
7. Partnerships between schools and communities to provide pathways to lifelong physical
activity are not always in place, often due to economic pressures.
It should be noted that improvements have been made in some of these areas, but they still
rate concern from the international physical education community.

In July of 2017, MINEPS VI moved from a policy
declaration toward the Kazan Action Plan, focusing
on inclusion, cooperation with various entities,
and sustainable development goals. However, in
October of 2017, due to political disagreements
with the United Nations concerning the inclusion
of Palestinians in UNESCO, the United States
withdrew its voting membership and its $80 million
annual support from UNESCO, costing them
roughly 22% of their budget (Beauchamp, 2017).
This has resulted in cuts to educational
programming and could seriously impact the
international physical education work of MINEPS.
However, for now, UNESCO continues to promote
sport and physical education through various
programs, publications, and peer-led quality physical
education (QPE) online resources (“Promoting
Quality Physical Education Policy,” 2017).
WORLD DANCE TRADITIONS

A number of international organizations serve as
professional associations in support of dance at all
levels, from informal recreational dance through
professional theatrical performance. Since 1973,
UNESCO has had an International Dance Council
(Conseil International de la Danse, or CID) based in
Figure 11.4 A female dancesport competitor in the Latin dance
Paris, France. Its projects include a global directory
category at the Blaues Band der Spree competition in Berlin,
of members and former members, an International Germany, 2016.
Certificate in Dance Studies, promotion of an
annual international dance day, and regional and
international conferences.
World dance, tap dance, and dancesport (competitive ballroom dance) are represented
in the International Dance Organization. There is an International Association of Blacks in
Dance, an International Dance Entrepreneurs Association, an International Association for
Dance Medicine and Science, and even an International Sacred Dance Guild. National service
organizations like the National Dance Society, based in the United States, often include members
from around the world.
To promote recreational international folk dancing, many local community centers, ethnic
organizations, colleges and universities, dance camps, and online services offer classes, lecture/
demonstrations, and occasional open dances. The Lloyd Shaw Foundation, the National Folk
Organization, and the Country Dance & Song Society are all prominent US organizations
providing resources and education toward the goal of preservation of traditional dances and
music. Sometimes, dances bearing similar steps, music, and characteristics of one country’s
traditions are apparent in another nation due to immigration and resettlement.

For example, American square dance is derived
from earlier British and French dances. In the
Philippines, many folk dances bear evidence of
influences from Spain because of the Spanish
colonization of the Philippines (which were named
after King Philip II of Spain) (Friese, 1980). Bugaku,
famous as a form of Japanese court dance, is believed
to have come from other nearby countries and is
only preserved in Japan, its traditions having been
lost in its countries of origin (Ikema, 1981).
In Israeli folk dance, the pioneers (chalutzim)
from eastern and central Europe, Russia, and the
Baltic States brought their dances to Israel. Gurit
Kadman was one of the first organizers of Israeli
folk dance teacher training. Her dance films and her
work teaching around the world helped to popularize
a melding of various dance traditions, heavily
influenced by religious references in the Bible and the
Talmud (Berk, 1972).
Many new Israeli folk dances such as Mayim and
Goren were created in the middle of the 20th century
and were added to the growing repertoire. Some
were choreographed by modern dancers interested
in contributing to the vibrant folk dance genre.
Figure 11.5 Bugaku dancer in Ryouou, a dance based on a Chinese Some were influenced by Yemeni dance. Formal
legend. Bugaku was traditionally only performed for nobility at the performance groups were formed in Israel and in
Japanese Imperial Court but became available to the public after places like New York City’s 92nd Street Y, where
World War II. Fred Berk established the Jewish Dance Division and
worked with the Hebraica Dancers and other groups
(Kisselgoff, 1985).
The case of Israeli folk dance proves that traditional dances are not necessarily fossilized
remains of earlier times. Traditions begin somewhere. Similarly, maintaining traditions does
not have to imply that dancers perform perfectly preserved museum pieces of culture. Between
moribund respect for historical accuracy and ignorance of that which is worth preserving, there
is space for living, breathing dances of the people.
This philosophy appears in Cheska (1987), in reference to the dance heritage of West
Africa:
“Traditional” pertains to tradition or that which is handed down from the past and still utilized
in the present. It often connotes such meanings as authority, truth, pristine, or unchanged;
however, the tenure and tenor of the past is never static, for the past has been as subject to
change as the present. Tradition is not a passive state, but a dynamic process. (p. 67)
In her classification system of dance in West Africa, Cheska uses three main categories.
Classical ceremonial ritual dance, popular dance, and created dance. All three categories may

be designated as traditional if they meet the definition set forth above. However, some people
might take a more narrow view and perceive only the ceremonial dances such as
• acrobatic dance,
• agrarian (planting and harvesting) dance,
• animal (imitative) dance,
• ecstatic (mystic communication with deities) dance,
• life-cycle (initiations, courtship, funeral) dance,
• and social relations dance (friendship, courtship, and fertility) as being traditional. (Cheska,
1987, pp. 67–69)
Many ceremonial dance traditions may be used in created dance, although usually they are
altered when they are performed. For example, on a large Western-style proscenium stage,
presentation for the audience requires the performers to face the audience for much of the dance,
whereas in its original setting, a dance might be performed within a circle of onlookers,
musicians, or other dancers.
Figure 11.6 Masai dancers of Kenya: the traditional adumu jumping dance. Dancers compete to see who can
jump the highest, and the winner earns respect and admiration.
In the Western world, the classical tradition of ballet developed as a dance form meant
to be seen from one side of the stage. Its history is hundreds of years old, and it is a prime
example of Western theatrical art. However, there are dance instructors from that tradition
who maintain that its technique is the best means in the world for developing dancers and that
even those who are trained in other dance forms should study ballet in order to improve their
dance abilities.

This point of view places ballet at a global North pinnacle,
ascribing powers to it that cannot be achieved using methods
from the global South. An element of colonialism and privilege
pervades this stance, with an implication that a non-Western
classical form, or a modern popular form of dance such as hip hop,
will always offer less than whatever strength, presence, balance,
agility, and grace one could derive from the study of ballet. Such
cultural imperialism can be a by-product of a narrowly focused
education in dance.
The notion of difference need not call for value judgments of
any form of dance, however. Appreciation of different cultures’
dance traditions need not threaten anyone’s belief in their own
traditions. On the other hand, it can also be offensive to participate
in cultural appropriation, in which elements of a culture are
borrowed and used in dance productions, often without deep
understanding of their meanings and cultural resonance.
In fact, there are classical dance traditions around the world
that are older than that of ballet, are physically and theatrically
demanding, and are equally deserving of respect. Indian classical
dance has a number of classical forms, including Bharata Nātyam
(dating from around the 2nd century CE), Manipuri (also
known as Jagoi), Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Mohiniattam,
and Odissi are among them (“Dances of India,” n.d.; Gaston,
1982). Balinese dance-theater, Javanese Tari Kraton, Sundanese
Figure 11.7 A Kuchipudi dancer. Originating in the dance, and Cambodian Khmer classical dance are time-honored
district of Andhra Pradesh, Kuchipudi is one of the traditions (Daniel, 1981). In terms of arduous traditions and
most prominent classical dance forms of India, training, students of the Beijing Opera and Sri Lankan Kohomba
tracing its religious beginnings as far back as the
Kankariya ritual performance and Kandyan dance must meet
10th century.
rigorous standards over many years of education, requiring
intense devotion to the art of dance (De Zoete, 1957; Reed, 2010).
Dance is an essential part of comprehensive physical education. When international dances
are presented to students in respectful, culturally appropriate ways, much can be learned about
the cultures from which they come. Moreover, the privilege of being able to reach out to other
cultures and their traditions through dance can be a fascinating, exciting part of learning about
the international history and philosophy of physical education.
SUMMARY
questions.
• When studying international sports, students should recognize their own positionalities and
the ways in which their background might bias their ability to comprehend the customs,
games, dances, and sports of other cultures.

• Aside from the Olympic Games, the International Olympic Committee has programs for
youth, education, health, protecting the integrity of sport, prevention of harassment, and
research.
• The United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE), and the World
Health Organization (WHO) are other international sports organizations working toward
improving physical education worldwide.
• Organizations that promote understanding of international dance include UNESCO’s
International Dance Council (CID), the International Dance Organization, the Lloyd Shaw
Foundation, the National Folk Organization, and the Country Dance & Song Society (CDSS).
• Many classical dance traditions exist around the globe in addition to Western theatrical
ballet. Some examples are Indian classical dance techniques, Cambodian Khmer dance, and
Sri Lanka’s Kandyan dance.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Concept Mapping (Visual): The connections and overlaps between the activities and
programs of different international sports and physical education organizations can be
confusing. Using Internet searches of organizations and concept mapping, diagram the
relationships between the following organizations in terms of their priorities and activities:
the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Council of Sports Science and
Physical Education (ICSSPE), and the International Council for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation, Sport, and Dance (ICHPER-SD). For an explanation of concept mapping, see
the University of Waterloo’s Centre for Teaching Excellence at https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-
for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-tips/educational-technologies/all/
concept-mapping-tools.
2. Non-Western Sports and Games (Research): Research and write a paper on a non-
Western sport or game. Watch a video of the activity because it is likely to be unfamiliar
to you. Describe the basic rules of the sport or game, its history, and any religious and/
or cultural significance. Some examples are sepak takraw, bo-taoshi, sumo wrestling,
buzkashi, kabbadi, and tahtib.

3. Experience Israeli Folk Dance (Kinesthetic): Download the cue sheet for the Israeli dance
Mayim and music to accompany it (available through lloydshaw.org or other sources).
Alternatively, watch a video of the dance instruction and download the music. Have a group
of students practice and perform the dance for the class, giving a short explanation of its
history and importance for Israelis as a brief lecture/demonstration. Here is a teaching video
URL for the dance, which is sometimes called Mayim, Mayim: https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=Mxo-7gD_T1o
4. Global Dance Practitioners (Outreach): Does your community have an African dance
ensemble? Taiko drummers (not strictly dance, but very physical rhythmic movement)?
Non-Western classical dance specialists? Folk or ethnic dancers? Visit a practice session
(arrange permission beforehand) and/or attend a performance. If possible, meet the
performers and instructor(s). Ask about the training and traditions involved: how many
years have they studied? Who taught them? Why did they first start doing what they do?
In some cases, you may be invited to try a dance or a few movements. If so, don’t be shy!
This is a wonderful opportunity for an unforgettable cross-cultural experience, and you will
better understand the dance even if it is unfamiliar or difficult for you.
FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 11.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:640p-Olympic_Rings_depicting_
the_five_continents.png.
Fig. 11.2: Copyright © 2010 by Gwolbach, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Matt_Curve-6.JPG.
Fig. 11.3: Copyright © 2008 by Tom Hammer, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Lipizzaner_Stallion.jpg.
Fig. 11.4: Copyright © 2016 by Thomas Quine, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Pleading_(24587664927).jpg.
Fig. 11.5: Copyright © 2011 by Kazuyoshi Yura, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Ryouou_in_Bugaku_(Hokkaido_Gokoku-Jinja)_3.jpg.
Fig. 11.6: Copyright © 2011 by David Racher. Reprinted with permission.
Fig. 11.7: Copyright © 2017 by Nmvs, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Kuchipudi_1.jpg
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https://www.olympic.org/news/what-is-yog

C H APTER 12
EPISTEMOLOGY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

• How can we know and learn about
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and physical education and sport?
• What can different philosophies teach us
Metaphysics: the branch of philosophy dealing with issues about learning in physical education?
such as existence, identity, and knowledge of things
(among other concepts) • Can sports have meaning?
Epistemology: the study of how people know and learn • How are philosophies applied in physical
things
education and sport?
Idealism: a philosophical position in which reality consists of
things that can be experienced through the intellect rather
than through the body and its senses
Dualism: conceptual division of the mind and body, as

opposed to a holistic, integrated entity
Realism: the belief that reality may be known through direct

experience
Naturalism: educational philosophy encouraging direct

experience of nature and/or the education of youth
according to developmental principles (presenting
experiences and concepts when the student is
developmentally ready to receive them)
Pragmatism: a philosophical viewpoint in which

experimentation and human experience define reality
Instrumentalism: belief that experiential learning is necessary

for the purpose of achieving goals in life
Experimentalism: belief or attitude that life should be a

continuous learning process through experience

Existentialism: generally, the belief that subjective

INTRODUCTION personal existence is the basis of each person’s
experience of reality
Have you ever wondered how it is possible to know
something, or how people can learn things? Some of the Phenomenology: the essence and context of sport
and physical activity
most basic (not to say simple!) questions philosophers
ask concern the nature of reality, both external and Implications approach: taking a philosophical system
internal. Such questions often fall into the realm of and applying it to problems in physical education
metaphysics, the branch of philosophy dealing with
issues such as existence, identity, and knowledge of
things.
Epistemology, or the study of how we can know
and learn things, logically needs to be part of a future
educator’s scholarly preparation to teach. Students
enrolled as physical education majors will be exposed
to specific philosophies of learning and teaching as part
of their curriculum, directly through student teaching
experience and specific studies, or indirectly as students
in general education and physical education classes and
activity courses.
However, other kinesiology professions also need an
understanding of knowledge acquisition. Physical and
occupational therapists, fitness development specialists,
and coaches need to know about different ways people
can learn, and researchers sometimes devote entire
careers to motor learning and behavior, to name just a
few examples.
The study of philosophy in physical education and
sport provides an important piece in the overarching
study of kinesiology: the ability to identify unifying
principles and characteristics of various disciplines
and subdisciplines within kinesiology (and between
kinesiology and other academic domains) is a special
province of kinesiological philosophers (Hopsicker &
Hochstetler, 2016). In the years before the founding of
the Philosophical Society for the Study of Sport (PSSS,
founded in 1972, now known as the International
Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 189

Association for the Philosophy of Sport, or IAPS) and the creation of their academic journal, the
Journal for the Philosophy of Sport, kinesiologists studied philosophical texts and applied them
to the study of physical education and sport. That approach had advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages to that approach included the excitement of interdisciplinary studies and the
potential for bridging the long-standing perceptual academic divide between the physical
education department and the humanities. The accumulated thought of thousands of years
could be applied to studies in human movement. Questions of metaphysics, epistemology,
ethics, and aesthetics in sport could be viewed through a different lens. Theoretical studies could
complement and inform policy and educational philosophy in kinesiology.
Disadvantages loomed, however. The nearly exclusive reliance on Western academic
philosophical thought limited inquiry from non-Western perspectives. Furthermore, the
application of schools of thought such as idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism
(Lumpkin, 2017; Zeigler, 1968) to physical activity has not necessarily been the best or
most effective way to philosophize about movement and movement education. Attempts
to shoehorn the experience of physical educators into philosophical pigeonholes can
sometimes be confusing or counterproductive. However, a basic understanding of certain
elements of Western philosophical thought still undergirds this scholarly study and cannot
be ignored.
As the subdiscipline of sport philosophy continues to grow and change, and more trained
philosopher kinesiologists contribute to its literature, the prestige of this avenue of inquiry
within kinesiology is increasing, and the nature of the domain is changing to become more
comprehensible, relevant, and applicable to the practitioners and scholars of movement studies
(Hopsicker & Hochstetler, 2016). Hopefully, this chapter will help you begin to understand and
refine your personal philosophy of physical education and sport, with help from philosophers
within (Zeigler, 1988) and beyond the realm of kinesiology.
METAPHYSICS
IDEALISM AND DUALISM
At a fundamental level, we start with the question of the nature of reality and our ability to
perceive it and act within it. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427–347 BCE) proposed the
notion of idealism, a form of substance mind/body dualism in which reality exists, but humans
cannot truly grasp it because of the limitations of the physical body’s sensory organs, which
are likely fallible and subject to deception. True understanding is only possible through the
intellect (Plato, 360 BCE/1988; Thomas, 1983). Kinesiologists who believe that there are truly
perfect ways to execute movements or plays in sport, or who adhere to an ideal conception of
any given physical activity in their teaching or performance of movements, may be said to be
aligned with the philosophy of idealism. This is not always best for humans, who are notoriously
imperfect beings. For example, the ideal turned-out first position in classical ballet has heels
together and feet in a perfect 180 degree line. However, due to the human anatomy, very few
people can achieve that position and be able to perform dance technique skills such as pliés
(knee bends) correctly.

The notion of dualism was famously explored by the French philosopher Descartes (1596–1650
CE) (Descartes, 1641/1901/2001; Morgan & Meier, 1995). However, like the Dominican theorist
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE) before him, Descartes also believed in a supreme being
outside of himself. Therefore, neither philosopher could be said to hold to a strictly dualistic
philosophy. A tension between beliefs in the nature and supremacy of the mind or the body
nevertheless persists throughout history.
Some of this cultural unease is due to the influence of religion: in the Western world, the
human body has, at times, been viewed as unclean, in need of abasement, and a reservoir of
animalistic impulses that are at war with the loftier impulses of the intellect. As in some parts of
the Eastern world, the infinite quest of the mind toward enlightenment has often been seen as a
more worthy goal than is the quest for the perfect body. It should be noted that exceptions in
which holistic mind/body unity is the goal are also to be found at other places and times, such as
in the ancient Greek notion of aretē (ideal virtuous, active, and intellectual man) or in the
practice of yoga, to name just two examples.
We can see echoes of dualism throughout physical education history, often directly or
indirectly attached to a third entity: the spirit. The YMCA ideal of mind/body/spirit finds its echo
in Bloom’s Taxonomy of cognitive/psychomotor/affective domains as educational objectives.
In the early 20th century in the United States, we find a familiar tension in the “new physical
education” of Williams (1930) and the debate between two opposing philosophies: education
through the physical (in which social and academic educational objectives are achieved in part
through physical education), and education of the physical (in which physical culture and
movement education of the body is sufficient unto itself) (McCloy, 1936; Ross, 1988). Williams
argued for a unity of mind and body through physical education, and McCloy believed that no
ulterior purpose for physical education was needed. He considered its focus on the body and its
benefits in health and quality of life to be an essential, equally important part of education.
In women’s sports history in the United States, dualism took on a slightly different role. It
was used as part of the justification against female sports competition, as opponents to women’s
athletic competition simultaneously encouraged mass participation in sport while fearing that
women’s mental health could be harmed
by competition (Lumpkin, 2017).
More recently, the concerns of LGBTQ Plato Aristotle
student-athletes have been addressed World of
by the NCAA Sport Science Institute, Forms
in terms of transgender students (for Ideal World of
whom the mind disagrees with the Form Form and Matter
body) and issues of identity across the
queer-spectrum and the trans-spectrum
(Rankin & Weber, 2014).
Form Matter
World
REALISM of Matter
Things
Aristotle’s philosophy of realism, in

which reality may be known through
direct experience of examples, stands Things
in contrast to Plato’s idealism. Aristotle Figure 12.1 Comparison of Plato’s idealism with Aristotle’s realism.

(384–322 BCE) acknowledged the existence of a soul in human beings, which guides them
throughout life in their process of achieving all they do. Meanwhile, the mind and body are
unified: they must be, in order for the sensory organs to function and inform the intellect.
Logically, by extension, he recognized that experiencing the world around us via the sensory
organs does not turn us into the things we perceive—therefore, we exist as distinct beings within
the world. We may be shaped and influenced by the soul and our lifelong experimentation and
interaction with the world, but ultimately, our source of direct knowledge is dependent upon our
abilities as thinkers and sensory realists.
Physical education philosophies throughout history have often been based on variations of
realistic principles. European gymnastics systems contained varied opportunities for multiple
ways of experiencing activity, sometimes incorporating manual labor as part of their curriculum.
Modern-day preschool philosophies such as those of Montessori, Reggio Emilia, HighScope, and
Bank Street strongly encourage children to learn through direct experimentation (Brown, 2018).
If we return to our example of a ballet dancer executing a knee bend in first position, the
realist would perceive that human anatomy and function are generally more efficient if the
dancer works within the range of his or her own turnout abilities. Those are found through
repeated experimentation, sensory proprioception, engagement of different muscle groups, and
visual feedback via video or outside (teacher) assessment following visual perception.
From the standpoint of the athlete, realism represents lived physical experience leading to
skills and technical development. This stands in contrast to idealism, in which understanding of
skills and technique come to the athlete from outside the body and may only truly be understood
through the mind. That is not to imply, of course, that idealism has no place in sports. For
example, without ideals, judges in gymnastics would have no basis on which to evaluate the
performances of athletes. There must be a conception of perfection against which to compare
the physical reality of a routine.
EPISTEMOLOGY
NATURALISM
If we acknowledge that our understanding of physical activity depends upon our interaction
with the environment and the sum of our experiences, we must inquire what types of experiences
we should have if we are to achieve a state of physical education. For Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712–1778 CE), who drew heavily upon Aristotle’s precepts, the education of the physical body
was an essential part of upbringing for both boys and girls. Using the principles of naturalism,
he recommended different types of physical experiences for different sexes, but recognized that
the experience of nature in activity was preferable to life without such experiences (Rousseau,
1762/1921). Physical educational naturalism has two strains: interaction with and experience of
nature during physical activity, and student-centered educational progress based on the natural
physical, cognitive, and emotional development of students, which can vary between individuals.
In his treatise on education entitled Émile, Rousseau also details the need for children to be
exposed to different types of education using what we now think of as developmental principles,
such that their education naturally followed their physical and mental development. Since the
first experience children have is the interaction between their bodies and their environments,

physical education should precede moral and intellectual, for example. Eventually, as a child
grows, different aspects of their education should work together as a comprehensive education.
Naturalism in physical education has influenced many programs throughout the years. The
early German gymnastics systems encouraged outdoor exercise and were the basis of the first US
school to include physical education in its curriculum, Round Hill School. Early-20th-century
physical educators returned to the theme of naturalism, with leaders such as Hetherington
(1922) following Rousseau’s theories closely (Lumpkin, 2017). Modern-day Waldorf preschools
hold classes outside to the extent possible, encouraging a close relationship between students
and the natural environment.
How might naturalism be applied to physical education and sports? Many sports and
recreational activities take place in natural settings: cross-country running, open-water swim,
winter outdoor sports, recreational boating, and other outdoor activities (camping, hiking, etc.).
Playgrounds, fitness trails, backyards, parks, and recreational facilities can host activities with
natural elements.
Figure 12.2 Physical challenges are fun for children in outdoor playgrounds. Overcoming obstacles increases
their physical abilities and helps build confidence, while fresh air and sunlight also provide healthy benefits.
Developmentally, playground structures are often designed to encourage children to climb,

crawl, push, swing, and jump: all are natural activities for healthy developing children. In
designing Pre-K–12 physical education and sporting activities, specialists should consider natural
developmental stages when crafting curricula to encourage self-awareness, self-confidence, and
self-esteem by presenting moderate physical challenges at every level. Russell (1926) strongly
encouraged play as an important part of childhood, with “anything that gives them new muscular
facilities, such as jumping, climbing, or walking up a narrow plank” to be promoted by parents
and educators (p. 98). However, the other end of life’s journey should not be ignored, as senior
citizens also need developmentally appropriate physical activity opportunities.

