Clarification of Research Design, Research Methods, and Research Methodology: A Guide For Public Administration Researchers and Practitioners
Clarification of Research Design, Research Methods, and Research Methodology: A Guide For Public Administration Researchers and Practitioners
Clarification of Research Design, Research Methods, and Research Methodology: A Guide For Public Administration Researchers and Practitioners
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Raed Jaradat
Industrial and Systems Engineering Department, Mississippi State University, Mississippi, USA
Abstract
Research design is a critical topic that is central to research studies in science, social
science, and many other disciplines. After identifying the research topic and for-
mulating questions, selecting the appropriate design is perhaps the most important
decision a researcher makes. Currently, there is a plethora of literature presenting
multiple approaches to the formulation of research design. Although the existence of
multiple approaches is a powerful source in the development of a research design, new
public administration (PA) researchers and students may see it as a source of confusion
because there is a lack of clarity in the literature about the approaches to research
design, research methods, and research methodology in the social sciences. The
purpose of this research paper is to lessen the confusion over research design and offer
a better understanding of these approaches. The comparison analysis obtained in this
research can provide guidance for PA researchers, students and practitioners when
considering the research design most appropriate for their study. To achieve the
research purpose, a comparison analysis was conducted to study the differences in
research design perspectives and approaches. Three dominant works related to
Corresponding author:
Sawsan Abutabenjeh, Department of Political Science and Public Administration Office, Mississippi State
University, 105 Bowen Hall, MS 39762, USA.
Email: sawsan.abutabenjeh@msstate.edu; Telephone: 001-662-325-1469
238 Teaching Public Administration 36(3)
research design, by Earl R. Babbie, Elizabethann O’Sullivan et al., and John W. Creswell,
were selected as representative of the wide array of approaches in the PA literature. In
identifying similarities and differences across the scholars’ approaches, the analysis
includes: (a) definitions of and steps in research design, and (b) the perspectives on
research methods and research methodology. The analysis showed that research design
approaches are convergent and divergent and that it is necessary for PA researchers and
students to be knowledgeable about the various research design approaches before
selecting a specific design for their research. An example scenario was provided to show
the impact of different perspectives on research design in the PA literature.
Keywords
Research design, research methods, comparative study, research guide, methodological
confusions, public procurement, value of certification
Introduction
Scholars emphasize the importance of conducting research in the field of public
administration (PA) (Denhardt, 2001; Brewer, Douglas, Facer et al., 1999; Mosher,
1956, 1975) in order to build on current knowledge and theory related to PA (Lieb-
man,1963), to help understand governmental institutions’ work (Wright, Manigault and
Black, 2004), to guide PA practitioners and professionals, to inform the decision-making
process (Streib, Slotkin and Rivera, 2001; Wright et al., 2004), and to help current
students and emerging scholars to acquire knowledge by filling the current research gaps
and develop new lines of research (Aguado, 2009; Anderson and Harsell, 2005; Engbers
2016; Fitzpatrick, 2000).
To prepare current students and emerging scholars to conduct research, schools that
offer PA and public policy degrees offer research methods as core courses (Engbers,
2016; Fenwick, 1992; Roeder and Whitaker, 1993; US News and World Report, 2016).
While taking these classes, students learn how to conduct research, learn about the
research process, and get trained to produce an empirical work in the form of a project,
paper, thesis or dissertation, or manuscript. One of the important steps in conducting
research is to design the research. A research design is a blueprint to guide the research
process by laying out how a study will move from the research purpose/questions to the
outcomes. It is a comprehensive planning process used to collect and analyze data in
order to increase the understanding of a given topic. At a general level, the research
process consists of three primary stages: posing a question for examination, collecting
data to answer the question, and presenting an answer to the question. Although the
general research process is broadly similar across disciplines, this research will focus on
the research design and methods in the PA field.
