The Elements of Style

a. Punctuations

Punctuations are marks used to clarify the structure and meaning of sentences.
They promote ease of reading and help avoid ambiguities; hence, they contribute
to the writer’s style. While being a somewhat mechanical phrase of writing, the
proper use of punctuations cannot be neglected because it has direct spread
bearing upon the success or failure in communicating ideas. Without
punctuations, written language cannot be indicating certain definite and clear
qualities of speech, like asking a question or making an interjection.

The English punctuations used in the 17 th century had evolved from earlier
system systems of dots, lines, and slash marks used by the Greeks and Romans.
The punctuation marks of the Greeks and Romans were not intended to affect
meaning and were not based on grammar. They were used to divide segments of
discourse to indicate where to pause and breathe when reading the text aloud.
Hence, they served rhetorical and elocutionary functions.

By the end of the 17th century, the present syntactic system of punctuations was
born. Punctuation marks became guides to grammatical construction and reflect
the pattern and rhythm of speech.

The needs of the eye are different from those of the ear. A speaker can change his
tone and raise his voice for the benefit of is listeners. He can shake his head,
points his forefinger and bang the table to attract the attention of his audience.

Punctuations are of help not only to the reader but also to the speaker. The
comma signals a long pause, the semicolon, a short pause and the period, a
complete stop. The overuse of punctuations is as much an error as their
underuse. The test for the proper use of punctuations is whether it helps to make
the meaning of the sentence clear and to prevent its misreading.

Edgar Allan Poe said that, “a sentence may be deprived of half of its force by the
use of wrong punctuations.

1. Kinds of Punctuation marks

The punctuations are the following such as: (i) ampersand, (ii) apostrophe,
(iii) braces, (iv) brackets, (v) colon, (vi) comma, (vii) dash, (viii) ellipsis
point, (ix) exclamation point, (x) hyphen, (xi) parenthesis, (xii) period,
(xiii) question mark, (xiv) quotation mark, (xv) semicolon, and (16) slash.
The slash is also called a bar, diagonal, oblique, slant, slant line, solidus
virgule.

2. Uses of Punctuation marks

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 All punctuations serve on of the four general purposes: to terminate, to
introduce, to separate, and to enclose.

Terminal punctuations, also called “end stops” or “end marks,” appear at

the end of a complete sentence. They are the period, question mark and
exclamation point. In rare cases, the colon, dash, ellipses and four dots are
used to end sentences.

Three punctuation marks are regularly used to introduce words or

statements. These are the comma, colon and dash. What precedes the
punctuation mark builds to what follows it.

Five punctuations are used to separate parts of a sentence. These are the
comma, semicolon, dash, hyphen or apostrophe. Seven marks of
punctuation are used to enclose parts of a sentence. These are the comma,
dash, quotation mark, single quotation mark, parentheses and bracket.

b. Ampersand

An ampersand is the name of the symbol “&,” meaning “and.” It is also spelled
“amperzand” and called “the short and.” It is a corruption of “and per se and.” It
should not be used in formal writing, unless it is part of a name, address or the
title of a document.

Many grammarians do not consider the ampersand as a punctuation mark,

Merriam Webster editors are exceptions.

1. Uses of Ampersand

i. The ampersand is used in the names of companies. (e.g.,

American Telephone & Telegraph Co.).

ii. The ampersand may be used with abbreviations in general

correspondence. (e.g., Contact the different S & L [Savings and
Loans] associations in your area).

iii. The ampersand is also used in bibliographies, indexes, listing,

and documentation. (e.g,. Blair & Robertson, 1920).

2. When Ampersand not used

The ampersand should not be used in the name of government agencies.

(e.g., Securities and Exchange Commission).

3. Ampersand and other punctuation marks

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 Do not use a comma before an ampersand. When an ampersand us used
between the last two elements in a series, the comma is omitted (e.g., The
law firm of Quiason, Makalintal, Barot, Torres, Ibarra & Associates).

c. Apostrophe

The apostrophe is a mark of punctuation and a spelling symbol. It is formed

either by using an apostrophe and “s” or an apostrophe alone.

1. Uses of Apostrophe

i. To Form the Possessive Case. – The apostrophe is used to form

the possessive (genitive) case of nouns and certain pronouns.

a. Use an apostrophe and “s” to form the possessive of

following, such as:
1. Nouns not ending in “s.” The nouns may be singular
or plural and of one or more syllables (e.g., Man’s,
Men’s, Boy’s, Town’s, Children’s, Doctor’s).

2. One-syllable proper names ending in “s” or “s”

sound (e.g., Jones’s truck, Marx’s teaching, Kates’s
poem). However, some grammarians use the
apostrophe alone for such proper names (e.g.,
Charles’).

3. Proper nouns with more than one syllable but

which end in silent “s” or “x” (e.g., Margaux’s books).

4. Indefinite pronouns (e.g., Anybody’s, Someone’s,

Nobody’s).

5. Abbreviations (e.g., BDO’s transaction).

b. Use an apostrophe alone to form the possessive of the

following, such as:

1. Proper names of more than one syllable with an

unaccented “eez” ending (e.g., Jesus’, Moses’,
Ramses’, Demosthenes’, Euripides’).

2. Singular nouns of more than one syllable ending in

“s”, “z” or other hissing sound (conscience’s sake,
appearance’ sake). The use of just the apostrophe
without the “s” avoids the awkwardness of too many
“s” sound.

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 3. Plural nouns ending in “s” (e.g., Hills’, Horses’,
Girls’, Justices’). If an apostrophe and an “s” are
added, the resulting word would be hard to
pronounce.

4. Abbreviations in the plural form (e.g., Velbros’

Store).

c. The possessive form, whether an apostrophe alone or an

apostrophe and “s” is used:

1. After the last word in a compound noun (e.g,. The

Queen of Japan’s Office, The Brook Brother’s Suit).
The “of” phrase may also be used in place of the
apostrophe (e.g., The office of the Queen of Japan).

2. After the name of the second or last person when

the names of two or more persons are used to show
joint ownership (e.g., Pedro and Juan’s Family,
Fathers and Son’s Day). The rule also applies to firm
names (e.g., Valdes and Henson’s Farm).

3. After each name if the persons have separate

ownership (e.g., Pedro’s and Jose’s cars). Instead of
the possessive form, the “of” phrase may be used (e.g.,
The cars of Pedro and Jose).

4. After the owner’s name in the case of double

possessives (e.g., The poems of Shaw’s, a niece of my
cousin’s).

5. After a noun followed by a gerund or a verb

connected to a noun ending in “ing” (e.g., The Judge’s
leaving early provoked unfavorable comment). The
possessive form is added in this case to emphasize the
gerund “leaving.” If you want to emphasize the word
“judge,” omit the possessive form (e.g., The judge
leaving early provoked unfavorable comment).

6. After the last element of a series of clearly linked

nouns, which are considered as a single unit when the
thing possessed is the same for all the nouns (e.g., My
nephew and niece’s school, Dallas and Fort Worth’s
airport).

7. After either the first or second word in indefinite

pronouns consisting of two or more words. The

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 placing of the apostrophe or apostrophe and “s” after
the second word is the preferred form (e.g.,
Someone’s else bed or Someone else’s bed). In this
example, the first is unusual and it sounds awkward to
the ears; the second is the usual contraction of the
possessive.

8. After expression of the duration of time or amount

of money used as adjectives (e.g., a day’s wage, an
hour’s delay, a thousand’s peso worth).

ii. To Form Plurals.

a. The use of apostrophe and “s” or just the apostrophe:

1. To form the plurals of words used as words and

which have become fixed expressions (e.g., Dos and
Donts or Do’s and Don’t’s).

Use “s” alone to form the plurals of abbreviations

made up of initial letters (e.g,. NGO’s).

Use the apostrophe and “s” to form the plurals of

letters, words, symbols, sizes, and abbreviations with
periods:

i. Single Letters (e.g., Dot your I’s and cross

your t’s).

ii. Words (e.g., Do not use too many “and’s” in

your pleadings).

iii. Numerals (e.g., His “3’s” look like “5’s”).

iv. Symbols (e.g., Use “x’s” in multiplication).

v. Size (e.g., 2 by 2’s).

vi. Abbreviations with periods (e.g., Ph.D.’s).

iii. To Indicate Contractions. – Use the apostrophe to indicate

contractions or the omission of a letter or letters from words (e.g.,
o’clock – of the clock, can’t – cannot, rock’n roll – rock an roll) and
figure or figures form numerals (e.g., Class of ’50 – Class of 1950,
Spirit of ’76 – Spirit of 1976). The letter or letters may be
intentionally omitted to reproduce a perceived pronunciation, like
in dialectical speech, or to give a highly informal flavor to the
winning (e.g., ‘bout time – about time).

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 iv. To Devise Words. – Use the apostrophe to devise or invent
words from certain abbreviations, particularly those used in
informal writing (e.g., Ass’n – Association, Sec’y – Secretary, O.k.’d
– okayed).

v. To Inflict Verbs. – Use the apostrophe to produce the inflicted

form of verbs that are made of numerals or individual letters (e.g.,
Ok’ng the drafts).

vi. To Add “Er.” – Use the apostrophe to add “er” as ending to an

abbreviation to avoid confusion (e.g., American Airline employee –
AA’er).

vii. To Show Relationship. – Use the apostrophe to show

relationship (e.g., Maria’s best friend, Ruben’s Mother-in-law).

viii. To Show the Source. – Use the apostrophe to show the source
or origin of things (e.g., Jose’s appeal brief)

ix. To Identify Characteristics. – Use the apostrophe to identify

certain characteristics (e.g., Juan’s big nose).

x. To Indicate Dialectical Pronunciation. – Use the apostrophe to

indicate dialectical pronunciation. (e.g., It is ‘bout time).

2. When Apostrophes not used

Do not use an apostrophe:

i. In shortened forms of certain words (e.g., Phone, Copter)

ii. To form the possessive of personal and relative pronouns (e.g.,

Ours, not our’s; Yours, not your’s; Hers, not her’s). A common error
in the use of “it’s” (the contraction of “it is”) as the possessive form
of “it.” The correct form is “its.”

iii. To show the possession of things (e.g., the legs of the table, not
the table’s legs).

iv. To form the plurals of nouns, particularly proper names (e.g.,

The Hizons, not the Hizon’s).

d. Bracket

Bracket is a mark, squarish in form and always used in pairs, for setting of
inserted materials remotely or incidentally related to the texts. The enclosed

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 editorials, comments, clarifications, explanations, and interpretations within the
texts are written by persons other than the one placing the bracketed materials.
The inserted materials, whether quoted or paraphrased, have the effect of altering
the original texts (e.g., They have him [Pedro] at their mercy).

1. Uses of Bracket

i. To Enclose

a. Corrections in quoted matters (e.g., Max Dela Rosa [Da

Rosa] was the editor).
b. The word “sic” in quoted errors (e.g., “Juan is of Chinese
decent [sic].”).

Note: The word “sic” is used in brackets after a copied or quoted

word that appears odd or erroneous to show that the word is quoted
exactly as it stands in the original, as in a story must hold a child's
interest and “enrich his [sic] life.”

` c. Insertion that slightly alter the forms of a word used in an

original text.

d. The name of the author when such name is not revealed in

the original title page of book. Likewise, the bracket is used
to enclose the full name of the author, when only his initials
appear in the manuscript. However, the full name of the
author is not given if the author only uses his initials.

e. Cross references and parallels.

f. The original foreign words used in quoted sentences with

their English translations.

g. The phonetic transcript of words.

h. The phrase “to be continued on p.___” and “continued

from p.____” in newspapers and magazines.

i. The date of publication of a book when no date is given in

the original title page but said date is ascertainable when the
book was printed.

j. The stage direction in a play. Usually the stage directions

are in italics or underlined to differentiate them form the
text.

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 k. Insertions that supply missing letters or words (e.g., “The
law was en[ac]ted last year.”).

ii. To Distinguish. – Brackets are used to distinguish notes supplied

by the authors or editor from the original notes.

iii. To Indicate Units. – Brackets are used to indicate units

contained within larger units in mathematical or chemical formula.

A change of lower or upper case or vice versa in the first letter of a

direct quotation.

2. When Bracket not used

DO not use a bracket to set off criticism or other views of the quoted
materials. Transfer such commentary to separate sentences.

3. Bracket and other Punctuation

i. When brackets enclose a complete sentence, the required

punctuation should be placed within the brackets.

ii. Brackets are used to enclosed materials inserted by one in

somebody else’s writing while parentheses, are words used by
someone to write his own writing.

iii. Some writers use commas or parentheses instead of brackets.

Example:

Proper: Dante [Italy’s greatest poet] wrote The Divine

Comedy.

Correct: Dante, Italy’s greatest poet, wrote The Divine

Comedy.

Correct: Dante (Italy’s greatest poet) wrote The Divine

Comedy.

e. Colon

The colon is a sign of a pause, midway in length between the semicolon and the
period. It indicates the strongest possible break within a sentence. It explains,
balances or completes in some way the preceding statement. It signals to the
reader that more information is to come on the subject of concern; hence, it is a

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 mark of introduction. It can also be used to create a slight dramatic tension, akin
to the blare of trumpets.

Flesch and Lass have this to say of the colon:

“The colon is a stop and a curtain-raiser. It points toward something that follows.
It says: There is something missing in this sentence and here it comes.”

1. Uses of Colon

a. To Introduce. – A colon is used to introduce:

i. An appositive (e.g., He had only one vice: womanizing.).

ii. An Statement (e.g., The General gave a curt reply:

“Nuts.”).

iii. A list, preceded by a complete sentence or by words like

“the following” or “as follows.” When a colon ends an
introductory list, what follows begins with a capital letter. Do
not separate a list immediately following a verb or
preposition.

Example:

Order the following:

1. 100 reams of bond paper, legal size;

2. 5 boxes of type writing ribbons, Zenith
brand; and
3. 1 dozen ball pens, Pilot brand.

iv. A long formal quotation. A colon is used to set off long

quotes from the rest of the text by indentation. It can also be
used before a quotation in running text.

v. A sentence which explains another sentence. When a colon

ends an introductory sentence, what follows begins with a
capital letter. (e.g., The alternative is obvious: You either
finish the job or you face a damage suit).

vi. A colon is used before a series when the introducing series

is a complete sentence, (e.g., The conference was attended by
representatives of four countries: Philippines, Malaysia,
Thailand and Brunei.).

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 vii. A brief heading, which may be a word, phrase or clause
that emphasizes, illustrates, restates or exemplifies what has
already been stated. since the colon is not an end mark, do
naot capitalize the word after it unless it is a proper noun.
(e.g., He has only one regret: he didn’t top the Board
Examinations.)

viii. The statements in a transcription or dialogue.

Example:

Juan: Did you bring the money?

Pedro: No.

b. To Indicate that something will follow. – A colon is used to

indicate that something will follow.

What follows a colon is linked with some element that precedes it,
whether as an example, illustration, explanation, an elaboration or
the message after a salutation (e.g., Dear Sir/Madam:).

c. To Separate. – A colon is used to separate:

i. A chapter of the Bible from the verses (e.g., Genesis 2:4 –

7).

ii. The hour and minute in noting the time marked by clocks
and watches (e.g., 10:10 a.m.).

iii. The formal salutation of a business letter from the body of

the letter (e.g., Dear Sir:).

iv. To separate terms that are being contrasted or compared

(e.g., Distinguish urban: rural life.)

v. The title from the sub title and the subject of a book (e.g.,
The Wide World: A High School Geography.).

vi. The Volume and issue number in a periodical reference

(e.g., Vol. IV: Jan.1).

vii. Number references to the volumes and pages of books

(Vol. 111: 11 – 13).

viii. Number in a ratio or in a proposition (e.g., 1:4, 2:10).

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 ix. Writers and typist in the identification lines of business
letter (e.g., EGM: rrt).

x. Carbon-copy abbreviations from the initials of the

recipient of copies of business letter (e.g., Cc: CIQ).

d. To Distinguish. – A colon is used to distinguish:

a. Between the speaker and what he said in dialogue tests:

Example:

Judge: “Are the parties ready?”

Defendant’s Counsel: “I am sorry your Honor, my
witness has not arrived yet.”

e. To Emphasize or Highlight. – A colon is used to highlight or

emphasize what follows or precedes it.

f. To express Contrast. – A colon is used to express a balanced

contrast without using conjunctions. (e.g., Speech is silver: silence
is Golden.)

2. When Colon not used

Do not use a colon:

a. To introduce words that fit properly into the grammar of the

sentence without the colon.