Naturalism influences youth sports in myriad ways. One example is the issue of specialization.
When is it developmentally appropriate for a young athlete to specialize in one sport to the
exclusion of others? The trend today is toward specialization at younger and younger ages. Yet
natural development suggests that, generally speaking, a variety of physical activities would be
healthier for a growing body and mind during adolescence, and specialization can and should
be delayed until the mid-teen years.
Another developmental issue in the realm of naturalism as philosophy concerns girls who
want to play on traditionally male sports teams such as football. Some females are naturally larger
and stronger than their male peers and have an advantage both on the field and in the weight
room. Physically and mentally, girls tend to mature faster than boys. Since league membership is
usually determined by age, it is possible to have larger females on teams playing against smaller
boys and girls.
At the high school level, however, coaches will sometimes discourage females from
participation, when boys are expected to become bigger and stronger, on average. One emerging
solution is the evolution of women’s football leagues. However, for serious and passionate female
football players who aspire to football coaching careers, scholarships and coaching opportunities
can be elusive, and losing a chance to play in high school can be devastating. High school football
coaches who discourage female players may be following a philosophy that urges caution due to
natural changes in male and female maturation processes, but should they?
PRAGMATISM
For a coach who believes in pragmatism as an educational philosophy, or perhaps more correctly
an educational method, a female could certainly try out for a high school team, and if the results
of the tryout were promising, a spot on the team would be the logical result. Peirce (1903),
James (1907), Dewey (1916), and Lewis (1930) were among the early-20th-century educational
philosophers to whom the term has been applied. Dewey’s (1859–1952) influence on education
in the United States was particularly widespread, with his belief that engrossing play and hands-
on educational experiences prepared students to become productive members of society, able to
work independently and in groups (Dewey, 1916).
Related philosophies of experimentalism and instrumentalism contributed to the theory of
pragmatism, refining and defining its aims and limitations. Experimentalists believe in education
as a lifelong learning process of experience (a posteriori), rather than the acceptance of an a priori
(prior and predetermined) set of facts to be learned or ideals to be grasped. Instrumentalists
are concerned with the ends to be achieved by experimentation and learning: do we try out
different ways to throw a ball for the sake of knowing how to do so, for example, or because
that skill is essential to playing games involving balls? Dewey’s experimentalist pragmatism was
sometimes called instrumentalism, though that term had started to fall out of favor by the early
1930s (Childs, 1931). “Method,” Dewey wrote (as cited in Archambault), “in any case is but
an effective way of employing some material for some end” (1964, p. 389). In other words, we
learn technique in order to be able to do something. As a philosophy, the word instrumentalism
carried two connotations: one was that the brain is the instrument of learning, and the second
was that learning was useful only when practical, or pragmatic, life goals were achieved.
Grounding educational philosophy in real-world applications offered an attractive option to the
more esoteric studies of philosophy for its own sake, especially during the Great Depression, an era

Figure 12.3 Military units use pragmatic teamwork and problem-solving strategies in training, developing
leadership skills, and encouraging cohesiveness.
of economic stress. The notion that learners are striving toward a greater purpose has not always
been encouraged in physical education, though. Germany banned German gymnastics in the early
19th century when it became obvious that overt nationalism was driving physical culture to such
a degree that it became a threat to the country. Still, both the Danish and Swedish gymnastics
systems openly espoused nationalistic goals. In Great Britain, sports were played with the goal of
developing moral values and leadership skills, and in the United States, Dewey (1940) believed all
education must serve as a bulwark against European fascism, and Zeigler (1968) has argued for the
role of physical educators in opposition to totalitarianism and excessive nationalism.
In the United States, where pragmatism is sometimes called ethical naturalism or
progressivism, the physical education community appreciates the problem-solving experiential
aspect of learning that is at the heart of this philosophy. Whether encouraging children to find
their own solutions to problems encountered in youth sport (Meredith, 2016) or acknowledging
the carryover of team problem-solving skills to the workplace, Americans appreciate a willingness
to try things out individually or in teams to find the best solutions (Zeigler, 1973) rather than
always depending on a metaphysical ideal to guide them.
EXISTENTIALISM
In the decades following World War II, philosophers looked backward to the writings of
19th-century thinkers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche for ideas about how
individuals exist in an age of potential nuclear annihilation. Kierkegaard (1813–1855) was

Danish and is considered the father of
existentialism. His views on a way of
life dedicated to individual initiative and
choice find their ultimate expression in
which a person’s freely chosen actions can
have heroic meanings that transcend time
(Kierkegaard, 1971). The implications for
sport are evident, as we can see from the
examples of sports heroes and heroines
including Babe Didrikson, Roberto
Clemente, Cal Ripken Jr., and Jesse
Owens.
Nietzsche’s (1844–1900) theme of
the superman, or Übermensch, has
Figure 12.4 Existentialists believe we have the freedom of choice, but that we must been associated with German Nazi
also accept the consequences of our decisions. hypernationalism at its most unfortunate
extremes; he viewed power as good
and weakness as evil. In a somewhat
milder perspective, Nietzsche also valued play and athletic endeavors as the perfect realm of
human freedom and individual achievement (Nietzsche, 1966). Nowhere is the opportunity
for self-expression more evident than in the free play of children. A virtuosic basketball player
can perform near-superhuman feats of play through individual acts on the court, exhibiting
characteristics of bravery and leadership via his or her choices in the competitive arena.
Another prominent existentialist philosopher who valued play was Frenchman Jean-Paul
Sartre (1905–1980). He, more than any other thinker, brought the ideas of existentialism into the
20th century. His importance in kinesiology relates to the value he placed on play and athletics:
only in play are humans truly free. “What is play indeed if not an activity of which man is the first
origin, for which man himself sets the rules, and which has no consequence except according to
the rules posted?” (Sartre, 1965, p. 380).
Zeigler (1968) echoes Sartre’s emphasis on play, but expounds his existentialist ideals in modern
dance, health, and recreation in his call for opportunities for individual expression in addition to
other sorts of group recreation. He modifies the Nietzschean notion of the Übermensch by calling
for individuals to be free to select the values each wishes to derive from activity, and calling into
question the emphasis on winning in competitive sports.
As may be expected of a philosophy based on individual experience, there are many versions
of existentialism. Some are atheistic, some are spiritual but reject organized religion, some accept
religious belief as part of their philosophy, some emphasize a form of conscious reality unlimited
by physical dimensions, and others emphasize immediacy of action in a unified body and mind
(Mihalich, 1988). What connects them is a shared view of personal experience as reality and the
acceptance of personal responsibility for actions.
PHENOMENOLOGY
As kinesiologists search for understanding of the essence of sport and physical activity, we
recognize that subjective experience is as important as objective, descriptive analysis. Edmund

Husserl (1839–1938), the father of phenomenology, concerned himself with questions of mind
and consciousness, of the direct experience of the moment (Thomas, 1983). For example, is it
possible to know if our experiences in sport are similar to those of other people? What can we
ultimately really know about the true nature of a sport?
Phenomenologists do not take shared experience for granted. Using this type of philosophical
analysis, discrete main components of an activity are described, analyzed, and placed in context
to determine the essential nature of an event. For example, a diver’s attempt can be broken into
several moments of activity using objective analysis via observation and memory or using some
form of video analysis (using the program Dartfish, for example) to capture the ephemeral
moment of the event.
The diver can perform phenomenological analysis on the attempt and provide the added
information of subjective moment-to-moment experience. Alternatively, the philosopher could
conduct an objective analysis without the second component of the diver’s input, but nowadays,
that is considered unduly limited. Different perspectives may lead to disagreements about the
nature of the event, which may be resolved only through a return to examination of the actual
phenomenon, from outside or inside the diver’s body and consciousness. In attempts to achieve
a comprehensive understanding of the essence of the experience of a sport, kinesiological
phenomenologists recognize that external experience of an event is not sufficient to true
understanding.
Anyone who has ever listened to sports commentary during a broadcast has experienced
a form of phenomenology in real time. The description of plays as seen from the announcers’
booth makes the experience of spectatorship via radio broadcast possible. Sometimes a
Figure 12.5 Sportscasters practice a form of phenomenology when they describe the actions of athletes as they are happening.

former professional athlete is on hand to provide additional insight using their memories and
kinesthetic understanding of different experiences, and often athletes are asked to comment
on their experiences to help the audiences gain a deeper understanding of events. Are the
people making their statements noticing that they are practicing phenomenology? They
probably are not, and perhaps would not care if they found out. But now you, as an aspiring
kinesiologist, have discovered a way that philosophy touches your life in a way you may not
have realized.
WAYS OF USING PHILOSOPHY

Concurrently with the interest in existentialism and phenomenology, theorists such as
Zeigler (1964, 1968) began to use the theories delineated above and apply them to sports
and physical education as the subdiscipline of philosophy began to develop more intensively
within kinesiology. The implications approach formed a natural bridge from philosophy
departments to physical education departments by
examining different philosophies in the context of
their application to sport and physical education.
Using this approach, a philosophic system (such
as pragmatism) is selected, and then its precepts
are applied to problems and questions in physical
education.
Similar approaches are known as theory
building, construct analysis, structural analysis,
concept analysis, and system analysis. For example,
Osterhoudt (1973) used construct analysis to
examine Hegel’s ideas about art to see how they
could be applied to sport and athletics; we will
take a closer look at that in the chapter dealing
with aesthetics and sport. Concept analysis, by
contrast, does not take a whole philosophical
system but instead looks at parts of a philosophy, or
a single aspect of a philosophy, to draw conclusions
(Thomas, 1983).
While there are limitations to these approaches,
since sport and physical activity may involve
questions that cannot easily be examined using
historical philosophical systems, for kinesiologists,
they have served as a historical underpinning
and mode of entry into a realm of study that is
still relatively new to the scholarly domain of
Figure 12.6 This statue by French sculptor Auguste Rodin is now kinesiology. We have used some of them in this
known as The Thinker. Notice, however, that the figure is well muscled chapter and will continue in a similar vein in the
and physically fit: he is a man of action as well as thought. Philosophy upcoming chapters.
and kinesiology are compatible realms of study.

SUMMARY
questions.
• We can study metaphysics and epistemology to develop conceptual understanding of our
beliefs about physical education and sport.
• Different areas of philosophy such as idealism, realism, naturalism, pragmatism, and
existentialism can be studied to address different problems in physical education and sport.
• Modern sports philosophers often use phenomenology to consider the question of objective
and subjective meanings in sports.
• Philosophies can be applied using methods such as the implications approach and related
methods to conduct research in physical education and sport.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the philosophical concepts covered in this
chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or
other research.
1. Mental Mapping (Visual): Figure 12.1 provides a visual representation showing a basic
difference between the metaphysics of Plato and Aristotle, and Figure 12.4 is an illustration
of a basic idea of existentialism. Create diagrams or images for the concepts of naturalism
and pragmatism and philosophers associated with those ideas. You may also diagram the
different philosophers and their main ideas to help differentiate them in your mind.
2. Difference Between Play and Sport (Research): When does a game stop being a game
and become a sport? Are all sports competitive games? Is the difference in the intention of
the athlete, or in the eyes of the spectators? Research the nature of sport and the nature
of play to find out where they intersect and diverge.
3. Experience Phenomenology (Kinesthetic): This is a fun way to learn about phenomenology.

Take a video recording of a student performing a physical activity such as pushups (or a
combination of activities) for 30 seconds, fully describing the actions and the sensations of
the activity or activities while s/he is doing it/them. Simultaneously, record another student
(at some distance away, to avoid sound overlap) who is describing the actions of the active
student like a sportscaster. The more vivid the descriptions, the more fun you can have with
this exercise. Play both videos for the class, and discuss the differences in the descriptions
of the activity/activities. How are the realities of the experience of the performer and the
viewer different, and how are they similar? Can there be one reality for both?

FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 12.1: Copyright © 2018 by Chiswick Chap, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Platonic_and_Aristotelian_Forms.svg.
Fig. 12.2: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/playground-child-kid-active-boy-2457320/.
Fig. 12.3: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/boat-teamwork-training-exercise-606187/.
Fig. 12.4: Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/shield-directory-right-false-away-492987/.
Fig. 12.5: Copyright © 2010 by kougar, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Dave_Hodge_-_Sportscaster.jpg.
Fig. 12.6: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/art-auguste-rodin-bronze-famous-1301872/.
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Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars’ Press.

C H APTER 13
ETHICS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

• What are the studies of ethics and
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and axiology?
• Who are some of the prominent
Ethics: the study of morality and the principles that guide
human behavior European and non-European
Axiology: the study of value; as a branch of philosophy, it philosophers whose works on

encompasses ethics and aesthetics
ethical questions are used as a basis
kalon: Greek term for the highest good, beauty, and nobility
for understanding this branch of
ˉ the quality of the ideal virtuous person, whose
arete:
excellence may be demonstrated in athletic prowess as philosophy?
well as in intellectual pursuits and good judgment • How will an understanding of ethics be
bushido: a collection of moral codes, supposedly of the
important to your professional career?
Japanese Samurai warriors
Humanism: the doctrine that takes human welfare, interests,
and needs as fundamental
Moral reasoning: the use of critical, logical analysis to
determine right and wrong in a situation
Categorical imperative: in Immanuel Kant’s philosophy, an
absolute moral necessity; something that supersedes
a group or individual’s desires or purposes. Sometimes
called the ethical imperative
Deontological reasoning: a method of moral analysis based
on the categorical imperative rather than the will or need of
the majority
Non-consequentialism: implies that the consequences of
an action are of less importance than the inherent good or
bad quality of an action; see Deontological reasoning and
Categorical imperative

INTRODUCTION Utilitarianism: belief espoused by John Stuart Mill
that happiness, or goodness, is a consequence
What do we mean by fair play? How should opponents of whatever achieves the greatest good for the
greatest number of people; sometimes known as
treat each other? When faced with decisions about right
Consequentialism
and wrong in sports and physical education, how do
people know what they should do? These are some of the Consequentialism: implies that the consequences of
questions that face coaches, physical education teachers, an action are of more importance than the inherent
referees, administrators, athletic judges, athletic trainers, good or bad quality of an action; see Utilitarianism
and Teleological reasoning
parents, and players on a daily basis. Sports scandals and
controversies can be viewed as ethical situations gone Teleological reasoning: a method of moral analysis
wrong, and the consequences can be severe. Therefore, based on the will or need of the majority, rather
ethics is one of the most important philosophical areas than absolutes of moral necessity (the Categorical
of study for sports and physical education. imperative)
Ethics is the study of morality and the principles
that guide human behavior. It can include studies in
character and values. Sometimes it is tied to theology,
in which moral authority comes from religious belief.
Other times, it is more of a humanistic study. In either
case, it concerns decisions we make about our human
relationships and actions, and the results of those
decisions.
For most of us, our earliest ethical sports and play
questions arose with our playmates on playgrounds,
during recess, and in neighborhoods where we grew
up. Was the ball out of bounds? Is it fair to have all the
biggest kids on one team? Do we need to share? Do we
take turns? Is hitting another player allowed? Children
learn among themselves and with the assistance of
older siblings and adults that everyone has more fun
if rules are followed and the game seems fair to all
concerned.
Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 203

Figure 13.1 Without rules, games and sports are not fair, understandable, or fun.
As we grow up, the notion of fairness and justice becomes even more important with
participation in physical education classes and competitive sports (individual or group). While
we depend on our teachers and coaches to teach and enforce the rules of sports, we sometimes
see parents or participants acting in ways that seem wrong or harmful. We may even get advice
from coaches or parents to cheat a little if it helps us to win a sporting event! It can be confusing,
and we begin to wonder how anyone can really know what is good and bad. Who gets to decide?
How are decisions made? How can we know if they are truly good?
Rather than the usual learning activities, this chapter provides discussion questions at the end to
provide opportunities for interactive learning to deepen understanding of the concepts presented.
AXIOLOGY
Axiology is the study of value. As a branch of philosophy, it encompasses ethics and aesthetics (the
study of beauty, which is the topic of the next chapter). Both ethics and aesthetics involve studies
in judgment of situations and objects. Sometimes they overlap. For example, a judge at a figure
skating competition may be expected to judge fairly and with an expert eye for the graceful athletic
performance of the skaters and to render a score (evaluation). We will first consider historical
approaches to ethics before considering ethical dilemmas and professional ethics.

ANCIENT GREECE
Plato’s dialogue, Meno, concludes with his teacher Socrates’ assertion that virtue comes to
people from the divine (Warmington & Rouse, 1956). In terms of physical conditioning, in
The Republic (Book III), Socrates further says that good souls create good bodies. For Plato,
even virtuous play among children was important for the development of “law-abiding and
serious men.” Children receive their notions of law and order through play and the sense of
good order grows with them (Warmington & Rouse, 1956, pp. 203, 222–223). Good education
and divine intervention, therefore, are the keys to ethical understanding, and those begin in
childhood.
After Plato, Aristotle regarded ethics in light of virtue and the virtuous person, who is able
to understand value and seeks to act in ways that promote happiness, or as some would have it,
“flourishing” (Lear, 2013, para. 3). In his opinion, living virtuously is a choice, informed by good
education and reasoning (Bambrough, 1963).
Reason also dictates a sense of balance, or finding the “mean” in life. For example, a physical
therapist who wants to help a client should prescribe enough exercise and therapy to assist
in recovery from injury: not too little, and not too much. A baseball coach who insists that a
pitcher continue pitching beyond reasonable arm fatigue is acting unethically because he has
gone beyond the intermediate (and therefore, optimal) number of pitches in a game or training
session, and the possibility of harm to the athlete is drastically increased.
Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, Eudemian Ethics, and parts of his Politics describe the goal
of achieving the kalon, which is the highest good, beauty, and nobility. This reflects the idea of
aretē, the quality of the ideal virtuous person, whose excellence may be demonstrated in athletic
prowess as well as in intellectual pursuits and good judgment. In fact, Aristotle believed that
moral virtue was essential to wisdom (Lear, 2013).
The last of the great classical Athenian schools of philosophy was that of Zeno of Citium.
Teaching in a marketplace rather than in a gymnasium, Zeno’s basic tenet of Stoicism was his
belief that our sensations give us our knowledge of the world, and that we can trust our senses
(Zeyl, 1997). Living in harmony with nature yields happiness. The students of Zeno became
more concerned with ethics, especially after his death, and his ideas presage the work of the
British empirical philosophers such as Locke, Berkeley, and Hume.
Aristotelian ethics, Stoicism, and Neoplatonism also influenced medieval European
philosophers. However, medieval philosophers were increasingly concerned with individual
actions and divine law. Peter Abelard, a Christian monk, went so far as to declare that sin
(violation of the laws of God) was in the intention of the doer, rather than in the act itself
(Osborne, 2017). For example, if a runner trips another runner during a race, it is only an
immoral act if the runner intended to cheat by tripping an opponent.
Whereas Plato’s four cardinal virtues were prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude,
during the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church prioritized faith, hope and charity as
central virtues. Thomas Aquinas mixed Aristotelian ethics with moral theology in his Summa
Theologiae, stating that “happiness is attained through the exercise of moral and theological
virtues” (Osborne, 2017, para. 4). In other words, by combining reasoning with natural law,
humans can understand what is good and right.

Figure 13.2 At first, the study of ethics can seem like a word cloud of names and ideas. It takes time, review, and
study to understand and remember philosophical concepts.
NON-EUROPEAN ETHICS
A worldwide overview of ethical philosophy is beyond the scope of this textbook. Still, a
brief (if oversimplified) glimpse into some non-Western viewpoints will contribute to a more
comprehensive idea of ethical understanding.
In the Middle East, due to trade and travel, the philosophies of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle,
and Zeno influenced Islamic ethics. However, some philosophers (Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina)
believed that intelligence and wisdom led to happiness, whereas Al-Ghazali said that the greatest
happiness was only open to mystics (those who have direct experience of the divine). Ibn Rushd
contended that either knowledge or religion could be equal paths to happiness (Leaman, 2001;
Christopoulos, 2010).
It is in the writings of Ahmad Ibn Miskawayh (c. 932–1030 CE) that we see the sense of duty
to one’s superiors, to the divine, and to one’s ancestors as a guiding principle. If a soccer player

behaves in a way that is dishonorable, that is a failure of duty and therefore unethical, regardless
of who is harmed or not harmed by the player’s behavior (Leaman, 2001). Miskawayh taught that
physical health needed to be taught along with moral health, for balance (Leaman, 2006).
Early Chinese philosophers generally sought balance and equilibrium in their ethical
discussions. In Mohist philosophy (from Mo Tzŭ, c. 479–c. 381), only the consequences of actions
and their benefits matter (Feng, 1952). This was in contrast to Confucianism, in which the
outcome of actions was less important than the inherent rightness or wrongness of an action.
Both of these were contrasted by Zhuangzi’s Taoism (Daoism), in which right and wrong do not
exist as such, since nothing is absolutely right or wrong.
Figure 13.3 The Taoist (Daoist) symbol of yin (dark swirl) and yang (light swirl) symbolizes
interconnectedness, balance, interdependence, and interrelationship in nature and life.
Notice that each swirl contains a circle of its opposite: nothing is absolute.
From the fourth century BCE onward, Buddhism was influential in India, China, and Korea
(Finn, 1988). In Buddhism, karma, or good works in thought, speech, and conduct, are valued
(Kim, 2001). While violence is contrary to Buddhist compassion, martial gods inspire warrior
monks such as those of the Shaolin Monastery in China (Shahar, 2008). Since the 1300s, Korean
culture displayed strong influences of Confucianism, stressing four essential virtues: humaneness,
righteousness, propriety, and wisdom (Kim, 2001, p. 187). Since the 1700s, Christianity has
brought a more individualistic, theocentric ethical approach to some Korean people.

In Japan, some people believe that ethics in martial arts were embodied in bushido, a
collection of moral codes of the Samurai warriors (Corcoran & Farkas, 1983). However, more
recent scholarship (Friday, 1994) has questioned whether bushido was truly the ancient code of
Samurai ethics or rather a glorified version of history used to bolster Japanese nationalism, as
exemplified in Nitobe Inazo’s early-20th-century book Bushido: The Soul of Japan, which was
originally written in English for a Western audience.
As with Asian cultures, the diversity of experience in African cultures cannot be easily
generalized. However, according to Ghanaian philosopher Kwame Gyekye (2010), some
common themes emerge across ethical discussions in Africa. Character, acquired through
actions and habits, is not inborn, but is nurtured. While scholars differ as to whether morality
is a religious or humanistic question, Gyekye contends that “Humanism [emphasis added]—
the doctrine that takes human welfare, interests, and needs as fundamental—constitutes the
foundation of African ethics” (Gyekye, 2010, sect. 5, para. 14). Furthermore, African ethics is
“weighted on duty, not rights” (Gyekye, sect. 9, para. 9), meaning that everyone is entitled to
happiness (in the Aristotelian sense), justice, dignity, and respect (Gyekye, sect. 7, para. 3). For
a sporting application of this ideal, we would expect all participants to be treated with
humanistic respect, regardless of whether they are part of the home or away team and regardless
of national origin.
Figure 13.4 Good sportsmanship is ethical: as Gyekye would advise, all competitors must be
treated with respect.

