Psycholinguistics BS 8th Notes+Long Solved

Psycholinguistics BS 8th UoS
Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics represents an interdisciplinary overlapping of the fields of linguistics and
psychology. On its own, psychology constitutes the study of the human psyche or mind
while linguistics is the science of languages. Psycholinguistics consequently involves the
search for knowledge and understanding of how humans acquire, generate, and receive
language. It recognizes that language is both a physical and cognitive endeavor.
Psycholinguistics also encompasses the psychology of language as well as linguistic

psychology, that is the study of how people understand and produce language. Speech is
understood as both biological and psychological in nature. It also explores the mechanisms
of language processing, learning to read, and writing systems.
Language Acquisition:
Language acquisition refers to the process through which individuals acquire their native
language or learn additional languages. Psycholinguistics plays a crucial role in
understanding how children acquire language, examining milestones, and developmental
patterns. It investigates the underlying mechanisms that enable language learning, such as
statistical learning, imitation, and social interaction.
Language Production: From Thoughts to Words
Language production refers to the process of transforming our thoughts and ideas into
meaningful linguistic expressions. It involves several stages, including conceptualization,
formulation, and articulation. Psycholinguists investigate how these processes unfold,
examining factors like lexical retrieval, syntactic planning, and phonological encoding
Research Fields of Psycholinguistics:

Psycholinguistics is the juxtaposition of psychology and linguistics in order to understand
how humans acquire and utilize language. This requires an understanding of its major
subfields and how they interact.
Phonology or phonetics, is the study of speech and its production. It involves the
physiological aspects of hearing and speaking. The focus is on phonemes, which are the
smallest units of sound, and understanding the rules surrounding how they are combined to
create syllables and words.
Unlike the emphasis on sound in phonetics, morphology targets the smallest units of
meaning within words. These units are called morphemes.
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M. Jawad (GGC BHAKKAR)
While phonology and morphology analyze components within words, syntax focuses on
whole words or phrases, and the rules for putting them together to generate sentences. It
closely examines the grammatical structures of a language as well as how to form words
into correct and meaningful utterances or sentences.
In comparison to the above subfields, pragmatics is unique in its attention paid to studying
contexts and interpretation. It is also the only one that considers the nonverbal elements of
acquiring and using a language.
Psycholinguistics Theories:
Over the years, a number of compelling psycholinguistic theories have emerged and sought
to explain how humans acquire a language.
 B.F. Skinner is one of the most well-known and his research regarding behaviorism is
closely associated with the field of psychology.
 Another leading theory is the innatist theory, which was articulated by Noam Chomsky.
 In addition, it's important to understand the cognitive theory of language development
put forth by Jean Piaget and how it differs from the arguments made by Skinner and
Chomsky.
Memory
Memory plays a vital role in language processing. Psycholinguists investigate how different
types of memory, such as working memory and long-term memory, are involved in language
production and comprehension. They explore how we store and retrieve words,
grammatical rules, and semantic knowledge, shedding light on the intricate interplay
between memory and language.
Language Disorders: Insights from Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics contributes to our understanding of language disorders, such as aphasia,

dyslexia, and specific language impairment. By studying individuals with language
impairments, researchers can gain insights into the underlying cognitive processes and
develop effective intervention strategies. Psycholinguistic research helps improve diagnosis,
treatment, and support for individuals with language difficulties.
Conclusion
Psycholinguistics is a captivating field that unravels the intricate relationship between

language and the human mind. By exploring language production, comprehension, and
acquisition, psycholinguists provide invaluable insights into the cognitive processes that
underlie our ability to communicate through language. With continued research and
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innovative methodologies, psycholinguistics will continue to deepen our understanding of

the mind-language connection and its implications for various aspects of human
communication.
Language Acquisition
Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive,
produce and use words to understand and communicate. It involves the picking up of
diverse capacities including syntax, phonetics, and an extensive vocabulary.
There are two types of language acquisition;
 First Language Acquisition

 Second Language Acquisition:
1. First Language Acquisition

Introduction:
First language acquisition, also known as language development or language learning, is a