Example:

Wrong: The prohibited activities are: smoking, gambling,

drinking and boisterous conversations. (just remove the
colon to make it proper)

b. To separate a preposition or verb and its object unless the objects

are included in formal list beginning on a succeeding line.

Example:

Wrong: I am fond of: Chinese food.

Wrong: He like to watch: TV, basketball games and stage
shows.

Note: In the preceding examples, just remove the colon to make

sense.

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 In a By-line.

Example:

Wrong: By: F.S. Jose (the colon here is not necessary just
better write By F.S. Jose.).

To introduce a series of names, items or ideas that are indirect

object of the verb or are objects of a preposition. However, if the
names items, or ideas are included in a formal list, beginning on a
succeeding line, the colon may be used.

3. Colon and other punctuation marks

A colon is like a dash to introduce or summarize statement following a

series. (e.g., The Philippines, Thailand, and Malaysia: they are all part of
South East Asia.).

Like a dash, a colon is used to emphasize whatever follows. Some writers

use the colon to link independent clauses, instead of a semicolon or the
dash, when the second clause restates, explains or expands on the first
clause.

A colon is not used after the salutation in an informal letter. Instead the
comma is used (e.g., Dear Aira,). A colon is placed outside a closing
quotation mark or parenthesis.

When a sentence or clause with a colon is quoted, the colon is dropped.

f. Comma

The comma is the most frequent used punctuation mark in English. It is used to
separate items in a series, to set off grammatical elements within sentences, and
to coordinate one part of a sentence with another. It acts as a barrier to keep
certain sentence elements from “flowing” or “running” in to each other. It is,
however, a relatively weak mark as compared with the period and the semicolon.
It indicates the smallest interruption in continuity of thought in a sentence. Like
the colon and the semicolon, the comma is a punctuation inside a sentence.

The misuse and the overuse of commas are as bad as their omission in cases
where they are needed. The use, misuse or non-use of commas can make a lot of
difference in the sense or meaning of a sentence. The sentence “Old men and
women should be treated with courtesy” means that old men and women should
be given due respect. But if add comma after “men,” the sense changes and the
sentence will mean that while all women regardless of age should be treated with
courtesy, only “old men” should be so treated.

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Aside from the mandatory rules on the use of commas, their use is mainly a
matter of good judgment, with ease of reading as the end in view. Use them only
when they add to clarity and understanding, and avoid them when they interrupt
or slow down thoughts.

1. Kinds of Commas

Commas may be classified into the single and the paired commas. The
function of the single comma is mainly separation, i.e., the single comma
indicates that the element it separates from the others is individual, one by
itself, and not to be mixed with the elements before or after it. The paired
commas mark the beginning and the end of a word, phrases, or clause,
which is an additional element to the information given in the rest of a
sentence. An expression separated by paired commas may be omitted
without impairing the meaning intended by the sentence.

Commas are also classified into essential or optional commas. The use of
commas that are essential is mandatory. Optional commas are used for
emphasis or clarity at the discretion of the writer.

Writers disagree as to whether a comma is mandatory before the

conjunction “and,” which connects the last word in a series of three or
more items. Shertzer says that the use of comma after “e.g.” and “i.e.” is
optional.

Example 1:

He buys his pen, pencil, ruler, and paper from Joe’s store.

Note: It is essential to set off with commas the vocatives inside a sentence.

Example 2:

Always telephone, Jose, before you deliver.

Note: It is optional to put a comma after a short, introductory adverb.

Example 3:

Finally he sent his contribution.

Note: Commas may be omitted between antithetical elements joined by

“not…but” or “not only…but also” when an open style of punctuation is
preferred.

2. Uses of Comma

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A comma may be used to: (i) introduce, (ii) separate, (iii) enclose, (iv)
indicate omission, (v) add information, (vi) contradict or contrast, and
(vii) divide. A comma also has miscellaneous uses.

i. To Introduce. - Commas are used to introduce.

a. An adverbial clause that is fairly long and precedes a man

clause. This called an introductory dependent clause. (e.g., If
you see him, kindly give my regards.)

b. A dependent clause at the beginning of a sentence even if

said clause is restrictive. (e.g,. At the time of the revolution,
the commercial intercourse between the Philippines and
Japan was discontinued.)

c. An adverb with the more than one syllable (e.g., however,

moreover, furthermore) that is found at the beginning of a
sentence. An adverb of this kind affects a distinct break in
the continuity of thought. (e.g., However, the show must go
on).

d. Phrases, like the following:

1. An absolute phrase that introduces the main clause.

This phrase contains a noun and a participle. (e.g.,
The contract having been signed, the parties
adjourned for the cocktails.).

2. An adverb phrase that introduces the main clause.

(e.g., Immediately after the hearing, the court issued a
temporary restraining order.)

3. A contrasting phrase used to modify a single word

that follows immediately.

4. An infinitive phrase that introduces the main

clause, unless it precedes and forms part of the verb.

5. A participial phrase that introduces the main

clause, unless it precedes and forms part of the verb.

6. A prepositional phrase that introduces the main

clause (e.g., At the beginning of the century, the
population of the country did not exceed five million.)

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 7. A verbal phrase that introduces the main clause.
(e.g., To get an answer, send a follow-up telegram.)

8. A phrase that begins with words like “however,”

“nevertheless,” “for example,” “therefore,” and “that
is.”

9. A phrase that is inverted or out of the natural order.

e. Parenthetical expressions found in the beginning of the

sentence. (e.g., Yes, I am attending the meeting.)

f. A direct question or a statement that is preceded by

musing aloud. (e.g., I wondered, should I tell the group the
bad news?)

g. A short quotation. When the quotation being introduced is

long or formal, use a colon. (e.g., The President said, “Let the
conference begin.”)

h. A salutation in an informal letter. (e.g., Dear Sam,)

i. Words move to the beginning of a sentence from their

normal position.

j. Words such as “Yes,” “No,” “Well,” “Why,” and “Oh.”

ii. To Separate. – Commas are used to separate:

a. Addressee. - A comma is used to separate the name of the

street form the name of the city or municipality and the
name of the municipality from that of the province. (e.g.,
Bachelor Street, Dubinan East, Santiago City, Isabela.)

b. Adjectives.

1. Coordinate adjectives or the adjectives that modify

separately and equally the nouns or pronouns
following them.

Examples:

i. He gave an erratic, vague testimony.

ii. He wore an old, dirty coat.

When the adjectives do not modify separately and

equally, they are not coordinates and a comma is not

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 used to separate them. (e.g., Our watchman is a good
old man).

One test to determine whether an adjective is

coordinate is to put the conjunction “and” between
the adjectives. It the meaning is not altered or the
sentence does not sound awkward, then the
conjunction “and” is coordinate. In such a case, a
comma is used to separate the first and second
adjectives. A coordinate adjective may be joined by
the conjunction “and.” (e.g., One could say, “A cold
and windy day.” or “A cold, windy day.)

A second test is by revising the position of the

adjectives. If the adjectives still make sense after
changing their positions, they are coordinates.

Example:

i. It was a cold, wet, and windy day.

ii. It was a wet, windy, and cold day.

A third test is to determine whether the first adjectives

modifies the idea expressed by that second adjectives
and the noun. The comma is omitted when one
adjectives describes another adjectives next to it. (e.g.,
“A foolish old man.” Change to “An old man who is
foolish.”).

2. A series of adjectives. If the two adjectives before

the noun are joined by “and,” a comma is placed after
each adjective and before the conjunction. However,
the conjunction ‘and” may be omitted and replaced by
a comma. (e.g., It is an old, ugly and dilapidated
building.)

3. Two adjectives immediately following the noun they

modify. (e.g., The Pasig River, deep and wide,
traverses many towns.)

c. Appositives. – A non-restrictive word, phrase or clause in

apposition. An appositive provides parenthetical
information. It may precede or follow the noun it modifies.
(e.g., We met Prof. Richter, the authority on Space Law.)

A comma is omitted in an appositive that is very closely

related to the noun. In such a case, the appositive has a

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restricted function. A restrictive appositive is not separated
by a comma. (e.g., My friend Peter is on vacation.)

d. Adverbs. Two or more adverbs that modify the same word

or phrase. (e.g., The boat moved smoothly, gracefully
through the turns.)

e. Clauses.

1. An antithetical clause, which refers to the same idea

expressed by the main clause. It is essential to the
meaning of the modified element. (e.g., He is an idiot
not a moron.)

2. Interdependent antithetical clauses. (e.g., The more

you eat, the more you like.)

3. The adjectival clause from the rest of the sentence.

This clause follows a noun and restricts or limits the
reference of the noun in a way that is essential to the
meaning of the sentence.

4. A declarative clause from an interrogative clause,

which immediately follows. (e.g., The will be ready on
time, will it not?)

5. Two main or independent clauses of equal value,

which are joined by a coordinate conjunctions like,
“and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet. The clauses may
also be joined by “while” when it means “but.” This is
intended to prevent a danger that one clause may read
into another and thus cause confusion of meaning.
(e.g., It is one of the idyllic places left in the
Philippines, but it is not accessible except by foot.)

Note: In joining two independent clauses, you need both a

conjunction and a comma. The comma is placed before the
conjunction.

6. An introductory dependent clause. Vagueness and

misunderstanding may result from the lock of comma.
The clause may be restricted or non-restrictive. (e.g.,
Although he is legally correct, he is morally wrong.)

7. A subordinate clause that follows a main clause or a

main clause that follows a subordinate clause, if the

17
 subordinate clause is not an essential part of the
message; otherwise, no comma is used.

8. Long main clauses joined by correlative

conjunctives like, “either…or, neither…nor, not only…
but.”

Note: If “for” is used as a conjunction, it should always be

preceded by a coma; otherwise, it may be confused for a
preposition.

Long clauses connected by a conjunction can be

written without a comma (i) if their thought relation is
close or (ii) if the subject of both clauses is the same.
(e.g., Pedro prepared the first draft hurriedly and then
he began a more careful revision of it.)

9. Co-ordinate clauses which are short.

Example:

i. I came, I saw, I conquered.

If the clauses are short and not related in

meaning, they can be separated by commas
without the conjunctions. By short is meant a
clause consisting of not more than four words.

ii. One day you are rich, the next day you are
impoverished.

If the short clauses are related, the comma can

be omitted but the conjunction is retained,
depending on such factors as rhythm,
parallelism, and logic.

iii. Carlos sang and Pilar danced.

If the sentence is composed of three or more

clauses, the clauses may be separated by either
commas or semicolons. The semicolon may
also be used instead of a comma and the
conjunction if the second clauses are long and
involved, or have internal punctuations.

10. A dependent or subordinate clause that comes

before a main or independent clause. A comma is used

18
 before a dependent or subordinate clause that follows
the main clause; if the independent or subordinate is
part of the message, no comma is used. (e.g., When
you are finished with Lesson3, go to Lesson4.)

11. Clauses joined by “so that,” a subordinate (not a

coordinate) conjunctive. This term does not equally
link the two clauses.

12. The main clauses which do not have a coordinating

conjunction between them. Instead use a colon, or
even a period, to make two sentences.

13. Main clauses when their verbs have a common

subject. (e.g., The defendant had the duty but failed to
perform it.)

f. Degree and Titles. – Degrees and titles which may be

academic, military, honorary or religious, from the personal
names (e.g., Juan Dela Cruz, Ph.D.; Fr. Franklin G. Picio,
M.S., Ph.D.; Gen. Pedro Watil, P.A.)

g. Digits. – Digits indicating thousands, millions, and so

forth. The comma is placed after every third digit, counting
from the right (e.g., 100,900,900.50).

h. Exclamations. – The exclamations “oh,” “oh yes,” “ah yes”

and “wow.” (e.g., Oh, wow!, what a wonderful sight.)

i. Contrasted Parts. – Contrasted parts or paired elements of

a sentence that are parallel in structure. (e.g., The word
begins with “psy,” not “c.”

j. Examples. – Examples given in a sentence.

k. Elements.

i. Inserted elements that are intended to add some

degree of emphasis.

ii. Inserted elements, consisting of a compound

predicate that is long and complicated. The absence of
a comma could cause a misreading of the sentence.
(e.g., This is a wrong plan, and has been from the
start.)

19
l. Explanations. – (e.g., I would like to undertake a project,
i.e., one that would help the poor to earn additional income.)

m. Expressions. – Expressions like “such as,” “that is,” “for

example,” and “namely,” when they introduce a series.

A series contains a minimum of three succeeding items,

which may consist of three words, three phrases, or three
clauses. If the last item in the series is joined by a
conjunction with the other items, a comma is placed after
each item and before the conjunction. (e.g., The dress is
made up of silk, cotton, and nylon.)

n. Interjections from the main statement. (e.g., Well, that is

the way things to go.)

o. Interrupting words like “madam,” “sir,” or “my friend”

found at the beginning or the end of the sentence.

p. Light Exclamations. (e.g., Oh, I never expected that.)

q. Names, including:

Example:

i. An inverted name in a bibliography, catalogue,

index or list (e.g., Dela Cruz, Juan T.);

ii. A surname and “junior,” “senior,” or their

abbreviation (e.g., Nestor F. Abugan, Jr.);

iii. The name of a person being addressed. (e.g.,

Pedro, go home.);

iv. The name of a person form his title (e.g., Juan Dela
Cruz, M.D.); and

v. The names of the street, municipality, and city or

province (e.g., No. 24 Rizal Boulevard, Pasig City.).

r. A quotation, maxim, proverb or similar expressions from

the rest of the sentence, identifying its source or speaker.
(e.g., The Court said, “Lawyers are not guns for hire.”

s. Phrase

i. An adverbial phrase at the beginning of a sentence.

20
 Example:

1. Because of the irreparable injury that would

befall, the court issued a temporary restraining
order.

The use of a comma after the introductory

phrase will avoid a misreading.

2. Wrong: To summarize the problem is

serious.

Correct: To summarize, the problem is

serious.

ii. A participial phrase at the beginning of the

sentence. (e.g., Strolling out into the garden, he sat
down on the grass.)

iii. An absolute phrase at the beginning of the

sentence.

iv. Transitional words like “therefore,” “thus,”

“furthermore,” or “moreover.”

v. Unrelated figures.

Example:

1. Since 1995, 1,000,000 local tourists have

visited the park annually.

Words to avoid confusion even though the

sense or grammatical construction does not
require the separation. This may occur when
two or closely similar words follow each other.

2. They marched in, in twos.

t. Transitional words, like “therefore,” “thus,” “furthermore,”

or “moreover.” If the transitional word is between two
independent clauses, put a semicolon instead of a comma.

u. The elements in a series consisting of three or more

elements. A conjunction connects the two last elements and
the comma is placed before the conjunction and between the

21
 first two elements. The final comma in a series is called the
serial comma. The Oxford University Press placed a comma
before “and” in a list of words.

Example:

1. The store sells groceries, clothing, fishing, supplies,

and camp equipment.

Note: Some writers drop the conjunction.

2. The store sells groceries, clothing, fishing supplies,

camp equipment.

Note: No commas are used when the elements in a series

are short and are short and are all joined by conjunctions.
When the elements in a series are long and complex or
involve internal publication, they should be separated by a
semicolon.

3. Reading and writing and arithmetic are all basic.

v. Pairs of words in a series. (e.g., Courses in typing and

shorthand, spelling and vocabulary, grammar and
punctuation, are given this summer.

w. Vocatives. – Vocatives require commas to avoid

ambiguity. (e.g., Oh, how beautiful is the sunset.)

iii. To Enclose. – Commas are used to enclose:

a. Abbreviations like “i.e.” and “e.g.”

b. Adverbial, parenthetical, or explanatory words, phrases or

clauses found between the subject and the predicate. These
elements, while pertinent and having a logical relation to the
rest of the sentence, are not essential to its meaning. (e.g.,
Pedro, I understand, died at twenty-two.)

c. Addressee (e.g., The address is 510 Rizal Street, Malabon,

Rizal.).

d. Direct Address (e.g., The answer my friends, is no.).

e. Appositive or words used in apposition. These words

follow other nouns to identify or clarify them. They are

22
 nouns referring to other nouns. (e.g., Peter Dexter, an
Australian lawyer, will attend the meeting.).