MORAL REASONING: IMMANUEL KANT AND
THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
How can we know what is good (or best) to do when facing an ethical question? Moral reasoning
is the use of critical, logical analysis to determine right and wrong in a situation. In the study of
European philosophy, we often turn to the philosophies of Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill
for guidance.
Moving from the ideals of character, morality, and virtue to duties and practical ethics, in
Kant’s Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Kant, 1785/1998), the duties to perfect oneself
and to contribute to the goals of others are obligations we owe to ourselves and to humanity. We
owe it to ourselves to perfect our athletic abilities, if that is what we want to achieve. We owe it
to others not to use them solely as a means to our ends (Gressis, 2013).
Beyond those duties, Kant postulates
the categorical imperative, an absolute
moral necessity. The categorical imperative
exists beyond any potential benefit or
harm to anyone involved in a decision and
is the cornerstone of deontological moral
reasoning. For example, if intentionally
harming others is always morally wrong,
then a pitcher who aims a baseball pitch
at a batter is deontologically in the wrong
because it is always wrong to intentionally
harm someone.
Kant’s ethical philosophy is sometimes
called non-consequential because the
consequences of an action are of less
importance than the inherent good or
bad quality of an action.
In the literature of physical education,
a strong case for the implementation of
non-consequential ethics comes from
Elizabeth Halsey, a mid-20th-century
philosopher of physical education. In her
book Inquiry and Invention in Physical
Education, she wrote that “Mutual
understanding, mutual acceptance of
difference, the Ethical Imperative as
stated by Kant, and even certain difficult
religious teachings must be carried
beyond lip service into action if reliable
peace is to be secured. Physical education
is a fruitful laboratory for putting such
teachings into action” (1964, p. 100). Figure 13.5 What do we owe to each other? Moral reasoning is a form of critical
analysis using logic to make ethical decisions.

MORAL REASONING: JOHN STUART MILL AND UTILITARIANISM
Suppose we reject the idea that there are external categorical imperatives? What if, instead, we
judged actions based on their effects on others and the outcome of our decisions? John Stuart
Mill’s Utilitarianism (1863) was a defense of Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarian theories. Utilitarians
believe that happiness, or goodness, is a consequence of whatever achieves the greatest good for
the greatest number of people (the central principle of utility).
Also known as consequentialist or teleological ethics, the decisions arrived at through this
philosophy can be surprising. If, for example, a star player is known to be ineligible to play on
a team, but benching the player would lead the team to losing a state championship, it could
conceivably be argued that the morally correct decision would be to ignore the restriction and
let the ineligible player play! However, if we consider the benefit of maintaining respect for the
game and the rules for the good of all players in the state, more people would be benefited by a
decision to keep the star player off the roster.
The scope of effect (that is, how many people are affected), therefore, can conceivably be
manipulated to rationalize ethical decisions under utilitarianism. That does not mean it is
not a useful tool in moral reasoning. What it means is that there are times when people make
questionable moral decisions that can be explained by an understanding of the possibility of
reaching decisions that might be considered morally wrong under Kantian deontological theory.
Consider, for example, a group of scientists performing medical research on a population
without getting informed consent from the participants. Many lives may be saved by the
research. Teleologically, that may be considered good, but deontologically, the failure to
get informed consent means that the scientists acted immorally. What we learn from this
contradiction is that philosophy does not give us all the answers. Instead, it gives us insight
into moral decision-making.
PROFESSIONAL CODES OF ETHICS IN KINESIOLOGY:

WHAT WILL BE EXPECTED OF ME?
In your career, you will be expected to belong to one or more professional societies, and those
societies usually publish codes of ethics that can help to remind you of your obligations (that
is, ethical duties) to your profession, other professionals, and people with whom you work. A
happy, flourishing career depends on many things, and prudent judgment in ethical matters
is an important part of your success. The codes are often helpful guides, but while some
points may seem blatantly obvious, others will probably seem novel or possibly confusing
to you.
On one hand, you may find contradictions or inconsistencies within and between various
codes. They are written by humans, after all, and they are periodically revised. On the other
hand, the punishments for violating these codes can vary widely, from no punishment at all to
professional dishonor, career-ending sanctions, and even legal repercussions.
Since ethical violations can be serious, it is worth studying and adhering to the code(s) of
whatever profession you enter. Here are some professional organizations that provide online
codes of conduct. Look up one or more to see what will be expected of YOU in your future career
using this list or your own search.

• American Chiropractic Association: http://ccodc.org/ethics.html
• American College of Sports Medicine: http://www.acsm.org/membership/membership-
resources/code-of-ethics
• American Massage Therapy Association: https://www.amtamassage.org/About-AMTA/
Core-Documents/Code-of-Ethics.html
• National Alliance for Youth Sports Coaches’ Ethics: http://www.nays.org/CMSContent/File/
Code_of_Ethics_Coaches.pdf
• National Education Association: http://www.nea.org/home/30442.htm
• National Council on Strength and Fitness: https://www.ncsf.org/governance/conduct/
ethics.aspx
You can also visit the home pages of organizations such as the American Athletic
Trainers’ Association or state chapters of professional groups to find codes of conduct or codes
of ethics.
For researchers who study human subjects, The Belmont Report (by the National Commission
for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research) is a foundational
document. You can find it at https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/
index.html.
IMPLICATIONS OF ETHICS
Life presents us with ethical decisions every day; many are so minor that we barely notice we are
making them. Studying ethics helps to prepare us for the larger issues that confront players and
people in positions of responsibility or authority. Knowing what is good and right is often
difficult or clouded by self-interest or competing points of view.
Figure 13.6 Being a competent professional implies in part that you understand and accept your
ethical responsibilities.

Looking out for number one while pursuing your career goals does not necessarily mean
ignoring the needs of others, treating others with disdain, discriminating against people who
are different from you, giving less than your professional best, cheating to get ahead of the
competition, or neglecting your professional duties. Basically, ethical behavior means treating
others with respect, decency, and care.
You can see that those basic behaviors form the roots of ethical ideals across the world
and throughout history. While morals may be informed by religion, they may also be based
in humanitarian precepts. Learning about morals and moral reasoning helps us to understand
how people can arrive at different conclusions to dilemmas. It can teach us to consider different
approaches to ordinary and extraordinary problems in personal and professional lives, helping
us to live well and to find happiness.
SUMMARY
questions.
• Ethics is the study of morality and the principles that guide human behavior, and axiology
is the study of value (which can include elements of both ethics and aesthetics, the topic of
the next chapter).
• Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Ahmad Ibn Miskawayh, Mo Tzŭ, Confucius, Zhuangzi, Kwame
Gyekye, Immanuel Kant, and John Stuart Mill are some of the prominent European and
non-European philosophers whose works on ethical questions are used as a basis for
understanding this branch of philosophy.
• An understanding of ethics will be important to your professional career as a guide to your
obligations (that is, ethical duties) to your profession, to other professionals, and to the
people with whom you will work.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Discussion: The following are situations calling for ethical decisions. As we have seen,
differences of opinion may arise in discussions of ethics, so there may be different conclusions
reached by different people. Using respectful academic dialogue (no personal attacks and you
must respect the opinions of others even when disagreeing), choose one or more for discussion
as a class or in small groups. You may wish to refer to the websites above for help.
1. You have signed on as a volunteer coach for a youth cross-country running program. You
studied first aid years ago but have not recertified because the running program does not
require current skills certification. Should the program require that coaches be certified at
their own expense? Who might be harmed if you don’t know first aid skills and a runner is
injured at practices or at a meet?

2. You are a high school physical education teacher. You believe that different students respond
to different types of motivation, sometimes including brutal honesty and tough talk about
your students in class. Is it okay to embarrass students if you truly believe it will make them
try harder? After all, your physical education teacher did that all the time when you were
in school.
3. You are working as a chiropractor in a rural town and business has been slow. A nearby
medical group has offered to give you a small sum of money for referring patients to them
for treatment beyond the scope of your practice. You consider accepting their offer because
without it, you might have to close your practice and the town would be left without any
chiropractic services. Is it ethical to accept?
4. In your work as a personal trainer at a local fitness center, you have found that many people
benefit from using Supplement X to reach their goals, so you convinced your manager to
sell it at the center, with a deal to give you part of each sale. Having researched the product
thoroughly, you recommend it to your clients, and you tell them that you make a little
money on each sale. Is that ethical business dealing?
5. You have a thriving career in massage therapy. Occasionally, a client will ask you to engage
in massage of a sexual nature. Some of them ask you to go out with them. You are tempted
by one person in particular, with whom you feel a special attraction. What should you do?
6. There is a doctor on television telling viewers about the fantastic benefits of a new weight
loss supplement made of all natural ingredients. There is some scientific evidence that the
supplement might have some benefit, but the research is questionable. You are a physical
educator, and students have been telling you about this new breakthrough and how it
has already helped some people they know. What are your obligations to them and to the
community?
7. A young basketball player has caught the attention of some talent scouts as a result of
his phenomenal play, but he has gotten caught up in his success and his teammates are
not happy about his monopolizing the ball and focusing on his point totals, all with the
encouragement of the coach. Is there an ethical issue at stake here? Are there several
issues?
8. Discuss the similarities and differences between deontological and teleological moral
reasoning. Do you know which philosophers were known for non-consequentialism and
utilitarianism? Can you give examples of each?

FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 13.1: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/competition-ball-game-squad-3314734/.
Fig. 13.2: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/ethics-wordcloud-virtue-new-fonts-947569/.
Fig. 13.3: Source: https://pixabay.com/vectors/yin-yang-asian-harmony-symbol-2024615/.
Fig. 13.4: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/soccer-sportsmanship-playing-young-1341849/.
Fig. 13.5: Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/ethics-wordcloud-kant-message-947572/.
Fig. 13.6: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/competence-experience-hand-2741773/.
REFERENCES
Bambrough, R. (1963). The philosophy of Aristotle. (A. E. Wardman & J. L. Creed, Trans.). New
York, NY: New American Library.
Christopoulos, L. (2010). Early combat sport rituals in China and the rise of professionalism (475
BC to 220 AD). Nikephoros, 23, 19–41, quoted in R. Edelman & W. Wilson, (Eds.) (2017). The
Oxford handbook of sports. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Corcoran, J. & Farkas, E. (1983). Martial arts: Traditions, history, people. New York, NY: Gallery
Books.
Feng, Y. (1952). A history of Chinese philosophy: Vol. I (2nd ed.). (D. Bodde, Trans.) Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
Finn, M. (1988). Martial arts: A complete illustrated history. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press.
Friday, K. F. (May, 1994). Bushido or bull? A medieval historian’s perspective on the Imperial
army and the Japanese warrior tradition. History Teacher, 27(3), 339–349.
Gressis, R. (2013). Kantian practical ethics. In H. LaFollette (Ed.), The international encyclopedia
of ethics (pp. 2896–2903). doi:10.1002/ 9781444367072.wbiee618.
Gyekye, K. (2010). African ethics. In The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Retrieved from
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/african-ethics
Halsey, E. (1964). Inquiry and invention in physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger.
Inazo, N. (1908). Bushido: The soul of Japan. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/
files/12096/12096-h/12096-h.htm
Kant, I. (1785/1998). Groundwork of the metaphysics of morals. (M. Gregor, Trans). New York,
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Warmington, E. H. & Rouse, P. G. (1956). Great dialogues of Plato. New York, NY: New American
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Zeyl, D. J. (Ed.) (1997). Encyclopedia of classical philosophy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

C H APTER 14
AESTHETICS: WHAT IS BEAUTY IN SPORT AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY?

• What do we mean by aesthetics?
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and • Why study aesthetics?
• Is sport art?
Aesthetics: branch of philosophy dedicated to the study of
beauty • What can we learn from philosophers
Aesthetic perspective: the ability to consider an object or about aesthetics and physical activity?
action using aesthetic analysis
• Can sports have meaning?
Ontology: the study of the nature of being or of the
relationships between concepts
Purposive: sport in which the aesthetic qualities of
performance matter less than the scoring of points,
goals, etc.
Intention: in a sporting context, the degree to which an
athlete attempts to do something in a certain way
Intentional fallacy: the idea that the intention of an athlete is
a means by which s/he can and should be judged
ˉ Greek term for struggle or contest
agon:

INTRODUCTION
In the early years of the modern Olympics, its founder,
Pierre de Frédy, Baron de Coubertin, wanted to bring
art and sport together and award medals for artistic
achievement in sports-related art, as he said the practice
had been in ancient Greece (Lowe, 1977; Stromberg,
2012). He eventually convinced the members of the
Olympic committee to add competitions in architecture,
literature, music, painting, and sculpture, and from
1912 to 1948, 147 medals were awarded to artists. In
fact, Pierre de Coubertin won the first modern Olympic
gold medal for literature in Stockholm, Sweden, with his
bilingual poem, Ode to Sport, which he entered under
the pseudonyms Georges Hohrod and M. Eschbach (De
Coubertin, 1912). In it, he declared, “O Sport, you are
Beauty” (De Coubertin, 1912, pp. 3 and 6). The practice
of including the arts in the Olympics was stopped
because of the perception that artists were professionals
and therefore violated a basic premise of Olympic
competition in those days. The vestiges of artistic
competition remain only in the nearly invisible Cultural
Olympiad, which nowadays awards money instead of
medals (Conway, 2017), and the performances at the
opening ceremony.
In the years of Olympic arts competitions, only two
athletes ever earned medals in both sporting and arts.
However, the inspiration of the athletes and architecture
of the Olympics led to the creation of posters, postage
stamps, postcards, and many artworks, well after the
arts competitions stopped granting medals. There is
something about the power, grace, passion, control,
effort and glory of athletes and athletics that cries out for
artistic recognition. An investigation into the sport-art
relationship should be included in the comprehensive
study of physical activity and sport.
Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport and Physical Activity? 217

The branch of philosophy that corresponds to this
type of study is called aesthetics, the study of beauty.
However, as you will learn, aesthetics goes far beyond
mere outwardly pleasing beauty to discussions of
meaning, nature, performance, and function, to name
just a few elements. There are two primary sides to this
study: the subjective and the objective. The subjective
study includes what renowned sports sculptor R. Tait
McKenzie called “the joy of effort” (Lowe, 1977, p. xiv).
We can discuss the motivations behind this joy and
whether athletic effort is measured by its intent as well as
its performance.
On the objective side, we consider whether sport is
a form of art or not, and whether that depends on the
type of sport. We know that certain gestures in sport have
meaning, whether we consider the actions of a football
referee using their arms in emblematic gestures to
indicate decisions, or the finger gestures baseball catchers
use to suggest certain pitches. However, there are many
other ways sport may be infused with meaning, often in
layered experiences on the field and in the stands. The
interplay between fans and athletes forms part of an
aesthetic experience: we may not always perceive a sport
as exactly beautiful; nonetheless, we can appreciate the
aesthetics of competition.
THE BEAUTY OF THE HUMAN BODY

The ideal of the human physique has varied across
the world and across time. We see a distinct
difference between the artistic renditions of males
in ancient Greece, ancient Egypt, and ancient India.
Representations of females have also varied across
cultures and centuries. Except in times and places
where the body has been seen as unclean and unworthy,
what persists is an artistic homage to the ideal athletic
body through painting and sculpture.
From Myron’s Discobolus through Leonardo da
Vinci’s Vitruvian Man, Edgar Degas’s ballerinas, R.
Figure 14.1 A stamp from the Yemen Arab Republic (North
Tait McKenzie’s The Athlete, Roberto Salas’s baseball
Yemen), in celebration of the 1968 Mexico City Cultural photography, televised and filmed athletics, even
Olympiad and the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, to the commercially popular Fathead wall decal
USA, in which the painting by Murillo is located. visual representations of famous athletes, the human
body in action has been a favorite subject of artists

and photographers. It seems that humans love to look upon and contemplate idealized
representations of themselves.
One question arises immediately: what is so fascinating about watching athletes in motion or
in still images and sculptures? A possible answer lies in the ephemeral nature of sport and dance.
The experience of an athletic or dance event is fleeting, though nowadays at least a visual
representation may be captured. We see, in a moment or in a series of moments, a human being
seemingly in control of space, time, and force. We see someone who has used self-discipline and
hard work to hone their body into peak physical form in order to achieve amazing, sometimes
nearly superhuman, feats.
Figure 14.2 Polish National Ballet dancer Vladimir Yaroshenko as Petruchio in John Cranko’s The Taming of the Shrew, based on
Shakespeare’s play.
This alone does not quite answer the question. We all form subjective responses to the bodies
of different athletes in different sports, but those responses do not automatically give us an
aesthetic perspective. For example, do you derive a sense of enjoyment from looking at female
bodybuilders? Male power lifters? Gymnasts? Swimmers? MMA fighters? In order to achieve
an aesthetic perspective, you need to acknowledge—but then delve beyond—a simple visceral
response of “I like it,” or “I don’t like it.” Everyone is entitled to opinions, so in order to engage
in meaningful philosophical discussion, we also need to be able to discuss physical phenomena
such as formal elements (symmetry, asymmetry, balance, flow, speed, power, grace, efficiency,
timing, and strength, for example).

You may not feel entirely comfortable discussing the notion of athletic beauty. While ancient
Greeks appreciated the beauty of athletes competing in the nude, many spectators nowadays would
be less likely to condone, let alone appreciate, such a display. Interestingly, male and female nudity
in dance performance is not uncommon. However, while gazing at women as physically fit models
in Sports Illustrated is (more or less) culturally acceptable, it is likely to be many years before a male
swimsuit edition of that magazine is published, if ever, though both male and female nudes are
seen in ESPN’s annual Body Issue magazine.
While we should discuss the objectification of athletes as physical bodies, that discussion
is also appropriate to sociological studies in sport. In order to have any sort of meaningful
discussion of aesthetics with regard to physical activity, we must be prepared to deal with
the possibility that pleasure may be derived from viewing the human body and to recognize
that such pleasure does not necessarily impinge on aesthetic contemplation. In the United
States, our puritanical society frowns upon
that type of pleasure, but we accept artworks
in a spirit of appreciation of artistic beauty.
In other words, it’s okay to look.
It is true that the value of contemplating
male or female bodies in physical
activity collides with cultural feelings
about homosexuality, body image, and
objectification. This is one reason physical
educators such as MacKenzie (1969) saw the
need to overcome our reservations. “Few
think of sport as a medium for the expression
of beauty [and] it may be that those involved
in teaching sports have been insensitive or
tend to minimize its importance” (as cited in
Lowe, 1977, p. 18). What a loss for our society,
if we teach our youth to be afraid to appreciate
the beauty of the human body in sport and
dance, once they are mature enough to do so.
In doing so, we teach them to be ashamed of
their own bodies and athleticism and their
natural inclinations toward appreciation of
the sculpted bodies of athletes.
SPORT AS ART?
It has been said that sport is applied art
(Friedenberg, 1967), and there are many
philosophers who have pointed out the
similarities between sport and art from
various aesthetic viewpoints (Aldrich, 1937;
Beardsley, 1958; Lowe, 1977; Munro, 1949;
Figure 14.3 It’s okay to look at and appreciate the human body as
something beautiful.
Weiss, 1971). Some see competition as a

form of drama (Keenan, 1973; Kreft, 2012; Zenenga, 2011). Some, like Best, concede that
there are aesthetic elements to sport, but deny that sport can be considered art (Best, 1995).
When we consider the relationship between play, sport, athletics, competition, and art, we
encounter the branch of philosophy known as ontology. Ontology may refer to a metaphysical
study of the nature of being, but in terms of aesthetics, it refers to the study of relationships
between concepts.
You might already have a strong opinion as to whether sport is art or not, or you might
be asking yourself at this point, “What is the correct answer?” Here is where the essence of
philosophy comes forward and responds that there is no single correct answer. All may contain
pieces of truth, but the point of philosophy is not so much to learn one correct answer as to learn
to ask and consider possible responses to questions.
For thousands of years, philosophers have tried to answer the question, “What is art?”
and found that as soon as they thought they knew, an artist challenged their conceptions
and caused a reassessment of the whole notion of art. It follows that since the very definition
of art changes over time, we cannot hope to pin sport to it with any hope of permanency.
It is an open concept. Some of you will find this frustrating: after all, you are paying for a
college education so that you can learn the truth of things. Others will revel in the freedom
this ambiguity allows in thinking about physical activity and enjoy the fact that philosophy
is not mathematics: you don’t necessarily have a solution to every problem, so the joy lies in
considering aspects of questions.
Let us return to the question at hand, and consider one viewpoint from a person who is a
philosopher but not an athlete.
Like an artist, the athlete is occupied with producing something with which he can live
for a while, and which, so far, enables him to be self-sufficient. He does not make and
is not interested in making something that is beautiful, or in grasping the very being
of space, time, or energy; instead he holds himself away from everything else to give
himself wholly to a game. (Weiss, 1969, p. 245)
Weiss seems to be linking professional athletes with artists in terms of production of items/
events that allow for some profitability. From this perspective, sports are simply a way to make
a living, and there is no meaning beyond that for professionals. The immediate objectives are
scoring points or achieving the best score in an event, and the overarching objective is the ability
to support oneself financially. The world of college athletics differs in that way from professional
sports. As one Las Vegas betting director put it, “In college, the athletes play for fleeting
moments, but in the pros, if you don’t have the motivation to give your best performance for
your next contract or paycheck, I don’t know where that motivation comes from” (Rood, quoted
in Plaschke, 2012, para. 21).
We can accept that some athletes, like artists, want to make a living. However, that motivation
cannot be said to drive all athletes (or even all artists). After all, children playing on a youth
soccer league are not usually in it for the money. So we can accept that sport activity which is
purpose driven (i.e., undertaken with the aim of making a living) has a link to art, but may not
be artistic in itself. What about Weiss’s other assertion, that athletes do not make or intend to
make anything that is beautiful?