remarkable and intricate process through which infants and young children acquire their
native language(s). This phenomenon has been a subject of extensive research in the field of
psycholinguistics, which seeks to understand the relationship between language and the
human mind. The study of first language acquisition sheds light on the innate linguistic
abilities of humans and provides valuable insights into the cognitive process es underlying
language learning.
Stages of First Language Acquisition:
1. The Prelinguistic Stage
The prelinguistic stage ranges from birth to approximately 6 months. Noises in this stage
include crying, whimpering, and cooing. These sounds are not considered language because
they are involuntary responses to stimuli. Linguists consider human language creative – as
free from internal or external stimuli. Since these noises do not fit within the definition of
language, this stage occurs before language is produced by the child. It is, therefore,
the prelinguistic stage.
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2. Babbling Stage:
First language acquisition typically begins in infancy, with infants engaging in babbling
around 6-9 months of age. During this stage, infants produce a wide range of sounds, many
of which are not present in their native language(s). This experimentation with sounds is a
crucial precursor to language development.
3. One-Word or Holophrastic Stage:
Around the age of 12-18 months, children enter the one-word or holophrastic stage. During
this phase, they begin to use single words to convey whole ideas or concepts. For example,
they might say "milk" to request a glass of milk.
4. Two-Word Stage:
As children approach their second year, they transition to the two-word stage. In this phase,
they combine two words to form simple sentences, such as "more juice" or "big dog."
5. Telegraphic Stage:
The telegraphic stage, occurring around the age of 2-3 years, involves the use of short,
grammatically simplified sentences. While articles, prepositions, and some grammatical
markers are often omitted, children can effectively convey meaning using fewer words, as in
"Daddy go car."
Factors affecting First Language Acquisition:
 Physical environment → the material surroundings of a child, e.g. dog, house, cat,
tree, table
 Social environment → family and neighborhood
 Physical and economic resources → the economical condition of the family
Conclusion:
First language acquisition is a multifaceted process that showcases the remarkable abilities
of the human mind. It involves distinct stages of development, from babbling to the
formation of complex sentences. Understanding first language acquisition is not only crucial
for the field of psycholinguistics but also has practical implications for education, speech
therapy, and the promotion of language development in children. Studying this process
continues to shed light on the intricate relationship between language and cognition in
humans.
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2. Second Language Acquisition:

Introduction:
Second language acquisition (SLA) is the process through which individuals learn a language
other than their native tongue. Psycholinguistics, a branch of psychology that explores the
relationship between language and cognition, has provided valuable insights into the
mechanisms, challenges, and variables involved in acquiring a second language.
Understanding SLA is essential not only for linguists and educators but also for anyone
interested in the dynamics of human language learning.
Stages of Second Language Acquisition:
Krashen stages (or Krashen Theory of SLA)

Stephen Krashen divides the process of second-language acquisition into five stages:
1. Preproduction,
2. Early production,
3. Speech emergence,
4. Intermediate fluency
5. Advanced fluency.
1. Preproduction:
The first stage, preproduction, is also known as the silent period. Learners at this stage have
a receptive vocabulary of up to 500 words, but they do not yet speak their second
language. Not all learners go through a silent period. Some learners start speaking straight
away, although their output may consist of imitation rather than creative language use.
Others may be required to speak from the start as part of a language course. For learners
that do go through a silent period, it may last around three to six months.
2. Early production:
The second of Krashen's stages of acquisition is early production, during which learners can
speak in short phrases of one or two words. They can also memorize chunks of language,
although they may make mistakes when using them. Learners typically have both an active
and receptive vocabulary of around 1000 words. This stage normally lasts for around six
months.
3. Speech emergence:
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The third stage is speech emergence. Learners' vocabularies increase to around 3000 words
during this stage, and they can communicate using simple questions and phrases. They may
often make grammatical errors.
4. Intermediate fluency:
The fourth stage is intermediate fluency. At this stage, learners have a vocabulary of around
6000 words and can use more complicated sentence structures. They are also able to share
their thoughts and opinions. Learners may make frequent errors with more complicated
sentence structures.
5. Advanced fluency
The final stage is advanced fluency, which is typically reached somewhere between five and
ten years of learning the language. Learners at this stage can function at a level close to
native speakers.
Factors affecting Second Language Acquisition:

Within individual learner differences, there are a number of factors that influence foreign
language acquisition. The individual differences, viz., age, sex, aptitude,
attitude/Intelligence, motivation, cognitive style, learning Style/strategies, and
personality are of determinate importance.
Individual learner factors in psycholinguistics refer to the characteristics and attributes of

individual language learners that can influence how they acquire, process, and use language.
These factors play a significant role in shaping the language learning experience and
outcomes. Understanding these factors helps researchers, educators, and practitioners
tailor language learning approaches to better suit individual needs. Some key individual
learner factors include:
 Age
 Cognitive Abilities:
 Motivation and Attitude
 Social Factors
 Learning Styles
 Aptitude
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1. Age
Age is a significant individual learner factor in psycholinguistics that plays a crucial role in
language acquisition, development, and processing. It refers to the chronological age at
which an individual begins learning a new language or languages. The age at which language
learning starts can have a profound impact on various linguistic aspects, including
pronunciation, grammar acquisition, vocabulary acquisition, and overall language
proficiency. This phenomenon is often referred to as the "critical period hypothesis."
Here's a more detailed explanation of how age influences language learning in