Note: If the apposition is part of the proper noun, the comma can
be omitted (e.g., the river Pasig).

f. “Inserted sentence elements.” These elements, while

similar to parenthetical materials, are frequently more
essential to the thought of the sentence than this material.
They are however, non-restrictive in function. (e.g., This is a
good book, not only because it involved much historical
research, but because it is well written.)

g. Legal citations included in the middle of the sentence.

h. “Non-restrictive” elements within a sentence. These

elements may be a word, phrase or clause. They do not
restrict or limit the meaning of the words they modify;
hence, they are not essential to the meaning of the sentence
and can be deleted without changing the sense of the
sentence. Their role is just to give additional information.

i. Expressions like “and so forth,” “and so on,” and “and the

like,” following, a series of three or more words, phrases or
clauses.

j. Interrupting words like “Madam,” “Sir,” and “my friend.”

k. Inserted materials. These are similar to parenthetical

words, phrases, and clauses but differ from them, because
they are more essential to the latter and they do not restrict
the meaning of the sentence. They only add some degree of
emphasis and are therefore considered as emphatic
expressions. They are non-restrictive in functions. (e.g., The
moral, if there is a moral lesson, is that one should not
paddle his boat in two rivers.)

l. Interjections (e.g., Ah!, Wow!, Oh C’mon!, Ouch!,).

m. Name of the province in the middle of a sentence

following the name of a town. (e.g., He grew up in Porac,
Pampanga, his father having been a judge there.)

n. Parenthetical elements. – Use commas to enclose

parenthetical elements in a sentence. A parenthetical
element is one that is pertinent but not essential to the
meaning of the sentence. It may be omitted without

23
materially affecting the meaning of the sentence. (e.g., His
answer, to say the least, is idiotic.)

It is sometimes difficult to tell whether a single word or a

phrase or is not a parenthetical expression. A test one can
use is whether the interruption to the flow of the thought is
slight or considerate. If it is the former, the comma is
omitted.

o. Parenthetical expressions when found in the middle of a

sentence. These are words, phrases or clauses which may be
omitted from a sentence without materially affecting its
meaning. Some expressions often used parenthetically are:

i. for example;
ii. in fact; and
iii. I think.

p. Parenthetical initials (e.g., Johnson, A.D., and Peterson,

A.B. are on the list of promotions.

q. Phrases.

i. Indicating a place of residence immediately

following a personal name. (e.g., Senator Juan Dela
Cruz, of Isabela, was the guest of honor.)

ii. Indicating an interruption (e.g., “so to speak,” “of

course,” “for instance,” “to be seen,” “on the other
hand,” “on the contrary”).

iii. Denoting the position of a person. (e.g., Juan Dela

Cruz, the manager of the BDO Santiago City Branch,
called up regarding your application.)

iv. Qualifying a subject of a sentence and used a non-

restrictive participial phrase. (e.g., The guest speaker
went to the rostrum and having stood for some
minutes in silence, before he addressed the assembly.)

v. Modifying phrases that do not immediately precede

the words they modify. (e.g., The negotiators, tired
but happy, returned to the hotel after the signing of
the agreement.)

24
 vi. “Said” phrases inserted in the middle of a sentence
to divide a quotation. (e.g., It is up to you, he said, you
need to decide.)

r. Transitional words like, “therefore,” “thus,” “furthermore,”

“moreover,” “however,” “indeed,” “nevertheless,” found in
the middle of the sentence.

s. The year in the middle of a sentence, which follows both

month and day. When only the year and month are
indicated, the comma is not used. (e.g., He was born on June
10, 2019, a few months before the outbreak of the Covid-19
pandemic.)

t. Vocatives found in the middle of a sentence. (e.g., Please,

Mr. Counsel, confine your arguments to the issue.)

u. Words like “namely,” “for example,” “that is.”

iv. To Indicate Omission. – A comma is used to indicate the

omission, for brevity or convenience, of a word or words in a
sentence. The omitted word or words are made clear by or readily
understood from the context. This is especially true in parallel
contraction.

Example:

1. Common stocks are preferred by some investors, bonds

[are preferred], by others.

Note: When in spite of such omission, the construction is clear

enough without the comma, the comma may be omitted.

2. Pedro hated Petra and vice-versa.

Note: The conjunction “that” may be omitted and replaced by a

comma.

3. The problem is, we don’t know where we are.

v. To Divide. – A comma is used to divide a long sentence into

simpler parts so that the meaning is more readily understood.

vi. To Avoid Confusion. – A comma is used to avoid confusion,

misreading and vagueness. The need of the comma may occur when
two identical or closely similar words follow each other. (e.g., They
march in, in twos.)

25
 vii. Miscellaneous uses of a Comma. – Commas are used:

1. After the closing or complementary close of a letter. (e.g.,

“Sincerely yours,” “Truly yours,” “Respectfully yours,”
“Lovingly yours.”)

2. To emphasize contrast (e.g., He is an expert in taxation,

not in procedure.).

3. To indicate that more information follows at the end of the

sentence.

1. To signal that a new subject and predicate follows a

conjunction.

5. To prevent mistaken junctions. (e.g., To Juan, Juana is the

most beautiful girl.).

6. To avoid ambiguities when words are used one after the

other. (e.g., Whatever will be, will be.)

3. When Comma not used

i. Do not use a comma after:

1. The vocative “O.” However, a comma is used after the

exclamation “Oh.” (e.g., O God please help me.)

2. A word that modifies a word that follows. (e.g., However

worthy the cause, we would not contribute to the Star Fund.)

3. The words “hence,” “still,” “then,” “yet,” “thus,” and “so,”

unless the connectives demand special emphasis. (e.g., Some
of the items you ordered are out of stock; so we are holding
the entire order.)

4. A phrase or clause placed in an inverted order. (e.g., From

the apartment above came a loud sound.)

5. A participial phrase that is part of the main verb.

6. A short prepositional phrase. (e.g., For recreation the

mayor goes fishing.)

7. A restrictive participial phrase. A restrictive participial

phrase is essential to the sentence.

26
 8. A short antithetical phrase. (e.g., The more the better.)

ii. Do not use a comma before:

1. The ampersand in a firm name.

2. The word “because,” unless said word introduces a
nonrestrictive clause.

3. The word “that” and “which,” when said words signal a

limiting function and restricts the preceding word or phrase.
(e.g., The judge read the memorandums that (which) were
well written.)

Since many writers use “which” for both limiting and non-
limiting clauses, a comma must be used to signify a non-
limiting function. The absence of a comma signifies that the
clause is limiting.

4. The first word of a series. (e.g., The Chromatic colors

include red, green, purple, and brown.)

iii. Do not use a comma between:

1. The word “page” and the numbers following it. (e.g., page
100)

2. The last two surnames in a company or firm name. (e.g.,

Quiason, Makalintal, Barot, Torres and Ibarra Law Firm.)

3. The verbs of a compound predicate connected by

conjunctions and which have the same subject, unless the
predicate is unusually long and complicated, one of the parts
of the predicate is being stressed, or the absence of a comma
could cause a monetary misreading of the sentence. (e.g.,
The private prosecutor argued the case and prepared the
memorandum.)

4. An appositive and the word it modifies when the

connection between the two is very close. (e.g., William the
Conqueror, Attila the Hun.

iv. Do not use a comma to enclose:

1. A conjunctive adverb that becomes an essential part of the

meaning of the sentence. (e.g., The President was therefore
justified in dismissing Pedro.)

27
 2. A word or phrase in italics. (e.g., The case was Chi Ming
Choi v. Court of Appeal.)

3. A word in quotations. (e.g., The word “caprice” comes

from the Latin word “caper.”

v. Do not use a comma to join:

1. Two or more independent clauses if the clauses are

grammatically complete and are not joined by a conjunction
as to form a compound sentence. Use instead a semicolon or
a period.

Example:

Wrong: It is nearly half past five, we cannot read in

the dark.

Correct: It is nearly half past five; we cannot read in

the dark.

vi. Do not use a comma to separate:

1. The abbreviation “etc.” when it ends a sentence.

2. Adjectives which convey the same or a single idea and

therefore do not modify equally the same noun. These
adjectives are not coordinates. A test to determine whether
the two adjectives are not coordinates is to mentally insert
“and” between them. They are not coordinate if the word
“and” does not fit in place the comma. Another test is to
reverse the position of the two adjectives. If the adjectives do
not make sense after reversing their positions, they are not
coordinates.

a. Two adjectives, when the first adjective modifies the

combination of the second adjective and the noun
following it. The first adjective does not modify the
noun but the idea expressed by the second adjective
and the noun (e.g., “Dirty old man,” “Illegal drug
traffic,” “Cold spring water”).

b. Two adjectives that modify the same word and are

joined by “but” or some other coordinating
conjunctions. (e.g., The harsh but appropriate penalty
of reclusion perpetua was imposed on him.)

28
3. Adverb form the adjectives or adverbs they modify. (e.g., It
was a truly great performance.)

4. Transitional adverbs (e.g., besides, however, anyhow,

nonetheless) at the beginning of a sentence when they do not
cause a break in continuity and do not require a pause in
reading.

5. An appositive that has become a part of a proper name. It

is non-restrictive. (e.g., Alfred the Great conquered
Scotland.)

6. Adjectival clauses that are purely descriptive and can be

dropped without changing the references of the noun.

7. Clauses joined by “so that,” a subordinate (not coordinate)

conjunction. These clauses do not equally link the two
clauses.

8. Clauses that are dependent and restrictive and follow

independent clauses.

9. Short and simple main clauses that are closely related in

meaning and are clearly understood. An alternative is to
omit the coordinating conjunction and use only a comma.
Example:

1. One day a politician is in power, the next day he is

out of work.

2. The sun was shining and the birds were singing.

10. Short clauses of a compound sentence when they are

closely connected. In such a case clarity is not an issue. (e.g.,
He looked but did not see the flying object.)

11. Short, introductory adverbial clauses if there is no

uncertainty where the main clause begins. (e.g., In the alley
lay a dead cat.)

12. Short, introductory dependent clauses when the sentence

can be read easily.

13. Short, main clauses that are contracted and joined by

corrective conjunctions like “either…or,” “neither….nor,” and
“not only….but also.” Considered short are clauses of not

29
more than five words. (e.g., The grass grew and the flowers
bloomed.)

14. Conjunction joining parts of a compound subject or two

or more subjects having the same predicate. (e.g., Manila
and Cebu are the trade centers in the Philippines.)

15. Conjunctions joining two or more objects having the

same predicate or subject.

16. Phrases placed in an inverted order.

17. Introducing adverbial phrases of less than three words or

which flow easily in to the main thought. (e.g., Last Sunday
he went fishing.)

18. Introducing adverbial phrases that immediately precede

the verbs they modify. (e.g., At the gate stood the royal
guard.)

19. Antithetical phrases that are short. (e.g., The sooner the
better.)

20. Prepositional phrases that are short and used to

introduce. Introducing prepositional phrases that are
parenthetical, however, are separated by commas (e.g., for
example, in fact, on the other hand).

21. Participial phrases that follow the nouns they describe.

The participial phrases are merely descriptive. (e.g., We
watch the barrels rolled into the trucks.)

22. The postal number of the house and the street name in
an address. (e.g., 24 Nightingale, Greenmeadows.)

23. The number of Laws (e.g., Republic Act No. 9165).

24. Telephone or Cellphone numbers (e.g., Telephone No.

631-111-523 or Cellphone No. 0906-096-4411).

25. Roman numbers after names (e.g., King Philip II).

26. The prepositions and the year (e.g., in 2019) and the
preposition, month and the year (e.g., in December 2019).

30
 27. A quotation used as the subject, the predicate nominative
of the sentence, or the integral part of the sentence. (e.g.,
“Over my dead body” was the reply.)

28. A predicate from its object.

29. A predicate from its subject.

30. Items in a series that are joined with conjunctions, like

“and,” “or,” or “nor.” (e.g., At the summer camp, one can go
swimming or boating or fishing or just loafing.)

31. A long compound subject from its verb. Instead rewrite

the sentence and reduce the length of the subject.

32. An infinitive used as a subject (e.g., To be successful was

his dream.).

4. Common Comma faults

Commas are used to separate main clauses that are not joined by
coordinating conjunctions and which are short and obviously parallel.
(e.g., Bombs have destroyed most of the buildings, disease has ravaged the
population.)

When the said clauses are not short or parallel, it is an error to use a
comma to connect them. The use of a comma to separate long and non-
parallel clauses is called a comma is called a comma-splice error or comma
fault. These clauses should be separated by a period or linked by a
semicolon, colon or by conjunction and a comma. In a comma-splice error,
the reader cannot determine where one sentence ends and the next one
begins. (e.g., A meeting of the counsel is scheduled tomorrow, many
important items are on the agenda.)

A comma fault may be corrected or eliminated:

i. By making the two main clauses into separate sentences. A period

is placed after the first clause and a capital letter is used at the
beginning of the second clause.

ii. By inserting a coordinating conjunction after the comma.

iii. By using a semicolon in place of the comma to connect the two

main clauses.

iv. By converting one of the two main clauses into a subordinating

clause.

31
 In rare cases and when deftly handled, a comma splice can be used and is
acceptable.

Example:

1. I came, I saw, I conquered.

2. This is mine, that is mine too.

g. Dash

The dash (-) is an emphatic mark of punctuation and is used to indicate a sudden
shift I through or a sharp break in the construction of the sentence. It is a
vigorous mark with strong emotional tone. It sets off parenthetical elements in a
sentence that are less logically related to the rest of the sentence. The
parenthetical elements are more or less equivalent but have no words to link or
join them. It may indicate the addition of information.

1. Uses of dash

i. To add effect. – A dash is used to add effect, create suspense, or

emphasize for dramatic effect words or phrases.

ii. To draw attention. – A dash is used to draw attention to the

supplementary material being set-off from the rest of the sentence.

iii. To enclose. – A dash is used to enclose a clause. (e.g., Most

lawyers – and Pedro is no exception – not like to appear before
provincial courts.)

iv. To explain. – A dash is used to explain a preceding series.

v. To expand. – A dash is used to expand an idea by repeating words

or phrases.

vi. To imply. – A dash is used to imply a sudden or unexpected

break, hesitation or a pause.

vii. To indicate. – A dash is used to indicate an area or extent. (e.g.,

These books are recommended for children – from 11 to 14 years
old.)

viii. To introduce. – A dash is used to introduce additional

information or an explanation in place of “namely,” “that is,” or “in
other words.”

32
 ix. To note authors. – A dash is used to note the author of the
quotation that is not mentioned in the text. (e.g., “I fear not the man
who practiced 10, ooo kicks once, but I fear the man who practiced
one kick 10, 000 times.” – Bruce Lee)

x. To set off. – A dash is used to set-off:

a. A strong distinguished material. (e.g., I was pleased –

delighted – to hear the good news.)

b. A non-restrictive clause that contains a comma.

c. Parenthetical materials that result from a break in thought

or continuity. (e.g., China had a change of heart – or was it
change of fortune? – in returning the territory.)

xi. To soften. – A dash is used to soften a statement that could give

offense. (e.g., We cannot accept your explanation – that is, without
further verification.)

2. Kinds of dashes

The dash exists in different lengths. The most common dash is the “em
dash,” which in typeset has the width of capital M. the “en dash” is shorter
than the “em dash” but longer than the hyphen. The en dash is used:

i. As replacement for hyphen, following a prefix that is added to an

open compound;

ii. As the equivalent of “up to and including” when used between

numbers, dates, or other notations to indicate range;

iii. As replacement for the word “to” between capital names; and

iv. To indicate linkages.

A two – em dash is used to indicate missing letters in a word less

frequently, to indicate a missing word.

A three – em dash indicates that a word has been left out or that an
unknown word or figure is to be supplied.

3. Dash and other punctuations

The dash suggests some decisiveness; the ellipses, some confusion or

decisiveness. When the dash appears at a point in a sentence where a
comma could also be used, the dash is preferred.

33
 While the colon gives warning and leads into something, the dash cuts off
the message without warning in order to make the words that come after
it, conspicuous. A dash and a colon cannot be used together. Where a dash
would come at a point in a sentence where a colon should also appear, the
colon is the one retained.

Whenever “dashed” materials end a sentence, the regular end-of-sentence

punctuation should be used – not the ending dash.

Who is the tall girl at the front desk – the one in the pink dress?

When exclamation points and question marks and question marks appears
in materials set off by a pair of dashes, the exclamation points or question
marks are replaced inside the second dash. A dash is placed inside
quotation marks when it punctuates the quoted matter only. It is placed
outside the quotation marks when it punctuates the whole sentence.

A dash can perform functions equivalent to those of the comma and the
terminal marks like (period, exclamation point, question mark). While it
can lend sometimes an air of surprise, it is a useful device for adding a
sense of movement to the writing.

