Lesson 2.

2: Pre-classical and Classical Science

 Development of Science in Africa

Like the Philippines, African countries were also colonized by Europeans, and
just like us Filipinos, were known to have our own culture before the colonizers
introduced western concepts
What are our culture? and traditions?

Egyptians
Their excellent prowess in Geometry was needed to optimize the production in
the farmlands along the Nile river. What other structure, in fact one of the seven
wonders in the world, is proof of this specialization? However, at that time, they were
noted to be poor in arithmetic and math, and cannot do fractional computing. They are
also known for Alchemy, the forerunner of chemistry. It is chemistry that you know, but
still mixed with some magic. Astronomy at this time was considered primitive, but they
have excellent calendars, that established 365 days/year and 24 hrs/day. They tried to
reconcile solar and lunar cycles. Medicine & surgery were already empirical, meaning
based on observation, rather than just pure philosophical thoughts.

Babylonians (Iraq)
They were considered to be excellent at math using the sexagesimal (base 60)
system, used algebra but were found to be poor in geometry. Astronomy was moon
oriented, especially about the eclipse. What stories have you heard how ancient
civilization explained what an eclipse is? Is it comparable to what you know it to be?
Medicine & surgery, although they were already empirical astrology was also mixed into
it.

Greeks
Mixed metaphysical and physical speculation to explain phenomena was
practiced. Astronomy developed conceptual models. Underlying assumptions include
but not limited to that geocentric and geostatic, cosmos is finite. They have that concept
of perfect circular motion. Famous personages include:

➤ Plato with coherent metaphysics and looked for forms.

➤ Aristotle (384-322 BCE) who accepted reality as it appeared but also accepted the
idea of change.
This great Greek Philosopher emphasized natural philosophy based on
observation and systematic logic inductive reasoning. It was in his time that the
introduction of scientific method happened. It was also at this time that the notion that
disproved earth was flat emanated. He was among the tutors of Alexander the Great.
Founded the Lyceum, the school of philosophy that critiques the ideas or concepts put
forward at that time.

➤Aristotle (384-322 BCE)

This is like the practice of peer review at present times, of which scientific
findings are subjected to experts' opinions prior to release for public information
dissemination. Aristotelian cosmology includes the concepts of heavens with uniform
circular motion, perfect and incorruptible, sublunar events.

➤ Ptolemy (90-168 AD) was a Greek-Roman astronomer who applied math to models
of the solar system. His combined knowledge in mathematics, geography and even
astrology led to the creation of better models of the solar system, however, a geocentric
model of the Universe.

It is considered that science stagnated during the Middle ages

1. Fall of Western civilization. Remember, that Greek and Roman civilizations gave the
world both philosophical and scientific roots.
2. Scientific inquiries based on often incomplete sources. In the 6th century, de-
urbanization was promoted.
3. Monastic/cathedral schools production of written products centered on the Bible.
Latin, considered the language of science, was used to translate the works of Aristotle,
Euclid, Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Galen, except Plato. Can you recall the contributions
of Galen and Ptolemy? Their impacts on critical thinking?
4. Black death (1348) ended a massive scientific chang One-third of the population in
Europe died, where innovation was happening. Can you relate this to the current
pandemic? This tremendously affected the transfer of competency across generations.
 Columbus also sailed with the promise to bring back spices & gold. What made
his itinerary worthy of being financed was the promise to shorten the duration of the
travel. However, as you know now, he is famous for having discovered America the
'New World', although he claimed and believed to have discovered 'India' (West Indies).
The silver lining, this expanded Spain & Portugal's colonies. They then controlled the
largest areas & resources, including a wealth of precious metals, plants & animals for
consumption or commercialization. However, this also contributed to slavery in Europe.
Unlike the Philippines who accepted the 'cross' of the colonizers, the 'New World' called
into question long- held beliefs. It did not fit existing Biblical descriptions.

Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), was a German mathematician who could

read Greek and used Ptolemy's data to plot the orbits. He followed the 'Thought
experiment' and proposed that in the center of it all rests the sun. heliocentric model,
albeit the moon still orbits around the earth. The new discovery, the very concept of the
solar system, held to be factual (except about the orbit of the moon)! He deserves the
Nobel Prize! This overthrew the hierarchy of the ancient and medieval Cosmos. On the
contrary, this was regarded by the Catholic church, which was very influential at that
time, as a heretic.

Francis Bacon (1521-1626) developed the scientific method using the induction
of data from experiments to discover laws of science not by using logic-based deductive
arguments (remember Aristotle?)

