The focus of an activity-based curriculum is teaching

THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL skills and knowledge to your students through creative
CURRICULUM tasks and activities

4. OBJECTIVE CENTERED CURRICULUM

UNIT 1: NATURE OF CURRICULUM It is based on Bloom’s evaluation approach. Objectives
are written in behavioral terms
A. Major Conceptions (types, components, And are used as yardstick against which the evaluation
purpose) is done and performance is
The term curriculum has been derived from a Latin Measured. Overall, the main objective of the curriculum
word ‘Currere’ which means a ‘race course’ or a runway on is to develop the overall personality of a child by
which one runs to reach a goal. Accordingly, a curriculum is the including the subject matter that is for the overall
instructional and the educative programmed by following which development of students i.e., Cognitive, affective, and
the pupils achieve their goals, ideals and aspirations of life. psycho-motor.

It is curriculum through which the general aims of a 5. CO-RELATED CURRICULUM

school education receive concrete expression. Traditional Different subjects of school are taught in correlation
concept-The traditional curriculum was subject- centered while with each other. It is difficult to
the modern curriculum is child and life-centered. Design this type of curriculum. It is difficult to design
this type of curriculum. The
The term curriculum refers to the lessons and Content of different subjects should have same level of
academic content taught in a school or in a specific course or students comprehension.
program. In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the Correlated curriculum is a style of curriculum
courses offered by a school, but it is rarely used in such a arrangement that emphasizes the unique
general sense in schools. Depending on how broadly educators Aspects of each area of study while demonstrating
define or employ the term, curriculum typically refers to the relationships across disciplines.
knowledge and skills students are expected to learn, which
includes the learning standards or learning objectives they are 6. CORE CURRICULUM
expected to meet; the units and lessons that teachers teach; the This type of curriculum is divided into two types of
assignments and projects given to students; the books, courses. One is core subject and the
materials, videos, presentations, and readings used in a course; Other is optional. Core subject is compulsory for all
and the tests, assessments, and other methods used to whereas students choose few
evaluate student learning. An individual teacher’s curriculum, for Optional subjects. Core curriculum means a complete
example, would be the specific learning standards, lessons, academic core set of courses including
assignments, and materials used to organize and teach a English/Language Arts, Foreign Language, Math,
particular course. Science, Social Studies, Art, Music, and
Health/Physical Education.
The true definition of Curriculum is “The school
experiences, both planned and unplanned, that enhance the 7. INTEGRATED CURRICULUM
education and growth of students” (Parkway). The purpose of In this type there is integration at different levels.
curriculum in schools is to teach the children what they need to Example different subjects, classroom
be taught for upcoming test. With real life. The common purpose of education
should be served.
Any curriculum consists of several components: An integrated curriculum implies learning that is
objectives, attitudes, time, students and teachers, needs synthesized across traditional subject areas and
analysis, classroom activities, materials, study skills, language learning experiences that are designed to be mutually
skills, vocabulary, grammar and assessment. There is no reinforcing. This approach develops the child’s ability
consensus among the experts on elements of curriculum, but to transfer their learning to other settings. An example
the most four common points of view concerning this issue are: of an integrative learning project involving citizenship
objectives, content or subject matter, methods or learning and community must first involve student interest. A
experiences and evaluation. These four basic elements of teacher can encourage students to identify a problem
curriculum are essential and interrelated to each other. in their community, such as an environmental issue or
traffic problems that is important to the students.
What is Curriculum Development?
- It is the process of creating and improving a course
taught at a school or university.

TYPES OF CURRICULUM COMPONENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
1. SUBJECTED CENTERED CURRICULUM OR
TEACHER CENTERED CURRICULUM • Planning
Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a Curriculum planning is the process of identifying and
particular subject matter or discipline. For example, a organizing the instructional material.
subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or That the course to follow. A curriculum designer is the
biology. This type of curriculum design tends to focus one who makes decisions about what the students will
on the subject rather than the individual. be learning and how to deliver that material to the
students.

• Articulating and Developing

Articulating and aligning the curriculum is a process of
2. LEARNER CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGN making visible the connections.
Learner-centered curriculum design refers to gathering Among various learning experiences with increasing
information on students’ career aspirations and breadth and depth.
interests and then creating appropriate lesson plans. The process progresses from evaluating the existing
program, to designing an improved.
Program, to implementing a new program and back to
3. TASK CENTERED CURRICULUM evaluating the revised program.
-We arrange various activities in order to teach content
in a sequence to achieve the desired subjects. We • Implementing
follow the principle of using 3H i.e. Head, Heart and Curriculum implement.
Hand.
 Chapter 1: The New Normal in Education
• Blended learning. A combination of multiple approaches to
learning constitutes Blended learning.