A dash introduces something dramatic, while the parentheses, something

dull.

h. Exclamation Point

An exclamation point, also called an “exclamatory mark,” is used after

exclamatory sentences, or sentences that expresses surprise, emotion or deep
feeling. It directs a command of some sort. It is actually a period that wears a
canonical hat or “that blew its top.”

1. Uses of Exclamation points

Exclamation points are used:

i. To express strong feelings. - The exclamation point is used to

express

a. A command (e.g., Go!, Fire!, Advance!).

b. Extreme force in a statement.
c. Irony and sarcasm (e.g., “Big deal!” he replied.).
d. Surprise (e.g., Wow!).

34
 ii. To emphasize. – The exclamation point may be enclosed in
parentheses and place immediately after the word or words one
wants to emphasize.

iii. To Indicate. – The exclamation point is used to indicate:

a. A very forceful question. In this case, it may replace the

question mark because the emphatic tone is more intense
than the question. (e.g., You did what!)

b. Incredibility.

iv. To express praise. – An exclamation point is used to express

praise. (e.g., Congratulations!)

2. When Exclamation point not used

Never use an exclamation point when another mark will serve adequately
and properly. Except when an exclamation point appears in a quoted
material, it should not be used in legal writing. If there is a need to
emphasize a point, select emphatic words.

3. Exclamation points and other punctuation marks

To express surprise, emphasis or strong emotion, the exclamation point

may be used, both with the sentence and as a terminal mark of
punctuation. (e.g., What a mess you made!)

When an exclamation point is not a part of the words enclosed in

parentheses, it is placed outside the parentheses and at the end of the
sentence. If it is a part words enclosed in parentheses, it is put inside the
parentheses.

Example:

1. Don’t dare use bad words here like “hell!”

2. I said “and by heavens,” I mean it!

It the quoted sentence is an exclamation, the exclamation point is placed

within the terminating quotation mark. If only the final word is quoted in
an exclamatory sentence, place the exclamation point outside the
terminating quotation mark.

If an exclamation point ends a sentence in a quotation, no comma or

period is used (e.g., “Get lost!” she said).

35
 If the exclamation point is part of a title, as of a move, it may be followed
by a comma. When the exclamation mark punctuates materials enclosed
within brackets, dashes, parentheses and quotation marks and included as
part of the sentence, it should be placed within said enclosures. It should
be placed outside said enclosures when it punctuates the entire sentence.

The exclamation point in quoted passages falls inside the quotation marks.
(e.g., “That is a lie!” shouted the accused)

i. Ellipses

Ellipses are used to indicate an intentional omission from a quoted word, phrase,
clause, paragraph, or passage. They consist of three points or dots, and each point
is actually a period. They are placed on the line exactly where periods are placed.
They are also called “suspension points,” “ellipses periods,” and “ellipses mark.”
Some grammarians classify ellipses as peiods.

1. Uses of Ellipses

Ellipses are used:

i. To catch a reader’s attention. - Ellipses are sometimes used as a

stylish mark to catch a reader’s attention.

ii. To indicate. – Ellipses are used to indicate:

a. An interruption.

b. The omission of a word, phrase, line or paragraph within a

quoted passage. Use three points for this purpose. (e.g.,
“Give me liberty or . . . death.”)

c. The omission of words, phrase, line or paragraph at the

end of the quoted passage. Use for points for this purpose.
There are four points because the fourth point is the period
that ends the passage.

d. A pause in dialogues. (e.g., I think . . . our friend is guilty.)

e. That a sentence is unfinished and much more could be

said on the matter.

iii. To suggest faltering or fragmented speech. – Ellipses are used to

suggest faltering, fragmented or “dying away” speech, accompanied
by distress or uncertainty.

2. When Ellipses not used

36
 Ellipses should not be used:

i. Before or after a run-in-quotation (one that is not indented) of a

complete sentence.

ii. Before a block quotation beginning with a complete sentence.

iii. After a block quotation ending in a complete sentence.

3. Ellipses and other punctuation marks

To indicate an omission in a quotation, put the ellipses between the last

word quoted and the final punctuation. If the quotation ends with a
period, there will be four points within the closing mark.

If a fully quoted sentence is followed by ellipses mark, four points are also
used. The first point is the period for the preceding sentence and the
remaining three points are the usual ellipses.

If one or more paragraphs are omitted, use four points and begin the next
paragraph (which is indented) on the next line. If the quoted matter does
not begin a paragraph in the original source, the quotation is not indented
in a new paragraph and no ellipses marks are used.

If the sentence quoted ends with the quotation or exclamation mark, use
that mark rather than the period after the ellipses.

j. Hyphen

The hyphen is a mark of punctuation that is used in combining words to form

new words and in dividing words at the end of the lines. It is also used to avoid
ambiguities or to determine the relationship between words and between parts of
the same word.

The American method as used in Webster’s dictionaries is to divide the words

according to their pronunciation. The British method id to divide the words
according to their derivatives.

1. Uses of the Hyphen

Hyphens have the following uses:

i. To Avoid

37
 a. Ambiguities by separating certain words. A hyphen is used
when the resulting word might be confused with a similar
word of different meaning.

Example:

1. 200 – odd people (meaning “about 200 people”)

and 200 odd people (meaning 200 people).

2. Re-cover (meaning “to cover again”) and recover

(meaning “to become well again after an illness).

3. Re-count (meaning “to count again”) and recount

(meaning to tell a story or incident).

b. The juxtaposition of two vowels (re-entry, re-elect, co-

operative).

ii. To combine

a. Two simple adjectives preceding the noun they modify

when they are used to express the idea of a unit (e.g., ten-
foot ceiling). If the adjectives follow the noun they modify,
they are not hyphenated (a ceiling of ten foot).

b. Two adjectives preceding a noun which they modify and

are independent of each other.

c. An adjective and a past participle when used before a noun

(e.g., rosy-cheeked girl).

d. An adjective and a present participle when used before a

noun.

e. An adjective and a word ending in “ed”(e.g., good-natured;

hard-headed).

f. Two words to form an adjectival compound (e.g., decision-

making process; better-paid work; lesser-known evil). There
are some exceptions to this rule (e.g., social security benefits;
high school students). When the two words are combined to
be used as nouns, they are not hyphenated (e.g., Good
decision making is important).

g. The elements of an adjective compound that starts with:

1. all (e.g., all-embracing clause);

38
 2. half (e.g., half-eaten food), and

3. quasi (quasi-judicial body).

h. Other elements of a compound adjective when placed

before the nouns they qualify (e.g., an up-to-date report; a
balance-of-payment problem; matter-of-fact approach; on-
the-job training).

i. Adverbs and participles when placed before a noun (e.g.,

well-founded position; fast-moving vehicle).

j. A cardinal number and a unit of measurement when used

before a noun (1000-meter race; one-inch margin).

k. A cardinal number and the word “odd” when used before

and after a noun (e.g., 175-odd passengers; 15-odd
delegates).

l. Two nouns that are different but are of equal importance

(e.g., city-state; author-critic; artist-composer). However, as
the new word formed by combining words with hyphen
become of common use, the hyphen is dropped off and the
new word is spelled as two words. Later, the steady
evaluation of the language accepts the union of the two
words (e.g., bell-boy, bell boy, bellboy).

m. Nouns formed from verbs and prepositions like “in,”

“out,” “off,” “over,” and “up” (e.g., take-over; shake-up).

n. Nouns formed from phrasal verbs.

o. A noun and an adjective when preceding a noun (e.g.,

blood-red wine; pitch-dark night).

p. Words formed by reduplication and where each of the

elements is made up of more than one syllable (e.g., razzle –
dazzle).

q. 1. The prefix “semi” with words beginning with “i”

(semi-internal or words beginning with capital letters
like semi-Oriental).

2. The prefix “self,” “non,” “pre” and “ex’ with the

main words (e.g., ex-wife; self-service; pre-law).

39
 Most words with the prefix “co” and “pro” have
dropped the hyphen (e.g., cooperative; cooperate).

3. Prefix before a capitalized noun (e.g., un-American

activity; Anti-Tuberculosis Society).

4. A prefix joined to a proper noun or adjective (e.g.,

post-war; ante-deluvian).

5. A prefix ending in a vowel from the main word with

the same vowel as its first letter (e.g., re-enactment;
re-establish; re-enter).

6. A prefix ending with a consonant or consonants

which will be tripled when joined with the main word
beginning with the same consonant or consonants.

7. A prefix ending with a vowel and the main word

also begins with the same vowel (e.g., co-owner; anti-
inflation). Exceptions to this rule are cooperate,
reentry, preempt.

r. 1. A suffix “elect” with the main word (e.g., mayor-

elect).
2. The suffix “fold” with a numeral (e.g, increased 20-
fold).
3. A suffix if the addition of the suffix would create a
sequence of three identical letters (e.g., bell-like).

4. Compounds formed with a suffix if the addition of

the suffix would create a sequence of three identical
letters (e.g., bell-like).

iii. To divide

a. The word at the end of a line when a part of the word is to

be carried over to the next line. The division should be made
after a vowel, unless the resulting break changes the
pronunciation (e.g., crit-cism; liga-ture; physi-cal). A letter
that influences the pronunciation of another letter should
not be separated from it at a line-break. A word should be
split in such a way that the former part suggest the whole
word. Hyphenated words are divided at the hyphen that
connects them (e.g., clearing-house to clearing house).
However, mono-syllables should not be divided but should
be carried over in their entirely to the next line; like-wise

40
 numerals, including those used with names should not be
split (e.g., Henry VI, Elizabeth I).

b. Serial numbers to make them more readable.

c. A verb derived from an open or hyphenated compound

noun (e.g., blue-pencil; secret-talk).

iv. To express rations in words or figures (e.g., a fifty-fifty chance; a

2 – 1 exchange rate).

v. To indicate:

a. Dialectical or careless pronunciation (e.g., They were a-

driven the whole week).

b. Shuttering or any hesitation in speaking (e.g., W-e-ll,”

Jose stammered, “I like t-t tomatoes”).

c. An unbroken sequence (e.g., from 1950 – 1956).

d. “From – to” travel points (e.g., Manila – Cebu; Manila –

Hongkong).

vi. To make:

a. A word clear from its homonym (e.g., recover – recover).

b. The relationship of the words constituting compound

more apparent (e.g., a picture – framing shop).

vii. To separate:

a. Letters from figures (e.g., B-17 bombers; A – 1 condition).

b. Letters from words (e.g., X-ray).

c. Words of an open or a hyphenated compound from which

a verb is derived (e.g., double – check; sweet – talk).

d. Compound adjectives after the nouns they modify if they

function as unit modifier (e.g., His ideas are high – minded).

e. The numerator and the denominator of a fraction that is

written out when that fraction is used as a modifier (e.g., a
one – fourth down payment).

41
 f. Numbers of buildings (e.g, Building 1 – A).

g. Numbers when spelled (e.g., twenty-six; fifty-one).

h. Fractions when spelled (e.g., one-half; one-fourth).

i. Numbers that form the first part of a compound modifier

expressing measurement (e.g., a 25-hectare land; a 6-foot
board). The said rule does not apply when the second part of
the modifier is the word “present” (e.g., a ten percent
discount).

j. Each word in a series of words with a common ending. The

hyphen in this case works to achieve brevity and is called
“suspending hyphen.” (e.g., Do want ten-twenty-thirty or
fifty kilo bags?)

k. Capitalized names standing together (e.g., the Quezon –

Osmena tandem; the Manila – Madrid fight).

l. The elements of some nouns formed from phrasal verbs

(e.g., take-over; fly-past; passers-by).

m. Numbers from 21 to 99 when spelled out (e.g., twenty-

one; ninety – nine).

n. Prepositional phrases that describe a character (e.g., stay-

at-home; stick-in-the-mud).

o. Telephone numbers (e.g., 81-203-548).

p. Units of measurements (e.g., kilowatt-hour; column-inch).

viii. To show how:

a. The structures or spelling of a word (e.g., The prefix of this

word is p-e-r, not p-r-e).

b. Direction (e.g., east-southeast).

c. That two or more words are to be treated as a single word

(e.g., mother-in-law; sister-in-law).

ix. To take the place of the phrase “up to and including” between
numbers and dates (e.g., 1941 – 1945; Room Nos. 101 – 105).

2. When Hyphens not used

42
Hyphens are not used:

i. To separate prefixes and suffixes from their main words (e.g.,

anteroom; antenuptia; misinformed; dishonorable);

There are exceptions to this rule. The prefix “anti” is separated from
the main word if said word begins with a letter “i” or a capital letter.
There are some words where the said prefix is separated from the
main word by a hyphen (e.g., anti-aircraft; anti-hero; anti-
personnel);

ii. To separate suffixes from the main words (e.g., tenfold;

meanness; lengthwise);

iii. To separate words that can be written better as one word (e.g.,
waterfowl, not water-fowl).

Compounds composed of two words that are short and pronounced

with the stress on the first word are usually written solid (e.g.,
teapot; catfish; handsaw). Compound generated by word-forming
prefixes are not hyphenated except:

a. When the second elements is a capitalized word or a

number;

b. When the compound has to be distinguished from

homonyms;

c. When the second element consists of more than one word;

d. When the last letter of the prefix is the same as the first
letter of the word;

e. When the prefix stands alone in the compound; and

f. When the prefix is used in a newly invented compound

that has not yet become familiar.

iv. An adjective that is composed of a number followed by a noun in

the possessive (e.g., a five days’ vacation);

v. To separate compound adjectives:

a. of three or more words when they follow the noun they

modify (e.g., His report was off the record); and

43
 b. When the follow the noun they modify and are not unit
modifiers (e.g., He is ill prepared).

vi. To separate compound adverbs whose first word ends in “ly”

(e.g., highly developed region);

vii. To separate double terms denoting a single office or rank (e.g.,

Solicitor General Padilla);

viii. To separate nouns or adjectives followed by man, woman,

person or people, that denotes an occupation (e.g., salesperson,
spokesperson);

ix. To separate a verb followed by an adverb (e.g., get together);

x. To separate a verb followed by a preposition (e.g., put down);

xi. To separate a particle formed by a verb (e.g., upgrade, bypass);

xii. To separate a verb delivered from a solid noun (e.g., bankcool);

xiii. To separate comparatives and superlatives made up of “more”

or “most” and an adjective or adverb (e.g., more favorable, standing
ovation);

xiv. To combine an adjective and a noun (e.g., automatic weapons,

religious freedom);

xv. To combine two short nouns which are of common use and with
nearly equal stress on both nouns (e.g., fuel oil, duffle bag); and

xvi. To combine temporary a long noun and another long noun

(e.g., television camera, wildlife sanctuary).

3. Cases when there is no fixed rule

In law, most rules have exceptions and there are even cases when there are
exceptions to the exceptions which do not fall under the general rule. The
same is true in the case of the use of the hyphen.

However, there are cases when two different rules are in force with respect
to the use of hyphen. This situation is due to the fact that the rules of
grammar are not made by legislative bodies. Hence, there are no fixed
rules in the following cases:

i. Compounds of three or four elements, are either hyphenated or

open (e.g., pick-me-up; justice of the peace);

44
 ii. Compounds consisting of a noun and a preposition phrase (e.g.,
lily of the valley; jack of all trades);

iii. Compounds composed of a noun followed by an adjective

(consul general; secretary general);

iv. Compounds consisting of a possessive noun followed by another

noun are written hyphenated or open (e.g., cat’s-paw; cat’s cradle);

v. Compounds consisting of long participles and nouns are

hyphenated or open (e.g., Off-season; Off-year);

vi. Compounds formed by adverbs, especially those ending “ly,”

which are followed by participles and placed before nouns are either
hyphenated or open (e.g., a widely-read-read writer; a widely read
writer);

vii. A few three-words adverbs are either hyphenated or written

open (e.g., off-the-cuff remarks; spoke of the cuff); and

viii. Short words with one syllable and in which both elements may
have primary stress, are either spelled solid or hyphenated (e.g.,
topsy-turvy; crisis-cross). Some compounds that are written solid
may be written open, or hyphenated to avoid ambiguity to ensure
comprehension or to make the pronunciation clearer (e.g., tri-city;
un-iced; bi-level).

4. Hyphen and other punctuation marks

Technically, a hyphen is an “en-dash” whereas the dash is an “em-dash.”

In typescript, a hyphen is used for an “en-dash.”

k. Parentheses

1. Uses of Parentheses

Parentheses are curved punctuation marks used like commas and dashes,
to enclose new materials inside a sentence. But unlike commas, the
material enclosed in parentheses have little connection with the context of
the sentence. Unlike dashes, parentheses are used to de-emphasize the
importance of the enclosed matter. Parentheses are actually interruptions
and tend to slow up communication from writer to reader. Often the
materials enclosed in parentheses have no grammatical relationship to the
sentence in which they appear. The marks are sometimes called “curved of
parentheses.”