A discussion among a group of PA doctoral students regarding the concept of research
design provided the impetus for writing this paper. They raised several key questions
concerning how they might proceed with respect to research design in PA, including:
(a) which definition should they adopt with respect to research design, (b) which
Abutabenjeh and Jaradat 239
approach to research design is most appropriate for their research, and (c) what are the
common themes among the current PA approaches to research design. From the stu-
dents’ perspective, the sheer amount of information about research design found in
textbooks, journal articles, and assorted guides was overwhelming. The contribution of
this research is to condense and simplify that information so there is less ambiguity
surrounding the variety of approaches used to describe research design in PA. If new
researchers cannot understand the different approaches to research design, then the
probability of constructing an inappropriate design is high. Our exploration of research
design is based on our premise that along with formulating research questions, selecting
the research design is one of the most critical aspects of the research process.
In the review of PA literature, we found that scholars have extensively evaluated
many articles published in prominent journals in an effort to study how researchers used
research design and method in their work (Forrester and Watson 1994; Houston and
Delevan 1990, 1994; McCurdy and Cleary, 1984; Stallings and Ferris, 1988; Wright,
Manigault and Black 2004). Other scholars have studied the quality of dissertation
research and its effect on the development of PA (Adams and White 1994; Brewer et al.
1998; Cleary 1992, 2000; Stallings, 1986; White, 1986). Another trend found in the
literature is related to data collection processes. Several scholars have evaluated the
methods of study and corresponding data collection and measurement methods for
articles and dissertations published in PA (Engbers, 2016; Gunn, 2017; Wright et al.,
2004). For instance, Engbers (2016) discussed that, given the rising importance of “data
driven decision-making,” it is necessary to place a greater emphasis on the best practices
for teaching PA research methods. Additionally, Gunn emphasized that teaching
research methods is in a stage of regeneration, and a broad range of social science
disciplines can learn from each other by recognizing useful applications from a wide
range of studies (Gunn, 2017).
Although many scholars point out the importance of research design, one theme
emerging in the literature is focused on the importance of providing clarification
regarding the ambiguity of the concept itself. Forrest (2017) asserted that there is con-
fusion about what social science research methods are. Furthermore, Perry and Kraemer
(1986), who adopted Kaplan’s definition of research methodologies to review and
evaluate articles related to research methodologies in management from 1975 to 1984,
stated that “we need to clarify some definitional ambiguities. What, precisely, do we
mean by research methodology?” (Perry and Kraemer 1986: 215). There certainly
appears to be room to provide some clarity for understanding the different approaches
and their implications for research design.
Several perspectives provide a good foundation for exploring differences and simi-
larities in various approaches to the question of research design. Each of the different
approaches has been successful and will be successful in the future to guide research
design. However, none of the approaches exists as the ‘definitive’ work concerning
research design. The authors of this research are not focused on criticizing these research
design perspectives. On the contrary, examination of similarities, differences, and issues
in the different perspectives is instructive. This examination, which could alleviate the
confusion surrounding research design, attempts to help PA researchers gain a better
240 Teaching Public Administration 36(3)
understanding of the possible design options so that they can gain confidence in con-
structing a “rigorous” research design appropriate to answer their research questions. To
achieve this objective, we compared different research design approaches and devel-
opment and examined their applications in the PA field. The following question is
addressed in the research: are the different approaches to research design in the PA
literature sufficiently divergent such that they represent completely different approaches
to the construction of an appropriate research design? To address this question, a
comparison analysis was conducted based on the work of three noted scholars in the area
of research design: Earl R. Babbie (2009), Elizabethann O’Sullivan et al., (2007) and
John W. Creswell (2008). These authors’ cited works and textbooks are considered
prominent contributions to research in the social sciences.
The rationale for selecting these three scholars is presented below, followed by an
overview of the three approaches to research design and a discussion of the divergence and
convergence in research design. The comparison analysis includes the definitions and steps
of research design as well as the perspectives on research methods and methodology
proposed by the selected scholars. Finally, a summary of the three approaches and a
discussion of the implications from this exploration of research design is presented.
presentation of the authors’ perspectives and approach to research design but have instead
presented the authors’ approaches that provide the essence of their work while providing
sufficient detail to support a contrast between the approaches.
the area/topic by reviewing the previous public procurement literature. After that, the
researcher must define the purpose and the focus of the project and what kind of study
she will undertake – for example, explanatory, descriptive, or exploratory research.