THE INTENTIONAL FALLACY
There are, of course, some sports in which the athlete tries to move in ways that display grace,
pleasing lines, exquisite timing, strength, power, and form. Examples include figure skating (in
the post-1968 Peggy Fleming era), ice dancing, snowboard big air, rhythmic gymnastics,
gymnastics, dressage, diving, synchronized swimming, bodybuilding, skateboarding, and dance
sport. These athletes are judged, at least in part, on the way they complete their routines. Style
matters. These sports have obvious aesthetic considerations.
What about other sports? Sports such as bicycling,
handball, boxing, hockey, and track and field events are
not judged on the performers’ form. Goals, points, speed,
and the ability to throw farther or jump longer or higher
than opponents constitute the criteria for winning in these
activities. However, it is possible to admire the strength and
grace of a pole vaulter or the speed and grace of opponents
in a boxing match. That possibility is beside the point,
according to Best (1985), because those sports are purposive
by nature: the athletes are striving toward a purpose that is
independent of the way in which they achieve their purpose.
If that is so, then we should ask whether it makes
a difference whether or not an athlete is intentionally
attempting to create something beautiful in motion. For
some sports, that intention seems to be a central component,
but we can easily envision cases in which an athlete moves
in an unintentionally beautiful way. Does intention matter,
if we are considering sport as art?
Let us take an example from the world of baseball. Fans
are familiar with an event in the first game of the 1954 World
Series, in which center fielder Willie Mays caught a ball hit
by Vic Wertz. Mays caught the ball while running away
from the infield toward the center field wall in a historic
play that baseball aficionados simply call the Catch. It was
a moment of undeniable grace and beauty, expressing the
Figure 14.4 A rhythmic gymnast competing in the ball epitome of baseball perfection. It is doubtful that Mays was
event. Sports like this are partially scored on aesthetic thinking about his self-expression through fielding or how
presentation. This sport developed out of the European he was being perceived: his sole objective in that moment
gymnastics traditions; however, there are few males in was catching the ball. Yet baseball lovers still watch that play
competition, and men are not allowed to compete in this with a sense of awe. American football fans experienced a
sport in the Olympics.
similar moment with Franco Harris’s so-called Immaculate
Reception in the 1972 AFC divisional playoff game. Both
of these examples raise this question: can we have an aesthetic experience as spectators if the
athlete does not intend to provide us with one?
Wimsatt and Beardsley (1946) explored the idea of intention in terms of art, coming to the
conclusion that the product of the artist stood independent of the process and intention of the
artist. For example, if an abstract artist painted a work that s/he considered to express ecstatic
dance movement, but which appeared to a critic to evoke a rugby scrum, the work should not

be judged on whether or not the critic sees what the artist intended. Rather, a work should
be judged on its own merits, partially because the artist cannot control how every viewer will
perceive the artwork. Judging a work based on whether or not it fulfills the intention of the
creator (or athlete) leads the spectator into an intentional fallacy.
In the realm of sports philosophy, the question of intention has been a topic of passionate
debate, with luminaries such as Wertz (1984) (no relation to Vic) on one side and Best (1985)
on the other. Best divides athletics into aesthetic (in which style contributes to outcome) and
purposive (in which style is irrelevant, so long as rules are followed) sports, according to the
intention and context of the activity (Best, 1995). For him, intentionality is at the heart of
categorizing sport, so a play like the Catch should be considered purposive and its aesthetic
qualities irrelevant.
Figure 14.5 Former Minnesota Vikings running back Adrian Peterson in a purposive play of the 2008
Pro Bowl in Hawaii. He was named MVP for that game for his achievements but was later involved in
controversies in his private life. Do spectators view players differently when they know about the
players’ issues off the field? Should they?
Wertz, on the other hand, argues for a creative, playful impulse in athletics which can be
perceived as art, regardless of the intention of the athlete. He is anti-intentionalist in his writings,
asserting a “criterion of independence” (Wertz, 1985, p. 512) that denies that the athlete(s) alone
can determine (or intend) whether or not a movement, play, action, or event can or should be
interpreted or experienced as an aesthetic experience.
In contrast, Fraleigh (1973b) believes that intention is indivisible from sport, and one of
its hallmarks is the ability of an athlete to project his or her intentions during the game. The
role of the athlete’s will in this view has less to do with aesthetics in the sense of beauty, in this
viewpoint, and more to do with the sense of its meaning for the participant.

THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PLAY, SPORT, AND ART
Although the terms athletics and sports have been used interchangeably throughout this text,
different philosophers may disagree on whether or not they are the same and what function play
has in each. Fraleigh (1973a) ascribes a more competitive element to the word athletics, but
views sport as more of a recreational diversion. Some thinkers, like Morgan (1973) and Slusher
(1967), have conceptualized sport as a religious experience, or an expanded form of play framed
by ritual and prone to ecstatic participation by spectators and participants, whose identities
become subsumed into the event within the greater force of the arena, racetrack, course, or
stadium. The relationships between play, sport, and art correspond to what Wittgenstein (1953)
called “family resemblances” (p. 32e).
We may choose take for granted the notion of play as being intrinsic to athletics, but we
can sense an instinctive divide between young stickball players in a sandlot of the Dominican
Republic and the grown-up versions of those players as professionals in US Major League
Baseball. Is it only money that divides them? Or do elite athletes lose the sense of play over time?
If so, at what point does play become athletics, in Fraleigh’s sense of the word? After all, Von
Schiller (1979) declares that “man only plays when in
the full meaning of the word he is a man, and he is only
completely a man when he plays” (p. 319).
We should first enumerate some of the characteristics
of play. When we are engaged in a game of lacrosse, for
instance, we have to maintain a sense of openness in
order to respond to the actions on the field. We need
to have spatial awareness of other bodies, sticks, the
ball, and the goal. Our ability to participate in the game
depends on responding to the actions of others and
being able to improvise as well as perform practiced
movements within a framework of rules, much as a
jazz musician is able to improvise and play, or a contact
improv dancer responds to the weight and balance of
other dancers, gravity, and the dance environment, or
a comedy improv performance group plays off each
other’s imaginations, words, and actions.
Some play is free-form, as when a lone child
engages with action figures or builds something out
of interlocking plastic pieces. Some play has rules, but
the rules can change depending on circumstances. For
example, players in an informal softball game might
move second base a little bit outward, into center field if
a puddle has formed on the infield, or the distance and
location of bases in an informal kickball game may change
from day to day. Some play is more rigid, with referees on
hand to maintain adherence to rules, as in volleyball or
Figure 14.6 We may play a game or tournament of golf. Is it a tennis. Is the division between play, sport, and athletics a
game? A sport? Does the classification depend on who is
question of degree? Or, once again, does the intention of
participating, whether they are being paid, who is watching,
the participants determine categorization?
and/or their state of mind regarding competition?

Pieper (1979) calls play a “non-meaningful act” (p. 243), while Slusher (1967) agrees that play
is nonproductive, but sport is work oriented toward a productive end. Hyland calls it the link
between sport and art (1990). The common denominator in all forms of play and sport and art
is, and must be, freedom, according to Slusher (1967). Rules may or may not frame the game,
but in each passing moment, the choices available to the athlete are his or her own responsibility
and privilege. For many players, this freedom drives their participation in sport, as they play for
the sake of escape from coping with the demands of everyday life (Metheny, 1968). Effort, drive,
ability, and ability to focus may play their parts, but ultimately, a player decides on a certain
course of action at each moment of play or competition.
The expression of freedom may be manifest in different ways. In some cases, the player’s
decision is to argue a call or simply to stop playing, as Vontae Davis did when he retired from the
Buffalo Bills at halftime during a football game in 2018. In some cases, players violate unwritten
rules, such as running up the score during a ball game against an opponent who is clearly too far
behind to win. Sometimes it is the ritual of a game that is violated, as when players kneel during
the national anthem. Still, in each case, free will is exercised in actions.
Is all physical activity a creative expression of freedom, and is all decision-making necessarily
conscious? Of course not, as any coach, physical therapist, physical educator or fitness
development specialist knows. Metheny (1975) recognizes a distinction between exercise, sport,
and dance, and asks,
Do any educators—or physical educators—think that moving children leave their senses,
their feelings, their emotions and their thoughts in the classroom? Do any educational
“authorities” think that the processes of action interfere with the processes of thought,
feeling and emotion? (1975, p. 156)
Or, as the great baseball player, manager, and coach Lawrence Peter “Yogi” Berra said, “How
can you think and hit at the same time?” (Blount, 2014).
Perhaps the right question is not whether sport is art. Perhaps it is better, as Arnold (1979)
suggests, if the percipient is capable of choosing to view any sport as though it were art. This
stance allows us to look beyond the question of beauty into the purposes and meanings of sport
and physical activity, from the perspectives of participant and spectator. This brings us to our
final aesthetic consideration in this chapter. If we treat sport as though it were art, can we ascribe
meaning to it? Does it need to have a purpose?
CAN SPORT HAVE MEANING AND PURPOSE?

Important as sport is to our society—and it is very important—on some level we maintain the
perspective that, win or lose, it’s just a game. When urgent international strife called for athletes
to enlist in the armed forces during World War II, they did not refuse to serve so that they
could stay stateside and maintain their places on their teams’ rosters. On the other hand, there
is something to be said for the natural human affinity for agōn, or struggle. That Nietzschean
determination, the will to be the best at something, to conquer oneself and one’s opponents,
drives athletes to compete for glory, respect, self-esteem, and fame, according to the Olympic
motto of Citius, Altius, Fortius (Faster, Higher, Stronger) and philosophers like Holowchak and
Reid (2011). Perhaps there is a greater meaning to competition after all.

If so, what could it be? For spectators, we know that a variety of emotions and memories are
connected with their vicarious experiences of different games. With sports like ice dancing, we
may experience a sense of romance, with a kinesthetic response to the tenderness with which
movements are executed. A strong sense of shared identity links fans with the players on their
teams. There are special connections that are formed between family members as a parent or
sibling watches a child compete or takes him or her to a sporting event. Families and friends
gather for tailgate and Super Bowl parties. Alumni get together to watch their college teams
compete in national championships. Soccer fans sing songs to belittle the opposing team.
Citizens around the world celebrate with spontaneous street gatherings and cars honking horns
or fans blowing vuvuzelas when their country wins the World Cup.
Figure 14.7 Young fans of the “Bafana Bafana,” or South African national football team. Fans often
paint their faces in team colors to show solidarity and identification with “their” team.
Our families, friends, cities, and countries bond together over sporting contests. The sense
of being part of something greater than oneself gives feelings of satisfaction, regardless of the
outcome of an event. Fans don’t even need to watch or attend actual competitions to be part of
the action, with fantasy leagues and gambling opportunities in abundance.
Professional sporting events have become similar to arena-type musical performances in the
use of video, pyrotechnics, and music. Energy and excitement fill the stands. Concessions vendors
hawk programs, beer, and food. Stadiums have fountains, luxury boxes, kiddie playgrounds,
and swimming pools. Nobody is expected to sit quietly and observe a game continuously from
beginning to end. The experience of a sporting event is a centerpiece, but fans now expect far
more for their money.

The rituals and traditions of sport give us another spiritual connection to athletic competitions.
While not connected in any real way to the competitions themselves, these bits of pageantry
become entwined with our experience of sport. Examples include the running of the Olympic
torch or the Special Olympic torch, the calling out of starting lineup players, the playing of
national anthems for Olympic medalists, the throwing of salt by Sumo wrestlers, the placing of
a garland of roses on the winner of the Kentucky Derby, and the seventh inning stretch. These
elements provide a sense of prestige and continuity, comforting us with their familiarity and
imparting feelings of pride and goodwill. Not all such rituals are viewed as positive, however.
Some people object to the role of NASCAR “trophy girls,” whose ritualistic job is to kiss the
winners of the races, for example.
Whatever our feelings toward them, in some ways, these types of rituals provide prologues
or frame competitions, and the experiences would feel incomplete without them. Their very
significance has sometimes made them into opportunities for social, cultural, or political
statements. A notable example would be the raised fists of Tommie Smith and John Carlos at the
1968 200-meter Olympic medal ceremony, as a statement calling for international human rights.
That silent gesture, a controversial moment in sports history, gave additional symbolic meaning to
a ritual ceremony and drew attention to larger issues. “[A] gesture captures … a critical moment
in a dramatic narrative. Gestures, with their freeze-frame effect, make the pathos associated with
these dramatic moments more visible and more memorable” (Gumbrecht, 2006, p. 79).
SPORT AS DRAMA
It is tempting, given the spectacle and nature of competitions, to compare them to dramas. In
youth sports, parents may come to blows over decisions. In professional sports, the drama can
take place in the bleachers between unruly and/or intoxicated fans, but the bigger performance
is in the contests. Professional wrestling offers an extreme version of dramatic storytelling, with
wrestlers choosing “good guy” or “heel” personas and performing scripted fights in and out of
the ring. Boxers and MMA fighters will often taunt opponents in advance of fights to whip up
spectator interest in matches.
The narrative might follow traditional patterns of dramatic confrontation: wo/man versus
wo/man (singles table tennis), wo/man versus society (marathon racing), or wo/man versus
nature (bullfighting or its less bloody cousin, the course landaise). The armies that meet in battle
in Shakespeare’s Richard III have their counterparts in the NCAA basketball final four; bitter
rivalries fuel the contests, and plot twists and turns abound.
Once the games or matches begin, the opponents drive the narrative, play by play, punch by
punch, mile by mile. An unexpected injury or crash heightens the arousal level of the fans, and
a goal scored releases cheers or groans. We see players at their best or at their worst, performing
superhuman feats or cheating. A close contest can be excruciating and exciting, giving a cathartic
release when the final point is scored. The fans’ feelings of aggression may have been sublimated
by the action in the athletic struggle, or they may express joy over a win by hooliganism, or by
rioting and setting fires. In any case, the sense of engagement with the drama is complete.
Kupfer (1975) refers to the “temporally extended opposition” (p. 88) of competition, which
hones and places the skills and abilities of athletes to the test. Superior athletes, like superior
warriors throughout history, are honored and given medals, rings, and monetary rewards
(sponsorships, contracts, and prize earnings). Only through the struggle of competition, the

agōn, can they find out where they stand in relationship to other athletes. When the contest is
over, unlike the actors who bow as they receive applause, the winners stand tall and proud,
accepting acclaim for their courage, skills, and prowess. In that moment of affirmation, perhaps
fatigued and elated, an athlete is not merely someone who has completed a physical activity.
The athlete has gone through a journey and been transformed into a hero, a symbol of hope,
and a champion.
Figure 14.8 Lightweight boxer Robson Conceição, the first Brazilian to win Olympic gold in boxing,
accepts the acclaim of the crowd at the 2016 Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) Summer Olympic Games.
SUMMARY
questions.
• Aesthetics is the study of beauty, but within its study we consider relationships of various
aesthetic elements, including meaning and purpose of artistic works and events.
• Kinesiologists study aesthetics to achieve a deeper appreciation of the human body in motion
and a more comprehensive understanding of the ways play, athletics, and sport complement
human experience.
• While sport is not art, some sports have important artistic components, and all sports can
be experienced through an aesthetic point of view.
• Philosophers of aesthetics in sport consider many issues, including intentionality, the nature
of play, sport and competition, and the subjective experience of sport participation and
spectatorship.
• Sports can and do have meaning; however, those meanings can vary between individuals, so
we cannot determine their symbolic nature with any degree of precision.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Sports Photography (Visual): In Figure 14.5, above, Adrian Peterson is the center of
attention. However, the defender to his left, caught in a horizontal diving position, and
the player beneath him on a different angle, give this photograph a strong contrast to the
upright players. Another player on the left is balanced on one leg, caught in the act of
running. Yet another player, on the right, stands in a squatting defensive pose, balanced
on the fronts of his feet for lateral mobility. The photograph is dynamic, filled with energy
and aesthetic elements. Find other action photographs of purposive sports, and examine
them for aesthetic properties, creating a PowerPoint presentation in which you can present
five photographs while pointing out the formal elements The elements might include the
use of light, shadow, lines, composition (symmetry/asymmetry, for example), and spatial
elements. Include the physical arrangement of body parts that can be viewed as an
aesthetic object in terms of muscularity, pose, balance/off-balance stance of the athlete(s),
evidence of effort, and any other notable characteristics.
2. Aesthetic Distance and Sports Film (Research): One of the most impressive sports films
in cinematic history is Leni Riefenstahl’s Olympia, which documents events of the 1936
Summer Olympics in Berlin, Germany. Her use of editing and techniques of filming this film
were groundbreaking. Watch Part 2 of Olympia, known in German as Fest der Schönheit
(Festival of Beauty), with particular attention to the famous diving sequence. Notice the
naturalism of the opening sequence (warning: some nudity is seen in this part) and the
open-air men’s gymnastics competition (in the tradition of German gymnastics). Consider
the drama of the boating sequence, in which the athletes contend with the forces of wind
and water in their competitive drama. How does she present the struggle of man versus
man in the boxing competition? Research why her work might be considered controversial,
given that it was produced under the auspices of the Third Reich. Is it possible to watch
the film with an aesthetic point of view, recognizing but seeing past its propagandistic
elements? Does it change the way you view the aesthetic elements of sports?
3. Precision Ball Passing (Kinesthetic): Choreographer Charles Moulton grew up playing

sports and became interested in the possibilities of competitions in which there would
be three opposing teams on the field instead of two. He went on to become a dancer
and dance creator, with his most famous series of works involving people passing balls.
In a group, watch his Nine Person Ball Passing video online at http://ballpassing.org/video/
original-nine-person-ball-passing-1980/ and see if you can mimic this type of activity and
create your own ball passing dance, set to music. Have someone available to record your
dance, to share with the class online or in a class presentation. You may wish to costume
the performance with matching (preferably dark) T-shirts so that the balls will stand out
more clearly.

FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 14.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:YAR_1969_MiNr1000_pm_B002.jpg.
Fig. 14.2: Copyright © 2015 by Ewa Krasucka, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Poskromienie_z%C5%82o%C5%9Bnicy,_choreografia_John_Cranko,_Polski_
Balet_Narodowy,_fot._Ewa_Krasucka_TW-ON.jpg.
Fig. 14.3: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/fitness-beach-man-boy-muscular-2398421/.
Fig. 14.4: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/gymnast-gymnastics-1958324/.
Fig. 14.5: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/football-american-professional-nfl-622873/.
Fig. 14.6: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/golfer-golfing-club-ball-swing-660605/.
Fig. 14.7: Copyright © 2007 by Octagon, (CC BY 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:2010_FIFA_World_Cup_Fans.jpg.
Fig. 14.8: Copyright © 2016 by Boxing AIBA, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Rio_2016_Olympic_Games_-_Medal_Ceremonies_(28416521753).png.
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C H APTER 15
MY HISTORY, MY PHILOSOPHY

• When does something become historic?
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and • What is your place in history?
• Why should you care about local history
Turnvereins: local German clubs where German gymnastics
was practiced and social, political, and cultural events were of physical education and sport?
held • How can you learn about local history?
Settlement houses: neighborhood institutions serving
• What can you do to help preserve local
immigrants with transition and assimilation, health and
nutrition information, and recreational opportunities history?
Ephemera: programs, newspaper articles, advertising, • What is your personal philosophy?
flyers, pay stubs, and so forth that may have historical
significance but are often discarded or considered of • Why should you write a statement of
limited long-term usefulness to the average person
your philosophy?
Op-ed piece: in newspapers, the page opposite the editorial
page (op-ed) is sometimes reserved for guest opinions • How do you write a statement of
Docents: people who act as guides (often as volunteers) in personal philosophy?

museums and can provide valuable insight and advice for
• What should you anticipate about your
researchers
history and your philosophy as you start
your career?

INTRODUCTION
In the first chapter of this text, you learned that the three
basic questions about history ask where we are now,
how we got here, and where we are going. Much of this
book has been devoted to answering these questions.
However, the answers have left out an important part
of history: you. Yes, you are part of history. You may
not be a Major League pitcher or a world-renowned
pole-vaulting history expert, or the owner of an NFL
franchise. But wherever you are, whatever you do
becomes part of history on some level, immediately. For
what achievements would you like to be remembered?
What would you like your students or colleagues to
remember about you when you are gone? What will you
leave behind?
Your place in history is surrounded by the history
of the locale(s) in which you reside or will reside. For
example, you may have been an outstanding athlete in
high school sports. If so, your name is likely listed in a
local newspaper or hanging on a wall of records in your
school. Your former teammates may remember your team
leadership and your example of sportsmanship, and they
may remember highlights of competitions in which you
were particularly successful. Your team’s record is also part
of history. So is your coach. But let’s think a little bigger.
Your hometown may have had several high
schools, each with their own stories. If your town has
semiprofessional or professional sports teams, they have
history. Everything from the smallest rural park to the
biggest stadium in a major metropolitan center has
a story. You cannot escape that fact, and your history
will inevitably become part of those larger histories.
You may think that only your actions make history, but
your thoughts may become part of your legacy, whether
directly or indirectly.
My History, My Philosophy 233

Figure 15.1 Lewis “Sport” McAllister (1874–1962), a versatile professional ball player, shown in 1910 at the
Newark (New Jersey) Indians’ minor league baseball stadium, Wiedenmayer’s Park.
For example, Vince Lombardi to become a coach to be remembered for his thoughts on
determination, dedication, and winning. Charles Dillon “Casey” Stengel didn’t necessarily think
about how his strategy of platooning would change baseball management. Yogi Berra didn’t
necessarily always mean to say what he said, but his thoughts are still profound, delightful, and
true. Maybe one of your coaches had a way of inspiring you and your team through words,
actions, or a combination of both. In all of these cases, philosophy is evident, even if the historical
figures would not have considered themselves philosophers.
In this chapter, you will be encouraged to think about your own philosophy and how it will
affect your career decisions and actions. No matter what branch of kinesiology you follow, the
way you think about yourself and your professional life will impact your behavior. Living an
authentic life and acting in accordance with your beliefs can help you maintain a sense of self, no
matter what situations arise in your personal and professional lives.
WHY STUDY LOCAL HISTORY OF PHYSICAL

EDUCATION AND SPORT?
Depending on where you are, the importance of the local history of physical education and
sport may seem more or less important. A resident of Chicago can take pride in that city’s Major
League sports teams as well as their playgrounds, physical education curricula, and recreational

opportunities. The history of the Chicago turnvereins and settlement houses like Hull House
demonstrates that residents of Chicago provided additional physical education, health services,
and recreation for immigrants, tailored to their needs and desires. Chicago’s fine institutions of
higher education, including its community colleges, each has its own legacies. In the world of
dance, professional ballet and jazz dance companies have made significant historical contributions.
In short, you can barely turn around in that city or its environs without bumping into history.
What if your college, university, high school, or town seems to have less historical importance?
While other locales may not have the rich variety Chicago has, every place has physical activity
history that can be studied. Why bother learning it?
• Understand your institution’s or locality’s heritage. There are social and cultural influences
that have shaped your local physical education and athletics landscape.
• Bolster pride in the community and school spirit. Alumni like to reminisce about athletics,
coaches, teachers, and professors, and some alumni are historical figures themselves.
• Instill a sense of community and place in history to current residents and students. Let them
take a moment to reflect on what has gone before and cherish current history.
• Rediscover lost heritage. Did your town or college produce a Heisman Trophy winner? A
world champion cross-country runner?
• Preserve your history. You may be the only one who recognizes the historical importance of
keeping certain artifacts. Old programs, pennants, and equipment may seem worthless
today, but will be historically important (and possibly worth a lot of money) a century
from now.
Figure 15.2 Do you collect memorabilia and autographs? Knowing sports history can
make you a savvier consumer. You might even have a second career selling items like this
or even curating them for historical collections!