45
The word “parentheses” came from the Latin word “para,” which means
“beside” and “entithenai,” meaning “to insert.” The singular form of the
word is “parenthesis.”

Parentheses consist of the “opening mark,” the one before, and the
“closing mark,” the one after the enclosed matter. A word, phrase, clause
or sentence enclosed in parentheses, out it, is called a parenthetical
statement.

2. Uses of parentheses

i. To Enclose. – Parentheses are used to enclose:

a. Words used as appositives;

b. The names of a city or province that is inserted into a

proper noun for identification (e.g., The Ateneo Univeristy
(Naga, Camp. Sur);

c. Cross-references;

d. Definitions, translations, or alternatives;

e. The number of editions and place of publications in

bibliographic notes;

f. Question marks to express doubt or which comes after a

piece of information whose accuracy the writer is uncertain
(e.g., He was born on April 24 (?), 1950;

g. Examples when these are necessary but not important

enough to be defined separately. Sometimes it is convenient
to include examples to make statements easier to understand
(e.g., Crimes against person (murder, homicide, physical
injuries) are usually considered more serious than crimes
against property);

h. Exclamation marks used to express irony (e.g., Pedro is

benevolent, he denotes P100.00 (!) annually to charity out of
a million-peso income);

i. Material that serve to identify or make clear some elements

in the sentence (e.g., Jose Reyes (the congressman, not the
judge) was the guest of honor);

j. Figures or letters that “tag” or indicate enumerated items

in a series;

46
 Example:

1. Article III of the Articles of Incorporation;

2. Article V of the By-laws; and
3. Article 3 of the Code of Discipline.

k. Materials remotely connected with the context of a

sentence but which gives additional information useful to the
reader (This issue is the Journal (March 1995) includes a
digest of the decision of the Supreme Court for the year
1999);

l. Numeric dates, including Arabic numerals confirming

spelled-out numbers and other mathematical expressions
(One Hundred Thousand Pesos (P100,000.00);

m. Personal asides; and

n. Quotation marks that support a statement made in the

texts.

ii. To Indicate. – Parentheses are used to indicate:

a. Abbreviations of spelled-out words. – For example, if one

of the parties in your pleading is the Manila Electric
Company and you want to use the abbreviation “MERALCO”
in the text, write out the complete name the first time you see
it and then put the abbreviation in parenthesis after the
name. There is no need to state “hereinafter referred to as”
before the abbreviation. (e.g., MANILA ELECTRIC
COMPANY (“MERALCO”);

b. Authority. – The authority for the statement, bibliographic

date, cross-reference, comments about a text and direction.
(e.g., The procedure for filing claims with the NLRC has been
discussed previously. (p. 111); and

c. The error or omission in quoted materials. (e.g., “President

Queson (Quezon) was born in Baler, Tayabas.”).

iii. To Refer. – Parentheses are used to refer to the transcript of the

stenographic notes, citations of authorities or an appendix. (e.g.,
Defendant paid his first installment payment on January, 1995
(T.S.N. August 11, 1994, p. 11).

3. Parentheses and other punctuation marks

47
i. If a full sentence is not contained within another sentence, the
punctuation of the full sentence should be before the closing
parenthesis. The preceding sentence has its own end mark;

Example:

1. Open the package carefully. (Do not destroy the carton)

2. Juan was the culprit. (You better believe that!)

ii. If the material enclosed in parentheses is not a complete sentence

and falls at the end of the sentence, the end mark is placed outside
the closing mark. No end period is placed after the first sentence.
(e.g., The Plaintiff filed a rejoinder (Annex “E”);

iii. Other parenthetical expressions with a sentence are treated as

words in themselves that end with the closing parenthesis. A
punctuation required by the sentence, like a comma, semicolon or
period, is placed outside the closing mark;

iv. Place the question mark and exclamation point inside the
parenthetical material if it is a question or exclamation; otherwise,
the question mark and exclamation point should be placed outside
the closing parenthesis. (e.g., No one was prepared (why should
they have been?) for the attack);

v. If the parenthetical sentence is written inside another sentence,

the parenthetical sentence is begun with a capital letter. If the
parenthetical sentence is written inside another sentence, the
parenthetical is begun with a letter in the lower case. As adverted to
before, the end punctuation in a full sentence should be inside the
closing mark;

vi. Do not use any mark of punctuation before the opening mark;

vii. Place after the closing mark any regular sentence punctuation.
(If you call me next Monday (Tel. No. 631-1010), we will have the
information for you;

viii. Place inside the closing mark, any punctuation mark,

exclamatory point or abbreviation period that belongs to the word
enclosed in parentheses;

ix. Parenthetical expressions within sentences may have any

internal punctuation needed to make them grammatical and
understandable;

48
 x. Periods come outside a parenthetical expression when a full
sentence is not set off parenthetically;

xi. Parenthetical expressions within a sentence are treated as words

in themselves that end with the last parenthesis. A punctuation
required by the sentence falls outside the parenthesis;

xii. Commas, semicolons and periods are place outside the closing
mark. (e.g., Open the package carefully (do not puncture the
carton); and

xiii. Place the question mark and exclamation point inside the
parenthetical materials if the latter is itself a question or
exclamation, otherwise place both the parentheses outside. (e.g., No
one prepared (Why should they have been?) for the attack).

4. Parentheses and Mechanics

i. Independent, separate and complete sentences enclosed in in

parentheses which are not part of any other sentences, use the
ordinary rules of capitalization and punctuation. Thus, the first
word in such a sentences is capitalized and a period is placed at the
end within the second mark.

However, an independent sentence, placed inside another sentence

is not terminated by the period.

a. Do not capitalize the first word of a parenthetical element,

included in a sentence unless that first word is a proper
noun.

ii. When words enclosed in parentheses are not part of a sentence

but are entirely independent, the first word is capitalized and the
end punctuation is placed inside the closing mark.

l. Period

Next to the comma, the period is the most used mark of punctuation. It is one of
the three end marks of full stops, the others being the question mark and the
exclamation point. It ends all sentences that are not questions or exclamations. It
says, “This is the end of the sentence.” It is also placed at the end of a group of
words used a sentence, even though they not continue a complete sentence.

1. Uses of period

i. To End. - Periods are used to end:

49
 a. Abbreviations (e.g., Mister – Mr.; barrel – bbl.; feet – ft.);

When the last two word of a sentence is not abbreviation, the

period after the abbreviation also serves as the period ending
the sentence.

Example:

1. The train leaves at 7 A.M.

If the abbreviation is placed in the middle of a

sentence, a comma is used separate it from the rest of
the sentence.

2. The train leaves at 7 a.m., except on Sundays when

it leaves at 10:30 A.M.

b. Complete sentence;

c. Contractions that do not make use of apostrophes (Wm. –

William);

d. Declarative or declaratory sentences. Interrogative and

exclamatory sentences use the question mark and the
exclamatory sentences use the question mark and the
exclamatory mark, respectively. (e.g., Decisions of the Court
of the Appeals are appealable to the Supreme Court);

e. Imperative sentences that do not command or express

strong emotion, like a request. (e.g., Please take this book to
Juan);

f. Indirect questions, which are statements that recast direct

questions in the writer’s own words. Likewise, when a
question is intended as a suggestion and the listener is not
expected to answer, a period is used as part of the sentence.
(e.g., Judge Reyes asked whether they had been mailed); and

g. Words or phrase used as a sentence (e.g., Yes. Delighted).

ii. To Guide. – Periods are used to guide the reader’s eye across to a
page of reference in tables of contents of books. For this purpose, a
line of periods called “leaders” is used.

iii. To Separate. – Periods are used to separate:

50
 a. Parts of abbreviations (e.g., B.C. – before Christ; A.M. –
ante-meridian; P.M. – post-meridian);

b. Letters and numbers used to enumerate items in a vertical

list;

Example:

The events are The Cites are:

a. The Bay of Pigs. 1. Baguio City.

b. The Berlin Airlift. 2. Pasay City.
c. The Seven Day War. 3. Cagayan de Oro.
d. The Cry of Balintawak. 4. Pasig City.

c. Pesos and Centavos (e.g., P100.15);

d. Decimals (e.g., 3.75%); and

e. Person’s initials (e.g., J.B. Roldan).

iv. To Indicate. – Periods are used to indicate:

a. The omission of certain words from a quoted passage. In

this case, three periods are used. (see topics on ellipses).

b. Hesitation or interruption in a dialogue or a narrative. For

this purpose, four periods are used if they are placed at the
end of the sentence and three if they are placed inside the
sentence. (see topics on ellipses).

2. When Period not used

Periods are not used in the following cases:

i. After abbreviations of well-known publications (e.g., DMHM);

ii. After acronyms (e.g., CATV; MERALCO; UNESCO);

iii. After contractions, like “don’t,” “doesn’t,” “aren’t,” “isn’t,” and

“won’t.” While they are shortened words, they are not true
abbreviations;

iv. After headings or titles (e.g., THE FALL OF BATAAN);

v. After items in a tabulated list if one or more of the items are not
complete sentences;

51
 Example:

The Chapter is divided into:

1. The introduction
2. When to use a period
3. When not to use a period

vi. After nicknames or shortened forms of words (e.g., Bill, Sam,

Ben);

vii. After nouns that are followed by personal pronouns for

emphasis. (e.g., Plaintiff himself appeared at the pre-trial);

viii. After ordinal numbers when used as parts of names (e.g., 1 st

Battalion, 2nd Division, 3rd Brigade);

ix. After Roman numerals when with names (e.g., Elizabeth II);

x. After numbers or letters enclosed in parentheses;

xi. After sentences that end with an abbreviation. If a sentence ends

with an abbreviated words, the period after the word is enough. In
other words, do not use two periods to end the sentence;

xii. After sentences that are included within another sentences and
enclosed in parentheses. (e.g., The snow (I caught a glimpse of it as
I passed the window) was falling heavily);

xiii. After familiar shortened forms of words (e.g., auto, cab, taxi);
and

xiv. Between letters indicating the names of broadcasting station

(e.g., ABS-CBN, NBA, CNN).

3. Period and other Punctuation

i. A period is placed within quotation marks even if it does not

punctuate the quoted material. (e.g., Pedro is called by his
employees as “El Capitan”;

ii. When parentheses and brackets enclose an independent

sentence, the periods are placed inside said enclosed sentence. (e.g.,
Our legal counsel insisted on rewriting the paragraph);

52
 iii. The periods are placed outside the parentheses or brackets when
the enclosed matter forms part of the preceding statement. (e.g.,
Orders were placed for F-14 aircraft (then still in development);

iv. Inside a sentence, an abbreviation period is followed by any

mark which normally would be used. (e.g., This is the meaning of
A.W.O.L.: absent without official leave);

v. If a declarative sentence ends with an abbreviation, used only one

period. (e.g., He lives in Albany, N.Y.); and

vi. If an interrogative or exclamatory sentence ends with an

abbreviation, the question mark or exclamation point follows the
period after the abbreviation. (e.g., Is he still living in Albany,
N.Y.?).

m. Question Mark

The question mark, sometimes called the “interrogatory point,” is a terminal

mark of punctuation. Like the period and exclamatory mark, it is still stop. In
speech, the speaker raises his voice at the end of the sentence to show that he is
raising a query. In writing, the question mark performs the said function.

1. Uses of question mark

i. To Indicate. - Question marks are used to indicate:

a. A doubt or uncertainty. A question mark enclosed in

parentheses and placed after a word in a sentence means
that the word is of doubtful information. Its use suggests the
failure of research and study. Hence, use it for such purpose
sparingly. (e.g., Pedro was born on April (?) 1, 1950.);

b. A request (e.g., Will you please send me my October bill?);

and

c. A series of questions in the same sentence. (e.g., Are you

joining? Is your sister? Your brother Pedro?).

ii. To Terminate. – Question marks are used to terminate:

a. A direct question or interrogation;

Example:

1. Who is the one who did this?

53
 Note: Sometimes a sentence begins as a statement and ends as a
question.

2. You will return the book tomorrow, will you not?

b. An expression that asks a question and stands as a

statement. (e.g., How many lawyers attended? Sixty?);

c. A humor. The question mark is enclosed in parentheses

and placed after the element it describes. (e.g., The
newspaper reported that the President delivered a short (?)
speech.); and

d. A sentence that asks a question.

2. When question mark not used

Do not use the question mark in a technically, superficially interrogative

sentence. These are merely requests prompted by courtesy, anger or some
strong emotions.

Example:

1. How are you?

2. May I have this magazine?

3. Please return to your seats, will you?

3. Question mark and other punctuation marks

i. A question mark may be replaced by an exclamation mark when

irony or an emphatic tone is meant. (e.g., How could you!);

ii. A single question mark comes inside quotation marks when both
the non-quoted and quoted elements are questions; and

iii. Capitalize the first word after a question mark if it begins a

complete sentence.

n. Quotation Mark

A quotation mark is a mark of enclosure for words, phrases, clauses, sentences,

and even paragraphs and groups of paragraphs to indicate the beginning and of
quoted materials. It is used to set-off the exact words said or written by
somebody. The word “quotation” means “copying or repeating what someone has

54
said or written.” Quotation marks, whether double or single, always come in
pairs.

1. Uses of double quotation marks

i. To Emphasize. - A quotation mark is used to emphasize a thought

by enclosing an expression having specific limited usage. The use of
quotation mark is intended to achieve special effects.

ii. To Enclose. – A quotation mark is used to enclose:

a. A different level of writing. (e.g., President Garcia told

Speaker Perez that the resolution of the House was
“cockneyed.”);

b. A direct quotation is the repetition of someone’s exact

words;

If the quotation is split, each part of the interrupted

quotation begins and ends with the quotes. A quoted
material that is only two or three lines long is enclosed in
quotation marks and included as part of the regular text.

Direct quotations contain within the quotation marks the

ending punctuation to indicate the quoted element is
demonstrative, interrogative, imperative or another kind of
sentence.

A quotation within a quotation may itself contain a third

quotation. In such a case, a double quotation encloses the
main quotation, a single quotation, the second quotation,
and s double quotation, the third quotation. Writers,
however, should avoid such complexities.

c. Fragments of quoted material included in a sentence;

d. Words or phrases borrowed from others;

e. Words used in an ironic sense;

f. Short sentences falling within a longer sentence. (e.g.,

Throughout our mission, the spirit was “Never say die.”);

Other writers omit the quotation marks and just separate the
short sentence with a comma.

55
 g. Words of marked informality or which are considered odd
or unusual, like a jargon used in formal writing. (e.g., I
thought she was a “knockout.”);

h. The representation of sounds. (e.g., “Ssshh!” she said);

i. Technical terms. (e.g., This is a heavily “watered stock.”);

j. The titles of chapters and the titles of articles in a

magazine, poems, songs, and short stories. The titles of
books, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets or bulletins are
usually italicized in print and underlined when hand or typed
written. When both the chapter heading and the title of the
book are cited, or when both the names of the articles and
that of the magazine in which it appears are given, use italics
for the magazine and quotation marks for the article. (e.g.,
The article was published in the Graphic Magazine and was
entitled “Freedom and Progress.”);

k. The titles of poems, essays, short stories, and musical

compositions;

l. A word in quotation marks to call the reader’s attention to

the word of passage or to show that he does not himself
accept the word as a standard usage;

m. In informal writing, a word referred to as word. The

quotation marks indicate that the word is used to refer to the
word itself, rather than its meaning. In formal writing, the
same word is put in italics or underlined. (e.g., Do you know
what “double jeopardy” means?).

iii. To Indicate. – A quotation mark is used to indicate:

a. The definition when a word and its definition appears in

the same sentence. The word itself is italicized or underlined;

b. The names of ships, trains, and airplanes. (e.g., The cargo

was loaded on the “Queen of the Ocean.”); and

c. A change of speaker in a dialogue, together with a new

paragraph. (e.g., This is also used in the transcript of trials
and hearings.).

iv. To Set Off. – A quotation mark is used to set off:

56
 a. The words of a speaker from the rest of the sentence. (e.g.,
“The flight is scheduled for Tuesday,” said the pilot.); and

b. Both parts of the broken quotation.

v. To Show a Change of Speaker. – A quotation mark is used to

show a change of speaker in a dialogue. The quoted statement is
placed in a separate paragraph.