psycholinguistics:
 Critical Period Hypothesis:
The critical period hypothesis suggests that there is a biologically determined window of
time during which language acquisition is most effective. This window is believed to begin in
early childhood and gradually close as an individual grows older. The critical period
hypothesis proposes that children are more likely to achieve native-like pronunciation and
grammatical competence if they are exposed to a new language before the critical period
ends.
 Pronunciation:
Younger language learners tend to be more adept at acquiring accurate pronunciation and
subtle phonetic distinctions of a new language. This ability is thought to diminish with age,
making it more challenging for older learners to reproduce native-like sounds.
 Syntax and Grammar:
Children seem to have a natural ability to internalize complex syntactic rules and
grammatical structures, often without explicit instruction. They are also more likely to
acquire the intuitions and patterns of a language's syntax when exposed to it at an early
age.
 Vocabulary Acquisition:
Younger learners generally have the advantage of more extensive neural plasticity, allowing
them to learn and retain vocabulary more readily. Children exposed to multiple languages at
an early age can become proficient multilingual speakers.
 Neural Plasticity:
The brain's plasticity, or ability to reorganize itself, is generally higher in younger individuals.
This means that younger learners have a greater capacity to adapt to new linguistic
structures and patterns.
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 Accent and Identity:
Children who learn a language during their early years are more likely to develop native-like
accents and integrate seamlessly into the culture associated with that language. For older
learners, accents may persist, reflecting their L1 influence.
It's important to note that while age can influence second language acquisition, individual
motivation, aptitude, and the learning environment also play significant roles. Many adults
successfully learn second languages, but they may approach language learning differently
from children, and their outcomes may vary.
2. Cognitive Abilities:
Cognitive abilities play a crucial role as learner factors in language acquisition. These
cognitive abilities influence how individuals learn and use language. Here are some of the
key cognitive factors that affect language acquisition:
Working Memory: Working memory is essential for language processing and learning. It
allows individuals to temporarily store and manipulate information. A strong working
memory is beneficial for tasks such as understanding complex sentence structures and
retaining new vocabulary.
Attention: The ability to focus attention on relevant language input is critical for language
acquisition. Those with strong attentional skills can better pick up on linguistic patterns and
details.
Processing Speed: The speed at which a person can process and respond to linguistic
information can impact language learning. Faster processing may lead to more efficient
language acquisition.
Inhibitory Control: Inhibitory control refers to the ability to suppress irrelevant information
or impulses. This is important for language learners because it helps them filter out
distractions and stay focused on language tasks.
Analytical Skills: Analytical thinking allows learners to break down language into its
components, such as sounds, grammar rules, and vocabulary. This can aid in understandi ng
the structure of a language.
Problem-Solving Skills: Language learners often encounter situations where they need to
problem-solve to communicate effectively. Strong problem-solving abilities can be an asset
in such situations.
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Metacognition: Metacognition involves self-awareness and the ability to monitor and

regulate one's own learning. Learners with strong metacognitive skills can set goals, assess
their progress, and adjust their learning strategies accordingly.
It's important to note that individuals vary in their cognitive abilities, and these variations
can influence how easily and efficiently they acquire a new language. However, other
factors, such as motivation, exposure to the language, and the quality of instruction, also
interact with these cognitive factors to determine language acquisition outcomes.
3. Motivation and Attitude

Motivation is a critical factor in second language acquisition (SLA). It can significantly impact
a learner's success and the level of proficiency they achieve in a second language. Here are
some key points regarding motivation in SLA:
Types of Motivation
 Intrinsic Motivation:
Intrinsic motivation stems from internal factors, such as personal interest, curiosity, and
enjoyment. Learners who are intrinsically motivated find joy in the process of learning and
have a genuine interest in the language and its culture.
 Extrinsic Motivation:
Extrinsic motivation arises from external factors, such as rewards, recognition, or pressure
from others. Learners may be motivated by grades, certificates, or the desire to please
parents or teachers.
Motivation Factors:
1. Self-Determination Theory: This psychological theory suggests that learners who feel a
sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in their language learning experience
are more likely to be motivated. Autonomy allows learners to choose their goals and
methods, competence means feeling capable of achieving those goals, and relatedness
involves feeling connected to others who share similar interests.
2. Motivational Shifts: Motivation can change over time. Some learners may start with
primarily extrinsic motivations but develop a genuine interest in the language and
culture as they progress. Others may experience a decline in motivation if they face
challenges or do not see immediate rewards.
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3. Goal Setting: Setting specific, achievable language learning goals can boost motivation.
These goals provide learners with a clear sense of purpose and progress.
Attitude
Attitude is a significant factor in language acquisition. A learner's attitude toward the
language they are trying to acquire can have a profound impact on their motivation,
engagement, and ultimately, their success in learning the language. Here's how attitude can
influence language acquisition:
Motivation: A positive attitude toward the target language can enhance motivation. When
learners have a favorable view of the language and its culture, they are more likely to be
motivated to learn and use it. Conversely, a negative attitude can dampen motivation.
Interest and Engagement: A positive attitude often leads to greater interest and
engagement in language learning activities. Learners who enjoy the process of learning are
more likely to invest time and effort in their studies.
4. Cognitive style
Cognitive style refers to an individual's preferred way of processing information and
thinking. While cognitive style can influence how someone approaches language learning,
its impact on language acquisition is not as widely studied or understood as factors like
motivation, learning strategies, or age. However, cognitive style can still play a role in
language acquisition in the following ways:
1. Field Dependence-Independence:
Field dependence refers to the extent to which an individual relies on external cues and
context when processing information. Field-independent learners tend to analyze
information independently of the surrounding context, while field-dependent learners are
more influenced by context.
2. Analytical vs. Holistic Processing:
Analytical thinkers tend to break information down into smaller components for detailed
analysis, while holistic thinkers focus on the overall picture. In language acquisition,
analytical learners may excel at dissecting sentence structures and identifying individual
vocabulary words, while holistic learners might be better at understanding the overall
meaning and nuances of a conversation.
3. Verbal vs. Non-Verbal Processing:
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Some individuals have a preference for verbal processing, which involves thinking in words
and language. Others may prefer non-verbal processing, which involves thinking in images,
sounds, or sensations. In language acquisition, verbal processors may excel at vocabulary
and grammar, while non-verbal processors may focus on pronunciation and intonation.
4. Learning Styles:
Cognitive styles can also overlap with learning styles, such as visual, auditory, or kinesthetic
preferences. Visual learners may benefit from seeing written words and visual aids, auditory
learners from listening and speaking, and kinesthetic learners from hands -on activities.
These preferences can influence the choice of language learning materials and activities.
5. Affective and Personality Factors