Lesson 1: DISTANCE EDUCATION LESSON 2: PEDAGOGY OF THE NEW NORMAL:

MIGRATING F2F TO REMOTE LEARNING
Desmond Keegan and his description of distance education
which lists its defining elements is one of the most cited The New Normal in Education The COVID-19 took the world by
definitions in the literature. a surprise. Due to the threat brought by the pandemic,
educational institutions are now facing a laundry list of
1. The quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner challenges on how can education must continue while
throughout the length of the learning process. This distinguishes making sure that safety precautionary measures will be
it from conventional face-to face-instruction. taken into consideration for the well-being of teachers and
2. The influence of an educational organization both in planning students.
and preparation of learning materials and in the provision of
student support services. This distinguishes it from private study Many institutions have opted to shift from face-to-face classes
and teach-yourself programs. to online distance education to help avert the spread of the
3. The use of technical media, print, audio, video, or computer, infection that causes Wuhan Virus. However, the presence of
to unite teacher and Learner and carry the content of the course. digital divide amongst students and teachers is still existing.
4. The provision of two-way communication so that many benefit Other schools have implemented hybrid and blended-learning
from or even initiate Dialogue. This distinguishes it from other such as remote teaching and modular learning to cater the
uses of technology in education. needs of the present situation. These paradigm shifts in
5. The quasi-permanent separation of the learning group so that education have contributed to the emergence of the term ‘New
people are usually taught as individuals and not in groups, with Normal’.
the possibility of occasional meetings for both didactic and
socialization purposes. Total engagement in fully online education has always been
generally self-imposed, self initiated, and self-regulated. But at
Verduin and Clark revised the first criterion listed by Keegan into the time of pandemic where people prioritizes health, social
the “separation of teacher and learner during at least a majority distancing as precautionary measure becomes imperative or
of the instructional process.” mandatory, and thus, online education becomes prescriptive.

❖ CONCEPTS RELATED TO DISTANCE EDUCATION ✓ Are teachers and students ready for this?
✓ Is it sufficient to simply digitize and virtualize our
• Correspondence education. considered as an old form of teaching and learning materials, assessment tools and
distance education when the communication between the classroom-based practices to run a distance education
education provider and the learner was through the postal Program?
system. ✓ How can schools ensure maintaining quality education
built and constructed upon principles of humanized
In 1982, the International Council for Correspondence interventions (face to face or classroom-based set up)
Education changed its name to the International Council for when shifting to online mode is abrupt and inevitable?
Distance Education.
This lecture intends to discuss and provide insights to pre-
• Home study. The term was most likely coined to refer to forms service educators and academic leaders about the important
of study where a major portion of the learning process takes aspects that should be considered in conducting online
place at the home of the student. instructional delivery and assessment with students during
these trying times. This put premium to the importance of
• External studies. This usually refers to education or training conducting preliminary assessments of the availability and
conducted by an educational institution at a place outside of its accessibility of technical resources, and the survey of person-
campus. level characteristics relevant to online learning.

• Independent study. The learning process in a distance Table 1. Curricular Approach in the Time of COVID-19
education program takes place with the students working largely Table 1 presents the Curricular Approach in the Time
on their own, guided only by instructions contained in a study of COVID-19 for school administrators, teachers and students.
guide.

• Open learning. Is considered by some as a view or

perspective about learning where the student is given wide
latitude in what, how and when to learn.

• Flexible learning. One may consider flexible learning to be

more limited, where the choices available to the student are
wider than usual but not totally open.

• Distributed learning. The word distributed in this term comes

from “distributed resources” which refers to learning resources
that are not located in a centralized place such as in the case of
traditional learning in a university where the experts, books and
other information resources, and peers are all located on
campus.

• Online learning. In online learning, learning resources are

accessed by the student through the Internet.

• e-Learning. The prefix “e” originally stood for “electronic” but

eventually this was applied to anything that made use of
computers and more recently to one that involves the use of
computer networks — a local area network (LAN), a wide area
network (WAN) or the Internet.

• m-Learning. The prefix “m” refers to mobile so m-learning

refers to the use of mobile or portable technology, such as
mobile phones, hand-held computers or PDAs (Personal Digital
Assistants) in the learning process.
Transitioning to the New Normal in Education Figure 1
Kamalludeen, R. (2020)
1.Shift of learning space – from public space to personal
Toward a Better Normal in Education (YEBAN, 2020)
space. What this means is instead of going to school and
university premises to learn, learning now happens at home
Figure 1 presents the direction towards a Better Normal in
within our personal spaces.
Education
2. Shift of delivery (i.e., teaching) methods – from one size
fits all to individualized and differentiated learning. In a typical
class, all students will be taught the same – they listen to the
same lecture, do the same activities in class, and complete the
same homework assignments. At the end of the semester, all
students will sit for the same exam and will be evaluated based
on the same rubric.
Individualized and differentiated means teaching each student
uniquely to meet unique needs and paces. The academic goals
may remain the same for a group of students but individual
students can progress through the curriculum at different
speeds and use different resources based on their own
particular learning needs. Some students might learn better
through watching videos while some need to read a textbook.
Each student is unique in his or her way of learning, especially
now when learning takes place in personal spaces.
Accessibility varies from household to household, and
distributing learning resources can be challenging for educators. Figure 2. Toward a Better Normal in
Therefore, educators now can design lessons according to the
individual needs of students and give them the flexibility to Education (REYES, 2020)
master the materials accordingly.

3.Shift of responsibility in the teaching and learning

process – active participation of household members
Now that learning takes place in personal spaces, most likely in
students' homes, family members become active agents in the
teaching and learning process. The entire household can act as
learning facilitators, providing guidance and assistance to make
the learning process pleasant for students.
Although teachers can always deliver lessons and learning
materials online, learning needs interaction with the physical
world. When it comes to the need for references to the outside
world and physical interactions, household members need to
play a role – showing real life examples, giving demonstrations,
or even having simple conversations. Household members need
not be professors or a “Guru Cemerlang” (star teacher), they
simply need to be present to facilitate the process.
Support from household members gives students conviction that
learning is an activity that is absolutely imperative.