Similarly, thinking about current history will help others to remember what happened today.
When a program is prepared for an athletic banquet, simply putting the date and location on
the program is helpful to historians. Listing not only names but also titles (athletic director,
coach, assistant coach, etc.) will be appreciated in years to come. Saving an archival copy of any
ephemera from each event and making sure to get it to someone who can preserve it properly
such as a local archive, library, or historical society will enable future researchers to more
accurately portray the history you, your league, your community, and your institution create
now. If you have a sense of history, you have an understanding that can make a contribution
toward it.
HOW CAN YOU LEARN ABOUT LOCAL HISTORY OF PHYSICAL

EDUCATION AND SPORT?
There is no right or wrong way to begin research into local history, and there are many ways to go
about it. The best advice is to follow what interests you. Sometimes history is preserved online,
but much of what is not online may be learned from books, archives, architecture, plaques,
and displays in museums or other buildings, and people’s communications about experiences.
Take time to notice the trophies, memorabilia, artworks, photographs, and banners that tell
your institution’s sports history or commemorate achievements in dance, health, recreation, and
kinesiology professions.
For example, if you love swimming, you might think about whether you prefer competitive
or recreational swimming. Remember that you can enjoy both, but you have to start somewhere!
Where to turn next?
If your interest is in competitive swimming, depending on what type of local history you are
seeking, consider visiting the following:
• Local libraries (ask a librarian for help),

• Local or college newspaper archives for scoreboards and articles,
• Local pools, to see if they have record boards or other indications of achievements,
• Archives for interviews with former coaches and athletes (or visiting them to record oral
histories), and
• Formal or informal archives of school, league, athletics department, and local history centers.
For recreational swimming, you might also seek help from:
• Local historical society collections, who may have photos of waterfronts or pools,
• Local community newsletters,
• Social media groups dedicated to preserving memories of localities,
• Community members who recall swimming locally in a lake, pool, reservoir, or creek, and
• Local youth bureau or community recreation resources.

Figure 15.3 Brand Park Memorial Pool in Elmira, New York (USA) is one of only about six surviving pools
designed by renowned pool architect Wesley Bintz, known for his innovative and practical designs. The
pool is closed, but there is a local historical movement to preserve this rare art deco–style facility.
Once you start reading, you will find names, places, and other resources, and your challenge
will become capturing and keeping track of where you get your information, in case you ever
need to reference sources for any reason. Or you can just research for the fun of it, if you are
someone who enjoys delving into history for its own sake! In any case, no matter where you
are, these are good places to start, in addition to any online searches you do. Remember, not all
history is online, and not all sources are equal.
HOW CAN YOU PRESERVE LOCAL HISTORY?

Suppose you are a physical education teacher who wants to help preserve local physical education
and athletics history. How can you do that? What does it take, and how can you get started?
You can start by archiving your own collection. You might have ephemera that should be kept
in acid-free folders or scanned into online archives. If your school is replacing equipment, keep
a sample, noting the year. Did one of your athletes go on to play in D1 athletics? Can you keep
a jersey in a display case with trophies that athlete won or helped to win? Your own mundane
paperwork and everyday items can attain significance over time. Someone, someday, may want
to know how many physical education classes students had to take each week and what types of
units were taught. You could have the basketball team all sign a ball each year and keep them on
a shelf, maybe putting one in a trophy case for the year you win the championship. Space can

become an issue over time, so you may want to think of creative alternatives, especially where
large items are concerned! Remember also that laws concerning the use of student images and
information may impact your ability to preserve information in online slideshow formats or if
any information is in any way confidential.
You can also encourage colleagues at other schools in your area to preserve historical items in
their own schools and as a group. Does your school or community have a Hall of Fame? If not, can
you create one? It doesn’t need to be huge or very expensive. For example, a local mall can donate
an empty store location where plaques listing various schools’ Athletes of the Year, memorabilia,
posters, and newspaper articles are on display. An annual recognition ceremony could induct
new members, inviting alumni to send letters and/or come to the ceremony. Similar small-scale
sports history corners could be housed in local sports-related shops, the local historical society,
or a public building.
Seeking donations, displaying the artifacts, acquiring insurance, publicizing induction
ceremonies, and other such matters can be the work of a committee of interested volunteers.
After all, who knows more about teamwork than you?
Consider other ways you could help preserve local history, including your own.
• Interview local coaches and athletes and create an online virtual gallery of their achievements,
housing it on a school’s or local community’s website.
• Write! Newspaper op-ed pieces, Letters to the Editor, and/or articles about sports and
physical education. Whether you are a student or a professional sports history researcher
submitting to a peer-reviewed journal, your contribution matters!
• Keep a journal or diary of your experiences in physical activity. What do you do? What
does a peak experience feel like for you? What do you hope to achieve? What competitions
did you enter, and what were the results? Add in scores, fleeting thoughts, impressions,
memories, snippets of song or poetry that come to mind, anything that will help you capture
your physical education and sport experiences.
• Organize an alumni sporting event, inviting alumni and coaches to take part. Collect photos
of them, record short clips of players’ and coaches’ comments, and create a short film.
You might even include others who were part of local athletics history like organ players,
announcers, concessions vendors, and mascots.
• Create memorable opportunities. For example, at a high school reunion, suggest a night at
the bowling alley as one of the activities, and take photos! Ask local veterans if they played
any sports, and find occasions to honor them at sporting events. Do you know of any former
athletes living at an assisted living facility? Find out if they might like a visit from some
youth players.
Always make every reasonable effort to obtain permissions to take and use photographs
or recordings, even if something seems totally innocuous. This applies to everyone, not just to
minors. Sometimes people (including parents/guardians of schoolchildren or children of senior
citizens in senior housing) will allow photographs, but not if there are names attached to them.
Respect the wishes of the participants and/or their legal guardians, just as you would want others
to respect yours.

Figure 15.4 A Miami University Varsity Alumni football game, 1922. The photo is partially blurred, but the
fact that the image was captured for posterity is important.
YOUR PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY

In the first chapter, you learned what it means to be a philosopher. You also learned that not
everyone is a philosopher, but hopefully in reading Chapters 13, 14, and 15, you will have come
to a better understanding of the philosophy of physical education and sport. Whether or not
you consider yourself a philosopher now (even a beginning one), you have ideas about right and
wrong, the nature of play, the place of competition in sport, the beauty of sports, and so on. It’s
time to reflect.
Think back to what first drew you to physical activity, making you love it so much that
you decided you would like to make a living doing something that involved movement. Most
likely other people were involved at some point: parents, friends, teachers, coaches, and/
or other athletes. What influence(s) did they have on your physical education and athletic
experiences?
Think about your career goals and what this area of study holds for you. Do you want to help
others? Become wealthy? Achieve fame? Invent new types of prosthetic limbs? Conduct basic
or applied research? Teach movement skills? Teach values through sport? Give back to your
community? Create recreational opportunities? Build playgrounds? Whatever it is you want to
do, there is probably a reason you want to do it. The answer is unique to you, so you are the only
person who can provide it. A professor can open many doors, but no professor can tell you which
one to choose or why you picked one over another. Those parts are your decisions, and you
should not let anyone make the decisions for you. Parents and professors and career services can

offer advice, guidance, and testing, but if you do not follow your heart and soul into a profession,
your joy in life will be diminished, no matter how much money you make.
What is important to you? What goals have you set for yourself? What type of work
environment will suit you best? Do you need to be your own boss? If your life could be any way
you want it to be, how would you arrange it? Are you willing and able to invest in education
beyond the bachelor’s degree to achieve higher earning potential? In considering the answers to
these questions, you come to a better understanding of your own vision for your future, even if
it’s only for the next few years.
WHY WRITE A STATEMENT OF

PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY?
There are several reasons to write a statement

of personal philosophy. The most obvious
and practical reason, in terms of your career,
is that a potential employer may ask you for
one. This is most likely to be the case if you are
going into physical education or coaching, but
you may encounter this requirement in other
professions.
There is a greater reason to write such a
statement, however. As a student in a college
program, you (hopefully) devote countless
hours to classes and study. Is it really only
to earn a degree as a ticket to a job upon
graduation? Many students would say that. Yet,
there are a wide variety of occupations—with
good salaries—that do not require a college
degree. That being the case, what is the point
of investing in years of study? Ask yourself if
Figure 15.5 Take stock of yourself and your personal history it is really only about the money. Could it be
and traits. It is an important part of discovering who you are
that you wanted to have the opportunity to
and who you want to be as a person and as a professional.
get away from home, to make new friends, to
study whatever you wanted, to have the whole
college experience, to earn a degree that proves you are able to do advanced studies in a topic?
Do you crave respect, a certain status, or maybe just a chance at the American dream? College is
your chance to really get to know yourself. Whatever you discover, don’t waste the opportunity
to try.
Your statement of personal philosophy is a window on your soul. As such, it may not fit every
prospective employer’s ideal of the perfect candidate for a job. You may think you can simply
craft a statement that you think hits all of the things any given employer might want, but you
cannot. You cannot read the employer’s mind, though you should always do your research into
the employer and the culture of the workplace for a good idea.

Let’s say, for instance, that you want to be a wrestling coach in an educational institution,
and there is an opening available nearby. You might indicate that you are a caring educator, fully
dedicated to teaching. Your goals are teaching correct technique and making sure the wrestlers
have fun at every practice session. Those are all noble and worthwhile statements. However, if
the people in charge of hiring want a rigorous, win-at-all-costs coach to take the team to national
championships within two years, the job may not be a good fit. You might as well be honest. It
will help you and potential employers avoid making hiring mistakes, and you will eventually
(hopefully) find a job that is a much better match to your skills and values than if you try to write
what you think people want to hear.
HOW TO WRITE A STATEMENT OF PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY

Just as there is no perfect way to begin research, there is no perfect way to write a statement of
personal philosophy. You may want to do an online search for some examples of statements of
personal philosophy for your chosen career. Conversely, you may want to hold off and write
yours first, then see how others approach the task.
What is offered here is only one of many possible avenues, offering steps only as a matter of
convenience to help you create what may seem like a daunting task. The first steps require a bit
of bravery to get you started, but you can do this.
1. Goal setting. Visualize the best possible career in the best possible geographic, physical,
and social environment for you. You do not need to write this down, but bear it in
mind like a mental snapshot or postcard. A career as a physical therapist is different
from a career as a fitness development expert or a sporting events manager. Imagine
it, and mentally set it aside. That’s your dream, and it’s made up of all your hopes and
aspirations for the future.
2. Experience. Tell your story. This is where you start writing. Tell about a time in your physical
activity life where you had to make a tough decision or where you needed to get through
something difficult. For example, did you ever see an opportunity to cheat in a competition
and have to make a decision about whether or not you would? Did your faith prohibit
traveling to compete on holy days, and if so, how did you work through that? Have you ever
encountered discrimination? What did you do? If you have several examples, go ahead and
describe each, being sure to include your responses to different situations. You will edit later;
now is the time to just get started writing from your personal experience.
3. Influences. Next, think about your experiences in life that led you to your career choice or
choice of college major. If occupational therapy is your career goal, for example, what have
you experienced in life that influenced that choice? Did you know someone who was an
OT, or someone who benefited from OT? If you are interested in working with the military,
police departments, or fire departments in fitness development, what inspired that interest?
4. Adaptability. Think about how you learn best and what learning experiences have been more
or less successful for you. You might be a kinesthetic learner, but then again, you might
not! Do you need visual, aural, or emotional cues or reinforcement? Are you logical? Detail
oriented? Now think about how you might work with someone who relies on a different
style of learning. How would you work with clients, students, athletes, or special-needs
populations who have styles that don’t match your own?

5. Knowledge. What knowledge about physical activity, physical education, exercise science,
therapeutic professions, health, nutrition, sport psychology, sport sociology, recreation,
leisure, training, and athletics will you bring to your profession?
6. Epistemology. Think about the educational philosophies you studied in Chapter 13. Did you
connect more with the idealists, the naturalists, the pragmatists, the experimentalists, or
the existentialists? Was there a combination of more than one approach? Did you find a
different way to think about epistemology? Even if you are not planning to become a physical
educator, it is likely that some part of your career will involve teaching or training someone
on some level. What type of teacher are you most likely to be, based on the philosophies you
have encountered thus far?
7. Values. What do you care about when it comes to your career and the people with whom
you will likely come into contact? Is lifelong learning important to you? Do you feel strongly
about character building? Do ethics matter to you? Do you believe self-esteem is the most
important thing to teach people? If you are planning to teach, what type of environment do
you want to create for your students, and what would you like them to remember and take
away with them when their time with you is finished?
8. Stop. Look at what you wrote for steps 2 through 7. Take time to think about how those
things fit with what you imagined in step 1. Can you now envision an authentic, desirable
career that will bring you fulfillment and enjoyment? If so, you are ready to continue. If not,
revisit steps 1 through 7 and revise as needed.
9. Finally, using the (possibly revised) components you have written for steps 2 through 7,
create a statement of personal philosophy that captures your values, experiences, knowledge,
beliefs, and potential for connecting on a human level with others (students, clients,
colleagues, etc.). Title it using your name and the words “Statement of Personal Philosophy.”
Edit to rearrange, trim, streamline, and make a logically flowing, professional presentation.
Check carefully for spelling, spacing, punctuation, grammar, and formatting. The final
paper should be no more than two pages (double-spaced, 10–12 point font, 1-inch
margins).
Figure 15.6 Plato (in Apology) indicated that an unexamined life is not worth
living. Self-reflection should continue throughout your life.

Congratulations! Even if you are not a philosopher, you should now be able to articulate your
personal philosophy and communicate your story and values with other professionals. Are you
satisfied with the result? Remember, there are many models on the Internet for reference. Take
care, though. Tempting though it may be, do not plagiarize someone else’s work: this needs to be
yours and yours alone.
THE FUTURE IN THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL

EDUCATION AND SPORT
Now that you have studied a semester’s worth of history and philosophy, including reflecting on
your own history and philosophy, you should feel more secure in your understanding of where
we are, where we have been, and where we are going. That is the good news. Now here is what
some of you may consider the bad news: things will change.
We may not know what will change, or how, or when, but we know change will come.
After all, there was a time when people believed that Abner Doubleday invented baseball in
Cooperstown, New York. New research sheds new light on history, overturning it or modifying
it. As a professional, part of your job may entail following the latest developments in research
through consuming various media and attending professional conferences. As Yogi Berra told
us, “It ain’t over ’til it’s over” (Foster, 2015, para. 2). Your history is what you make of it.
Likewise, various philosophies of education will come in and out of favor, and you should
now have some rudimentary tools to make critical assessments of the strengths and weaknesses
of any new or revamped version of older philosophies. Expect new proposals for educational
changes at the federal, state, and local levels, and be ready to voice your opinion as an educated
practitioner.
Moreover, your personal philosophy is likely to change over time. Your experiences in life
and in the workplace may alter some of what you thought you believed. That is entirely normal;
it is part of learning and growing. It is possible that your deepest core values and beliefs will
be challenged, and that can be good or bad. On the other hand, you may always retain parts of
Figure 15.7 How will you be remembered? What will your legacy be?

your philosophy, like your feelings about the best way to share information or the most ethical,
responsible way to solve problems. Change can be intimidating; it can feel like your identity is
on the line.
Evolving humans stay open to new ideas. They ask whether or not how they behave and
what they believe are good behaviors and beliefs. They question themselves, daring to reconsider
things in light of new evidence. They strive to model good behaviors and share good beliefs,
living and practicing their professions in accordance with their conscience and best practices.
They strive to make a difference in the lives of those they touch and in their communities. They
leave behind a legacy of learning and a reputation for honor, fairness, and truth insofar as they
can know it.
SUMMARY
questions.
• Something becomes historic once it has happened. History is continuous, up to the present
moment in time.
• Each of us has a personal history, of which the importance may not be known in this lifetime.
The actions we take and the decisions we make exert an influence on events, institutions,
and other people.
• You should care about local history of physical education and sport because it helps you to
understand your place and the place of others in your community’s history.
• You can learn about local physical education and sport history through online sources,
personal communications such as interviews, archives, books, architectural structures and
their contents, museums, and local history centers.
• You can help preserve local history by becoming more aware of it and sharing it with others.
You can also encourage others to share their history.
• You should write a statement of your philosophy to reflect on your own knowledge, values,
and beliefs, and to be able to communicate those effectively with others.
• There are many ways to write a statement of personal philosophy. One method is offered in
this chapter.
• You should anticipate that history may change as new facts come to light. Similarly,
educational philosophies, including your personal philosophy, may well change over time
throughout your career.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. There is an
activity for writing a personal philosophy given in detail in the chapter. Students may do one or
more of the following to deepen their understanding of local history as covered in this chapter,
or develop similar group or individual projects using the ideas provided in this chapter.
1. Documentation (Visual): Think about the historical photos in this text, which give so much
information about past history. If you have skills as a photographer or videographer, take
photos or videos of current history! In some cases, you may need to get permissions
and/or releases, especially if you include people (particularly children, who need parent/
guardian permission) in your photos. What are the facilities like? What uniforms are worn
by the athletes? What does the equipment look like? If you are considering a career in
physical therapy or athletic training, what sorts of therapies and equipment are currently
used? Create a slideshow in PowerPoint or a folder of images and videos. Is there anyone
locally who would want to add the items to their archives? If permitted, can you upload the
images to online sites such as Wikimedia Commons?
2. Local History Paper (Research): Select a local sports team, dance company, settlement
house, turnverein, sports club, or facility (a roller skating rink, for example) and document
its history. Find out if there are archives or files you can use for research. Are there photos?
Who, what, where, when, and how are questions you should ask, but also ask “why”
questions. Contact your local library/librarians and historical society/docents for help getting
started. Research local newspaper archives online, if available. You might even contact
the owners of the facility or club/team/company management to request interviews and
suggestions for research or other people to contact. Be sure to document your process
and the people with whom you speak, and thank people for their help. Provide the team,
company, or facility with a copy of your final project for their archives. This activity could
lead to a short research article for a school newspaper or a full research paper.
3. Local Sports (Kinesthetic): Do you realize that many locales have a history of their own
particular games and sports? In today’s globalized society, it’s easy to forget that before
colonization, mass media, and the Internet, local versions of games and sports were
common. In Great Britain alone, local rules for football (soccer) made it difficult to create a
league for intercity competition, you may recall. Consider the changes in rugby, which led
to American football, Canadian football, and Australian (Aussie) rules football (footy), for
example. Irish dancer Jo McNamara has preserved and taught games and dances from her
childhood and shared them at New York City’s Irish Arts Center. Bess Lomax Hawes and
Bessie Jones preserved games from the Georgia Sea Islands and southern United States
in their 1987 book, Step It Down. What games and sports, or versions of those, were
historically played in your city or town? If possible, play one of these games or sports. If
your town has a vintage baseball team, can you attend a practice and talk with the players,
maybe even take a turn at bat? How might you find out about local games, sports, and
dances, and how might you be able to experience them?

4. Oral History (Outreach): Is there a local athlete, dancer, coach, teacher, or someone else
important to physical education and sport who interests you? Preserve their history with an
oral history interview. You’ll want to keep the interview focused, so prepare carefully. For
tips on how to prepare, see https://www.aauw.org/resource/oral-history-project/ or a similar
website. To save time and effort transcribing the interview, use a program such as Google Docs:
(https://qz.com/work/1087765/how-to-transcribe-audio-fast-and-for-free-using-google-docs-
voice-typing/). Check the transcription, and give a copy to the interviewee with thanks. Where
else might the interview be archived, with the interviewee’s permission, for posterity?
FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 15.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lew_McAllister,_Newark,_minor_
league_(baseball)_LCCN2014689109.tif.
Fig. 15.2: Copyright © 2009 by John Seb Barber, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Signed_SB_helmet_(3823064048).jpg.
Fig. 15.3: Copyright © 2004 by Stilfehler, (CC BY-SA 1.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Brand_Park_Pool.JPG.
Fig. 15.4: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Action_at_Miami_University_
Varsity-Alumni_football_game_1922_(3190674155).jpg.
Fig. 15.5: Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/identity-mask-disguise-mindset-510866/.
Fig. 15.6: Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/identity-self-self-image-801212/.
Fig. 15.7: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/in-love-thinking-poetry-poet-652485/.
REFERENCES
Hawes, B. L., & Jones, B. (1987). Step it down. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
Foster, J. (2015, September 25). Yogi Berra’s “It ain’t over ’til it’s over” true in baseball as in life.
Sporting News. Retrieved from http://www.sportingnews.com/us/mlb/news/yogi-berra-dies-
quotes-its-not-over-till-its-over-yankees-comebacks-mets-red-sox-braves-indians/13tyjao2
mbhrf1jrgniroq2auz

C H APTER 16
CURRENT ISSUES IN SPORT HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY

• How do the media and the associated
enable you to read the chapter more effectively and commercialization of sport affect the
spectator?
LGBT+: sexual orientation and gender identity abbreviation
referring to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender; • What are some of the issues
“+” refers to an expanded list of identity referents surrounding youth sports?
such as asexual, aromantic, ally, intersexual, pansexual,
polygamous, cisgender (identifying with the gender with • What are some of the problems facing
which one is born), genderfluid, and so on
interscholastic sports?
Golden age of sport: in the 1920s, an appetite for sports
participation, spectatorship, and reading about sports was • What issues are faced by women and
so widespread that later historians dubbed this decade the
minorities in sports and dance?
golden age of sport
• What are some threats to the integrity
Pay-to-play: many school districts are switching to this model
for sports participation, in which students who wish to of sport?
play on a team must pay a fee; the fees may amount to
hundreds of dollars per sport per student • Is violence a normal part of sports?
C-teams: sports teams specifically for first-year high school
students; used in some school districts to supplement
varsity and junior varsity (JV) athletic opportunities
No pass-no play: students who do not meet minimum
standards for academics are not allowed to participate in
competitions
Intersectionality: intersectionality theory explores the ways
in which people are discriminated against due to multiple
sources of oppression based on their identity markers
Therapeutic use exemption (TUE): some drugs or
treatments which are normally considered non-approved
substances by the World Anti-Doping Agency may be used
by athletes if they obtain a TUE

The Steroid Era: from 1993 to 2003, Major League
INTRODUCTION Baseball in the United States did not routinely test
for performance-enhancing drugs, and the use of
This chapter gives readers opportunities to discuss steroids rose during that time
current issues in sports and physical education using the Point shaving: a means of cheating, in which athletes
knowledge gained from the previous chapters on history prevent a team from covering a published point
and philosophy. Topics such as gambling, violence, spread in order to benefit spread bettors
LGBT+ issues, and youth sports dilemmas are presented Bountygate: from 2009–2011, several players of
in brief, with accompanying discussion questions. the New Orleans Saints were paid bonuses for
In-class discussions may follow the reading, or deliberately injuring opposing players
instructors may wish to use the topics as starting points
or inspiration for term-paper assignments, poster
sessions, small group discussions, in-class debates, or
class presentations by students. There are no learning
activities at the end of this chapter, because the chapter
itself is a collection of potential learning activities.
References are included, as they are in the preceding
chapters, to provide students with additional resources
as needed.
Some of the topics are controversial. Some may fall
outside the focus of your course. Some may be new
issues to you, while others have been touched upon in
previous chapters. This is by no means an exhaustive
list of current topics being studied by sports historians
and philosophers. Rather, it provides several backdrops
against which students can work toward integration of
course topics, conceptual knowledge, and facility with the
use of philosophy and history as tools for understanding
and discussing current and future problems.
It is one thing to theorize about the use of tools and
quite another to get them into your hands and begin
hammering, sawing, screwing, and polishing actual
projects. It can be uncomfortable at first, and you may get
a few blisters along the way. It’s hard to grow accustomed
to using new tools. You might think of this part of the
text as a sort of cognitive apprenticeship, guided by your
instructor, who can help coach you as you become more
Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 249

adept at academic discourse and writing. Eventually, your skin toughens up, you learn to wield
the tools as best you can, and you come out of the course with at least a rudimentary toolkit. To
begin, let’s consider the role of media in sports.
MEDIA AND SPORT IN THE UNITED STATES