2. Uses of single quotation mark

The single quotation mark is used to enclose a quotation within a

quotation. In a quotation within another quotation, the correct
punctuation marks are first, double quotation marks for the main
quotation, single marks for the quotation within, and double marks again
for the last quotation. British practice is, however, the reverse, where
single quotation marks are used to enclose a quotation and double marks
are used to enclose quotation with a quotation.

3. When quotation mark not used

i. Do not enclose a direct discourses and questions, unless they

represent a quoted dialogue. Questions introduced by “that” are
indirect discourses. (e.g., The question is, somos o somos?);

ii. Do not enclose a paraphrase with quotation marks. This is like an

indirect quotation;

iii. Do not use quotation marks with display quotations or

quotations used as ornament to the text rather than as part of the
text itself;

iv. Legal maxims, proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of

literary origin are not enclosed in quotation marks;

v. Quotation marks are not used with long passages and epigraphs.
Instead, the material is single spaced and indented as separate
paragraphs, called extracts or block paragraphs. Sometimes the
paragraphs are printed in a smaller type;

vi. Titles of books, movies, newspapers and magazines unlike this

titles of magazine, articles or chapters of books, are not enclosed in
a quotation marks;

57
 vii. In informal writing, unlike in informal writing, words which are
referred to as words, are not enclosed in quotation marks. The
words are put in italics or more underlined; and

viii. Do not enclose with quotation marks the words “yes” and “no,”
except in direct discourses.

4. Quotation mark and other punctuation marks

The first word of a direct quotation is capitalized. If the quotation is split,

the first word of the second part of the interrupted quotation is not
capitalized, unless the second part begins a new sentence or is a proper
noun. Capitalize the first word in a quotation. (e.g., “Sign it,” Shouted the
general).

The period and the comma always go inside the quotation, whether they
are part of the quoted material or not. Where the end of a quotation is also
the end of the sentence, the period falls inside the quotation, whether it is
a part of the quote or not. (e.g., Pedro said, “You will be sorry if you don’t
go.”).

A comma is also placed inside the quotation mark, whether it is a part of

the quotation or not. When a quotation is followed by an attributive
phrase, the comma to separate the quotation is enclosed within the
quotation marks. (e.g., “I can’t attend,” she said.).

Question marks and exclamation points are placed inside the final
quotation mark if they are part of the quoted material; otherwise, they are
placed outside the quotation marks. So if the entire sentence is a question,
the question mark falls outside the quotation mark. (What is the meaning
of “nullum crimes nulla poena sine lege?”).

Colons and semicolons are always placed outside the quotation marks.
Example:

1. The subjects are part of “remedial law:” jurisdictions, procedure,

venue, pleadings, and appeals.

2. Read Holmes’ “The Common Law;” then write a book summary

about it.

If the quoted words constitute a question forming a part of a sentence, the

question mark falls inside the quotation. (e.g., “Is that true?” asked the
lawyer.)

58
 The question mark at the close of the entire sentence that is quoted falls
inside the quotation mark. Use only one mark of punctuation at the end of
a sentence ending with a quotation.

Never use two forms of punctuation at the end of a quotation. When the
entire sentence is a question but the quoted portion is not, place the
question mark after the closing quotation. (Did the fiscal say “meet at the
office?”).

If the quotation is a question or an exclamation and it precedes an

identifying phrase, the comma is replaced by a question mark as in an
exclamation point.

Example:

1. “Who will argue for the defense?” the judge asked.

2. “Quiet!” the teacher shouted.

In the case of lengthy quotes, the quotation marks may be omitted if the
lines of the quotation are made shorter than full measure that is, by
indenting the lines. In that way the quoted material is clearly distinguished
from the reminder of the text.

If you are changing or adding a letter or a word in a quotation to make it

grammatically correct, put a bracket around it. If you are adding “sic,” put
it also in a bracket. Add “sic” to inform the reader that the error in the text
was in the original.

A quotation used as the direct object of a verb is preceded by a comma and

enclosed in quotation marks. (e.g., I am reminded of the advice of my
neighbor, “Never worry about your heart till it stops beating.”).

When writing dialogues, begin a new paragraph each time the speaker
changes.

o. Semicolon

The semicolon is a mark of separation or division. It is never used to produce,

enclose, or to terminal statement. “Semi” means “half” and “semicolon” means
“half a colon.” Before, colons and semicolons were used interchangeably. There is
suggestion that a “semicolon” be called “semi-period,” “half-period,” “reduced
period” or “double comma” because of its functions.

A semicolon performs a function that is between that of a comma and a period. It

is stronger than a comma because it marks a more definite break between two
sentence elements. It is weaker than a period because it indicates a readily

59
discernible relationship between the sentence elements. It performs a certain
degree of both separation and unification.

1. Uses of semicolon

i. To Separate. - A semicolon is used to separate:

a. Two or more coordinate clauses which are closely related

in thought. (e.g., Jose Reyes was a poet; he was also a
bricklayer.);

b. Coordinate clauses joined by adverbs, if one or both of the

clauses contain internal punctuation. If a sentence consists
of two or more clauses, each considerable length and
containing commas, the clauses may be separated by
semicolons in the interest of clarity. (e.g., Arellano follows
Greek, Roman, and Byzantine architecture; but Recto uses
his own original design.);

c. Coordinate clauses joined by a special kind of adverb used

as a conjunction (the conjunctive adverb), like “also,”
“anyhow,” “as a result,” “besides,” “consequently,” “for
example,” “furthermore,” “hence,” “however,” “in addition,”
“indeed,” and “in fact.” (e.g., Moderns husbands are slaves
of the wives; for example, they now babysit and bottle-feed
their babies.);

d. To separate clauses and phrases of great length. (e.g.,

Success in life, so some maintain, requires intelligence,
industry and honesty; but others, fewer in number, assert
that any personality is important.);

e. To separate clauses and series of words in which extreme

clearness is desired; and

f. To separate elements of equal parts of a sentence even if

these elements are less than complete statements. (e.g., The
Bible reading for the day includes Genesis 2:4-6; Judges 2:3;
Romans 2:1-4.).

ii. To Show Changes. – A semicolon is used to show a change in the

speaker in the transcript of proceedings.

2. When semicolon not used

Do not use a semicolon when a person is more appropriate. Use a period:

60
 i. Where the relationship between the two independent clauses is
not strong enough to warrant making only one sentence out of
them;

ii. If the independent clauses are parallel in form;

iii. If the two independent clauses are not joined by a conjunctive

adverb; and

iv. Between clauses ore phrases or words which are not coordinate
in rank.

3. Semicolon and other punctuation marks

A semicolon at the close of a quotation falls outside the quotation marks.

(e.g., Read Holmes’ “The Common Law”; the write a report about common
law.).

p. Slash

The slash is a short diagonal stroke or slanting mark used as a mark of

separation. The slash is also called a bar, virgule, diagonal, solidus, oblique, slant
or slant line. “Virgule” is a pedantic word from the Latin “virgule,” meaning a rod.

Printers prefer to call the slash, the bar.

1. Uses of slash

A slash is used:

i. To indicate alternatives. It may show that either of two words may

be used in interpreting the sense of the expression. (e.g.,
yours/mine);

ii. To replace the words “per” (e.g., 100 Km/Hr), “divided by” (e.g.,
price/earnings ratio) and “to” (e.g., Manila/Baguio). In the phrase
“price/earning ratio,” the slash can be replaced by a hyphen (e.g.,
price-earning ratio);

iii. To replace a word in an abbreviation (e.g., “w/o” meaning “water

in oil”; “c/o” meaning “care of”);

iv. Take the place of “and” (e.g., Manila/Cebu);

v. To separate numbers in dates, like a month-day-year
combination in informal writing (e.g., 12/25/2021);

vi. To indicate fractions (e.g., ¼; ½; ¾; 3/8; 5/8);

61
 vii. To indicate line breaks in poetry. The slash is used in this case to
divide lines of poetry when written in continuous text and not in
indented verse forms. If more than one line of poetry is run into the
text, the end of the line is marked by a slash. The slash may be
omitted where each line begins with a capital;

viii. To indicate that two or more words are simultaneously

applicable (e.g., his/her; either/or);

ix. To indicate the delivery of items free of charge (e.g., “520/500”

meaning while 520 copies are delivered, the buyer will pay for only
500 copies);

x. To replace some prepositions like “at” (e.g., U.P./Dagupan City),

“versus” (e.g., Catholic/Protestant issue), “with” (table/chair) or
“for” (Assistant Manager/Public Relations);

xi. To replace “and” in some compound terms (e.g., in the

November/December issues);

xii. To punctuate some abbreviations (e.g., c/o; S/Sgt.); and

xiii. To divide lines of poetry when written in continuous texts.

2. Slash and other punctuation marks

The slash is sometimes used in place of the hyphen in compound nouns

with elements which are also compounds (e.g., senior vice
president/director of public relation relations).

q. Miscellaneous Marks

Certain marks are concerned with spelling, pronunciation, typography, and

mechanics, rather than with punctuation. These are the accent mark, asterisk,
caret, and other typographical marks, like the brace, breve, macron, and ditto
marks.

1. Accent marks are used to distinguish between various sounds of the

same letters contained in words borrowed into English from foreign
languages. Hence, they are concerned more with pronunciation. The
accent marks are: the acute, cedilla, circumflex, dieresis, grave accent, tilde
and umlaut.

i. Acute. – This mark is used only on words borrowed from foreign

languages, primarily French, (e.g., “Resumé” – a summary).
Without the accent mark, the word becomes “Resume,” which

62
 means “to begin again.” An acute sign appears above or below the
letters to indicate their pronunciation or other functions within a
word. When a word with more than one syllable is pronounced, one
of the syllables is emphasized more strongly than the other or
others. The same word may be accented differently as its sense
changes. The word “object” as a noun is accented on the first
syllable when as a verb it is accented on the second syllable. Some
foreign words that have been absorbed into English and which carry
the acute accent are: attaché, blasé, cliché, communiqué, coup dé
tat, début, decór, éclair, élan, exposé, fianceé, passé, and touché.

ii. Cedilla. – This is a hook-like mark placed under the letter “ç” in
some borrowed words to show that it is sounded like a voiceless “s.”
The cedilla is placed in the following words: apercu, façade,
garcon, Provençal.

iii. Circumflex accent. – This is used over a vowel in some

languages, notably French, to indicate a particular quality or tone in
pronunciation. Examples are: coup de grâce, papier – mâchê, pâtê
de foie gras, tête-a- tête.

iv. Dieresis. - This is also spelled “diaeresis.” It consists of two dots

to indicate the separation of two consecutive vowels into separate
syllables. It is much less used than formerly, having been replaced
by the hyphen or dropped entirely. The word “reexamine” is now
also spelled as “re-examine.”

v. Grave accent. – This is used to indicate the quality of the open “e”
as in “chere” or “dear.” Some writers use the grave accent to
indicate that full pronunciation is to be given to a syllable at the end
of a word, as in “love,” which is to be pronounced as “love-ed.” The
grave accent appears in the following words: á la carte, á la mode,
pére, piéce de reśistance, piéd a terre.

vi. Tilde. – This is a diacritical mark placed over a letter in words

anglicalized from Spanish, to indicate a nasal sound, which is
represented in English by “ny.” The tilde appears in cañon, doña,
mañana, piña, and señor.

vii. Umlaut. – This is a diacritical mark consisting of two dots used

to indicate a vowel affected by partial assimilation to a succeeding
sound. The umlaut appears in “Goring,” which is spelled “Goering”
because of the rarity of the umlaut mark.

2. Asterisk

63
 The asterisk, a star-shaped mark (*), is used to indicate omission or to call
attention to something requiring a comment in the footnote. In the first
case, three spaced asterisk are placed between the paragraphs. In the
second case, the asterisk may refer to either an explanatory or reference
footnote. As a reference mark, the asterisk has been replaced by the use of
number after the sentence.

3. Caret

A caret is an inverted v-shaped mark (^) to indicate that something

between words should be added. The missing word is inserted either
directly above the caret or in the margin. The word “caret” comes from the
Latin word, meaning “there is lacking” or “there is wanting.”

4. Interbank

An interbank is a combination of an exclamation point and a question

mark.
(e.g. !?)

5. Other mechanical and typographical marks

i. Brace – A brace is a mark used to group words, lines and figures,

both mathematical and chemical.

Example:

Camarines Norte }
Camarines Sur }
Albay } Bicol Provinces
Sorsogon }
Catanduanes }

ii. Breve. – It is a mark (˘) over a letter to show that said letter is
pronounced with a short sound or to indicate a specific
pronunciation.

iii. Macron. – A horizontal ( − ) line over a vowel to indicate that it

has a long sound.

iv. Ditto Marks. – Ditto marks (″ ″ ″ ″) are devices employed in

types of writings where much repetition occurs. “Ditto” means “the
aforesaid” or “the same as before.” The word “ditto” comes from the
Latin word “dictum,” which means “saying.”

64
 The ditto marks are not used in formal writing. They are a time and
effort-saving mechanical device employed frequently in tables of
names, bills, accounts and lists.

Mechanics of Writing

Punctuation and Mechanics are concerned with where to locate conventions governing
the use of a particular graphic device, and which make a language work.

However, punctuations are correlated with the intonation patterns of the spoken
language, like indicating the change in the tone of the voice when asking a question or
whether a pause is long (period) or short (comma). The devices used without correlation
with the intonation of speaking are grouped under the heading “mechanics.” A word
that is capitalized is pronounced the same way as when it is printed with an initial lower
case letter.

Mechanics is the technical part of writing. It is related to punctuation and applies to the
correct use of capitals, abbreviations, italics, and other devices which make written
communication more easily understood.

The mechanics commonly used are: the italics, underlining, capitalization, numbers,
spacing lists, ellipsis points, typographical correction.

Leave enough space after punctuation marks: after a comma and semicolon, one space;
after a colon, period, question marks, and quoted material, two spaces.

When writing title or titles of a manuscript, write the title in solid capitals and begin the
body of the manuscript at least three spaces below the title.

The left hand margin should be at least one inch and the right hand margin at least one-
half inch. The bottom margin after page one shall be at least one inch. Mechanics are
needed in writing neat and legible manuscript.

In typewritten manuscripts, there should be margins at the top, the bottom, and both
sides of each page. The left margin should be slightly wider. As much as possible, avoid
hyphens – on the right margin. This can be done by spacing the words in the sentence so
that one need not split the ending word.

All typed-copy should be prepared with a double space between lines and the five –
letter space between the paragraphs. The mechanics of the language are the various
principles and conventions that make it work.

a. Abbreviations

Abbreviations are words shortened by lapping of their ends. They help save time
and space. Spelling out items like “Mister Cruz” and “Mistress Santos” would be
both distracting both irksome. Likewise, the use of abbreviations avoids the

65
needless repetition of the words and phrases. However, there should be a
minimum use of abbreviations. In formal writing use only the commonly
accepted abbreviations. Spell out words not commonly abbreviated and readily
understood in abbreviated form; otherwise, only confusion would ensue.

There are three special forms of abbreviations are contractions, acronyms, and
suspensions. Contractions refer to words written with an apostrophe to show the
omission of a letter or numerical (don’t – do not, class of ’23 – class of 2023).
Acronyms are words coined from the initial letters or syllables of successive parts
of a term (radar – radio detecting and ranging; UNESCO – Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization). In suspension, the letters between the first
and last letters are omitted (Mr. – Mister).

1. What may be abbreviated?

The following may be abbreviated, such as:

i. Addresses (e.g,. Ave. – Avenue; Blvd. – Boulevard; Dr. – Drive);

Note: In formal writing, the words listed above should be spelled

out when they are part of the name (Rizal Avenue, Roxas
Boulevard).

ii. Associations (e.g,. S.P.C.A. – Society for the Preventions of

Cruelty to Animals);

iii. Centuries – While many grammarians insist that the numbers of

centuries should be spelled out, the use of figures to refer to
centuries has become increasingly accepted (e.g., 21st Century);

iv. Chemical Symbols – (e.g., As – Arsenic; Ba – Barium; Ca –

Calcium);

v. Commercial terms (e.g,. F.O.B. – free on board; C.I.F. – Cost,

Insurance, Freight);

vi. Currencies – (e.g,. DM – Deutche Mark; Pts. – Pesetas);

vii. Geographic names (e.g., Mt. Everest – Mount Everest; Mt.