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was Italian of many scientific contributions. Have

you seen a clock using a pendulum? Do you know why when someone aims a gun, it is
not straight to the target? The Math of motion: pendulums falling bodies projectiles, can
explain that. He gave Astronomy the telescope that was instrumental in seeing
sunspots, phases of Venus, lunar craters, Moon of Jupiter, Milky Way is made of stars.
He supported Heliocentrism. In 1632, during the Dialogo in Italian for the public, he
compared the Ptolemic system unfavorably to Copernicus. A courageous thing to do at
that time, and be subjected to the dreaded inquisition.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) French mathematician and a philosopher. He was

accorded the title Father of modern western philosophy. Much philosophy is based on
his writings. He abandoned scholastic Aristotelianism and focused on the first modern
version of mind-body dualism. Also, he promoted science grounded in observation and
experiment. He is famous for the creation of Cartesian maps using coordinates. Have
you tried using this in locating something? Or you are now reliant on the GPS function
of your cell phone? He is credited with the universe-mechanistic view of nature. Don't
forget, he also coined the term molecule.

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) in his time, also experienced pandemic, the
bubonic plague. Despite the solitude, he was very productive since he worked on one
dreaded subject, calculus. Theories of Light, Motion, Gravity, Dynamics are all listed in
his name. However, Alchemy and Theology are also on the list. Furthermore, he is also
responsible for studying the terrestrial and celestial mechanics using Euclidian
theorems (remember your Geometry?). Each discovery adds to the next. In February
1676, this famous statement was traced back to Newton to a letter to Robert Hooke (do
you recall who Hooke is?). "If I have seen further than others, it is by standing upon the
shoulder of giants..."Accordingly, this was to emphasize the need to learn, enhance, and
progress in scientific endeavors.

Another concept that underwent the rigorous tests of scientific scrutiny is the
theory of evolution.
 Charles Darwin - changed the concept of the world's creation & its evolution
while on a voyage aboard HMS Beagle. He took the courage to challenge religious
belief & unscientific ideas, or the scientific ideas in his time. In 1844 he wrote but did not
publish his revolutionary findings as stated in the 'Theory of the Origin of Species'. With
the encouragement of his friends, in 1858, the simultaneous publications by Wallace
and Darwin's natural selection were realized. A year later, Wallace published his book
on natural selection, which he called Darwinism. Which characteristics of a scientist do
you recall that can describe Darwin and Wallace?
Did Darwin conduct experiments to prove his theory? He did not. But pieces of
evidence prior to Darwin's theory were in the form of fossils. These fossils were even
called 'figured stones' as evidence of God's playful nature, replicas of living things. It is
also corroborated with the geologic history by Lyell, the species change by Lamark, and
extinction by Cuvier.

Sigmund Freud - is known for Psychoanalysis, an observational method to

gather scientific data about human behavior. However, on his time, his unorthodox
method was not yet understood by the field of medicine. His works on sexuality and the
evil side of man were not acceptable. An example is his stand that life was built round
tension and pleasure. All the tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy)
and that all pleasure came from its discharge. However, Freud's use of the term sexual
referred to all pleasurable actions and thoughts, not just the erotic aspect. At present,
psychoanalysis is a recognized scientific approach and even honored in legal
proceedings, although critics remain.

James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, Rosalind Franklin

discovered the double helix structure of DNA (1953) considered as the basis for modern
biotechnology. Watson & Crick won the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.
What makes it revolutionary is the realization that these two helices are complimentary
copies of each other. Review or do readings on DNA as materials for genes. When you
can accept a DNA test to prove paternity, it is then that you understand the impact of
this discovery.

Edwin Hubble - One of the most influential astronomers since the times of
Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, posits the expanding Universe. Using the Hubble
telescope in 1925, he discovered other galaxies that profoundly changed the way we
look at the Universe, the Milky Way is not the only galaxy in existence. Can you name
the other galaxies? In 1929 he demonstrated that the Universe is expanding one of the
most cosmological discoveries ever made. According to Hubble's law, galaxies move
away from the Milky Way at speed directly proportionate to their distance from it.
 Stephen Hawking a theoretical physicist affected by amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (ALS). Remember the ice bucket challenge? The felt numbness is similar to
what an ALS patient feels. Despite his condition, Hawking discovered/described Black
holes and Big bang theory. He proved ‘singularity’ that led to the creation of the
Universe. His opinion on artificial intelligence (Al) as a threat to humanity is a well-
referred work.