In Chapter 9, we looked at the case of Richard Kyle Fox, publisher of the National Police Gazette,
and his promotion of John L. Sullivan’s boxing career. In the 1920s, sometimes known as the
golden age of sport, sports broadcasting and writing fed the public’s desire for escapism through
sport. Great athletes assumed larger-than-life personalities in newspapers from coast to coast,
and sports reporters like Ring Lardner and Paul Gallico began their literary careers covering the
boxing rings, golf links, tennis courts, and playing fields of North America.
From the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries, the public appetite for sports figures led to
off-season appearances by athletes on the nationwide vaudeville theater circuits, where people
who couldn’t travel to a major metropolitan city for a baseball game could see Babe Ruth, Christy
Mathewson, Ty Cobb, and many others onstage supplementing their baseball salaries with
vaudeville gigs. Ring Lardner himself wrote some of the comedy skits for these appearances.
Radio broadcasts of sporting events such as boxing matches, football games, and even
speedboat races began in the early 1920s. In the early days of radio, coverage of these events
spurred the sales of radio sets and eventually led to lucrative advertising sales (Mandell, 1984).
When ratings systems were developed to measure the numbers of listeners who tuned in to
sports programming, the results proved that the audience for sports events was sufficient to
justify the expenditure of marketing money to reach potential customers. That trend continued
as television sets were sold throughout the 1950s, expanding the reach of advertisers across the
nation via rapidly expanding networks of stations.
Let’s look at an event that began in the 1960s, when most American homes had acquired
television sets. The NFL and AFL agreed to merge in June 1966 and began planning the AFL-
NFL World Championship Game for early 1967. The founder of the AFL, Lamar Hunt, sent
a memo to NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle, in which he suggested changing the name to
something else. “I have kiddingly called it the Super Bowl, which obviously can be improved
on” (MacCambridge, 2011, para. 2). The name was not used on the programs until 1969 and was
used on tickets beginning in 1970. That first year, 1967, the price of a 30-second commercial was
in the neighborhood of $40,000. By 2017, the price for 30 seconds was $5,000,000. Adjusted for
inflation, total ad spending from 1967–2017 was $6.9 billion dollars ($5.4 billion if not adjusted
for inflation) (Johnson, 2018).
If, as a fan, you wanted to watch that first Super Bowl (we may as well call it that) between the
NFL’s Green Bay Packers (coached by the legendary Vince Lombardi) and the AFL’s Kansas City
Chiefs, the top price for tickets was $12 ($90, adjusted for inflation), with cheap seats going for
just $6. If you wanted to attend Super Bowl LIII (53) on February 3, 2019, you would have had to
pay anywhere from $3,400 for a single seat to over $600,000 (though the upper end would be for
suites and assorted VIP perks) (“How Much Are Super Bowl Tickets?,” 2018).
In other words, if a fan were making the median household income of about $7,000 per
year in 1967, it would have cost them about .09% of their annual salary (before taxes) for a
low-end ticket to attend the Super Bowl. In January 2019, the median income was $63,688, so a
Super Bowl ticket was about 5% of an annual household income. However, for a full-time worker

making federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour, or $15,080 per year, that ticket would equal
about 23% of a worker’s annual income. We must bear in mind that the ticket price does not
include parking, food, souvenirs, travel, and lodging.
The cost of attending a Super Bowl in person is well beyond the means of many fans;
for average Americans, it would be a once-in-a-lifetime event, if it were possible at all. For over
100 million people who watch the Super Bowl annually, at home or in public or private parties,
the event can still be a fun, accessible social event. Television coverage builds the fans’ excitement
with musical performances at halftime and makes this exclusive event akin to an annual national
holiday. Even the commercials are a topic of intense interest, greatly anticipated beforehand, and
talked about sometimes for years afterward.
Figure 16.1 A Patriots fan is interviewed outside after the NFL Super Bowl LII game, Minneapolis,
Minnesota (USA), 2018.
On the intercollegiate side, Division I athletics and television have created an entertainment
behemoth. However, contrary to expectations, that partnership does not usually result in
financial gains for the schools. According to Chudacoff (2015), “In 2013–14, of the 340 or so
college athletics programs in Division I where most opportunities for income lie, fewer than two
dozen had incomes that exceeded expenses” (p. 127). Multimillion-dollar salaries for coaches
(often among the highest-paid state employees) are only one part of the expenditures; marketing,
travel, facilities, equipment, the cost of putting on games, and scholarships all figure into the
budgets, and lucrative television contracts usually cannot offset the expense of major athletic
programs. Half of major football bowl game participants lose money because of expenses related
to participation in bowl games.

The prospect of seeing big-name schools outfitted in brands like Nike, Adidas, and Under
Armour has led those companies to compensate coaches for securing the privilege of product
placement. It has also led to violations of recruitment rules. Two former Adidas employees and
a sports agent were found guilty of wire fraud and conspiracy to commit wire fraud in 2018 after
they arranged for money to be paid to families of prospective male basketball recruits at Adidas-
sponsored schools. The federal wire fraud crime convictions, combined with the exposure of
violation of NCAA amateurism regulations, revealed a nefarious practice of bribery that likely
has existed for years (Tracy, 2018b). Adidas was also involved in a recruiting scandal involving
the University of Louisville (Kentucky) basketball team, in which prostitutes were hired to
entertain prospects and bribes and other corrupt schemes led to player ineligibility, invalidation
of wins for the 2011–2012 and 2014–2015 season, the NCAA’s demand for a refund of $600,000
in tournament payouts, and the ouster of coach Rick Pitino (Tracy, 2018a).
The push to get the best players on winning teams leads some people to risk the integrity
of collegiate sports recruiting. The eligibility and amateur status of players is put at risk. Young
players are sometimes seduced into apparel deals that will carry over into their professional
careers. With so much money on offer, and so many commercial interests in the game, perhaps
corruption at all levels is inevitable under the current system of high-stakes rankings and
tournaments. Are there any benefits to outweigh the risks involved?
Media exposure through sports can lead to increased applications to colleges that have recent
winning seasons, but the effect has not been shown to last over the years. Donations from alumni
and boosters may rise after a bowl game appearance, but a steady correlation between winning
seasons and alumni donations has not been proven scientifically. There is even some evidence
to suggest that the attendance of actual students at football and basketball games is going
down, though crowd attendance is on the rise thanks to marketing and stadium investments
(Chudacoff, 2015).
Therefore, some of the traditional beliefs about the benefits of strong athletic programs—
that they increase applications, donations, and school spirit—actually seem to be in question.
However, this may be a question of degree and to some extent a school’s position in the hierarchy
of intercollegiate sports. Doubtless these benefits exist, to a greater or lesser extent, but the risks
attached to the commercialization of intercollegiate sport should also give administrators reason
to monitor athletic programs closely.
DISCUSS
1. Beyond television: online spectatorship. Many fans now watch sporting events, highlights,
commentary, and classic moments in sports via the Internet. How has this changed the
relationship between the spectator and the athletic performance? Consider also the role of
online forums, social media, and chat rooms in terms of connecting spectators to each other.
How is watching something online different from watching it on television? Many people
now use streaming television services, which can also deliver content to mobile devices: do
you watch sports on your tablet or phone?
2. Follow the money: who should reap the benefits of commercialization of sport? With the
amount of money being spent to provide sports entertainment, does that justify multimillion-
dollar contracts for professional athletes? Should student athletes be able to receive living

allowances for food, housing, and transportation? Where does the money from college and
university footwear and apparel contracts actually go?
3. Risks and benefits: overall, is commercialization a good thing for sports? Considering the
risks to the integrity of sport (especially the pressure to win at all costs, including cheating
and doping), is the commercialization of sports good for athletes, spectators, and/or colleges
and universities?
YOUTH SPORTS
Organized youth sports such as soccer, baseball, softball, football, cross-country running,
lacrosse, and volleyball have become an important part of the sports culture in the United States.
Over the years, travel teams and special sports academies have become more popular as ways to
gain skills and compete against other dedicated young regional athletes. However, in some cases,
(youth soccer, for example), only parents willing and able to spend thousands of dollars per year
on one child’s training are able to take advantage of these advanced opportunities (Carpenter,
2016). The high costs of youth sports participation have, in some cases, resulted in a lack of racial
and economic diversity at all playing levels.
Parents wanting the best possible athletic experience for their children often put pressure on
coaches and referees during games and sometimes resort to fighting with other parents, coaches,
or even players when they are angered by calls or behavior with which they disagree (Hennessy
& Schwartz, 2007). In some cases, parents push their children to specialize in a sport and work
at it year-round, incurring the risk of overuse injury or burnout (Matzkin & Garvey, 2019).
Some parents even go so far as to have children undergo genetic testing to determine which
sports activities and training regimens are best suited to their children. Specialized training
camps and teams offer advanced opportunities in some sports, but parents and coaches need to
investigate the costs and benefits of such programs carefully before committing money to what
may be of minimal practical use for a developing athlete. Most parents are content to see their
children happily engaged in organized sports, but a few adults are consumed by a win-at-all-
costs mentality, and this drive can blind them to the needs of youth in athletic programs.
Among those adults are some coaches who engage in bullying behaviors (yelling at players
or using training as punishment, for example) or emotional manipulation of players (neglecting
players, refusing playing time, and so on). Such coaches may not know any other way of running
a team because they experienced such behaviors when they were young players. Others see the
team’s win/loss record as a reflection on themselves and push their team’s athletes in order to
fulfill their own emotional needs.
Great coaches, however, leave a positive mark in the lives of young athletes. They can be
inspirations that last a lifetime. They sometimes become surrogate parents and trusted sounding
boards for their players, helping them deal with problems on and off the field (Vella, Oades, &
Crowe, 2013). How can we best encourage this type of coach and reduce the number of negative
coaching experiences in youth sports?
The National Alliance for Youth Sports (NAYS), the American Sport Education Program (run
through Human Kinetics), Positive Coaching Alliance, American Coaching Academy, World
Coach Institute, Up2Us Sports, National Council of Youth Sports (NCYS), Team USA, United
States Sports Academy, and other coaching certifications are available for coaches of youth sport.
Whichever certification is pursued, the emphasis should be on fun, safety, positive experiences,

Figure 16.2 Students from Brewster Middle School race after a basketball during a Hoops-N-Dreams
jamboree at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina (USA).
teamwork, best practices, sportsmanship, building social skills, and cooperation. Keeping the
focus on the children and their needs should be a coach’s aim.
For more advanced and in-depth study, sociology and psychology of sport courses in higher
education should be expected of those in a coaching major program. Beyond certifications and
degrees, continuing education about concussion risks and treatment and sports injury prevention
and rehabilitation should be expected of coaches at all levels.
DISCUSS
1. If your philosophy of sport participation emphasizes the needs of youth, what goals would
that lead you to set for a youth sports program? For example, when it comes to motivating
participation, do you believe the experiences of practices and competitions (intrinsic
benefits) outweigh the need for trophies and extrinsic benefits?
2. Under what circumstances might it be necessary, or a good idea, for a young athlete or
dancer to specialize in one sport, one team position, one form of dance, etc.? Consider
the age of the athlete, the sport or dance style, and the demands of the activity. Do some
activities tend to favor younger participants?

3. Should all youth be forced to participate in sports, even if they are not naturally inclined
to do so? Conversely, should all youth have access to sports participation regardless of
economic status, including travel teams and specialized opportunities, if they are interested
and if they show abilities or skills in their sport of choice?
INTERSCHOLASTIC SPORTS
For many years, going back as far as the early 1800s in some places in the United States, sports
have been a part of the high school experience for nearly all students. Even if students didn’t play
any sports, they probably attended pep rallies, played in a band, or attended a game or match.
The expectation was that participation on a team was available to all who qualified through their
skills or interests. While millions of high school students regularly participate in sports through
their schools, that situation is currently changing with school district budget woes, a model
known as pay-to-play, and no pass-no play policies.
In the United States, public school districts are funded by local taxes, and voters can approve
or reject proposed school budgets from year to year. In order to keep costs down, in recent
years schools have cut expenses by eliminating C-teams, which are athletic teams specifically
for first-year high school students. The expense of hiring
qualified coaches for teams is sometimes prohibitive. In the
past, certification as a coach was not considered essential
in many locales; thankfully, the current trend is toward
requiring adequate and ongoing certification through the
National Federation of State High School Associations
(NFHS), the American Sport Education Program (ASEP), or
other coaching certification organizations (Hoch, 2018).
In order to alleviate some of the costs associated with
funding an interscholastic team’s coach(es), uniforms,
conference fees, and travel, some schools have implemented
pay-to-play requirements. Under this system, any student
wishing to play on a sports team must pay, often hundreds
of dollars, to be on the team. In some cases, sports boosters
or district subsidization can provide funding for athletes,
but otherwise, parents must foot the bill. For families with
several siblings in high school at the same time, this can add
up to thousands of dollars per year. One study of Michigan
schools found that approximately 10% of athletes quit sports
participation if $100 was required in pay-to-play fees, and that
percentage doubled when the cost was $200 (Rowe, 2012).
Another issue facing interscholastic sports is no pass-no
play laws, in which a player who falls below a certain standard
academically is barred from participation in sports. Beginning
in Texas in 1984, for example, a student’s failing to maintain Figure 16.3 A student protests a round of funding cuts to
an average of 70 in every class would result in six weeks K–12 schools in Milwaukee, Wisconsin (USA). Sometimes
without practices or competitions. The Texas Supreme Court protests are necessary when funding cuts threaten
upheld the law. A decade later, the Texas law was revised to a athletic programs.

three-week suspension from competition (an athlete could attend practices, however). In 2007,
some advanced placement and honors courses were exempt from the requirement (Hayward,
2014). Such laws are meant to emphasize the importance of academic studies in schools and
to ensure that sports are not distracting a student from their primary purpose for attending a
school. However, opponents argue that for some academically challenged young athletes, sports
are the only thing keeping them in school, and some students will simply disengage from school
entirely if they cannot participate in athletics.
DISCUSS
1. As a matter of public policy (for student health and keeping the incidence of juvenile
delinquency low, for example), should public schools be expected and/or required to
provide athletic opportunities for all students, regardless of socioeconomic status? Why or
why not? At a time when childhood obesity is at epidemic levels, does it make sense to enact
pay-for-play policies?
2. Is there a risk that no pass-no play laws might lead to pressure on teachers to inflate failing
grades, from coaches and/or administrators who want to maintain player eligibility? Do
teachers have an obligation to offer extra credit, extra help, or special consideration to
athletes to help them maintain their eligibility? Philosophically, is it better for the individual
student or for the team to have a partial suspension from competition if it means they might
work harder in their academic classes?
3. When budget cuts are threatened at the school district level, extracurricular activities such
as arts and sports are often considered as “extras” so that they might be eliminated or scaled
back to save money. Are interscholastic sports essential to high schools, or are they a “frill”
that simply cannot always be afforded? If sports are cut in less-wealthy districts, which
demographic groups are most likely to be impacted?
MINORITIES IN SPORTS AND DANCE

While debates concerning the social construct of race continue in academe (Reich, 2018; Requarth,
2019), the notions of race and racism continue to concern people as a matter of global general
public discourse. Social inequality, injustice, and inequity are ongoing topics of discussion in the
political arena, on social media, in houses of worship, and, of course, in the news and entertainment
media. Beyond—or intersecting with—racial identity and cultural tensions, we encounter questions
of classism and socioeconomic status (SES), misogyny, ageism, ableism, sizeism, gender identity,
sexual orientation, and religious differences. Furthermore, accidents of geographical location
influence the way people view each other, from local biases based on neighborhoods, towns, and
rural/urban dwellings to worldwide perceptions of the global North and the global South (or the
East/West divide, or the first world/third world division, etc.). Identity, or the way(s) in which one
views oneself, is important. It is the lens through which most people view the world and others in it.
When conflicts, questions, and problems concerning identity arise in the worlds of sport and
dance, they are usually either because someone or some group is suffering discrimination based
on their identity. Ideally, sport should be a meritocracy. The best athlete wins. However, when
barriers to participation exist, when officials treat minorities unequally through intentional or

unintentional actions, when spectators (or coaches or other players) judge athletes based on their
minority identities, and when violence occurs based on identity, we cannot pretend that such an
ideal meritocracy exists. Nor can we pretend it does not have wider ramifications for public health.
In 2011, the US Department of Health and Human Services declared that “characteristics such
as race or ethnicity, religion, SES (socioeconomic status), gender, age, mental health, disability,
sexual orientation or gender identity, geographic location, or other characteristics historically
linked to exclusion or discrimination are known to influence health status” (Bowleg, 2012, p.
1267). In the case of health and physical culture, the intersectionality of identities logically
compounds the effects of prejudice and indicates that the problem of discrimination can have
additional detrimental effects on health (Dagkas, 2016). Beyond a question of the fairness (or
unfairness) of discrimination, the economic impact of prejudice against minorities hurts society
as a whole because health care costs, lost income, lost productivity, and lost tax dollars impact
everyone. That includes people who do not participate in discriminatory activities and who are
not themselves victims of discrimination.
In the previous chapters dealing with sport in the United States, we have seen how racism
and gender discrimination in horseracing, bicycling, and baseball have influenced the history of
those sports and recreational activities. Here is a list of just a few other circumstances in which
discrimination has limited opportunities:
• The Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta, Georgia, did not admit female members until
2012 and did not hold an Augusta National Women’s Amateur Championship until 2019.
Although Lee Elder broke the race barrier at Augusta’s male championship tournament in
1975, black members were not admitted until 1991. All caddies at that club had to be black
until 1983. Charles Sifford, who was the first black athlete on the PGA tour after the demise
of the Caucasian-only clause (in effect between 1934 and 1961), was harassed and received
death threats for playing professional golf.
• Similarly, when black driver Wendell Scott won a 1963
NASCAR race in Jacksonville, Florida, officials apparently
feared the crowd’s reaction and announced white driver Buck
Baker as the winner. After the crowds were gone, the officials
announced that Scott had actually won (Hembree, 2018; Zirin,
2008). In 2004, NASCAR started a Diversity Initiative (Drive
for Diversity) to encourage minority drivers (like Darrell
“Bubba” Wallace Jr.), support staff, and pit crews.
• In 1947 (when Jackie Robinson became the first African
American Major League Baseball player), Wat Misaka became
the first Asian American to play professional basketball. In
2019, Jeremy Lin was the only Asian American in the National
Basketball Association and had encountered racism in overt
and subtle forms.
• In 1967, Kathrine Switzer became the first woman to run the
Boston Marathon. At the time, race officials did not believe
women were capable of running long distances, so she entered
the race as “K. V. Switzer.” She was literally chased and grabbed
during the race by an official who tried to rip her bib number, Figure 16.4 Jackie Robinson (1919–1972): athlete,
261, from her body (Dator, 2017). civil rights activist, veteran.

• Male dancers often face bullying, homophobia, and assumptions about their sexual
orientation. There are sometimes pressures to perform with stereotypical maleness, and
parents in the United States will often discourage males from enrolling in dance classes
(Polasek & Roper, 2011; Richardson, 2018). Wildly popular televised dance competitions
have alleviated the biases somewhat, but some dance forms (square dance, country line
dance, hip hop, and tap, for example) still seem to be more acceptable for males than
ballet and modern dance. The presence of Quinton Peron and Napoleon Jinnies, the first
male cheerleaders dancing in a Super Bowl (2019) on the Los Angeles Rams’ squad, was a
breakthrough in a sport milieu that emphasizes masculinity and had denied professional
opportunities to the first openly gay NFL draft pick, Michael Sam, in 2015.
• Among young LGBT athletes, 80 to 82% are not “out” to their coaches, and many transgender
and non-binary athletes do not feel safe in their locker rooms. While 68% of American
youth play sports, only 24% of LGBT+ youth do so. The LGBT+ who play sports report
feeling safer in their classrooms, however, and have lower rates of feelings of worthlessness
and depression, reinforcing the need for inclusivity in sports (Johnson, Miranda, & Lee,
2018). Around the world, many countries will not support LGBT+ athletes for international
competitions such as the Olympics.
• Transgender and intersex athletes face difficulties at all levels of sport because the system of
sports competitions is based on a binary (male or female) model. Only in the Gay Games, held
every four years since their creation by Dr. Tom Waddell in 1982, are nontraditional gender
identity athletes welcome to compete on their own terms. The International Association of
Athletics Federations (IAAF) ruled in 2019 that South African runner Caster Semenya could
not compete as a woman unless she underwent medically induced testosterone reduction,
even though she was born with naturally high testosterone levels (Burke, 2019). Chris
Mosier, a transgender duathlete, has had to fight for the right to compete in international
competitions as a man despite not having undergone gender reassignment surgery. He works
with the You Can Play Project and TransAthlete.com, and previously served as Executive
Director of Go! Athletes, all of which support the unique needs of LGBTQIA athletes.
• Religious barriers to participation in sport and dance can include issues with scheduling
games, practices, and performances during the Jewish and Seventh Day Adventist Sabbath,
the necessity for covering body parts under the Mormon and Muslim faiths, restrictions
on female dancing and athletic participation in some Muslim countries, and even threats
or incidents of violence based on religion. During the 1972 Munich Olympic Games, a
Palestinian group known as Black September held 11 Israeli athletes as hostages and killed
them in an extreme example of political/religious terrorism. On a more positive note, Jewish
athletes have competed in the Maccabiah Games since 1932, and since 1953, there are also
Pan Arab Games.
DISCUSS
1. While sports teams in the NFL, NBA, and MLB in the United States are racially integrated,
other sports such as MLS (Major League Soccer) and the NHL are less so. Additionally,
team owners, managers, and head coaches tend to be male Caucasians. Why is this so? Is the
situation changing?