According to Babbie (2004), the researcher’s purpose of undertaking research can be
expressed in the form of a report. For example, if the issue of interest is to gain insight
into how public procurement officials perceive the value of professional certifications in
public procurement, the researcher needs to prepare a report that outlines the kind of
study, the purpose of the study, and the related public procurement literature to identify
the themes and gaps in the current body of public procurement.
Conceptualization
Once the PA researcher has a well-defined purpose and a clear description of the kinds
of anticipated outcomes, the researcher can proceed to the next step in designing the
study, conceptualization. Conceptualization is a process through which the researcher
specifies what she means when she uses particular terms in the research. With regards
to the public procurement example, the researcher must define the exact meaning of
public procurement and professional certifications and produce an agreed-upon
meaning for each specific concept or process in the public procurement area for the
purpose of the research.
Operationalization
Having specified the concepts to be used and the research method to be employed, the
next stage is operationalization. Operationalization is the development of specific
research procedures or operations that will result in empirical observations representing
the concepts in the real world. Part of this process is deciding how the desired data will
be collected: direct observation, review of official documents, questionnaire, or some
other technique. If the PA researcher decides to use survey research as a main research
method, then she has to be consistent with the data collection process. In our example,
data should be collected or obtained from procurement professional organizations
such as The Institute of Public Procurement (NIGP), National Association of State
Abutabenjeh and Jaradat 243
addition to the general meaning, O’Sullivan et al. (2007) stated that the specific meaning
of research design refers to both the type of study or design, which involves when and
how often to collect the data as well as how much control the researcher will have over
the research factors.
The following six research methodology steps were proposed by O’Sullivan et al.
(2007) to guide the researcher in her collection and analysis of the data: (a) decide when
and how often to collect data; (b) develop or select measures for each variable for which
data is collected; (c) identify a sample or test population; (d) choose a strategy for
contacting subjects; (e) plan the data analysis; and (f) present the findings (Figure 2).
O’Sullivan et al. (2007) identified two primary categories of research designs: designs
for description and designs for explanation.
Philosophical
Worldviews
Research Strategies
Methods of Inquiry
Philosophical worldviews
Philosophical worldviews are paradigms that provide information about why researchers
choose a specific research design. Creswell (2008: 3) “sees worldviews as a general
246 Teaching Public Administration 36(3)
philosophical orientation about the world and the nature of research that a researcher
brings to a study.” So, researchers’ beliefs lead to their embracing a qualitative, quan-
titative, or mixed methods approach in their research. Creswell discussed the following
four worldviews. First the postpositivist worldview represents the traditional form of
research and is sometimes called the scientific method. Postpositivists tend to prefer
quantitative research more often than qualitative research. Postpositivists hold a
deterministic philosophy in which cause–effect relationships are anticipated, such as
those found in experiments. Second, the social constructivist worldview is typically
found in approaches based on qualitative research. Social constructivists rely on the
participants’ views of the situation being studied. They take into consideration peo-
ples’ life and work experiences to be able to understand the background of the parti-
cipants. Third, the advocacy and participatory worldview is found in qualitative
research, but it could also be consistent with quantitative research. Participatory
researchers study important social issues and may allow the participants to engage as
active collaborators in their research. In addition, a participatory worldview holds
that research inquiry needs to appreciate politics and a political agenda. Finally, the
pragmatist worldview arises out of actions, situations, and consequences rather than
prior conditions. In this view, instead of focusing on methods, researchers focus on
research problems and use all approaches that meet their needs and purposes. Prag-
matists apply mixed methods research and form quantitative and qualitative assump-
tions when they engage in their research.
used should be consistent with the research questions and hypothesis of the public
procurement study example.