Lesson 2.3: Cradles of Early Science

Mesoamerica- refers to the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico
to up to the border of South America, look it up in the map/atlas. Prior to European
colonization, it has a rich culture.
Maya civilization lasted for 2,000 years. At that time, this civilization was known
to be good in astronomy, even using their temple for astronomical observation,
considered to be advanced in their time. Have you heard of the Maya Calendar? e.g.,
the pyramid of the Chichen Itza in Mexico is at the location of the sun during the spring
& fall equinoxes. They had the technology to grow crops & to build elaborate cities with
hydraulics systems; looms for weaving other work of arts. They had produced rubber
even before Goodyear (famous brand for tires) got its patent. They are among the first
to have hieroglyphics and developed the concept of zero.
Inca civilization starting in this time, roads were paved with stone, earthquake
resilient stone building, and irrigation systems were used. The calendar had 12 months.
The first suspension bridge was noted. Any suspension bridge looks dangerous, but
what is the advantage of such? Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that
only experts can interpret, equate to secret codes or signals in modern times. Textiles
were regarded for artistic achievements.
Aztec civilization- so as early as this civilization, mandatory education was
already implemented. Most will be thankful to this civilization for introducing chocolates!
Theobroma, commonly known as cacao, was used as currency and even as a tribute to
gods. Antispasmodic medication and Chinampa, rectangular agricultural areas
surrounded by canals, were already used. This could be equivalent to modern irrigation
or drip irrigation. They developed their own Aztec calendar and take note, this time, they
were using the canoe.
 Development of Science in Asia

India
Iron, steel, and other mineral were available in developed metallurgical works
before the colonization. However, this was highly regulated by the British colonizers, for
what reasons? Even to this time, they are famous for medicine including alternative
medicine. In Astronomy, they adhered that the earth is spherical. They are good in
Mathematics and mathematical analysis, and known for accurate measurements. They
introduced the decimal digit and the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.
Middle East (the golden age of Islam) this civilization valued the observance of
the scientific method. Among the personages worthy of being mentioned is Ibn al-
Haytham, Father of optics for work on the intromission of light in contrast to the earlier
belief of extromission. The other most commonly used number system, the Arabic
numeral system, is reflective of its origin. Decimal point notation is also rooted in this
civilization. Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan Al-Azdi, is considered the father of Arab
chemistry and one of the founders of modern pharmacy.
Conduct of clinical trials in medicine was already practiced at this time. The
contagious nature of infectious diseases was recognized to address such medical
concerns better. Does this sound familiar to you in this CoVid 19 pandemic? However,
just like other colonized societies, decline followed after conquest by the Mongols,
whereby libraries observatories, and other learning institutions were destroyed.

Lesson 2.4: Roots of Early Philippine Scientific Development

Look at your Certificate of Registration. Does it offer hope for you to get that
Bachelor’s degree? Is our education system purely of Filipino concept, free of any
foreign influence?
Approximately 50,000 YA first inhabitants arrived by a land bridge in Palawan &
Batangas. In the next 40,000 years, simple tools & weapons of stone flakes eventually
using sawing, drilling, and polishing hard stones & metal smelting were used. This
changed when trading with other civilizations like that of Chinese and European
colonizers were practiced.
 In 1521 when the Spanish arrived in the Philippines, they found numerous,
scattered, thriving, relatively self- sufficient autonomous communities with simple
appropriate levels of technological development, compared to Chinese & Japanese, but
sufficient for their needs. It was reported that engagement in science was basically
primitive or the first wave of technology. At that time, Filipinos were knowable of the
curative values of plants, including medicine extraction from herbs. They had an
alphabet, a system of writing, a method of counting, weights, and measure. They had
no calendar, counted years by the moon, and from one harvest to another.
 In 1780, the Real Sociedad Economica de Los Amigos del Pais de Filipinas
focused on agriculture research, especially indigo, cotton, cinnamon, & silk. By 1789,
Asian shipping allowed increasing exports of rice, hemp, tobacco, sugar, and
manufacturing goods.
 American Administration This time, the Philippines experienced rapid
advances in S&T. The government promoted extensive public education or secularized
public school education. There were grants for scholarships for higher education in
science & engineering. Furthermore, there were organizations of science research
agencies and establishments of science-based services. The curriculum Introduced
science subjects, industrial & vocational. Special effort was made to attract Filipinos to
pursue advanced studies leading to careers as engineers.