Affective and personality factors in language learning refer to the emotional, attitudinal, and
individual characteristics that influence how learners approach, engage with, and succeed in
the process of acquiring a new language. These factors play a crucial role in determining
learners' motivation, persistence, and overall language learning outcomes. In
psycholinguistics, understanding how affective and personality factors interact with
cognitive and linguistic processes helps create more effective language learning strategies
and interventions. Here are some key affective and personality factors:
i) Affective Factors:
Motivation: The desire and enthusiasm to learn a new language can significantly impact the
extent to which learners engage with language learning materials, practice, and seek out
language-related experiences.
Attitudes and Beliefs: Learners' attitudes towards the target language and its culture, as
well as their beliefs about their own language learning abilities, can shape their level of
commitment and investment in the learning process.
Anxiety: Language learning anxiety, such as fear of making mistakes or feeling embarrassed
when using the target language, can affect learners' willingness to communicate and their
overall language performance.
Self-Efficacy: Learners' beliefs about their ability to learn a new language influence their
confidence and determination to overcome challenges and improve their language skills.
Perceived Relevance: The perceived usefulness and relevance of the language in learners'
personal or professional lives can impact their motivation and engagement.
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Emotional States: Positive emotions, such as enjoyment and curiosity, can enhance learning
by fostering a positive learning environment. Negative emotions, such as frustration, can
hinder progress.
Social Factors: Interactions with teachers, peers, native speakers, and the broader language
learning community can influence learners' motivation and emotional experiences.
ii) Personality Factors:

Extroversion vs. Introversion: Extroverted learners might be more inclined to engage in
social interactions and communication, while introverted learners might prefer independent
study and reflection.
Openness to Experience: Individuals with high openness to experience may be more willing
to explore unfamiliar aspects of a new language, culture, or linguistic structure.
Conscientiousness: Learners high in conscientiousness tend to be organized, disciplined,

and goal-oriented, which can positively impact their language learning routines and
progress.
Neuroticism: Individuals high in neuroticism might be more sensitive to anxiety and stress
related to language learning, while those low in neuroticism may be more resilient.
Agreeableness: Learners with high agreeableness may be more motivated to communicate

and collaborate with others in a language learning context.
Learning Styles: Personal preferences for visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or other learning
styles can influence how learners engage with language materials and strategies.
Risk-Taking: Willingness to take risks and experiment with language use can impact
learners' language development and confidence.
Locus of Control: Individuals with an internal locus of control believe they have control over
their language learning outcomes, while those with an external locus of control may
attribute success or failure to external factors.
Recognizing and addressing these affective and personality factors can lead to more
personalized and effective language learning experiences. Educators, learners, and
researchers can work together to develop strategies that align with learners' motivations,
attitudes, emotions, and individual traits, ultimately enhancing their language acquisition
and overall success.
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6. Aptitude
Aptitude, in the context of language acquisition, refers to an individual's inherent ability or
talent for learning languages. It's an important factor that can influence a person's success
and proficiency in acquiring new languages. Here are some key points about aptitude in
language acquisition:
1. Language Learning Aptitude: Language learning aptitude is often considered a stable,

innate trait that varies from person to person. Some individuals have a natural aptitude
for acquiring languages, while others may find language learning more challenging.
2. Factors Influencing Aptitude: Aptitude for language learning can be influenced by a