2. What could be done about game, performance, or tournament scheduling which conflicts
with religious observance? Must an athlete or dancer choose between his/her religion and
sports or dance competition or performance? Does the scheduling of major competitive
events during periods of religious observance present inherent biases against the
advancement opportunities of religious minorities?
3. Should athletes be forced to conform to gender stereotypes in their uniforms or athletic
apparel? For example, should female tennis players and field hockey players have to wear
skirts? Would a man be allowed to wear a tennis skirt? Should males competing in Scottish
games have to wear kilts? What kinds of gender conformity are regulated in the sports
world? Who gets to decide what is acceptable?
THREATS TO THE INTEGRITY OF SPORT

Beginning in 2015, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which monitors the use of
performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) and illegal substances in competitions, placed a ban on
athletes of the Russian Athletic Federation (RUSAF) for having used PEDs. The IAAF has since
allowed some individual athletes to compete if they have proven themselves to be competing
“clean,” but suspicions concerning the Russian government’s role in the doping scandal and
interference with that country’s testing laboratory protocols continue to shadow its elite athletes.
One question that arose is whether that country’s athletes were told that they were being subjected
to performance-enhancing substances.
In international competitions, the use of anabolic steroids and glucocorticoids, human
growth hormone (hGH) and peptide hormones, erythropoietin (EPO, also known as blood
doping), amphetamines, tetrahydrogestinone, beta blockers, diuretics, narcotics, cannabinoids,
testosterone, and androstenedione are among the most common non-approved substances.
Additionally, human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) is banned for men, though its use for
women who are infertile is allowed. That would be an example of a therapeutic use exemption,
or TUE. Other TUEs may be obtained for relief of asthma, which sometimes requires the use of
steroids, and the use of stimulants for control of ADD/ADHD. Infusions and injections, gene
doping, and even the use of some dietary supplements can put athletes (and support staff) at risk
for sanction, suspension, disqualification, fines, and revocation of awards.
It would appear that performance enhancement using banned substances is taken seriously.
In the United States, the controversy over PEDs has been especially prevalent in Major League
Baseball, where the time from 1993 through 2003 was known as the Steroid Era in the MLB.
One study showed a significant increase in the number of players who hit more than 40 home
runs during this era (Erickson, Yanke, Monson, & Romeo, 2015). The spectators loved the
sluggers pounding home runs, the players loved the stats they could achieve if they use PEDs,
and the media expressed concern over the situation while appreciating the entertainment value
and potential advertising dollars that resulted from exciting games and home run races. In
2007, US senator George Mitchell released the Mitchell Report on the use of PEDs in MLB, a
comprehensive study of this threat to the integrity of America’s national pastime. Major League
Baseball now has a system in effect using progressive discipline involving inpatient treatment,
then fines and suspensions, and eventually possible lifetime bans from baseball.
In reality, enforcement cannot entirely compete with the demands of elite sport. Many athletes
from a variety of sports have come to believe that they cannot compete at the professional level if

they do not use PEDs. One example, cyclist Lance Armstrong, was stripped of his Tour de France
titles for the use of blood doping, EPO, hGH, and diuretics. His usage of these methods escaped
detection for years.
Some chemical stimulants are less harmful than others. Hockey players have often used a
whiff of smelling salts to increase their level of alertness before they take the ice. At the other
extreme, professional wrestlers have long struggled with the side effects of anabolic steroid use,
condoned by Vince McMahon in the early 1990s and exposed by the Signature Pharmacy scandal
of 2007. Steroid (“roid rage”) questions still surround the suicide of wrestler Chris Benoit, who
killed his wife and son before hanging himself (Harris, 2017).
Figure 16.5 Cyclist Lance Armstrong (b. 1971) was stripped of seven Tour de France titles for his use of illegal
performance-enhancing drugs.
Among the threats to the integrity of sport we must also include biased judges or referees
(Ansorge & Scheer, 1988), cheating (Cady, 1971; Mather, 2015), and gambling. Along with
gambling, there is a strong incentive to attempt to “fix” matches and games or to have players
engage in point shaving (preventing a team from covering a published point spread, to benefit
spread bettors). Although the Interstate Wire Act of 1961 prohibits betting across state lines
(enacted to reduce the incidence of organized crime betting), a sport-specific law against sports
gambling in most states known as the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992
(PASPA) was effectively nullified in 2018. That year, the US Supreme Court, in Murphy v. National
Collegiate Athletic Association, 138 S. Ct. 1461 (2018), ruled that individual states may regulate
sports wagering. Under the Tenth Amendment to the US Constitution, any rights not explicitly

allotted to the federal government are given to the people, or the states, and this amendment was
the basis for overturning PASPA.
The risk to the integrity of sport by cheating is matched by the risk to people placing bets.
In the majority opinion written by Justice Samuel Alito, he recognized the vacillating attitudes
of Americans toward gambling and noted the risks posed especially to young sports enthusiasts
by sports betting (Murphy v. National Collegiate Athletic Association, 584 U.S. (2018)). Financial
losses are always a gambling risk, but the risk of addiction to gambling is also a major concern
because a small percentage of gamblers will become problem or pathological gamblers. As of
2019, about a dozen US states allowed sports betting, and dozens more were poised to adopt
legalized sports wagers in the wake of Murphy v. NCAA. Whether this court decision will lead to
an increase in betting scandals and gambling addiction remains to be seen.
DISCUSS
1. Is it fair to require athletes to undergo drug testing? If more and more athletes are using
methods of performance enhancement, is it reasonable to expect athletes to comply with
anti-doping regulations when doing so puts them at a competitive disadvantage? Where do
athletes get PEDs? Do coaches, athletic trainers, and managers have a responsibility to stop
doping, or are they more likely to encourage it (or look the other way) if the athletes are
winning (as well as possibly earning championship bonuses and/or helping them keep their
jobs)? Will cheating via PEDs ever stop?
2. Most athletes have witnessed, experienced, or committed acts of cheating in sport. Is it just
part of the game? Is it fine as long as the cheater is not caught? Is it OK to bend the rules if
the goal of winning is met?
3. Gambling can become a serious addiction, and Gamblers Anonymous exists to help those
caught in its grip. On Wednesday, November 8, 1989, former National League baseball slugger
Pete Rose admitted to a gambling addiction (Hasen, 1989). In his 2004 autobiography, My
Prison Without Bars, he confessed to having bet on baseball games, and in 2007 he revealed
that he had, in fact, bet on his own team, the Cincinnati Reds, every night while he managed
the team. As a result of his gambling problem, Rose has been denied induction into the
Reds’ or the national Baseball Hall of Fame, where he would surely have been inducted after
1991 were he not banned. He is not allowed to participate in most on-field activities, so the
Reds have not retired his number (14) (“Rose Admits to Betting,” 2007). Do you believe
Rose should be inducted into the Reds’ and/or the Baseball Hall of Fame? If yes, should it be
during his lifetime?
VIOLENCE IN SPORTS
George Orwell (author of Animal Farm (1945) and Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949)) once opined,
“At the international level sport is frankly mimic warfare. … Serious sport has nothing to do
with fair play. It is bound up with hatred, jealousy, boastfulness, disregard of all rules and sadistic
pleasure in witnessing violence: in other words it is war minus the shooting” (1945, para. 4,
6). Researchers have found that sports aggressiveness increases spectators’ (particularly male
spectators’) enjoyment of watching sports, and that when sportscasters highlight roughness,

hostility, and animosity between athletes and teams, the spectators enjoy the events even more
(Bryant, Zillmann, & Raney, 1998; Russell, 1986).
Of course, violence in sport is nothing new. Some sports are or were violent by their nature:
to a degree, we could reference the gladiators of Roman times or the boxers, mixed martial
artists (MMA), and ultimate fighting championship (UFC) athletes of today. You should recall
that the NCAA was founded in response to issues of violence and deaths on United States
collegiate football fields. Impromptu brawls are part of the excitement of baseball, hockey,
Australian rules football, rugby, soccer, and other team sports.
Figure 16.6 Fighting became so prevalent in hockey that comedian Rodney Dangerfield joked, “I went to the fights the other
night and a hockey game broke out.” The NHL has taken measures to reduce the incidents of fighting in games.
Coaches have been known to encourage or ignore violence against the players of opposing
teams or even officials. From 2009–2011, some New Orleans Saints football team players took
part in Bountygate, in which they were paid bonuses for deliberately injuring opponents (“Saints
Bounty Scandal,” 2013). In 2015, two football players from John Jay High School in San Antonio,
Texas, were told by their coach to attack a referee; they did so, and were expelled from the team
and suspended from school. Their coach resigned, was suspended from all coaching for a year,
and served probation (Green, 2015). What do actions like this teach youth about sports?
Boxer Mike Tyson bit off the ear of Evander Holyfield in a 1997 fight, only a couple years after
he had served a prison sentence for the rape of Desiree Washington, a beauty pageant contestant.
While men commit most of the violence in sport, women are not immune to its lure and its

dangers. Figure skater Nancy Kerrigan was the victim of a conspiracy led by her rival, Tonya
Harding, which led to an attack on Kerrigan at the 1994 National Championships.
Other athletes have attacked fans, as when three Indiana Pacers attacked fans in 2004. On
September 13 of that same year, Texas Rangers pitcher Frank Francisco broke a woman’s nose
when he threw a folding chair at Oakland spectators for heckling the Rangers’ bullpen (Gems,
Borish, & Pfister, 2017; Rosynsky, 2016). Francisco was charged with felony battery but spent 30
days in jail after pleading down to misdemeanor assault (Lee, 2007). Baseball great Ty Cobb had
a reputation as a violent individual who allegedly sharpened his spikes to threaten infield players
when he was sliding, slept with a gun, and fought with teammates and fans. Many accounts of
his nature have been exaggerated, but enough remain to confirm his tendencies (Gustkey, 1985).
Teammates sometimes engage in violent bullying or hazing behaviors among themselves,
and coaches have been known to attack with chairs or balls or bare hands; Indiana coach Bobby
Knight was famous for his outbursts. In the NBA, Latrell Sprewell of the Warriors put a choke
hold on his coach, P. J. Carlesimo, during practice when the coach was particularly hard on him
and said he was not passing sharply enough (Dowd, 2017). Sexual aggression, inappropriate
or forcible touching, and statutory rape of young athletes have been reported by members of
the US Gymnastics organization, Penn State football and the Second Mile program, Ohio State
wrestlers, and many more.
Sports and recreational pastimes involving violence between or against animals is also
common, as in cockfights, dog fights, buzkashi (a traditional version of polo in Afghanistan,
using goat carcasses), and so on. Something in certain sports speaks to a psychological desire or
need within people to experience violence vicariously.
Sometimes, that need carries over into spectator fighting, as when soccer hooligans or
(possibly) drunken baseball or football fans become enraged enough to start throwing anything
from punches to snowballs (Polidoro, 2000). Baseball fans have been known to attack coaches
and umpires. It can happen at a Little League or other youth sporting event among parents, and
it can happen when teams riot in celebration of victories (Kiefer, 2019). We have also seen the
tragic results of violent terrorism at athletic events, in the Centennial Olympic Park bombing of
1996 in Atlanta, Georgia, and the Boston Marathon bombing of 2013, for example.
Off the playing field, violence continues with domestic abuse charges, manslaughter, assault,
and murder committed by athletes, coaches, and managers. When violent scandals hit the news,
fans are frequently shocked. It would seem that whatever aggressions are being funneled into
competitive sports are not always easily controlled. The responses of the regulating bodies of
sport are sometimes mystifying as well, when light punishments are given to attackers. For
example, NFL commissioner Roger Goodell has received criticism from people at the highest
levels in NFL clubs as well as from women’s rights groups, who complain that the NFL does
not discipline players strongly enough when they are found to have committed domestic abuse
(Pelissero, 2015).
Whether violent athletes are seen as heroes or condemned as criminals, the study of the
history, sociology, psychology, legality, and morality of violence in and around sports is a
fascinating exploration of a darker side of humanity (Goldstein, 1983). Do athletes and spectators,
in fact, sublimate urges toward aggression by channeling them into sporting experiences where
violence is potentially part of the performance and spectacle of competition? Does steroid abuse
impact the choices and behavior of abusers, leading to more violence? Is violence an inherent
part of the drama of sport? Obviously, not all sports, athletes, and spectators commit or enjoy
acts of violence on or off the field. However, the evidence suggests that while Orwell may have

exaggerated in terms of the nefarious nature of sport, there was a kernel of truth in his belief that
there is an element of the most violent of human undertakings—warfare—in some sports and
some athletes. For better or worse, if we ignore its existence or excuse individual instances of
it, we deny something that seems to connect us, through sport, to our primal prehistoric
survival skills.
DISCUSS
1. International soccer striker Luis Suarez has explained that he bites opponents when the
adrenaline, fear of failure, sense of responsibility for winning, and pent-up frustration he
feels during some games cannot be controlled (Tomarchio, 2014). He has been working to
be able to control his feelings, accepting blame and seeking help to change his behavior.
His biting led to his being suspended from play in at least three instances between 2010
and 2014, with his famous 2014 World Cup bite of Italy’s Giorgio Chiellini resulting in a
nine-game ban from international play and a four-month ban on soccer activities—one of
the longest bans in sports history. Players who inflict other types of injuries are not subjected
to bans of that length, even if the damage they do to other players is more severe or has more
lasting repercussions. He was allowed to finish the Uruguay/Italy World Cup Game in 2014
with no punishment from the referees after he bit Chiellini. Should he have been sidelined
immediately? Were his other punishments too harsh? Do players have a moral responsibility
to the public to live up to the highest standards of sportsmanship? Who is responsible for
ensuring the safety of other players?
2. The evidence shows that reported incidents of violence related to sport most often involve
men. However, the statistics are changing. One study by Kerr (2016) found that women
enjoyed the violence of team sports such as rugby and ice hockey. In some cases, female
athletes reported anger violence, loss of control, and a willingness to break rules and
use violence against opponents. One clinical sport psychologist who specializes in anger
management in sports has noted the recent rise of violence in women’s sports and believes it
is an indication of a wider societal toleration of violence (Abrams, 2010). What do you think?
Are male, female, non-binary, and/or gender nonconforming people more likely to engage
in violent sports (where violence is part of the game) or unacceptable violent behavior? If it
is a question of testosterone, are female athletes with high testosterone levels more likely to
engage in unsanctioned violent behavior? Can violence have a positive, empowering effect
on the psyches of female athletes, or should it be discouraged in all instances?
3. As of 2019, the NFL had paid out millions of dollars (of a one-billion-dollar settlement) in
claims related to players’ concussions that led to brain damage (Dale, 2019). High school
football teams, even in the football-loving state of Texas, are seeing declining numbers,
due in large part to concerns about brain trauma and other injuries (Lehren, Monahan,
Friedman, & Enright, 2018). The sport of football has a long history of violence, injuries,
and even deaths: don’t players know about the risks before they start playing? If they don’t
realize the risks when they are young, are they aware of the risks before they sign collegiate
and professional contracts to play? What changes have been implemented in training to
help reduce the incidence of head injuries? Who provides insurance for athletes, from youth
players through the professional level, to cover expenses related to injuries incurred during
practices or competitions? Did the NFL disclose the risks of repeated head hits, even after

creating a committee to deal with the issue in 1994? Does a player’s agreement to play, at any
level, imply they are willing to risk injury during games and practices?
SUMMARY
questions.
• The traditional media of newspapers, magazines, radio, and television controlled how the
spectator received information about sporting events, but online media allow the spectator
to control the experience of sports using interactive controls and give more choices of events
to spectators. The associated commercialization of sport has, in various ways, caused the
cost of in-person attendance at professional sporting events to rise, sometimes becoming
prohibitive to ordinary fans.
• Some of the issues surrounding youth sports include access, parental and coaching behaviors,
pressure to win, and specialization.
• Some of the problems facing interscholastic sports include budget cuts leading to cutting of
teams, pay-to-play requirements, and no pass-no play policies.
• Some issues facing women and minorities in sports and dance are discrimination, misogyny,
homophobia, religious observance restrictions, and unclear or unfair policies regarding
transgender, intersex, or other non-binary athletes.
• Some threats to the integrity of sport are doping, cheating, unfair officiating or judging, and
gambling.
• Violence is, in some cases, a normal part of sports. However, in cases of sexual abuse, extreme
violence on and off the playing field, animal fighting, and spectator violence, the behavior
goes beyond normal parameters.
FIGURE CREDITS
Fig. 16.1: Copyright © 2018 by Lorie Shaull, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:A_Patriots_fan_is_interviewed_outside_after_Super_Bowl_LII,_Minneapolis_MN_
(39220732655).jpg.
Fig. 16.2: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Basketball_gateway_to_youth_
mentoring_program_130222-M-ZB219-139.jpg.
Fig. 16.3: Copyright © 2018 by Charles Edward Miller, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Milwaukee_Public_School_Teachers_and_Supporters_
Picket_Outside_Milwaukee_Public_Schools_Adminstration_Building_Milwaukee_
Wisconsin_4-24-18_1164_(39925468070).jpg.
Fig. 16.4: Copyright © 2018 by Osbrun, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Jackie_Robinson_batejant.jpg.
Fig. 16.5: Copyright © 2002 by Hase, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Lance_Armstrong_MidiLibre_2002.jpg.

Fig. 16.6: Copyright © 2009 by ArtBrom, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Fight_in_ice_hockey_2009.JPG.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Nancy Kane teaches kinesiology at the State University

of New York, College at Cortland, U.S.A. She is a past
president of the National Dance Association, formerly a
national organization under the umbrella of the American
Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance (now SHAPE America). She is Editor-in-Chief of
the peer-reviewed National Dance Society Journal and
has taught dance, stage combat, movement analysis, and
theater classes for more than 30 years while simultaneously
maintaining a career as a professional educator, dancer,
musical theater performer, actor, author, lecturer, theatrical
director and choreographer.
Her background in the history and philosophy
Copyright © by Prisloe Photogra-
of physical education and sport includes years as a phy. Reprinted with permission.
competitive athlete and advanced studies in history and
philosophy at the University of Colorado at Boulder, the Laban Centre for Movement
& Dance (now Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance) in London, England,
and New York University, where she was a Teaching Fellow while pursuing her PhD.
She holds advanced degrees in both dance and exercise science, and through her
international research, she seeks connections between history, philosophy, performing
arts, and comprehensive physical activity. She is a member of the International Society
for the History of Physical Education and Sport, the International Association for the
Philosophy of Sport, the Stage Directors and Choreographers Society, and the National
Dance Society. She is vice president of the Lloyd Shaw Foundation for the preservation,
restoration, and teaching of folk dance and music.
269
INDEX
A American Turf Register and Bancroft, George, 110

abductive reasoning. See also Sporting Magazine, 131 Bancroft Posture Test, 150
logical reasoning Anderson, William G., 117, 122 barbells, 115
acrobatics, 30, 35, 36, 53, 54 anthropometrics, 109, 115 baseball, 111, 218
Adams, John, 84, 85, 86 Arbeau, Thoinot. See also Basedow, Johann Bernhardt, 91,
aesthetic perspective, 216, 219 Tabourot, Jehan 92, 151
aesthetics, 216, 218 archeobotany. See basketball, 120, 227, 257
affective domain, 2, 8, 191 also paleoethnobotany baton twirling, 158
Africa. See also African archery, 18, 27, 50, 53 Battle Creek Sanitarium. See
African stick fighting. See archival sources, 2, 5 also the "San"
also kalenda/calinda, N'golo aretē, 8, 26, 32, 41 Battle of the Systems, 7, 122
African-American, 131, 134, 137 Aristotle, 29, 191 beanbags, 109, 119
agoge, 24, 29 Armstrong, Lance, 260 Beck, Charles. See also (Karl)
agōn, 26, 225, 228 asanas, 46, 52 Beecher, Catharine, 109, 117, 119,
Agon Capitolinus, 39 Asia, 47, 51 130
agricultural fair competitions, 131 Association for Intercollegiate Belgium, 96, 175
Alexander the Great, 51 Athletics for Women (AIAW), Belmont Report, The, 211
Alfonsus, Petrus, 64 163 Berk, Fred, 180
All-American Girls Professional Association for the Advance- Berra, Yogi, 225, 234, 243
Baseball League (AAGPBL), ment of Physical Education Best, David, 1
139 (AAPE), 122 bicycling. See also cycling
amateur, 134, 135, 136, 137 Athens, 24, 28, 30, 31 Big Ten. See also Intercollegiate
Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), athlios, 24, 26 Conference of Faculty
128, 137, 158 atlatl, 16, 17 Representatives
Amateur Sports Act, 158, 164 Australia, 17, 25, 54 billiards, 69, 135, 136
American Academy of Physical Austria, 92, 176, 177 bioarchaeology, 14, 16, 19
Education (AAPE), 156 axiology, 202, 204 Bishop, Emily, 116
American Alliance for Health, Aztec, 49, 81 Bloom's taxonomy, 8, 191
Physical Education, Blue Laws. See also Sabbath-Day
Recreation, and Dance (AAH- B Laws
PERD), 156 ball games, ancient Roman, 25, 36, bo-taoshi, 55, 183
American Association for Leisure 40, 41 boating. See also rowing, sailing
and Recreation (AALR), 156 follis, 37 body building, 109, 120
American Association for Physi- handball, 37, 100 body dysmorphic disorder (BDD),
cal Activity and Recreation harpastum, 37 173, 175
(AAPAR), 156 hop-ball, 37 Bohemia, 96
American Century, The, 148, 149 paganica, 37 Book of Sports. See also The King's
American Sport Education Pro- trigon, 37 Declaration of Sport
gram, 253, 255 balneae, 36 boom, 92, 99
271
Boston Marathon, 165, 257 Cogswell, Joseph Green, 110 country line, 258
Boston Normal Gymnastics colonialism, 78, 173, 174 courtly, 64, 85
School, 115 Colosseum, 25, 39, 40 courtship, 20, 84
Bountygate, 249, 262 commercialism. See also commer- created, 83, 94, 98, 109
Bowen, Anthony, 120 cial sponsorship Dionysian (tyrbasia), 33
bowling. See also bowls, ninepins commercialization, 141, 248, 252 folk, 34, 179, 180
boxing, 27, 28, 32 Committee on Women's Athletics funeral, 28, 34, 181
Boy Scouts of America, 121 (CWA), 143 galop, 103
Brazil, 165, 177 common schools movement, 109, gumboot, 131
British public school, 90, 91, 154 122 hambone, 131
British public school ideal, 92, 100 competition manipulation, 172, hunting, 61, 65, 80, 132
British sports model, 90, 154 175 Israeli folk, 180, 184
Buddhism, 51, 52, 207 concept mapping, 173, 183 Kathak, 131, 182
bull-vaulting. See also bull-leaping, Confucianism, 207 Lancers, 103
course landaise bull-leaping, Confucius, 51, 212 ländler, 103
course landaise consequentialism, 203 malambo, 131
Burchenal, Elizabeth. See Constantinople, 59, 73, 102 mazurka, 103
also American Folk Dance corps de ballet, 90, 92 minuet, 78, 85
Society Coubertin, Pierre de, 157, 175, 217 Morris, 59, 67, 68
bushido, 202, 208 Counter-reformation, 58, 71, 73 peasant, 60
buzkashi, 55, 263 Country Dance & Song Society percussive, 128, 131
Byzantium, 58, 59 (CDSS), 183 popular, 41, 105, 112, 115, 218,
Crete, 27, 28, 54 253, 258
cricket, 100, 135 quadrille, 92, 103
C
cult, 38, 60 ritual, xiv, 19, 224
C-teams, 248, 255
cultural appropriation, 173, 182 round, 19, 34
Caledonian games, 128, 132, 144
cultural imperialism, 173, 182 sacred, 179
calisthenics, 96, 109, 117, 118, 119
Cultural Olympiad, 217, 218 Salii, 26, 41
Camp Fire Girls, 121
Curtis, Henry, 155 Schuhplattler, 131
campidoctores, 25, 36
Czech, 91, 96 social, 136, 142, 148, 152
camping, 94, 111, 156
square, 167, 180
Campus Martius, 37 D stepping, 34, 131
capoeira, 134 dakyu, 46, 51 tap, 131, 132, 179
Caroso, Fabritio, 67 dance. See also dancing, dancers Tibetan step dance, 131
Carroll, Douglas, 15, 17, 21 dance ethnology, 15. See waltz, 91, 92, 103
carryover sports. See also lifetime also dance anthropology zapateado, 131
sports Dance of Death, 5 dancesport, 179
Cassidy, Rosalind, 151 dance, ancient Greek Danish gymnastics. See
Castiglione, Baldassare, 66 clashers, 34 also Nachtegall, Franz
categorical imperative, 202, 209 Emméleia, 34 Darwin. See also Darwinism
chariot racing, 30, 35, 53, 59 Gymnopaidiai, 33, 34 Day's Order, 99, 114
Charles II, 59, 70 Hyporchémata, 34 Deaflympics, 151, 165
Chautauqua, 117 paian, 34 deductive reasoning, 2, 6, 15
chi-kung, 46, 52 Pyrrhic (Pyrrhichē), 34 Delsarte, François. See
childbirth. See also motherhood dance, forms, 11, 131 also Delsartism
children, 7, 16, 136, 152, 164 ballet, 71, 172, 181 Delsartism. See also applied
China, 9, 51, 207 ballroom, 103, 179 aesthetics
chivalry, 58, 64 bugaku, 180 Denmark, 97, 98
Circus Maximus, 25, 39, 40 character, 90, 92 deontological reasoning, 202
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 150, 162, classical, 180, 181, 182 Descartes, René, 71, 191
166 classic ceremonial ritual, 173, descriptive historical research, 2
clean athletes, 173, 175 180 descriptive reasoning, 2, 6
clergy, 58, 62, 63, 82 clogging, 131 de Sousa Santos, Boaventura, 172,
climbing poles, 112 comic (komos), 33 173
coach. See also coaches contradance (longways dance), Dewey, John, 151, 156
cockfighting, 36, 65, 83, 133 78, 85 disability. See also disabilities
cognitive domain, 2 cotillion, 92, 103