Research methods
Research methods consist of three elements: (a) the forms of data collection; (b) analysis;
and (c) interpretation that the researchers propose for their studies. The researcher may
use quantitative methods like close-ended questions or numeric data in data collection
and use statistical analysis and interpretation methods to get the overall results. Alter-
natively, a researcher may use qualitative methods like open-ended questions or inter-
views to collect data, and use text and image analysis or themes and patterns
interpretation to get the overall results. Finally, researchers may also mix different
methods to collect, analyze, and interpret data to get their results.
The philosophical worldviews, the strategies of inquiry, and the research methods
together contribute to a research design that tends to be quantitative, qualitative, or
mixed method (Figure 3). According to Creswell (2008), there are different scenarios
that can explain how the three elements make a specific research design. For example,
quantitative design may involve post-positivists worldview, experimental strategy of
inquiry, and pre- and post-test measure of attitudes; or qualitative design may involve
participatory worldview, narrative design, and open-ended interviewing; or mixed
method design may involve pragmatic worldview, and collection of both quantitative
and qualitative data sequentially. Finally, adding to the three factors above, selecting one
design over another depends on the purpose of the study, the researcher’s personal
experiences and the research’s audience. In the public procurement scenario, if the
research hypothesis is to test whether professional certification impacts the job perfor-
mance of public officials, then a pre- and post-test design is needed.
agreement on what constitutes research design. The following example provides evi-
dence of the convergent state in defining research design. “Research design is a plan that
involves a set of decisions regarding what topic is to be studied among which population
with which research methods for what purpose” (Babbie, 2004: 112), “research designs
are described as blueprints for the final research product” (O’Sullivan, Rassel and
Berner, 2007: 26), and “research design is a plan to conduct research” (Creswell, 2008:
5). Using any of this terminology to define research design for the public procurement
scenario or any other PA research area would be appropriate, and the researcher should
not be concerned about which definition to use for the research design.
A convergence was also found in the three authors’ discussions of the factors that
affect design selection. All of them emphasized the importance of having a well-defined
purpose for the research, adequate resources, and a researcher with the skills to solve
problems. While Creswell (2008) talked explicitly about the influence of philosophical
worldviews in choosing research designs, the other two authors were less straightforward
about the influence of philosophical assumptions although they did not say anything that
contradicts Creswell.
Despite the consistency found in the terminology used to define research design, we
found that there is a divergence in the approaches each author proposed in delineating the
design process. This divergence ranges from the usage of terms to a detailed discussion of
the various stages of the design process, ranging from data collection to analyzing the
results of the study. We also found that there are subtle but substantive differences in the
stages each scholar prescribed in constructing the research design. Follow-up discussion
with a group of new PA doctoral students regarding the concept of research design, we
found that their main confusion is related to the different design process steps discussed in
the literature. For example, Babbie’s research design involved nine steps (as illustrated in
the previous section); O’Sullivan et al. focused on the steps related to data collection and
emphasized the importance of “when, how, what, from whom, and how to analyze data”
(O’Sullivan, Rassel and Berner, 2007: 26) and Creswell offered a general framework of
research design focusing primarily on “the intersection of philosophical worldviews,
strategies of inquiry, and specific methods” (Creswell, 2008: 5). To help the new students
and other PA researchers and professionals, Table 1 shows the common themes in the
definitions and the disparity in the approaches proposed by the three scholars.
Within the public procurement scenario, the PA researcher has to decide which
approach to follow when it comes to the design process. If Babbie’s approach is used,
then the PA researcher has to follow the nine steps discussed above. However, the PA
researcher can still use Creswell’s terminology of research design to conduct the pro-
fessional certification in public procurement research.