combination of genetic, cognitive, and environmental factors. Cognitive factors include
memory capacity, pattern recognition, and problem-solving abilities.
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Theories of Language Acquisition
Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics studies interrelationship of psychological and linguistic behavi or. It is a
branch of cognitive science. The goal of psycholinguistics is to explain how people learn,
speak and understand language. It is a multi-disciplinary field that combines psychology and
linguistics. It also has ties to neuroscience and to education.
It is the study of how the mind processes and produces language. It uses linguistic concepts
to describe the mental processes connected with the acquisition and use of language.
It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within psycholinguistics.
1. Acquisition: How does a child acquire the language skills (first language acquisition)
and how are they extended to other language (second/foreign language acquisition)
2. Comprehension: How is the acoustic or visual signals linguistically interpreted by the
hearer or reader?
3. Production: How is the information that somebody wants to convey transformed
into acoustic waves, or written characters?
4. Disorders: What causes the occurrence of transient or more permanent disturbances
of the speech and language processing systems?
5. Language and Thought: What role does human language play in thinking? And what
differences do different languages make to how we think?
6. Neurocognition: How is the cognitive architecture of language and language
processing implemented in the human brain, i.e. what is the cerebral-functional
architecture of our language faculty?
Here, we shall discuss the acquisition of language.
Language Acquisition
WHAT IS LANGUAGE ACQUISITION?
•Language Acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and
comprehend language as well as to produce and use words; sentences to communicate.
• I.e. gain the ability to be aware of language and to understand it.
Psycholinguistics has therefore attempted general theories of language acquisition and

language use. Some have argued that learning is entirely the product of experience and that
our environment affects all of us in the same way. Others have suggested that everybody
has an innate language learning mechanism which determines learning or acquisition of
language identically for each of us. These two schools are known as ‘Empiricists’
(Behaviorists) and ‘Rationalists’ (Mentalists).
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Behaviorism Theory of Language Acquisition
Introduction:
B.F. Skinner (1904–90) was a leading American psychologist, Harvard professor and
proponent of the behaviourist theory of language learning.
Behaviorist school simply claims that language learning is the formation of a set of habits.
Language is acquired through principles conditioning. Including associating, imitation, and
reinforcement.
Skinner argued that children learn language based on behaviorist reinforcement principles
by associating words with meanings. Correct utterances are positively reinforced when the
child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases.
Skinner suggested that a child imitates the language of its parents or caregivers. Successful
attempts are rewarded because an adult who recognizes a word spoken by a child will
praise the child and/or give it what it is asking for. Successful utterances are therefore
reinforced while unsuccessful ones are forgotten.
For example, when the child says milk and the mother will smile and give her some as a
result, the child will find this outcome rewarding, enhancing the child`s language
development (Ambridge Lieven, 2011).
Operant Conditioning in Behaviorism:

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of
learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior. Through operant
conditioning, behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, and behavior that is
punished will rarely occur.
Operant conditioning involves reinforcement and imitation.
 Imitation
Imitation involves copying adults language patterns and behaviours. Children imitate accent,
usage, structure and colloquialism and other related language aspects,
 Reinforcement:
Reinforcement refers to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. It
increases or strengthens the behavior or process of Language. Skinner and the behaviorists
distinguish between positive and negative reinforcement.
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 Positive reinforcement:
Positive reinforcement refers to the process of rewarding or reinforcing desirable behavior

in order to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future. Praising
the child utterances will increase the process of language acquisition.
E.g. when the child says milk and the mother will smile and give her some as a result, the
child will find this outcome rewarding, enhancing the child`s language development.
 Negative Reinforcement:
Negative reinforcement is the encouragement of certain behaviors by removing or avoiding

a negative outcome or stimuli.
E.g. Negative reinforcement is when parents do not pay heed to some utterances of child
and child does not repeat those utterances in future.
Limitations of Behaviorism:
Behaviorism focused on people’s observable behaviors, rather than on mental systems.
Language is a kind of verbal behavior, and it was proposed that children learn language
through imitation, reinforcement and analogy.
1. Babbling is no imitation; no stimulus for it is given.

2. Children are unable to duplicate a sentence entirely. Or unable to repeat what an adult
says, especially grammatical structures.
For example, after hearing “How old are you?” at best they can imitate “How old you?”
3. The early words and sentences show that the children do not simply imitate adult
speech.
4. Reinforcement seldom occurs. A Harvard University study says that parents usually
correct the incorrect pronunciation or information.
5. Analogy is the behaviorist grammar learning process. It is suggested that children use a
sample sentence to make more other sentences.
• Then, how it would be: Sample: I painted a glass red.
Child: I saw a glass red(!?)
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Cognitive theory
Introduction
The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget developed a theory of cognitive development focused
on intellectual development of children in 1930s.
He placed acquisition of language within the context of a child's mental or cognitive

development. He argued that a child has to understand a concept before s/he can acquire
the particular language form which expresses that concept.
The cognitive language acquisition theory uses the idea that children are born with very
little cognitive abilities, meaning that they are not able to recognize and process very much
information. At birth, infants are limited to a very small scope of mental processes that must
be developed over time.
Cognitive theory is grounded in the idea that individuals must first understand a concept
before they can use language to express it. It argues that, in order to understand new
concepts, children (or adults) must develop their cognitive abilities (like memory, attention
and problem solving) and build their own mental image of the world.
In 1936, Piaget introduced his cognitive development theory and broke the developmental
process down into four stages:
1. The Sensorimotor Stage
2. The Preoperational Stage
3. The Concrete Operational Stage
4. The Formal Operational Stage
As children develop from one stage to the next, they expand their knowledge. It is helpful to
think of this process in terms of building blocks. Children develop, or build, a mental image
of their world block by block. Piaget referred to these 'blocks of knowledge' as schemas.
Schemas
Piaget believed that knowledge could not simply emerge from an experience; instead, a n
existing structure is necessary to help make sense of the world. He believed that children
are born with a primary mental structure upon which all new knowledge can be built. He
suggested that cognitive mental growth is achieved by integrating simpler concepts of
knowledge into higher-level concepts at each stage of development. Piaget named these
concepts of knowledge schemas.
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1. The Sensorimotor Stage