discus, 28, 30, 261 Follen, Charles. See also (Karl) Greek ideal, 24, 26
diversium, 58, 59 football (soccer), 245 Gulick, Luther H., 121, 151, 155
divertissements, 90, 92 football, 6, 132, 141 GutsMuths, Johann, 104
diving. See also dive Football Association, 101, 140, 176 Guttmann, Ludwig, 164
Division I, 158 Forty-Eighters, 108, 113 Gyekye, Kwame, 208, 212
docents, 232, 245 Fowle, William, 112 gymnasium, 24, 205
doping, 175, 259 fox hunts. See also fox hunting gymnastics, 35, 39, 53, 151
dualism, 190 Fox, Richard Kyle, 138
duel. See also Mensur Franklin, Benjamin, 84 H
dumb-bells, 37, 119, 122 free agency, 150, 160 halteres, 32, 38
Duncan, Isadora, 33 frontiersmen, 84 Hanna, Delphine. See also Oberlin
Fugner, Henry, 96 College
E harness racing. See also trotting
Ebreo, Guglielmo, 67 G Hartwell, Edward M., 115
Education for All Handicapped Galen, 38 Harvard, 110, 112, 116
Children Act of 1975, The, 164 gambling, 78, 81 Harvard Summer School for Physi-
education of the physical, 149, 152 game(s) cal Education, 116
education through the physical, 87, ascolia, 35 health-based physical education, 2
148, 151 ball, 35, 38 Hemenway Gymnasium, 115
Émile. See also Treatise on billiards, 137 Herodikos, 24, 28
Education board, 27, 30 Herzl, Theodor, 102
en travestie, 91, 92 borsa, 35 Hetherington, Clark, 152, 156
Enebuske, Claës J., 105 Caledonian, 132 higher education, xiii, 116, 150,
England, 59, 61, 67, 134 chess, 53, 63, 136 152, 235
Enlightenment, 71, 84, 191 croquet/pall-mall, 59, 67 hiking, 111, 193
ephebia, 30 dice, 27, 30, 69 Hippocrates, 24, 28, 38
ephemera, 219, 232, 236 double-ball, 78, 81 hippodrome, 59
epistemology, 7, 189 funeral, 28, 34 Hitchcock, Edward, 115, 116
ethics, 202, 203 Gay, 248, 258 Holocene epoch, 18
ethnicity. See also ethnicities hoop, 30, 36 Homer, 28, 86
Etruscan, 25, 35 Indigenous, 16, 177 horizontal bar, 7
Europe, 63, 66, 175, 180 knattleikr, 60 horseback riding. See also riding
exercise, 85 knucklebone, 27 Hughes, Thomas, 90, 100
existentialism, 195, 196 kottobas/cottabos, 35 humanism, 202, 208
experimentalism, 188, 194 Maccabiah, 258 Hungary, 90, 96
external critical review, 2 Olympic, 31, 228, 263 hunting, 62, 102, 111
Phersu, 35 Husserl, Edmund, 197
F skittles, 78, 83 hydropathy, 128, 135
falcons. See also falconry Troy, 35 hygiene, 38, 114, 116
Fédération Internationale de Foot- tug-of-war, 54
ball Association (FIFA), 176 lapka, 58, 60
feis. See also fleadh, oirachtas khazza lawizza, 46, 54 I
ice hockey, 111, 140, 264
female. See also females quoits, 83, 85, 133
ice-skating, 7, 65, 85
female athlete triad, 173, 175 Scottish, 132, 133
idealism, 190
fencing, 66, 69, 93 Gay Games, 258
imitative magic, 14, 17
fertility, 20, 40, 81 gender equity, 148
immigrants. See also
festivals, religious, 39, 60 gender identity. See also gender
immigration
feudalism, 58, 63 German gymnastics, 7, 92, 151,
implications approach, 189, 198
Feuillet, Raoul-Auger, 71 193, 195
inclusion, 150, 164
field days, 142 gladiator, 26, 40
Indian clubs, 115, 119
field hockey, 32, 46, 81 global North, the, 172, 173
Indigenous Games, 177
fighting, 20, 133 global South, the, 172, 173, 182
indigenous peoples. See also First
fishing, 61, 81, 83 Golden Age of Sports, 130
Nations peoples
FitnessGram®, 8, 9, 11, 149, 153 golf, 67, 139, 142, 156
indigenous sports, 174, 177
Fitzstephen, William, 65 grand march (dance), 103
individualized education plan
fives. See also handball Great Britain. See also England
(IEP), 150, 164
folk dance, 180 Greece, ancient, 218
INDEX 273
individualized transition plan Japan. See also Japanese
(ITP), 150, 164 javelin, 36 M
Individuals with Disabilities Edu- Jefferson, Thomas, 84 Maccabiah Games, 258
cation Act (IDEA) of 1990, 167 Jewish sports clubs, 102. See Major League Baseball (MLB), 160
inductive reasoning, 7 also Maccabi, Bar Kochba Major League Soccer (MLS), 160
instrumentalism, 188, 194 jockey, 138 Manifest Destiny, 108, 109
integrity of sport, 259 joust, 58, 63, 64 Mann, Horace, 109, 122
intention, 216 jump rope, 158 marching, 29, 36
intentional fallacy, 216, 223 jumping, 84, 85, 181 martial arts, 52, 56, 163
intercollegiate, 141 jumping stands, 112 massage, 106, 109
internal critical review, 3, 5 McCloy, Charles, 149
International Association for Dance McCloy, Charles. See
K also McCloy Test of Pres-
Medicine and Science, 179
kabbadi, 183 ent Health; See also General
International Association for the
Kadman, Gurit, 180 Motor Capacity Test; See
Philosophy of Sport (IAPS),
kalokagathia, 24, 26, 32 also General Motor Ability
190
kalon, 202, 205 Test
International Association of Ath-
Kant, Immanuel, 209 McKenzie, R. Tait, 218
letics Federations (IAAF), 258
Kellogg, John Harvey, 135 media, 245, 248
International Association of Blacks
Keynes, John Maynard, 155 Mesoamerican ball game, 46, 49
in Dance, 179
kickball, 81, 224 metaphysics, 188, 209, 214
International Conference of Min-
Kierkegaard, Søren, 195 Middle Ages, 60, 64, 65. See
isters and Senior Officials
kinesiology, 2, 198 also medieval
Responsible for Physical Edu-
king's forest, 61 Middle East, 206
cation and Sport, 177, 186
kisha, 46, 51 military, 30, 41, 45
International Council for Health,
knighthood, 58. See military drills, 94
Physical Education, Rec-
also knights-errant militia training days, 82
reation, Sport, and Dance
Korea, 207 Mill, John Stuart, 203, 209, 210
(ICHPERD SD), 175, 183
Kraus-Weber Minimum Test, 11 Minoan, 27, 56
International Council of Sports
kung-fu, 52 minorities, 177, 248
Science and Physical Educa-
tion (ICSSPE), 175, 183 Mitchell Report, The, 259
International Dance Council, 183. L monism, 59, 65
See also (Conseil International lacrosse, 58. See also kabucha, monitorial educational system, 95
de la Dance (CID) toli, anetsó, hótti icósi, morality, 212. See also moral
International Dance Entrepreneurs bagataway moral reasoning, 202, 209
Association, 179 ladders, 91, 112 Morgan, William G., 110, 121
International Olympic Committee, Lardner, Ring, 250 Mosier, Chris, 258
157, 172, 183 Lascaux cave paintings, 21 motor development, 164
Interregnum, 70. See also Oliver leisure, 149, 154 Moulton, Charles, 229
Cromwell leisure society, the, 155 muscular Christianity, 90, 151
intersectionality, 149, 155 leisure studies, 148 Muscular Judaism, 92, 102. See
Interstate Wire Act of 1961, 260 Lewis, Diocletian, 109 also Muskeljudentum
intramural sports, 142 LGBTQ, 267. See also LGBT+ musculoskeletal stress markers
Irish-American sports, 81 light gymnastics, 109 (MSMs), 16
Gaelic football, 132 Ling, Hjalmar, 105, 114. See music, 30
hurling, 132 also Day's Order Mycenaean, 28. See also Aechaean
rifle drilling, 132 Ling, Per Henrik, 98, 109
lists, 131, 144 N
Iron Age, 22 Nachtegall, Franz, 97
Iroquois, 80 Lloyd Shaw Foundation, 5, 179, 269
Naismith, James, 120
Islamic ethics, 206 Locke, John, 60, 71
Nash, Jay, 156
Italy, 63, 67, 90 Louis XIV, 70, 71
National Alliance for Youth Sports
Lully, Jean-Baptiste, 70
(NAYS), 253
Luther, Martin, 68
J Luxembourg, 96 National Association for Girls and
Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, 94, 110 Women in Sport (NAGWS),
Lyon, Mary, 117. See also Mount
James I, 59. See also James VI of 164
Holyoke College
Scotland

National Association for Sport and op-ed piece, 232, 238 Professional and Amateur Sports
Physical Education (NASPE), oral history, 3, 246 Protection Act of 1992
88 orchesis, 33 (PASPA), 260
National Association of Base Ball Ordnungsübungen, 91, 97. See progressive era, the, 148
Players, 136, 139 also Spiess, Adolf progressive overload, 148
National Basketball Association, osteoarchaeology, 14, 16 Protestantism, 4
140, 257 outdoor education, 166, 168 Protestant Reformation, 68
National Collegiate Athletic Asso- psychohistory, 3, 4
ciation (NCAA), 260, 267 P psychomotor domain, 3
National Dance Society, 179, 269 paidonomos, 29 Puritans, 83
National Federation of State High paidotribe, 24, 30
School Associations (NFHS), palaestra, 24, 30
paleopathology, 14, 18 Q
255
Quaker, 78, 83
National Folk Organization, 179, pall-mall, 59, 67. See also croquet
Quality Physical Education, 179
183 Pan Arab Games, 258
quintain, 58, 65
National Football League (NFL), pankration, 29. See
160 also pancratium R
national governing body (NGB), paradigm, 3, 4 racism, 137, 256
149 parallel bars, 7, 91 radio, 265
National Hockey League (NHL), Paralympics, 150, 158 rationalism, 90, 91
140, 160 pay-to-play, 255 realism, 191
nationalism, 91, 95 pedestrianism, 137 recreation, 201
National Recreation and Park Pennsylvania, 84 recruiting, 252
Association (NRPA), 121 pentathlon, 25, 32 Rehabilitation Act of 1973, The,
National Women's Soccer League performance-enhancing drugs 164, 166
(NWSL), 161 (PEDs), 259 religion, 58. See also religious, faith
natural gymnastics, 148, 151 Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, 110 remains, 5. See also relics
naturalism, 188, 192 phenomenology, 189, 196, 197 Renaissance, 66. See also Early
Negro American League, 139 Philanthropinum, 91, 92, 93 Modern Period
Negro National League, 139 Philippines, The, 180 Restoration, 59, 70
Netherlands, The, 62, 96 phrenologist, 109, 118 riding, horseback, 80, 137
New Physical Education, The, 148, physical culture, 27, 35 Riefenstahl, Leni, 229. See
191. See also modern physical physical education, 36, 43 also Olympia (film)
education physical fitness, 12 rings, 175
New York, 151, 171 physiology, 118 Robinson, Jackie, 139, 257
New York City Marathon, 165 Pistorius, Oscar, 165 roller-skate, 139. See
New York City Public Schools Ath- Plato, 199 also roller-skating
letic League, 121 play, 145 Roman Catholic Church, 4, 205
Nietzche, Friedrich, 195 play days, 142 Roman Empire, 25, 37, 38
Nissen, Hartvig, 115 Playford, John, 70 Romania, 96
no pass-no play, 255 Playground Association of Amer- Rome, ancient, 35
nobility, 69 ica (PAA), 155 ropes, 95
non-consequentialism, 202, 213 playground movement, 110, 121 Rose, Pete, 261
non-western, 46, 206 Pleistocene Era, 21 Rothe, Johan, 64
Nordau, Max, 102. See also Süd- point shaving, 249, 260 Round Hill School, 108, 110
feld, Max polo, 136 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 72, 192
normal school, 148, 150 positionality, 172, 174 rugby, 100, 262
North America, 78, 170 Posse, Nils, 115 running, 253, 257. See
North Carolina, 254 pragmatism, 194 also footracing
prehistoric, 14, 22 Rush, Dr. Benjamin, 84, 85
O primary source, 3, 5, 87 Russia, 92
Olmsted, Frederick Law, 122 prize fighting, 146. See also prize-
Olympia film, 229 fighting, bare-knuckle S
Olympics, 229. See also Olympic fighting Sacred Dance Guild, 179
Games Pro-am, 150, 159 Salzmann, Christian, 91, 93
Olympism, 172, 174 professional, 157 Sanders, Deion, 160
ontology, 216, 221
INDEX 275
Sanity Code, 167 also golf; See also gymnas- Symbolic Hunt Theory, 15, 17
Sargent, Dudley, 115, 123 tics; See also handball; symbolism in sport, 60. See
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 196 See also harness racing; also magic in sport
Schnepfenthal Institute, 91, 93 See also horse racing; See synthesis, 3, 5
scholarship, 3, 208 also ice hockey; See also ice-
Scottish Games, 144 skating; See also integrity
T
scutage, 58, 63 of; See also intercollegiate;
tableaux mouvants, 109, 116. See
Seccombe, Joseph, 82 See also interscholastic; See
also tableaux vivants
secondary source, 3, 5, 15 also intramural; See also Irish-
Taoism, 207. See also Taoist
semi-professional(s), 150 American; See also javelin; See
Tarahumara, 81, 88. See
sepak takraw, 51, 55, 183. See also Jewish; See also karate;
also Rarámuri
also sepak raga See also kickball; See
Teaching Games for Understand-
settlement houses, 108, 109, 119 also lacrosse; See also lifetime;
ing (TGfU), 149, 154
Shaolin Monastery, 52, 207 See also martial arts; See
telegraphic meet, 128, 142
shinny, 78 also pentathlon; See also polo;
teleological reasoning, 203
shooting, 82 See also prizefighting; See
television, 251, 252
Shriver, Eunice Kennedy, 151, 165 also professional; See also pur-
temperance, 90, 91
Shrovetide, 100 posive; See also rugby; See
tennis, 158. See also jeu de paume
shukiku, 46, 51. See also kemari also running; See also soccer;
therapeutic use exemption (TUE),
Simon, Johann Friedrich, 93 See also swimming; See
248
skill-based physical education, 3 also symbolism or magic in;
thermae, 37
skittles, 78, 83 See also tennis; See also track
Thorpe, James (Jim), 157
slaves, 133. See also slavery and field; See also trampoline;
three-prong test, 162
Society of Health and Physical See also trespass; See also var-
tip (square dance), 167
Educators (SHAPE America), sity; See also volleyball; See
Title IX, 150, 161
9, 12 also walking; See also wres-
13 program areas, the, 150, 162
socioeconomic status (SES), 256. tling; See also youth
Tom Brown's School Days, 100
See also socioeconomic strata, Sport Education Model (SEM),
tournament, 63. See also melee
socioeconomic standing 149. See also Sport Education
track and field, 136
softball, 139 curriculum and instructional
trampoline, 158
Sokol gymnastics, 91, 97 model
transgender, 248, 258
South America, 46 sporting fraternity, the, 137. See
trespass sport, 83
South Carolina, 83, 136 also "the fancy"
tsu-chu, 51
Spain, 90 sport, purposive, 216, 222
Turkish baths, 60
Sparta, 28 sprezzatura, 59, 66
turners, 91, 94, 95
special needs, 148 squire, 58, 64
turnfest, 95, 96
Special Olympics, 151 stade, 25, 32
turnplatz, 94, 95
speculative reasoning, 3, 7 stall bars, 92, 99
turnvater, 91, 95. See also Jahn,
Spiess, Adolph, 91, 97. See statement of personal philosophy,
Friedrich
also (Adolf) 232, 240
turnverein, 91, 94, 96
sport, 2. See also amateur; See Steroid Era, the, 249, 259
Tyrš, Miroslav, 96
also archery; See also base- steroids, 267
tyzkanion, 60, 73
ball; See also basketball; See stoicism, 205
also bicycling; See also body Stone Age, 16, 19. See
building; See also bowl- also paleolithic U
ing; See also boxing; See Strutt, Joseph, 110. See also The U. S. Department of Health and
also carryover; See also cup Sports and Pastimes of the Human Services, 257
stacking; See also danc- People of England U. S. Olympic Committee, 158
esport; See also discus; See Suarez, Luis, 264, 268 U. S. Soccer, 169
also diving; See also falconry; Super Bowl, 159, 160, 251 U. S. Women's Soccer Team, 169
See also fencing; See also field Supreme Court, 260 United Nations Education,
hockey; See also fishing; Sweden, 22, 98 Scientific and Cultural Orga-
See also fives; See also foot- Swedish gymnastics, 90, 99 nization (UNESCO), 176, 183
ball; See also footracing; Swedish movement cure, 99, 109 usekh, 46, 54
See also fox hunting; See swimming, 111, 112, 236 utilitarianism, 203
also Golden Age of; See Switzerland, 96, 107

Williams, George, 92, 102
V Williams, Jesse, 132, 151, 156 X
Valentine, Thomas, 120 women, 137, 139, 142 X Games, 165
varsity, 239, 248 Women's National Basketball
vaulting bars, 112 Association (WNBA), 140
Vergerio, 66 Y
Women's Professional Soccer Yale, 116, 141
Victorian, 90, 137 League (WPSL), 161 YMCA. See also YWCA
Victorian era, 102, 137 women's rational recreation, YMCA Training School, 120
violence, 257, 261 102–103, 103 YMHA. See also YWHA
visualization, 14, 17 women's reform societies, 102 yoga, 46, 52
volleyball. See also mintonette women's suffrage, 90, 130 Youth Olympic Games (YOG),
von Fellenberg, Philipp Emanuel, Wood, Thomas, 148, 151 172, 175
110 work bees, 78, 82 youth sports, 194, 227, 253
work-sport, 128, 130, 131
W World Anti-Doping Agency Z
walking, 36, 112, 193 (WADA), 259 Zaharias, Mildred "Babe" Didrik-
wands, 109, 119 World Cup (soccer), 176, 226 son, 139, 161
West Africa, 180 World Health Organization Zander, Gustav, 115
western, 47 (WHO), 178, 183 Zeno of Citium, 205
Willard, Emma. See also Troy wrestling, 18, 28, 39, 50 Zwingli, Huldrych, 69
Female Seminary wrestling, professional, 227
INDEX 277

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History and Philosophy of

Physical Education and Sport

Physical Education and Sport

Cover Image: Copyright © 2016 iStockphoto LP/sorbetto.

Printed in the United States of America.

3970 Sorrento Valley Blvd., Ste. 500, San Diego, CA 92121

Chapter 1. Why Study History and Philosophy in

Chapter 2. The Dawn of Sport 14

Chapter 3. Physical Education and Sport in Ancient

Chapter 4. Early Non-Western Physical Education and Sport 46

Chapter 5. After Rome Fell: Physical Activity and Sport

Chapter 6. Indigenous Peoples, Colonialism, Expansion,

Chapter 7. Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 90

Chapter 8. 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 108

Chapter 10. Physical Education and Sport in the 20th

Chapter 12. Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 188

Chapter 13. Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 202

Chapter 14. Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport

Chapter 15. My History, My Philosophy 232

Chapter 16. Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 248

ABOUT THE AUTHOR 269

xiv HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS

Affective domain: emotional and subjective experiences education and sport?

2 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 3

1. Where are we now?

RESEARCHING HISTORY: SOURCES AND METHODS

4 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

KNOWING WHAT GUIDES OUR CHOICES: PHILOSOPHY

Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 5

meta-theoretical consideration of relevant theories

6 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 7

As you will learn in subsequent chapters, the combination of psychomotor, cognitive,

known as FitnessGram® for assessment and

communication with students and parents about

each individual’s strengths and weaknesses in:

8 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

BECOMING A PROFESSIONAL: WHAT DOES THIS DO FOR ME?

Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 9

10 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

1. Bloom’s Taxonomy Visualized (Visual): Using Bloom’s Taxonomy, categorize the

Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 11

12 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS

14 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

The Dawn of Sport 15

16 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

SPORTS AND HUNTER-GATHERER SOCIETIES

The Dawn of Sport 17

18 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

SPORTS AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SELF-EXPRESSION

The Dawn of Sport 19

20 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

4. Museum Visit (Outreach): If there is a museum of natural history or ancient cultures

The Dawn of Sport 21

Chapter 1. Why Study History and Philosophy in

Chapter 2. The Dawn of Sport 14

Chapter 3. Physical Education and Sport in Ancient

Chapter 4. Early Non-Western Physical Education and Sport 46

Chapter 5. After Rome Fell: Physical Activity and Sport

Chapter 6. Indigenous Peoples, Colonialism, Expansion,

Chapter 7. Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 90

Chapter 8. 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 108

Chapter 10. Physical Education and Sport in the 20th

Chapter 12. Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 188

Chapter 13. Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 202

Chapter 14. Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport

Chapter 15. My History, My Philosophy 232

Chapter 16. Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 248

ABOUT THE AUTHOR 269