Mayon – Mount Mayon; Mt. Apo – Mount Apo);

viii. The word “Junior” and “Senior” after a name (eg., Nestor
Abugan, Jr., Pedro Cruz, Sr.);

ix. Measurements, including dimensions, distances, time, degrees

and weight when used in technical writing and in invoices (e.g,. bbl.
– barrel; bu. – bushels; Km. – kilometer; kg. – kilograms); and

66
Note: The words “longitude” and “latitude” are abbreviated in tabular
data but written out in running texts.

x. Military/Police Ranks – Military and Police ranks are spelled out

in full when use with a surename but are abbreviated when used
with a full name (e.g,. Colonel Ariola – Col. Melchor Ariola; General
Eleazar – Gen. Guillermo Eleazar).

In military correspondence, the abbreviations of military ranks are

unpunctuated and capitalized before the name of the officer (e.g,.
MG Josue Reyes, PA; LCDR Juan Dela Cruz, PN). In non-military
correspondence, the abbreviations of military ranks are
unpunctuated and set in capital and lower case letters(e.g,. Brig.
Gen. Josue Reyes, PA; Lt. Comdr. Juan Dela Cruz, PN).
Abbreviations of military units are capitalized and unpunctuated
(e.g,. PAF, PN, PA, USAF).

xi. Names

a. The first and middle names may be abbreviated to form

initials, in which case they are spaced and punctuated (e.g,.
A.S.M. Angelo). However, it is an error to abbreviate the first
name alone (e.g,. A.S. Angelo). Surname of persons named
after a saint may or may not be abbreviated (e.g., Richard St.
John – Richard Saint John).

b. Company Names (e.g,. Corp. – Corporation; Inc. –

Incorporated; Co. – Company).

c. Titles before names (e.g., Mr. – Mister; Mrs. – Mistress;

Dr. – Doctor; Atty. – Attorney; Engr. – Engineer).

d. Names of provinces when attached to the names of a

geographical area (e.g., Santiago City, Isa.; Alfonso Lista,
Ifug.; Santa Ana, Cag.; Bayombong, NV.; San Jose, NE).

e. Name of days of the week (e.g,. Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs.,

Fri,. Sat., Sun.).

f. Names of Months (e.g,. Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr.).

Note: The names of days of the week and the names of

months should be spelled out in formal writings.

g. Names of Places (e.g,. St. Luis – Saint Luis; CDO –

Cagayan de Oro).

67
 h. Geographical Names (e.g,. Mt. Everest – Mount Everest;
Mt. Apo – Mount Apo; Ft/Frt. Bonifacio, Santiago, Del
Pilar).

i. Scholastic and honorary degrees when attached to names

(e.g,. Juan Dela Cruz, PH.D.; Wilfrido F. Simbul, M.D.;
Joseph G. Angihan, J.D.).

j. School subjects (e.g,. Bot. – Botany; Fr. – French; Crim.

Soc. – Criminal Sociology).

k. Some Latin words (e.g,. “e.g. – exempli gratia [for

example]; i.e. – id est [that is]; et al. – at alii/alia [and
others]; cf. – confer [compare]).

Note: A.D., is the abbreviations for Anno Domini (in the year
of our Lord, not after death), is written before the year (A.D.
11), unlike B.C. (before Christ) which is written after the date
(5 B.C.).

l. Statement of time – the abbreviations “a.m.” [ante

meridian] and “p.m.” [post meridian] are used to indicate
whether one means “in the morning” or “in the evening.”

m. “United States” or “United Nations” when used as an

adjective (U.S. House of Representatives; U.N. Security
Council).

n. Weights (e.g,. lbs. – pounds; kg. – kilograms).

2. What should not be abbreviated?

a. Avoid the excessive use of abbreviations in a single sentence;

otherwise, the writing may appear “telegraphic;”

Example:

Wrong: The ULS is found in Santgo. City, Isa., lies N.W.

of the heart of the city.

Correct: The University of La Salette, Inc. is found in

Santiago City, Isabela, lies North West of the heart of the
city.

b. Avoid partial abbreviations;

68
 c. Do not abbreviate when in doubt;

d. Do not abbreviate, if possible:

i. The names of the cities;

ii. The words “Fort,” “Mount,” “Point,” and “Port” when used
as part of the names of places;

iii. The names of the common units of weight, length,

capacity, area, volume, temperature, and time when used in
non-technical writing;

- 50 kilos
- 100 yards
- 41 square meters

iv. The compass point used in a sentence;

v. The names of streets, roads and avenues;

vi. The names of countries, possessions, provinces and

countries;

vii. The names of days of the week and months of the year;

viii. The names of rivers and mountains; and

ix. The titles before names, whether full or last names only,
like Professor, Reverend, Superintendent, etc.

3. Rules of abbreviation

In general, the following are the basic rules of abbreviation, such as:

a. Articles – If an abbreviation begins with a consonant sound, use

the article “a.” If an abbreviation begins with a vowel, use the article
“an.” (e.g,. “a YMCA gymnasium, an apple);

b. Beginning a sentence – Avoid beginning a sentence with an

abbreviation;

Example:

Wrong: Dr. Juan Dela Cruz said . . . .

Correct: Doctor Juan Dela Cruz said . . .

69
 c. Books of the Bible – The name of the Books of the Bible when
used in reference to chapters and verses are abbreviated (e.g,. Gen.
1:1).

d. Capitalization – Abbreviation are capitalized:

i. If the words they represent are proper nouns (e.g,. UN,

USA, NLRC, SEC, ULS).

ii. When they represent the initial letters of words that are
normally lower cased (e.g,. CATV – Community Antennae
Television, FY – Fiscal Year). Exceptions to this rules are
“a.k.a.” (also known as) and a/b/e (doing business).

iii. If they are pronounced as words even if some of the words

abbreviated are not proper nouns (e.g,. OPEC – Organization
of Petroleum Exporting Countries).

e. Hyphens – Compounds formed by adding a prefix or suffix to an

abbreviation are hyphenated (e.g,. “an IBM-like organization”).

4. Plurals of abbreviations

To indicate the plurals of abbreviations, add an apostrophe and “s” (e.g,.

C.D.O.’s) or/and an “s” alone (e.g,. yds, lbs). Some abbreviations are made
plural by using either form (e.g,. Children’s Hospital; Teachers’ day;
STAMP’s Day). Still some abbreviations are the same in both singular or
plural form (e.g,. ft. – feet or foot; oz. – ounce or ounces).

5. Abbreviations at end of sentence

If you avoid it, do not end a sentence with an abbreviation. According to

Semmelmeyer and Bolander (1968), when a sentence ends with an
abbreviation, one period is sufficient to end both the word and the
sentence. Phythian (1991) disagrees. He says that it is common in
typescript to put two full stops, one to punctuate the abbreviation, the
other indicate the end of the sentence.

6. Abbreviation and other punctuation marks

Most abbreviation are written with periods, like the abbreviations of

academic degrees (e.g,. B.A.; S.J.D.), names of states (e.g,. N.Y; W.V.), the
United States (U.S.), the United Kingdom (U.K.).

The periods are placed in the abbreviation of United States in order to

avoid confusion with the word “US.” The abbreviation “USA” does not

70
 need the periods. The periods are used in the abbreviation for United
Kingdom to avoid the difficulty of pronouncing it as one word.

If the word abbreviated is a proper noun, only the first letter is capitalized
and a period is placed at the end.

Example: Eng. (English)

According to Phythian, periods are unnecessary after the abbrevitions

“Mr.,” “Mrs.,” and “Dr.” this is the British practice. If you drop the periods
from the abbreviations, just be consistent. If you use AM or PM in one
sentence, do not use A.M. or P.M. in the next or any other sentence.

According to Johnson, the “Little round mark” used in abbreviations are

not periods but points.

Periods are omitted in the following:

i. Initials of people (e.g,. KFK, FDR, RRD) unless they are parts of
the names as spelled out (J.F. Kennedy; F.D. Roosevelt; R.R.
Duterte);

ii. Abbreviations of units of measures of the metric system (e.g,. cc,

mm, kg), but abbreviations of units of measure of the English
system are written with periods (e.g,. lb., oz,. ft.). Writing them
without periods is allowed (lb, oz, ft);

iii. Initial type abbreviations of names of states when used with the
zip codes (e.g,. NY 10010, SC 3311);

iv. Initials pronounced as a word (e.g,. CIA, UNESCO, USAFE, AFP,

FBI, NBI, AWOL);

v. Abbreviations which have become words in their own rights (e.g,.

Phone, Fridge);

vi. Abbreviations when used more frequently than the spelled-out

word (e.g,. VAT, TV);

vii. Contracted words (e.g,. are not → aren’t; was not → wasn’t;
should not → shouldn’t; does not → doesn’t; will not → won’t
(this is a tricky one!); and

viii. Chemical symbols which are commonly used (e.g,. Na –

Sodium; Cl – Chlorine).

b. Capitalization

71
 Capitalization is an important tool of mechanics in writing. The most important
use of capitalization is to indicate the beginning of a sentence. Capitalization is
also used in the following manner:

i. To indicate that a word or phrase is a proper noun, pronoun, or

adjective;

ii. For emphasis; and

iii. To show that a speaker is talking very loudly.

Only the initial letter of a word is capitalized. If you want all the letters to be
capitalized, we say the word should be in “full capitals’ or “full caps.” When
printers want to capitalize a word, they direct that the word be upper cased;
otherwise, they direct that it be lower cased.

1. Words to be capitalized

The following words are capitalized, such as:

a. The first word of a sentence or sentence fragments;

Example: The trees are now in bloom.

b. The first word of a quotation sentence. If the quotation is

interrupted in mid-sentence, the second part does not begin with a
capital, unless it is a separate sentence. Likewise, when a quotation
is dependent on the sentence in which it occurs, the quotation does
not begin with a capital;

c. The first word following SUBJECT and TO in headings used in

memorandums (e.g., SUBJECT: Overtime work, TO: All
Supervisors);

d. The first word following a resolving or enacting clause;

e. The first word in an Outline heading:

i. In general

ii. When words are capitalized

iii. Common errors in capitalization

f. The first word in the salutation and complementary close of a

letter (e.g., Dear Madame/Sir; Yours truly; Sincerely yours);

72
 g. The first word of vertical lists and enumeration;
h. The first word of each of a series of sentences, when the sentence
is introduced by a colon;

i. The first word of run-in enumeration that form complete

sentences;

j. The first word following a colon if said word begins another

complete sentence;

Example: The thought continued to perplex him: Who is

next?

k. The first word of a sentence within a sentence as in saying,

mottoes, rules, and direct questions;

Example:

You remember the saying “Crimes sometimes pay.”

The question is, “When do I get paid?”

l. The first word of a line of poetry;

m. Abstraction and personifications such as the names of concepts

or qualities when such concepts or qualities are presented as if they
were a person;

Example: History is a sequence of alternating War and

Peace.

n. Common geographical terms if they are part of a specific proper

name (e.g., Strait of Gilbraltar; Sierra Madre; Laguna de Bay) or
they precede proper names (e.g., Mount Arayat);

o. Abbreviation and abbreviated forms of proper nouns (e.g., Brit. –

British; Sun. – Sundays). Some abbreviations are all capitalized
when they represent single letters (e.g., NATO, ASEAN, OPEC). But
acronyms that have been assimilated into English as words in their
own right are not capitalized (e.g., tv, laser, sonar);

p. Names for the Bible and other religious writings (e.g., Book of
Psalms, The Koran/Quran);

73
q. Tittles and offices are capitalized, when they immediately
precede a personal name and are use as part of the name (e.g.,
President Reyes, General Eleazar, Pope Francis, Sir Richard Jones);

When they are used in place of names in direct address (e.g., Please,
Judge, postpone the hearing).

When used alone in place of a personal name in making a toast or

formal introduction (e.g., Ladies and Gentlemen, the President of
the Philippines).

Titles are not capitalized when they are used in opposition to a

name (e.g., The emperor Augustus).

r. Derivatives of proper names (e.g., Roman law, Greek sculpture);

s. The single designation “court” when specifically applicable to a

judge (e.g., The Court found that . . .);

t. The term “national” when it is an essential element of a name or

title (e.g., Philippine National Bank);

u. Certain figures of speech (e.g., New Frontier – The Kennedy

Administration; The Yellow Tards – The Liberal Party; The Reds –
The Communist Party of the Philippines);

v. Personification or the attribution of an abstract idea or non-living

object on the features and characteristics of human life;

w. The first and all important words in the titles of publications,

historical documents, annual reports and works of art (e.g., The
New York Times; The Manila Bulletin);

x. Academic degrees when following the name of a person (e.g.,

Joseph G. Angihan, Master of Science in Criminology, Doctor of
Jurisprudence);

y. Geographic references or terms that identify divisions of the

earth’s surface and distinct regions (e.g., The Riviera, Central Plain;
The Sahara, the Birth of Civilization);

z. The Interjection “O.”;

aa. A letter use to indicate a shape (e.g., A-frame house; V-

shaped; T-shirt);

74
bb. Common names of animals and plants when they contain
proper nouns as a separate elements (e.g., Bengal tiger;
Baguio beans) or when they refer to specific breeds (e.g.,
German Shepherd; Great Dane; Shih Tzu; Bully or Bulldog,
etc.);

cc. Names of awards, honors, and prizes (e.g., Academy

Award; Oscar Award; Magna Cumlaude; Suma Cumlaude;
First Runner-Up; Second Runner-Up);

dd. Fictitious names used as personifications (e.g., Uncle

Sam; John Doe; Jane Doe; Richard Doe; Juan Dela Cruz);

ee. Names of days of weeks and month of the year (e.g.,

Monday, December);

ff. Genus names in biological and binomial nomenclature

(e.g., Canis lupus [Gray Wolf]; Homo sapiens [Modern
Man]);

gg. Names of firms, schools, and organizations (e.g.,

International School of Asia and the Pacific; University of La
Salette, Inc.; Dela Cruz and Associates Law Office; United
Nations);

hh. Names of historical and cultural events and periods (e.g.,

The Renaissance period; The Holocaust; The Panagbenga
Festival; The Balamban Festival);

ii. Nicknames, epithets, or other alternative names for

organizations. (e.g., “White Feather” [Carlos Hathcock]; “The
White Death” [Simo Hayha]; “Alexander the Great”
[Alexander of Greece]; “The Strong Man” [Ferdinand E.
Marcos]; “The Iron Butterfly” [Imelda R. Marcos]);

jj. The proper names and initials of persons. If a name is

hyphenated, both elements are capitalized. Particles at the
beginning of a sentence are capitalized. (e.g., Atty. Maria
Victoria Gonzales-Diego);

kk. The pronoun “I.”;

ll. Popular names of geographical regions (e.g., The Big

Apple; The Pearl of the Orient Seas; The Summer Capital of
the Philippines);

75
mm. The names of individual ships, airplanes, and space
vehicles (e.g., S.S. Normandie; Enola Gay; M.V. Karagatan;
M.V. Princes of the Stars; Miss Moneypenny; Ladybird;
Pretty Woman; Queen of the Skies; Apollo 11; Sputnik V;

nn. The names of seasons if they personified (e.g., The sunny

days of Summer; The Autumn breeze).;

oo. Names of races (e.g., Caucasoid [White race]; Negroid

[Black race]; Mongoloid [Asian or Oriental race]; Australoid
[Australian and Papuan race]);

pp. Names of religious groups (e.g., Catholic, Protestant,

Methodists);

qq. Names of streets, roads, bridges and parks (e.g., Bachelor

Street; Marcos Highway; Luneta Park; Burnham Park; San
Juanico Bridge);

rr. The names of subjects studied when they are specific titles
(e.g., Human Rights Education; Criminal Law; Criminal
Procedure);

ss. The name of time zones when abbreviated (e.g., ET –

Eastern Time, CT – Central Time, MT – Mountain Time, PT
– Pacific Time [US & Canada]; PST – Philippine Standard
Time, PHT – Philippine Time);

tt. Full name of treaties and laws (e.g., Treaty of Paris;

Geneva Convention; United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea; Universal Declaration of Human Rights);

uu. The names of prayer (e.g., The Lord’s Prayer; Apostles’

Creed);

vv. Full names of Wars (e.g., The Spanish – American War;

The Filipino – American War; The Korean War; The
Vietnam War; The First World War; The Second World
War);

ww. A noun designating a family relationship when

substituted for a proper name (e.g., I received a gift from my
Uncle);

xx. A noun introducing a reference number (e.g., Flight 101;

Form 137);