(Birth to 18-24 months)
The sensorimotor stage is the first phase of children’s cognitive development. During this
stage, children primarily learn about their environment through their senses and motor
activities. Piaget suggested that children are born with basic 'action schemas', such as
suckling and gripping, and they use their action schemas to comprehend new information
about the world. In his book The Language and Thought of the Child (1923), he also stated
that a child's language functions in two different ways:
 Egocentric - At this stage, children are able to use language but don't necessarily
understand its social function. Language is based on children's own experiences and
they struggle to understand the thoughts, feelings, and experiences of others.
 Socialised - Children begin to use language as a tool to communicate with others.
2. The Preoperational Stage

(2 to 7 years)
Children begin to develop symbolic thought and can create an internal representation of
the world via language and mental imagery. At the end of the sensorimotor stage, children
start to use mental abstractions.
At the age of two, children enter the preoperational stage, where their ability to use mental
representations, rather than the physical appearance of objects or people, improves greatly.
Examples of abstract representations include engaging in pretend play and talking about
events that happened in the past or people who are not currently in the room.
Other interesting cognitive advances occur during this phase. For example, children
understand causality. Children also understand identities, where items and people remain
the same even if they look different.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage
(7 to 11 years)
The next phase is the concrete operational stage, which begins around the age of seven.
During this stage, children are more capable of solving problems because they can consider
numerous outcomes and perspectives. All of their cognitive abilities are better developed in
this stage.
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 Categorization abilities improve so that children can arrange items along a dimension,
understand that categories have subcategories, and relate two objects to each other
through a third object.
 Their numerical abilities improve a lot, and they can perform more complicated
mathematical operations.
 Their spatial abilities are better. They are better at estimating time and distance. They
can read maps and describe how to navigate from one location to another.
4. Formal operational stage ( Age 12 and up)
The final stage of cognitive development involves increased logical thought and the
beginning of the ability to understand more abstract and theoretical concepts. Teenagers
begin to think more about philosophical, ethical, and political ideas that require a deeper
theoretical understanding.
During this stage, children are capable of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which allows
them to test hypotheses and draw conclusions from the results. Unlike younger children
who haphazardly approach problems, children in the formal operational stage can apply
their reasoning skills to apply more complicated problems in a systematic, logical manner.
Stages Age Goal

Sensorimotor stage Birth to 18-24 months Object permanence
Preoperational stage 2 to 7 years Symbolic thought
Concrete operational stage 7 to 11 years Logical thought
Formal operational stage Ages 12 and up Scientific reasoning
Criticisms of Cognitive Theory

1. One of the main criticisms of cognitive theory is that it discusses cognitive processes
that aren't directly observable. It becomes increasingly difficult to find clear links
between language acquisition and intellectual development as a child gets older.
2. Piaget's cognitive theory has been criticized as it fails to recognize other external factors
that have been shown to affect development.
3. Vygotsky and Bruner, cognitive development theorists, note that Piaget's work failed to
account for social and cultural settings and stated that his experiments were too
culturally bound.
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Innateness or Mentalist Approach
Introduction:
Noam Chomsky published a criticism of the behaviourist theory in 1957. In addition to some
of the arguments listed above, he focused particularly on the impoverished language input
children receive. Adults do not typically speak in grammatically complete sentences. In
addition, what the child hears is only a small sample of language. Chomsky concluded that
children must have an inborn faculty for language acquisition.
According to this theory, the process is biologically determined - the human species has
evolved a brain whose neural circuits contain linguistic information at birth. The child's
natural predisposition to learn language is triggered by hearing speech and the child's brain
is able to interpret what s/he hears according to the underlying principles or structures it
already contains. This natural faculty has become known as the Language Acquisition
Device (LAD). Chomsky did not suggest that an English child is born knowing anything
specific about English, of course. He stated that all human languages share common
principles. (For example, they all have words for things and actions - nouns and verbs.) It is
the child's task to establish how the specific language s/he hears expresses these underlying
principles.
Universal Grammar (UG)