4. Shift in learning evaluations – from final exams to formative

assessments Malaysians often contradict ourselves when it
comes to exams. We remonstrated when classroom-based EDUKASYON BILANG BAYANIHAN
assessments were introduced yet we constantly criticise the
country’s exam-centric education system. The new normal does Patingkarin ang Edukasyon bilang Bayanihang
not lend itself to methods of evaluation like final exams, as Panlipunan Dahil mas kakaiba at bago ang mga pamamaraan
exams – are laborious to manage in personal spaces. ng pag-aaral, lahat ay mangangapa maging estudyante,
Therefore, alternative means of evaluating learning have to use magulang, at guro sa panahon ng Bagong Kadawyan. Mas
to monitor student achievement. Formative assessments like patingkarin nawa sa sektor ng edukasyon ang konsepto ng
science project demonstrations, math challenge games, and Edukasyon bilang Bayanihang Panlipunan. Magkakaroon ng
traditional book reports are now more desirable means of malasakit at malalim na pag- unawa ang bawat isa sa konteksto
gauging a student’s learning progress. ng mga mag-aaral. Ang edukasyon ay hindi para lamang sa
The purpose of evaluation activities now shifts focus from indibidwal na pag-unlad kundi para din sa bansa. Ang tagumpay
assessment of learning, i.e. grading, to assessment for learning, ng bawat mag-aaral ay tagumpay ng sambayanan. Kapag
i.e. we use the results to know whether the intended learning nakita na ang edukasyon ay bayanihan. Hindi lamang guro ang
outcomes have been achieved by the students or whether they may responsibilidad sa edukasyon. Magsisimula ito mula
need extra work to help them master a certain topic. pamilya, patungo sa paaralan, pamayanan at maging ang media
These four aspects, alongside technology enhancements, must ay kasama.
be considered when the new normal for education emerges in
the coming months. Technology is a crucial enabler and it is the TUON AY PAKIKIPAGKAPWA
best choice that we have under the circumstances. The criticism
about online learning not addressing equal access and also Pamamayani ng pakikipagkapwa, marami man ang
quality education is unfounded. Online learning is here to stay, teknolohiya Dahil uusbong ang napakaraming teknolohiya
as it enables learning and is already benefiting approximately bilang kapalit ng harapang pagtuturo, masasanay ang kabataan
six million students in schools and higher learning institutions sa mga bagong pamamaraan. Mapakinabangan nawa ang mga
during the movement control order period teknolohiyang ito sa pagbubuklod at pagkatuto. Gayundin, mas
dapat gabayan ang mga mag-aaral na manaig ang
pakikipagkapwa bilang pagpapahalaga sa kabila ng
nakakalunod na teknolohiya.

MGA MAKABULUHANG KASANAYAN

Paglinang ng makabuluhang kasanayan sa buhay at

hanapbuhay Ang tradisyunal na kasanayan ay maluluma dahil
nagbago ang pangangailangan ng panahon kaya nararapat na
bukas tayo sa mga bagong kasanayan na dapat taglayin ng mga
mag-aaral, Sa ganitong kalakaran, pagtuunan at hasain ang influenced by numerous factors such as the teacher’s
paglinang ng mga makabuluhang kasanayan na makakatulong pedagogical skills and content knowledge, instructional
sa pang-araw-araw na buhay upang isulong ang kaginhawan at materials and the learners’ response to curriculum.
karangalan ng sambayanan.
4. Supported Curriculum. All types of instructional materials
PEDAGOHIYANG ANGKOP belong to this types of Curriculum-Supported Curriculum.
Print materials such as books, charts Non-print materials
Pag-angkop sa konteksto ng mag-aaral at lipunan such as Movies and slides; and School facilities such as
bilang salalayan ng pedagohiya sa Bagong Kadawyan ng laboratories fall under this type of Curriculum. Supported
Edukasyon, mas magiging mulat ang mga guro sa pag-angkop Curriculum is not limited to the materials used in instruction
sa konteksto ng mag-aaral at lipunan. Dahil iba-iba ang inside the school vicinity. Places that leamers tend to visit
konteksto dapat maging maparaan at malikhain. Ang konteksto during field explorations such as zoo and museum Direct-
ng mag-aaral ang salalayan ng pedagohiya. purposeful experiences occur are also a part of this
curriculum.
INOBASYONG MAKABANSA
5. Assessed Curriculum. Assessment progresses after the
Paglangkap ng kalinangang Pilipino sa mga bagong taught curriculum has been implemented with the help of
teknolohiya at inobasyon Nawa, hindi mawaglit ang wika, the supported curriculum. Every Curriculum should be
kultura, at nasyunalismo sa pagbubuo ng mga makabagong evaluated so we can have a clearer picture of whether the
teknolohiya at inobasyon sa edukasyon. Panatilihin ang Tatak curriculum succeeded or failed. This serves as a basis of
Pilipino sa teknolohiya, inobasyon at pedagohiya ng mga the next curriculum to be crafted by curricularist.
Pilipino. Pagkakataon ito upang sumabay ang pagdadagdag ng Assessment can happen before, during or after instruction
tatak Pinoy sa mga teknolohiyang nagsusulputan. have concluded.