76
yy. Ordinal numbers when used with the names of persons,
events, or a period of time and if they precede the name (e.g.,
The Second Congress; the First Infantry Division, Philippine
Army);

zz. The words designating God or the Deity (e.g., Jehova,

Allah, Yaweh, Maria Makiling);

aaa. Personal pronouns referring to God or to the Deity (e.g.,

God in His Mercy);

bbb. Words designating languages, nationalities and tribes

(e.g., Tagalog; Kapampangan; Filipino; American; Aryan;
Hutus, Tutsi);

ccc. Words of family relationship preceding or used in place

of a person’s name (e.g., Uncle Popsy; Tita Ganda);

ddd. Titles of books, plays, magazines, newspapers, and

comics but not the prepositions, conjunctions, and articles,
except when the article is the first word in the title (e.g., The
Old Man in the Band; The Manila Bulletin; The New York
Times; The Smoking Gun; The Crying Baton under the
Dividing Rock);

eee. The proper nouns that are elements in terms

designating diseases, symptoms, syndromes, etc. (e.g.,
German measles; Parkinson’s disease; Down syndrome;
Chicken pox);

fff. The name of the parties in a case (e.g., Republic of the

Philippines versus Juan Dela Cruz; Pedro Muttaleng versus
Juan Tanga);

ggg. Elements of hyphenated compounds which constitute

proper nouns (e.g., Philippine – American War; Spanish –
American War);

hhh. Titles of musical compositions and songs (e.g., Don’t

Know What to Say; Even If; Let Me Be the One; Will You Say
that You Love Me);

iii. Titles of branches of the Armed Forces (e.g., The Marines;

The Scout Rangers; The Special Forces; The Navy Seal; The
Marines; The Medical Corps; The Corps of Professors);

77
 jjj. Trademarks, service marks, collective marks (e.g.,
National Book Store McDonald’s; Coca-Cola; Levi’s; Adidas;
“Fly the Friendly Skies” [United Airlines]; “Hari ng Padala”
[LBC]; “BDO we find ways”);

kkk. Trade names (e.g., Colgate; Palmolive; Pepsi Cola; Coca

Cola; Apple; Samsung);

lll. The term “air force,” “army,” “navy,” and “marines,” when
the form part of an official name;

mmm. Compass points when they refer to a geographical

region (e.g., Northern Mindanao; Eastern Visayas; Northern
Luzon; Southern Tagalog);

nnn. The names of conferences, councils, expositions, and

specific events (e.g., The Yalta Conference; The 1986
Constitutional Convention; The United Nations Security
Council; Manila International Auto Show; Manila Food &
Beverage Expo);

ooo. Names of governmental, judicial and political bodies

(e.g., Congress of the Philippines; Energy Regulatory Board;
Commission on Higher Education; The Supreme Court of the
Philippines);

ppp. Well known informal or shortened forms of place

names (e.g., The Exchange – New York Stock Exchange; The
Street – Wall Street); and

qqq. The names of monuments, parks, and public buildings

(e.g., Luneta Park; Burnham Park; Rizal Monument;
Malacanang Palace; The Diplomat Hotel; Manila Cathedral;
The National Museum of the Philippines; Cultural Center of
the Philippines).

2. Words not to be capitalized

Do not capitalize the following, such as:

a. The adjectives “naval” and “marine” unless they are part of a

proper name;
b. The first word following a colon if said word is a part of the
sentence preceding the colon (e.g., I suggest: use the C-4 in building
demolition);

78
 c. The first word in numbered phrases within a sentence (e.g., The
agenda will be: (1) call to order, (2) approval of the minutes of the
previous meetings, (3) management report, etc);

d. Abstract terms, such as names of concepts and qualities, when

simply used in conjunction with other words that allude to human
characteristics and not as personifications.

e. Compass points when the refer to simple directions but not to

specific region or area (e.g., north of Santiago City; east of Luzon);

f. The common names of animals and plants (e.g., cocker spaniel;

lily of the valley);

g. Common geographical terms that are not used as part of a proper

name (e.g., The Batanes islands);

h. Common nouns used descriptively or occurring after the names

of two or more organizations (e.g., Cebu Pacific and Philippine
airlines);

i. Derivatives of proper names that have taken on a specialized

meaning (e.g., french fries; manila paper);

j. Elements of hyphenated compounds which are not proper nouns

or adjectives (e.g., check-in; get-together);

k. General terms referring to degrees (e.g., doctorate degrees;

bachelor’s degrees);

l. Species names even when derived from a proper name (e.g.,

actinopus conrnelli [spider – Chris Cornell]; atheris hetfieldi [snake
– James Hetfield] );

m. The names of time zones when written out (e.g., central standard
time; pacific time); and

n. Names of the seasons if they simply declare the time of the year
and are not personified (e.g., summer; spring; winter; autumn).

c. Italics

Italics direct the reader’s attention to certain words in the same manner that a
writer underlines parts of his handwritten work to underscore certain words.
Italic type is used in keyboarded or typeset material. In typed or handwritten
materials, underlining is used. Italic type is so named because it was invented by

79
the Italians. Italics are the slanted types as distinguished from the Roman or the
upright type.

1. Uses of Italics/What to be Italicize?

Use italics in printed matters to highlight, the following:

a. Foreign words, phrases and abbreviations. Latin expressions that

have not been incorporated into English are italicized (e.g., contra,
infra, inter alia, quasai, supra);

b. Certain English words or phrases in a sentence which writer

wants to emphasize;

c. Short sentences. If the sentence is long, quotation marks should

be used instead of italics;

d. Citation of authorities (accord) or signals to introduce said

citations;

e. The titles of books, long poems, plays, periodicals, and

magazines. The articles “a,” “an,” or “the” are italicized only if they
are part of the actual name (e.g., Alexander the Great Idiot; The
Great Idiot);

f. The names of trains, ships, spacecraft, airplanes and other well-

known vehicles (e.g., The Queen Elizabeth; The Queen of the Skies;
The Holland-American Liner; Quantum of the Seas; Allure of the
Seas; Queen of the Oceans; Titanic; Yamato);

g. The word “Resolved” in the minutes, resolutions, and the

preambles of laws;

h. Words and letters referred to as such. The words and letters may
be enclosed in quotation marks instead of using italics);

i. Words created to suggest a sound (e.g., Boom…boom….boom;

Bang!; Tic tac tic tac);

j. Names of cases (e.g., Chi Ming Choi vs. Court of Appeals and
Gina Lao);

k. Unfamiliar words, especially when they are accompanied by a

definition. Once introduced and defined, they are not italicized in
subsequent references in the same material);

80
 l. Individual letters used in enumeration or a list within sentences.
(e.g., The agenda for the meeting are the following: (a) Call to
Order, (b) Determination of Quorum, (c) Approval of Minutes of
the Previous Meetings, etc.);

m. Genus, species, subspecies in biological binomial nomenclature

(e.g., Canis lupus; Homo sapiens; Cannabis sativa linn; Papaver
somniferum); and

n. Titles of court cases mentioned within the sentence (e.g., The

Supreme Court en banc reiterated the ruling in case of Chua v.
Executive Secretary Clave that, “the heart has reasons of its own
that reason alone does not know”).

Note: In typewritten or handwritten materials, just underline the words

which are meant to be italicized.

d. List

More than three things put together grammatically constitute a “list.” Use a list
whenever you have three or more items that are logically parallel.

The list set on separate lines would be harder to follow if there is a shift in the
word structure, like using gerund phrases in some lines and nouns in other lines,
or using sentences in some lines and clauses in other lines.

Example:

The plaintiff paid the defendant P2, 550 in installments of P500,

P700, P850 and P490.

The list is set of the text if: (i) the items in the list consist of more than ten words;
(ii) the items are phrases but not complete sentences; and (iii) there are more
than three items in the list.

Introduce each item in the list with the same word if the items on the list consist
of more than three words of if the repeated word is to be emphasized.

1. List and Punctuation Marks

a. If the list is included in the text, introduce said list with a colon
and insert parenthetical numbers or letters.

Example:

The contractor agreed: (1) to provide the needed roofing

materials; (2) to put up the new roof; (3) to use the brand of

81
 roofing materials specified by the owner; (4) to finish the
work within 30 days from December 1, 2021; (5) to be paid
P200, 000 for the work; and (6) to provide a two-year
guarantee for the work.

b. Parallel adjectives describe parallel qualities.

Example: The defendant was hostile, abusive and violent.

c. Parallel prepositional phrases describe parallel situations.

Example:

Plaintiff admits he was driving without his license,

without his lights on, and with a bottle of rum on the
front seat.

d. Use comma to separate items in a list.

e. Use a comma even if the list is set off from the text. A list can be
distinguished from the rest of the paragraph by putting each item
therein on a separate line and starting each line with a number,
letter or other market.

f. Such typographically emphasized list can include punctuation

marks at the end of each item and the conjunction “and” before the
last item. If the items in such list are sentences, it is clearer to end
them with periods. If they are clauses, a semicolon can be placed at
the end of each line.

Example:

Remanufacturing includes the following processes:

(1) Disassembly of the parts;

(2) Cleaning;
(3) Refinishing;
(4) Inspecting;
(5) Installment of retrofits; and

Note: Rule. – If the vertical list completes a sentence begun in an

introductory element, the final period is omitted unless the items in
the list are separated by commas or colons.

Whenever possible, put the list at the end of the sentence. It is

much easier to read it. When writing a list, put a comma before
words “and” or “or” that introduces the final item in the list.

82
 Use a semicolon to separate items in a list when there is a comma
separating one of the items on the list.

e. Spacing

Spacing between letters and words (horizontal spacing) and between lines
(vertical spacing) is a matter of the mechanics of composition. In typewritten
materials, the spacing between letters is provided for by the typewriting
machines. The spacing between words and lines is the concern of the typist and
the writer, while in printing, it is the concern of the typesetter.

1. Uses of Spacing

Spacing will be observed in the following:

a. In abbreviations with internal periods (e.g., A.M., N.Y., U.S.),

there should be no space after the internal periods. However,
initials of person are followed by regular word spaces (e.g., J.R.
Blanco; R.R. Cruz);

b. Two spaces follow a colon in a carbon-copy notation that

indicates a recipient by a full name (e.g., Cc: Mr. Reyes);

c. In typewritten materials, two spaces follow a colon used in

running text, bibliography, references, publications, titles, and in
headings of letter or memorandum;

Note: In typeset materials, only one space is used.

d. In formal writing, all copies should be typed double spaced,

which means a full blank line between the type lines.

Note: A line with narrow spacing is called a “close line,” one with
wide spacing, an “open line.” Excessively wide spacing detracts
from readability and should be avoided.

The space between lines of type is called “leading” or “leads.”

Originally, the space was created by placing strips of lead between
the lines of type.

f. Syllabication

Syllabication or word division means “the formation of or division into syllables

of words.” It decides the proper division of a word that is split at the end of a line
for lack of space. Syllables, in turn, are words or parts of words pronounced with
a single, uninterrupted sounding of the voice. Syllables contain one vowel or a

83
dipthong sound. Some patterns of syllabication do not follow the segmentation
suggested by the sound of words.

While in American English, words are generally divided according to their

pronunciation, in British English, words are divided according to their derivation.

Avoid the unnecessary division of words.

If you have to divide a words at the end of a line, put the hyphen at the end of the
first line, never at the beginning of the second line. The part that remains at the
end of the line should suggest the part beginning the next line. Do not end with
the hyphen more than two consecutive lines.

If you cannot divide a word at the end of a line, leave blank space and carry the
word over to the next line.

a. Division of Words

1. Divide words between syllables. If a words consists of two

syllables, divide it at the end of the first syllable.

Example: Pavement Syllabication: Pave-ment

England Eng-land

2. Divide into separate syllables two vowels that follow each but are
pronounced separately.

Example: Genealogy Syllabication: Gene-alogy

Creation Cre-ation

3. Divide gerund and present participles before the “ing.”

Example: Entering Syllabication: Enter-ing

Revoking Revok-ing

However, when the final consonants is doubled the addition of

“ing,” the added consonant is carried over.

Example: Bidding Syllabication: Bid-ding

Running Run-ning

4. Divide before the consonant and carry it over with “ing” when the
syllable ends in on “le” and the only audible vowel is the liquid “l.”

Example: Bristling Syllabication: Bris-tling

Rambling Rum-bling

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5. Divide after the consonant an accented syllable containing a
single middle consonant, which is preceded by a short vowel.

Example: Balance Syllabication: Ba-lance

Punish Pun-ish

6. Divide before the consonant a syllable containing a single middle

consonant, which is preceded by a long vowel.

Example: Legal Syllabication: Le-gal

Opponent Oppo-nent

7. Divide solid compounds between the members.

Example: Bookkeeper Syllabication: Book-keeper

Caretaker Care-taker

8. Divide a word after a vowel if by doing so would not go against

the pronunciation of the word.

Example: Metaphor Syllabication: Meta-phor

Maximum Maxi-mum

9. Divide two consonants which are “hedged” on either side by

vowels. The exception to this rule is when doing so would go against
the pronunciation or when the stem ends a double consonant.

In the latter case, the effect would be to divide a simple, base form.

Example: Embarrass Syllabication: Embar-rass

Assessment Assess-ment
Referring Refer-ring
Billing Bil-ling

10. Divide hyphenated words on the hyphen.

Example: Law abiding Syllabication: Law-adiding

Long distance Long-distance

11. Divide words with prefixes after the prefix.

Example: Mispronounce Syllabication: Mis-pronounce

Subsidize Sub-sidize

12. Divide words with suffixes before the suffix, thus separating
them from the stems of the word.

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 Example: Hoping Syllabication: Hop-ing
Dearest Dear-est

13. Divide words after a vowel.

Example: Criticism Syllabication: Criti-cism

Prejudice Preju-dice

b. When not to divide?

1. Do not divide a monosyllable word.

Example: Thr-ough Syllabication: Through

Fri-end Friend

2. Do not divide a polysyllabic word having a monosyllable word as

it’s not.

Example: Bri-ghtest Syllabication: Brightest

Wea-ver Weaver

3. Do not divide words of four letters if avoidable, words of up to six

letters.

Example: I-tem Syllabication: Item

Ind-ex Index

4. Do not divide a word if only one or two letters are left standing by
themselves either at the end of one line or the beginning of the next
line.

Example: A-ble Syllabication: Able

On-ly Only

5. Do not divide digraphs (ch, ph, ng, ea, etc.)

Example: He-aven Syllabication: Heaven

Sop-histicated Sophisticated

6. Do not divide words in which the second syllable contains only a

silent “e.”

Example: Climb-ed Syllabication: Climbed

Sex-ed Sexed

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7. Do not divide a word ending with “ed” to form the past tense and
which is not pronounce as a syllable.

Example: Hop-ed Syllabication: Hoped

Attir-ed Attired

8. Do not further divide compound words that are hyphenated. In

other words, do not add another hyphen to the words already
hyphenated.

Example: Self-con-trol Syllabication: Self-control

For-ty-five Forty-five

9. Do not divide suffixes.

Example: Speci-al Syllabication: Special

Coerci-on Coercion

10. Do not divide proper nouns.

11. Do not divide personal names. If you have to divide, make the
break after a middle initial.

12. Do not divide initials used in place of given names. If you have
to divide, make the break after the second or last initials.

13. Do not divide a numerical suffix in a name.

Example: Antonio Trililing – III Syllabication: Antonio Trililing III

14. Do not divide titles or abbreviations of college degrees and the

names to which they belong.

15. Do not divide abbreviations of organizations, societies, radio,

and television stations.

Example: YMCA
APO
UNESCO

16. Do not divide abbreviations and the figures they follow.

Example: 55-B.C Syllabication: 55 B.C

10 – Kg. 10 Kg.

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 17. Do not divide large numbers expressed in figures. If you have to
dived, make the break after a comma, but not after a decimal point
or a single digit.

Example: 1,500,200 – 52 Syllabication: 1,500,200.52

18. Do not divide words ending with “eous,” “iol,” and “ious.”

19. Do not carry over to the next line two letter syllables.

Example: Loss-es Syllabication: Losses

Ful-ly Fully

20. Do not divide words which may have a misleading appearance if

divided.

21. Do not divide a word if by doing so it would be mispronounced

or misunderstood.

c. Words not divisible

Do not divide:

1. One-syllable words (e.g., spelled, vexed, cause, through, though,

death, quick, asked);

2. A word of only one letter would be left either at the end of one
line or the beginning of another;

3. Words of six letters or less (e.g., again, idol, amen);

4. Suffix like “able,” “ceous,” “cial,” “cion,” “cious,” “geous,” “gion,”

“gious,” “ible,” “sial,” “tial,” and “tious;” and

5. Words that have a misleading appearance if divided.

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