Universal Grammar (UG) or Mental Grammar Is a theory in Linguistics proposing that the
ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain. and as opposed to other 'grammars'
e.g.
1. Prescriptive
2. Descriptive
3. Pedagogical
The theory of Universal Grammar, as proposed by Chomsky, posits that certain grammatical
structures and rules are innate to all human languages. This concept, despite the apparent
differences between languages, suggests a deep and underlying structure that is universal
across all languages.
Surface structure and deep structure
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Chomsky's theory distinguishes between surface structure and deep structure in language.
The surface structure refers to the specific arrangement of words in a sentence, whi le the
deep structure represents the underlying meaning and syntactic structure.
Transformations occur between these two levels, producing the variation observed in
language use.
Principles and parameters
A key aspect of Chomsky's theory is the concept of principles and parameters. Universal
Grammar consists of universal principles that govern the structure of all languages. These
principles are innate and provide a foundation for language acquisition.
Parameters, on the other hand, are language-specific settings that vary across different
languages, allowing for the diversity and variation observed in grammatical structures
across languages.
Chomsky's Universal Grammar theory suggests that all humans are born with an innate
capacity for language acquisition. This capacity is made possible by the knowledge of these
innate grammatical structures and rules.
Through exposure to language input, children are able to acquire and develop their linguistic
skills, utilizing the principles and parameters of Universal Grammar.
Limitations of Chomsky's theory

Chomsky's work on language was theoretical. He was interested in grammar and much of
his work consists of complex explanations of grammatical rules. He did not study real
children.
 The theory relies on children being exposed to language but takes no account of the
interaction between children and their carers. Nor does it recognize the reasons why a
child might want to speak, the functions of language.
 Another objection centers around the concept of universal grammar, which is at the
core of Chomsky's theory. Critics argue that the notion of a universal grammar, a set of
innate grammar rules shared by all human languages, is controversial and lacks
substantial evidence.
 They contend that the diversity and variation between languages and cultures suggest
that grammatical structures are not universal, but rather shaped by specific historical,
social, and cultural contexts.
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Social Interaction theory
Introduction:
Vygotsky's social interaction theory incorporates nurture arguments in that children can be
influenced by their environment as well as the language input children receive from their
care-givers. Although the theories of Skinner, Chomsky and Piaget are all very different and
very important in their own contexts, they don't necessarily take into account the fact that
children don't encounter language in isolation. The child is a little linguist analyzing language
from randomly encountered adult utterances.
The interaction theory proposes that language exists for the purpose of communication and
can only be learned in the context of interaction with adults and older children. It stresses
the importance of the environment and culture in which the language is being learned
during early childhood development because this social interaction is what first provides the
child with the means of making sense of their own behaviour and how they think about the
surrounding world.
Child-directed speech (CDS):
According to Williamson (2008), children can eventually use their own internal speech to
direct their own behaviour in much the same way that their parents' speech once directed
their behaviour. Speech to infants is marked by a slower rate, exaggerated intonation, high
frequency, repetition, simple syntax and concrete vocabulary. This tailored articulation used
by care-givers to young children to maximize phonemic contrasts and pronunciation of
correct forms is known as child-directed speech (CDS).
Private speech and zone of proximal development:

Vygotsky also developed the concepts of private speech which is when children must speak
to themselves in a self guiding and directing way- initially out loud and later internally and
the zone of proximal development which refers to the tasks a child is unable to complete
alone but is able to complete with the assistance of an adult. The attention and time that a
mother spends talking about topics that the child is already focused on highly correlates
with early vocabulary size. In the early stages of a child`s life this is usually done through
motherese or ``baby talk`` which may allow children to ``bootstrap`` their progress in
language acquisition (Williamson, 2008).
The mother and father also provide ritualized scenarios, such as having a bath or getting
dressed, in which the phases of interaction are rapidly recognized and predicted by the
infant. The utterances of the mother and father during the activities are ritualized and
predictable so that the child is gradually moved to an active position where they take over
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the movements of the care-taker and eventually the ritualized language as well. Basically
the care-giver is providing comprehensible contexts in which the child can acquire language
(Mason, 202).
Language Acquisition Support System (LASS),
Another influential researcher of the interaction theory is Jerome Bruner who elaborated
and revised the details of the theory over a number of years and also introduced the
term Language Acquisition Support System (LASS), which refers to the child`s immediate
adult entourage but in the fuller sense points to the child`s culture as a whole in which they
are born. Adults adapt their behaviour towards children to construct a protected worl d in
which the child is gradually inclined to take part in a growing number of scenarios and
scripts and in this way the child is led gradually further and further into language. However,
one must remember that although our social context provides support for language
acquisition, it does not directly provide the knowledge that is necessary to acquire language;
and this, perhaps, is where a child’s innate abilities come into play.
Interlanguage (Larry Selinker)
Introduction:
Second language (L2) learning involves a gradual advancement from the learner’s first
language (L1) towards the target language (TL). During this process of learning, the learner
naturally develops an intermediate language between his L1 and L2. It is neither L1 nor L2,
rather a separate language having its own grammar or linguistic system. This learner system
is widely referred to as Interlanguage (IL).
Interlanguage theory is a concept in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) that was
introduced by Larry Selinker.
Selinker's theory sought to explain the transitional linguistic state that language learners go
through as they progress from their native language to acquiring a new language.
The Continuum of Inter-language Development:
From native language forms to target language forms includes three stages
 Basilang - the earliest form of target language development