6. Learned Curriculum. Did the leamers grasp knowledge

Lesson 3: HOW LOW BANDWIDTH TEACHING WILL SAVE after instruction? To what extent did the learners attained
US ALL the objectives of the lesson? What the learners added to
their schema, the new skills they learned, as well as the
Bandwidth positive outcome after instruction(ex: behavioural changes)
are all parts of the learned curriculum.
High-bandwidth technologies work great for students
who have newer computers, fast and reliable internet access at 7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. These are the factors that are
home, and unlimited data plans on their phones. For other unplanned yet creates huge impact to the behaviour of
students, courses that require frequent use of high bandwidth every learner towards learning. Teacher’s sensitivity to the
technologies can limit their ability to fully participate in course hidden curriculum is needed for Instruction to be
activities. This can jeopardize their success in the course, create successful. Implicit curriculum may include family problems,
a sense of shame and anxiety, and leave them feeling like climate, media, school environment etc.
second-class citizens.
EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN THE PHILIPPINES
Immediacy
1. Basic Education. Basic Education is divided into two
The second factor, immediacy, refers to how quickly levels- the Primary Education and Secondary Education.
we expect our students to respond when interacting with us and The K to 12 Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 starts at the
with each other. Typically, we think of immediacy as a good Kindergarten and move to Primary Education(Grade 1-6)
thing. It’s baked into face-to-face learning, so it doesn’t feel like up to the Grade 7-12 for secondary education. Secondary
a limited resource. But one of the biggest advantages of online Education is subdivided into two-Grade 7-10 for Junior High
learning is that it can provide you and your students with more and 11-12 is labelled as the Senior High. The Department
flexibility. When we require our students to be online at exactly of Education is responsible for the monitoring of the Basic
the same time, we sacrifice one of the key benefits of online education.
learning, and that can make an online course feel like more of a 2. Technical Vocational Education. Being facilitated by the
burden than it has to be. TESDA Technical Education and skills Development
Authority), this is a post-secondary level of Education where
CHAPTER 2 you can get national certificates that is usable here in the
country and abroad.
LESSON 1. TYPES OF CURRICULA IN SCHOOL 3. Higher Education. Bachelor Degrees and Graduate
Studies (Master's and Doctorate) fall under this category.
Various curriculum exists in whatever school levels it is. Below The CHED(Commission on Higher Education) supervises
are the 7 Types of curriculum by Allan Glatthom(2000) as and regulates the movement across this program.
explained by Bilbao(2015).
1. Recommended Curriculum. Specific body of LESSON 2: THE TEACHER AS A CURRICULARIST
governments were designated to oversee and regulate
state and local school districts. They are responsible in Below is a description of a teacher as a curricularist lifted from
crafting and implementing the Curriculum in every Purita Bilbao et al, (2015)
department This Curriculum is what we referred to as The teacher as a curricularist...
Recommended Curriculum. Recommended Curriculum has
always been the foundation of all other types of Curriculum. 1. Knows the curriculum. For the teacher to properly
For the Basic Education, curriculum is recommended by the implement the curriculum, he/she must be knowledgeable of the
Department of Education, TESDA(Technical Education and curriculum content and all other aspects of the curriculum.
Skills Development Authority) for TeckVoc and Learning the curriculum happens not just within the academic
CHED(Commission Higher Education) for the Higher campuses but also outside of it(ie., watching television; Reading
Education in Colleges and Universities. books and newspaper). Both first hand and second hand
experiences are contributing factor towards the teacher's
2. Written Curriculum. These are the documents having the curriculum mastery.
Recommended Curriculum as its basis. These can be in a
form of Syllabi, OBTL, Modules, Teacher’s Guide, Lesson 2. Writes the Curriculum. A curriculularist must also be a
Plan, books etc., K to 12 Curriculum is seen as both writer. The curricularist writes modules, books, lesson guides
recommended and a written curriculum. and other reference materials in print or in electronic form.
Therefore, it is a must for every teacher to monitor learners'
3. Taught Curriculum. Recommended, Written and all other needs and growth so curriculum contents from different learning
types of curriculum will be futile without implementing it. The materials will match each other.
teacher and the leamers put all other types of curriculum in
reality by giving a life to it. Taught curriculum is what 3. Plans the Curriculum. A teacher is a curriculum planner. For
transpired inside the classroom which is tremendously something to be successful, it must be carefully planned. A
teacher should have a clear path to trod and so planning his/her Traditional Vs. Progressive Curriculum Points of View
next moves is a wise thing to do so he/she will not be lost in the
process. This will be possible by having a timeframe for the Curriculum from Traditional Points of View
execution of the curriculum in daily, weekly, monthly or yearly
basis. ❖ Hutchins, Arthur Bestor, and Joseph Schwab lifted
from Bilbao et. Al, (2015).
4. Initiates the curriculum. A teacher serves as a leader in ❖ Robert M. Hutchins claimed that curriculum as “
implementing the curriculum. A teacher also initiates a permanent studies” where rules of grammar, reading,
curriculum by trying something new and impactful to the Rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education
academe. are emphasized. The 3Rs (Reading, Writing, ‘rithmetic)
Should be emphasized in basic education while liberal
5. Innovates the curriculum. Teacher must be curious and education while liberal education should be the
creative to create innovations across the curriculum. Since we Emphasis in college.
have an ever changing curriculum, a teacher must be versatile ❖ Arthur Bestor as an essentialist believes that the
and adaptive enough to easily follow and adjust with these mission of the school should be intellectual training,
changes. A good teacher, therefore, innovates the curriculum hence Curriculum should focus on the fundamental
and thus becomes a curriculum innovator(Bilbao et. al, 2015).
intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and
writing. It Should include mathematics, science, history
6. Implements the curriculum. "The curriculum that remains
recommended or written will never serve its purpose. Somebody and foreign language.
has to implement it. As mentioned previously, at the heart of ❖ Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of
schooling is the curriculum. It is this role where the teacher curriculum is a discipline, thus the subject areas such
becomes the curriculum implementor. An implementor gives life as Science, mathematics, Social Studies, English and
to the curriculum plan. The teacher is at the height of many more. In college, Academic disciplines are
engagement with the learners, with support materials in order to labelled As humanities, sciences, languages,
achieve the desired outcome. It is where teaching, guiding, mathematics among others. He coined the word
facilitating skills of the teacher is expected to the highest level. discipline as a ruling Doctrine for curriculum
It is where teaching as a science and as an art will be observed. development.
It is here where all the elements of the curriculum will come into ❖ Phillip Phenix asserts that Curriculum should consist
play. The success of a recommended, well written and planned entirely of knowledge which comes from various
curriculum depends on the implementation said Bilbao et. al, Disciplines.
(2015).