Research Design Research design is a plan Research design is a plan Research design is a plan Can use any of the terminology
Concept discussed by the three authors
to define their research design
(convergent perspective)
Factors that affect The purpose of the study The purpose of the study The purpose of the Can use any of the factors
selecting a specific Resources available to Resources available to the study discussed by the three
design the researcher researcher Resources available authors. However, using
Researcher’s abilities and Researcher’s abilities and to the researcher Creswell’s approach,
skills skills Researcher’s researchers need to focus
abilities and skills more on explaining the
The research’s influence of philosophical
audience worldviews on choosing their
Philosophical research designs. (somewhat
worldviews convergent perspective)
Strategies of inquiry
Research methods
What does research Research design involves all the Research design involves steps Research design involves: Has to select which design
design involve? steps of the project: related to data collection: Philosophical process to choose since they
Defining the purpose of When and how often to worldviews are different among the three
the project. collect data Strategies of inquiry scholars. There is no best
Conceptualization What data to gather Research methods approach. To avoid confusion,
Choice of research From whom practitioners need to
methods How to collect data understand that each approach
Operationalization How to analyze data has different steps. (divergent
Population and sampling perspective). Design process is
Observations a main source of confusion
Data processing mentioned by the group of
Analysis new PA doctoral students.
Application
249
PA ¼ Public administration.
250 Teaching Public Administration 36(3)
has an appropriate way to collect empirical data. For example, in the public pro-
curement scenario, if the PA researcher chooses a survey to collect empirical data to
study the value of certification in public procurement, then she could email ques-
tionnaires to the members of NIGP or arrange to have a team of interviewers
conduct the survey by phone. Creswell’s perspective on research methods involves
data collection, analysis and interpretation. Although Babbie expanded his definition
of research methods to cover the research techniques and appropriate ways to collect
data, Creswell’s definition of research method covered just the appropriate way to
collect data. There is an obvious difference in their concepts as far as the definition
of research methods is concerned.
O’Sullivan et al. (2007) did not provide their own definition of research methods (see
Table 2); however, their definition of the types of studies or designs are similar to
Babbie’s definition of research methods and Creswell’s definition of strategies of
inquiry. O’Sullivan et al. (2007) referred to the specific meaning of research design as
the type of study or design which involves when and how often the researcher collects
the data and how much control the researcher will have over the research factors such as
cross-sectional study, case study, and experiments study (Figure 4).
Regarding research methodology, Babbie and Creswell did not offer definitions;
however, O’Sullivan et al. explicitly defined research methodology as the steps
researchers use to collect and analyze data. The steps involve: (a) deciding when and
how often to collect data; (b) developing or selecting measures for each variable;
(c) identifying a sample or test population; (d) choosing a strategy for contacting sub-
jects; (e) planning the data analysis; and (f) presenting the findings. Thus, O’Sullivan
et al. differ from the other two authors. Since Babbie and Creswell did not use the term
research methodology, similarities or differences cannot be determined, but it can be said
that O’Sullivan was more comprehensive in development. Overall, the results from
analyzing the similarities and differences in the definitions regarding research methods
and research methodology are inconclusive. However, the collection of perspectives is
insightful in informing a more robust perspective of research for PA practitioners and
researchers contemplating research design questions. To lessen the confusion with
respect to research methods and methodology, we attempted to construct a comparison
analysis between the three different perspectives as shown in Table 2. The comparison
analysis showed the following.
1. There are different research design stages PA researchers can engage in. How-
ever, the appropriateness for selection of a research design requires an apprecia-
tion of the uniqueness of the nature of the study, its significance, and its purpose.
Specifically, the research question that the study is trying to answer is critical;
“the research question is supposed to have a pivotal role because decisions about
research design and methods are supposed to be made in order to answer research
questions” (Bryman, 2007: 6).
2. The differences and similarities presented in this research will help PA research-
ers in understating which approach to use.
Table 2. Comparing and contrasting research methods and methodology concepts.
Research Research methods are O’Sullivan et al. did not define or Research methods involve the PA researchers have to be
Method observational techniques that discuss research methods explicitly form of data collection, familiar with the different
are available to social in their book, but they mentioned analysis, interpretation such as: terminology used in
scientists. the type of study involved, when Open-ended questions research design. Some of
Observational techniques and how often to collect the data, (qualitative) these terminologies have
include: and how much control the Predetermined similar meaning and
1. Experiments researcher can have on research (quantitative) purpose. For example
2. Survey research factors. Emerging methods O’sullivan’s types of studies
3. Qualitative research (quantitative) terminology is similar to
Ways to collect empirical data; Interview data (qualitative) Babbie’s observation
each research method has an Both open and closed techniques terminology
appropriate one. ended question (mixed)
Tools to analyze and interpret the
results:
Statistical analysis and
interpretation (quantitative)
Text and image analysis
and themes interpretation
(qualitative)
Statistical and text analysis
(mixed)
(continued)
251
252
Table 2. (continued)
Research Babbie did not discuss research Research methodology consists of Research methodology equal to The nine steps in O’Sullivan’s
Methodology methodology. the following steps: strategies of inquiry. methodology are well
Deciding when and how often defined and organized.