7. Evaluates the curriculum. For a curriculum to be labelled as Curriculum from Progressive Points of View
something successful, it must be evaluated first. This act
determines wether the target goals and objectives are met or ❖ John Dewey believes that education is experiencing.
not. Hence, It is every teachers duty to assess the effectiveness Reflective thinking is a means that unifies Curricular
of the curriculum. Results yield would be used for some elements that are tested by application.
curriculum modifications and improvement. ❖ Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore
likewise defined curriculum as a sequence of Potential
CHAPTER 3 experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of
disciplining children and youth in group ways Of
LESSON 1. THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: DEFINITION,
thinking and acting.
NATURE AND SCOPE
❖ Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed
Some Definitions of Curriculum lifted from Bilbao et. Al (2015): curriculum as all the experiences in the classroom
which Are planned and enacted by the teacher and
1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning also learned by the students.
experiences and intended outcomes, formulated
through The systematic reconstruction of knowledge
and experiences under the auspices of the school, for LESSON 2: APPROCHES TO SCHOOL CURRICULUM
the Learners’ continuous and wilful growth in personal
social competence.” (Daniel Tanner, 1980) Curriculum can be approached or seen in three ways. It can be
2. It is a written document that systematically describes defined as content, a process or an outcome.
goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities,
Evaluation, procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980) 1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge.
3. The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be Traditionalist usually equate the curriculum as a
acquired, planned activities, desired learning content, subject matter, it involves outlining the topics,
outcomes And experiences, product of culture and an and concepts to be included in a syllabus or book. For
agenda to reform society make up a curriculum. ( example, in secondary school (science subject)
Schubert, 1987) Textbooks tend to begin with biological science such
4. A curriculum includes “all of the experiences that are plants and animals; physical science with the
individual learners have ina a program of education physical elements, force and motion; earth science
whose Purpose is to achieve broad goals and related with the layers of the earth and environmental science.
specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a The focus is to transmit knowledge to the students. It
frameworksOf theory and research or past and present could be direct or indirect or any method as long as it
professional practice.” (Hass, 1987) is appropriate and effective.
5. It is a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) *Curriculum as a topic outline, subject matter, or
designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible cencepts to be included in syllabus or books *Focus of
Certain educational and other schooling ends or the curriculum will be the body of knowledge to be
objectives. (Grundy, 1987) transmitted to students using appropriate teaching
6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a method.
specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring *Teaching is limited to the acquisition of facts, concepts
About behaviour changes in students as a result of and principles of the subject matter; however, the
planned activities and includes all learning experiences content or subject matter can also be taken as a means
Received by students with the guidance of the school. to an end.
(Goodland and Su, 1992)
There are four ways of presenting the content in
7. It provides answers to three questions: 1. What
the curriculum. These are:
knowledge , skills and values are most worthwhile? 2.
Why Are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the a) Topical Approach- where much content is
young acquire them? (Cronbeth, 1992) based on knowledge, and experiences are
 included; A specific topic is started in a *This is the other side of the coin: instruction,
particular class and finished in the same class. implementation and teaching.
This is a comprehensive collection of materials
in a specific topic on a particular subject. Guiding Principles of Curriculum approached as a
b) Concept Approach - it is about choosing and process
defining content on a certain discipline to be 1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching
taught. From specific to general. With fewer methods or strategies are means to achieve the
topics in clusters around major and end.
subconcepts and their interaction, with 2. There is no single best process or method. Its
relatedness emphasized; effectiveness will depend on the desired learning
c) Thematic Approach- as a combination of outcomes, the learners, support materials and the
concepts that develop conceptual structures. It teacher.
is a way of teaching and learning whereby 3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners’
different areas of curriculum are related desire to develop the cognitive, affective an
together and integrated to a central theme. psychomotor.
d) Modular Approach that leads to complete 4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching
units of instruction. The modular approach styles should be considered.
offers a flexible and adaptable way to design 5. Every method or process should result to learning
and deliver education. It is particularly well- outcomes which can be describes as cognitive,
suited for addressing the challenges of affective and Psychomotor.
personalized and asynchronous learning in 6. Flexibility in the use if the process should be
both traditional and online educational considered. An effective process will always result
settings. to learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are two important
Criteria and Selection of Content Below are the processes in the implementation of the curriculum.
some suggested criteria in the selection of
knowledge or subject (Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao et. 3. Curriculum as a Product
al, 2009) *Product is what the students desire to achieve as
learning outcomes
1. Significance
*The product from the curriculum is a student equipped
2. Validity (authenticity)
with the knowledge, skills and values to function
3. Utility (usefulness)
effectively and efficiently.
4. Learnability
*The real purpose of Education is to bring about
5. Feasibility (possible to be learned within
significant changes in students’ pattern of behaviour.
allowed time, resources etc.)
*curriculum is expresses in form of outcomes which are
6. Interest
referred to as achieved learning outcomes
Guide in the Selection of the Content in the
Curriculum
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT: PROCESS AND METHODS
1. Commonly used in daily life
2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities Curriculum Development planned, thoughtful and deliberate
course of actions that ultimately enhance the quality and impact
of the learners
of the learning experience for students.
3. Valuable in meeting the needs and
competencies of the future career
4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for Curriculum Development Process
complementation and integration.
5. Important in the Transfer of learning to other 1.Curriculum Planning
disciplines 2.Curriculum Designing
3.Curriculum Implementing
BASIC principles of Curriculum Content 4.Curriculum Evaluating
(Palma,1952)

1. Balance. Content should be fairly distributed in Curriculum Planning

depth and breadth.
2. Articulation. As the content complexity This curriculum process starts with the review of the Institutional
progresses with the educational levels, Mission, Vision andCore Values and Goals. The schools’
vertically or horizontally, across the same Philosophy is also a contributing factor to Curriculum Planning.
discipline smooth connections or bridging Thus,Curriculum outcomes must adhere with the Principles the
should be provided. member of each school community lives up with.
3. Sequence. Content should be logically
arranged. Curriculum Designing
4. Integration. Content should be infused with
Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to
other disciplines whenever possible.
include the selection and organization of content, the selection
5. Continuity. Content should continuously flow. and organization of learning experiences or activities and the
selection of the assessment procedure and tools to measure
2. Curriculum as a Process. As a process, curriculum achieved learning outcomes. A curriculum design will also
happens in the classroom as the questions asked by include the resources to utilized and the statement of the
the teacher and the learning activities engaged in by intended learning outcomes”.(Bilbaoet.al,2015)
the students. The teacher tends to ask questions and
the students will cooperate. Curriculum Implementing
*Curriculum is not seen as a physical thing but as a
verb or an action Curriculum implementing is putting into action the plan which is
*Curriculum happens in the classroom as the questions based on thecurriculum design in the classroom setting or the
asked by the teacher and the learning activities learning environment. The teacher is the facilitator of learning
engaged in by the students and,together with the learners,uses the curriculum as design
guides to what will transpire in the classroom with the end in
*Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about
view of achieving the intended learning outcomes. Implementing
the practice of teaching.
the curriculum iswhere action takes place. It involves the
*Curriculum links to the content
activities that transpire in every teacher’s classroom where 4.Evaluation
learningbecomesanactiveprocess”.(Bilbaoet.al,2015)
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION
Curriculum Evaluating
According to Guay (2020), the philosophical foundation of
Determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been curriculum helps determine the driving purpose of education, as
achieved. This procedure is on-going as in finding out the well as the roles of the various participants. He added that one’s
progress of learning(formative) or the mastery of philosophy defines the role of a teacher, ranging from all-
learning(summative). Along the way, evaluation will determine knowing authoritarian to that of a mentor, and the role of the
the factors that have hindered or supported the implementation. student, ranging from the obedient vacant vessel to an individual
It will also pinpoint where improvement can be made and worthy of actively engaging in one’s educational process.
corrective measures, introduced. The result of evaluation is very
important for decision making of curriculum The word Philosophy was born out of the words “philos”
planners,andimplementors”.(Bilbaoet.al,2015) meaning love and “sophi” meaning wisdom. For Aristotle,
Philosophy is the ability to feel at ease while Immanuel Kant
Curriculum Development Process Models defined philosophy as a science of criticism and cognition.
1.Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic principles
1. IDEALISM
2.Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach. PHILOSOPHERS: Plato, Rene Descartes, Immanuel Kant,
Spinoza, Leibniz, Hegel and Schopenhauer, Saint
3.Gaylen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model. Augustine of Hippo
Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic principles Idealism is a Philosophy which promotes ideas as the only
truth and the only thing worth knowing. In his famous book
also known as the Tyler’s Rationale
entitled “The Republic”, Plato who was halted as the father
of Idealism, introduced his views about Idealism.
“Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction”
Dash (2015) formulated the implication of the Philosophy of
1.What education purposes should schoolsseek to attain?
Idealism in Education and here are as follows:
2.What educational experiences can be provided that are likely • An emphasis on theory before practice;
to attain these purposes?
• An emphasis in logical thinking
3.How can these educational experiences be effectively • A high value attached to liberal education.
organized?
2. PRAGMATISM
4.How can we determine whether these purposes are being PHILOSOPHERS: John Dewey, Charles Pierce
attained or not?
Pragmatism, also known as Experientialism believes that
Tyler proposed the following considerations: the reality of experience is the only thing that is real.
Pragmatists believes in the constantly changing reality and
• Purposes of the School that problems in this society can be solved through
• Educational Experiences related to the purposes application of our past experiences to the present context.
• Organization of the experiences They educate individuals with the idea that there is no
• Evaluation of the experience universal, unchanging and absolute truth rather what’s
practical and what works is the truth.

Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach According to James Prett as cited by Dash (2015)
“Pragmatism offers us a theory of meaning, a theory of truth
Hilda Taba’s Grassroots Approach recognizes the bottom as the of knowledge and a theory of reality.
Hilda Taba’s Grassroots Approach recognizes the bottom as the
starting point indeveloping acurriculum. In her linear model, she Dash (2015) Aims of Education:
laid down seven major principles and these areas follows:
• To reform and reconstruct the society
-Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the larger • To enable the individual to adjust with the changing
society social environment
• To develop the child fully according to his interest,
-Formulation of learning objectives abilities and needs
• To create social efficacy in the child
-Selection of learning contents • To provide educational opportunities to all citizens on
equal footing
-Organization of learning contents
• To instil habit of experimentation in the children
-Selection of learning experiences • To remove social evils and make the society a good
place for living
-Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it. • To enable the child to discover the truth himself
• To make child self-reliant
Gaylen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model.

viewed curriculum as “ a plan for providing sets of learning Dash (2015) Impacts of Pragmatism to Modern Education:
opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related
specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a • Inculcation of democratic values and social
single school center.”(Bilbao et. al, 2015).According to Saylor responsibilities have been included in the aims of
and Alexander(1974), education today.
• Activity and self-experience methods of teaching are
Four steps to curriculum development lifted from Bilbao very much recognized today.
et.al,(2015). • Special emphasis on vocational and professional
courses.
1.Goals, objectives and Domains
• Organization of co-curricular activities in the school
2.Curriculum Designing • Updating of curriculum after every five years according
to the changing needs of the society.
3.Curriculum Implementation • Promotion of self-discipline
 • Respect for Democratic value *Emphasized social studies and suggested that the
teacher plans curriculum in advance.

5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)

3. REALISM *Curriculum is organized around social functions of
PHILOSOPHERS: Aristotle themes, organized knowledge and learner’s interest.
*Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated.
Realists, the believer or the philosophy of Realism, views *Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is
reality and human mind as something separated. Realism’s developed around social functions and learners’
basis is the reality. They claimed that the world independent interests.
of the human mind (the world of physical objects) holds the
truth for reality is something that can be observed. Aristotle, 6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)
the student of Plato, who was known as the father of both *Curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s
Realism and Scientific Reasoning. “Things rather than philosophy. It is based on students’ needs and interest.
words” is one of the watchwords of the realists. *Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject
Realistic system of education throws light on all the aspects matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and
of education which are as follows(Dash,2015): values.
*The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum
• Preparing the child for a happy and successful life aims to educate generalists and not specialists.
• Preparing the child for real life
• Developing the physical and mental powers of the child 7. Hilda Taba (1902-1967)
• Developing and training of senses *She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical
• Acquitting the child with nature and social environment foundations of concepts development and critical
• Imparting vocational education thinking in social studies curriculum
*She helped lay the foundation for diverse student
4. EXISTENTIALISM population.
PHILOSOPHERS: Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche,
Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre 8. Peter Oliva (1992-2012)
*He described how curriculum change is a cooperative
Existentialists like Soren Kierkegaard believes in the power endeavor.
of choices and individual Freedom. Reality is nothing *Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the
without individual existence for Human being is the central professional core planners.
of truth. It is the sole responsibility of an individual to define *Significant improvement is achieved through group
the meaning of his life and to decide the kind of person he activity.
will become. The definition of ourselves lies on our choices.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF CURRICULUM
Instructional Methodology according to Idealism
(Dash,2015) Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and
learning. It unifies elements of the learning process. In this
1. Existentialists advocates learning which is self- module, we shall consider three groups of learning theories:
paced, self-directed and includes a great deal of behaviourism or association theories; cognitive-information
individual contact with the teacher. processing theories and humanistic theories (Ornestein &
2. Existentialists should embrace individual Hunkins, 2004).
differences.
3. The existential way to teach science is for the Association and Behaviorism
students to live it.
4. Existentialists favors the Socratic method of ➢ Learning is considered a habit-formation.
teaching. ➢ Behaviorists believe that behavior can be conditioned
by altering the environment.
HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
1. Franklin Bobbit(1876-1956)
*He started the curriculum development movement • He is the father of the Classical Theory, the S-R Theory
*Curriculum is a science that emphasizes students’ Conditioning
needs • The key to learning is the early years of life is to train
*Curriculum prepares learners for adult life them what you want them to become.
*Objectives and activities should group together when • S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called
tasks are clarified. indoctrination.