to collect data.
Developing or selecting
measures for each variable.
Identifying a sample or test
population.
Choosing a strategy for
contacting subjects.
Planning the data analysis.
Presenting the findings.
Abutabenjeh and Jaradat 253
Research
Methods
Babbie Focused on the particular and
specific approaches to conduct
research
Strategies of
Inquiry
Creswell Emphasis on the high level
strategies pursued for research
design.
Type of Study
O’Sullivan Focused on the particular design
related to the type of study
conducted
Question/Concern Response
Which research design definition should they Based on the analysis, there is no best definition
adopt? and PA researchers can use any of the
terminology discussed in in the text to define
their research design (there is a convergence
around the research design definition).
Which approach to research design is most Each approach has different steps and thus, it is
appropriate for their research? recommended to follow one approach for the
design process selection (i.e. Babbie’s approach).
This would eliminate the confusion of
unintentionally mixing these different design
processes. However, researchers can still use
Creswell’s research definition, and Babbie’s
research design process.
What are the common themes among the This research provides a comprehensive answer
current PA approaches to research design? related to the common themes and differences
in research design.
PA doctoral research areas Criteria for area evaluation/ with their sub-elements
(continued)
Abutabenjeh and Jaradat 255
Table 4. (continued)
PA doctoral research areas Criteria for area evaluation/ with their sub-elements
rigorous research design, it is essential for graduate students, researchers, and other
practitioners to recognize the differences as well as the similarities between the current
approaches and then choose the one that best fits their research and their research field.
Conclusion
This research has examined three popular approaches (Babbie, O’Sullivan et al., and
Creswell) currently used to discuss research designs and their application. The intent of
the research is to help PA researchers and professionals to better understand the research
design approaches by laying out the similarities and differences so they are more
knowledgeable and confident in the research design selection process. In an attempt to
answer the questions/concerns raised by a group of new PA doctoral students regarding
the concept of research design, a comparative analysis was constructed to study the
definitions and steps involved in research design as well as the perspectives on research
methods and research methodology. Table 3 provides responses to the questions raised
by the students.
Based on the analysis and to better answer the questions, Table 4 provides a
comprehensive framework for the research design process and the evaluation of
doctoral research as an example. The intent is to give guidance and high-level eva-
luation to help PA graduate students and other PA researchers understand the processes
in doctoral research.
Results from the comparative analysis show that the three scholars used differing
terminology to delineate the stages of research design, and they presented a variety of
research methods and methodology concepts. However, results also show that the three
scholars appear to have significant agreement on the definition of research design, all
referring to it as a plan to guide the research process. Further, there is a convergence in
their analyses of the factors that affect design selection. While there is a subtle diver-
gence in the current approaches, there is no substantive disagreement on the basic
meaning of research design that would warrant potential exclusion of any of the
approaches in establishing a research design. In view of this assessment, we feel con-
fident in suggesting that each approach can have applications in conducting research in
the PA field. Likewise, PA researchers and practitioners alike can utilize any one of the
approaches to conduct research in their areas of interest. However, the inclusion of
multiple perspectives can provide greater confidence in the applicability of the research
design eventually settled upon. In conclusion, at the surface level there are considerable
similarities found in describing the concept of research design, but, more importantly,
there are subtle differences in how the approaches to the research design are carried out.
It is essential for PA practitioners, students, and researchers to understand these dif-
ferences when selecting the approach most appropriate for their research.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
of this article.
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