2. Werret Charters (1875-1952)

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
*Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is a science
and emphasizes students’ needs • He championed the Connectionism Theory He
*Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter proposed the three laws of learning
or content relates to objectives. ✓ Law of readiness
✓ Law of exercise
3. William Kilpatrick (1875-1952) ✓ Law of effect
*Curricula are purposeful activities which are child- • Specific stimulus has specific response
centered.
*The purpose of the curriculum is child development
and growth. He introduced this project method where Robert Gagne (1916-2002)
teacher and student plan the activities. • He proposed the hierarchical learning Theory Learning
*Curriculum develops social relationships and small follows a hierarchy
group instruction. • Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.
• He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives.
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960)
*Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-
COGNITIVISM
centered.
➢ Cognitivists emphasized that learning is primarily
*With the statement of objectives and related learning
cognitive in nature.
activities, curriculum should produce outcomes.
 • PRINCIPLE OF CLOSURE
- Seeing an image with missing parts and filling them in to
JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) complete the image in your head
• Theories of Jean Piaget
Cognitive Development Theory with Four Stages:
1. Sensori Motor • PRINCIPLE OF GOOD CONTINUATION
2. pre-operational - People perceive continuously flowing and smooth lines even
3. Concrete Operational with interruption
4. Formal Operational

*Keys to Learning • PRINCIPLE OF COMMON FATE

➢ Assimilation(incorporation of new experience) - Objects moving together are grouped together
➢ Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation)
➢ Equilibration (balance between previous and later
ABRAHAM MASLOW
learning)
Co-Founder of Humanistic Psychology with Carl Rogers
° Believed we are all biologically driven to achieve self-
LEV VYGOTSKY (1986-1934)
actualization
° Came up with Hierarchy of Needs theory that is most important
"Theories of Lev Vygotsky
humanistic theory.
• Socio cultural development theory
• Scaffolding
• ZPD (Zone Proximal Development) CARL ROGERS
° Co-Founder of Humanistic Psychology with Abraham Maslow
*Keys to Learning ° Main contribution was in clinical therapy and applications of
The child is an active agent in his or her educational process. Humanism
° Started Person-Centered Psychology
HOWARD GARDNER

• Humans have several different ways of processing EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS

information and these wys are relatively independent 1. Before a student's cognitive needs can be met, they
of one another. must fulfil their basic physiological needs first.
• There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logic- 2. Students need a feel emotionally and physically safe
mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, and accepted within the classroom to progress and
interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic reach their full potential.

DANIEL GOLEMAN PERSON-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGY/THERAPY

- American psychologist Carl Rogers developed this
• Emotion contains power to affect action. type of therapy in the 1940s and 1950s.
• He called this Emotional Learning. - Person-centered therapy is a therapy that emphasizes
• "Five Characteristics of Emotional Intelligence" understanding and caring rather than diagnosis,
✓ Self-awareness advice, and persuasion.
✓ Self-regulation - Within each person, Rogers believed, is the capacity
✓ Motivation for self-understanding constructive change.
✓ Empathy - It is an approach which is practical and helpful in
✓ Social Skills education, because it can solve some of the problems
outside the curriculum faced by students.

HUMANISTIC THEORY

It is psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the THREE CORE CONDITIONS
whole person. • Congruence
> Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior not only • Empathy
through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. • Unconditional Positive Regard
> developed in the 1960s and 70s in the United States as a
response to the continual struggle between behavior theorists
and cognitive psychologists.
> described as anthropocentric or human-centered. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
• Humans have free will; not all behavior is determined.
• All individuals are unique and have an innate (inborn) drive to
PROPONENTS OF HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY achieve their maximum potential.
• GESTALT • A proper understanding of human behavior can only be
• ABRAHAM MASLOW achieved by studying humans not animals.
• CARL ROGERS • Psychology should study the individual case (idiograohic)
rather than the average performance of groups (nomothetic).

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
• Based on Perception and organization FIVE BASIC OBJECTIVES OF THE HUMANISTICS VIEW OF
• Our minds perceive things as part of a whole EDUCATION
• We have predisposed ways of organizing information 1. Promote positive self-direction and Independence.
2. Develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned.
3. Developed creativity.
GESTALT PRINCIPLES 4. Curiosity and;
• FIGURE-GROUND PERCEPTION 5. Have an interest in the arts
- Perceiving images into a figure and ground

LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS

• PROXIMITY PRINCIPLE • Silent way
- Objects close to one another are grouped together • Suggestopedia
• Community Language Learning

• PRINCIPLE OF SIMILARITY
- Objects that are similar to one another grouped together
 SOCIAL FOUNDATION OF CURRICULUM

SOCIAL FOUNDATION
> Social foundation are issue from society, which include groups
and institutions, that contribute and affect the curriculum and
structure of education.

JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952)

> Dewey considered two fundamental elements- school and civil
society- to be major topics needing attention and reconstruction
to encourage experimental intelligence and plurarity.
"Learning by doing"

ALVIN TOFFLER
> Wrote the book "future shock"
> Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the
future.
> Suggest that in the future, parents might have the resources
to teach prescribed curriculum from home as a result of
technology, not in spite of it (home schooling)

SCHOOLS AND SOCIETY SYMBOLS

• SOCIETY AS AN SOURCES OF CHANGE
• SCHOOLS AS AGENT OF CHANGE
• KNOWLEDGE AS AN AGENT OF CHANGE