 Mesolang- the intermediate stage of target language development
 Acrolang - the final stage of target language development
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Fossilization:
Interlanguage fossilization is a phenomenon observed in second language acquisition (SLA)
where certain linguistic features or errors become permanent and resistant to change,
despite continued exposure to correct forms in the target language. In other words,It
occurs when certain mistakes seem to be impossible to correct in spite of the ability and
motivation, learners cannot rectify and replace it with correct usage.
Example of Fossilization:
Pronunciation: A learner might consistently mispronounce certain sounds or phonemes

because these phonetic patterns are already well-established from their native language.
Word Order: A learner might persistently use the word order from their native language,
leading to sentences that sound awkward or ungrammatical in the target language
Selinker’s Five fossilization Process steps:

Selinker points out five psycholinguistic processes which determine the fossilized forms:
1. Language Transfer:
Language transfer refers to the influence of a learner's native language (L1) on their
interlanguage development in the target language (L2). This can lead to both positive and
negative transfer, where certain features of the native language either help or hinder the
acquisition of the target language. For instance, if a learner's L1 has a similar grammatical
structure to the target language, it can aid comprehension and production. However, if the
L1 structure is different, it can lead to errors.
2. Transfer of Training:
Transfer of training involves the influence of other languages or dialects the learner has
been exposed to. Learners might transfer linguistic features from these other languages,
which can either facilitate or hinder their acquisition of the target language.
3. Strategies of Communication:
Learners use strategies to communicate effectively despite limited language proficiency.

These strategies include paraphrasing, using gestures, or using synonyms to express ideas
when they lack the vocabulary in the target language.
Example: A learner might not know the English word for "elephant." Instead of using the
native language term, they might say "big animal with a trunk."
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4. Strategies of Second Language Learning:
Learners employ cognitive strategies to make sense of the new language. They may form
hypotheses about grammar rules and vocabulary, test these hypotheses in real
communication, and adjust them based on feedback.
Example: A learner might notice that English plurals are often formed by adding "-s" to
nouns. They hypothesize that this rule applies to all nouns, so they say "childs" instead of
"children."
5. Overgeneralization:
Overgeneralization occurs when learners apply a language rule too broadly, extending it to
contexts where it doesn't apply. This often happens when learners attempt to create regular
patterns from irregular forms.
Example: A learner who knows that most English verbs form the past tense by adding "-ed"
might mistakenly say "swimmed" instead of "swam."
Properties of Interlanguage:
1. dynamic and evolving: Interlanguage is a dynamic and evolving system that changes as
learner’s progress in their language acquisition journey. It reflects the ongoing process
of learning and adapting to the target language.
2. Linguistic Creativity: Learners exhibit linguistic creativity by creating new structures and
rules that reflect their understanding of the target language. This reflects the ongoing
process of language development.
3. Partial Knowledge: Interlanguage often involves partial knowledge, where learners may
accurately use some aspects of the target language while struggling with others.
STRENGTHS
The theory of Interlanguage is significant for a number of reasons:
1. The study of Interlanguage is systematic and universal by nature.

2. Like the Innate Theory of L1 acquisition, Interlanguage theory considers the learner as
an active participator.
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3. The study of Interlanguage can help to determine what the learner already knows at a
certain point of time and what he has to be taught when and how in a particular second
language teaching program.
4. The concept of Interlanguage has liberated language teaching methods. It has paved the
way for the Communicative Teaching Approach.
WEAKNESSES
Despite many positive sides, some of the assumptions of Interlanguage have been critic ized
for their weaknesses:
1. A major Interlanguage criticism relates to its limited explanatory power.

2. Error Analysis improves errors in IL but too much correction can lead to lack of
motivation
3. The learner needs to be restricted to important errors only.
4. This theory can’t determine the exact position of the learner in between L1 or L2 Will be
interpreted.
CONCLUSION:
Interlanguage is, by far the strongest contender amongst the second language learning
theories. The theory of Interlanguage was the first major attempt to explain the process of
second language learning in terms of mentalist perspectives. After its introduction by
Selinker, it has been gradually developed by the hands of numerous researchers. At this
time, it has become much refined and also contributed a lot in developing many other
theories. Although vague in many points, it has been able to provide significant suggestions
for the theories of second language learning.
Memory
Introduction:
Memory refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later
retrieving information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding,
storage, and retrieval.
Human beings are born with a complex, interrelated system for categorizing and storing
every event experienced throughout life. Audio, visual, sensory, and emotional information
is integrated, yielding images that are linked to lexical items as events. These are stored in
memory.
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Types of Memory:
The most current and widely accepted model of memory consists of three general stages:
 Sensory Memory(events that are experienced in real time),

 Short Term Memory (which holds a limited amount of information for a limited time
period),
 Long Term Memory (which stores events throughout the life)
1. Sensory memory
Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory processing, where sensory information
from the environment is briefly stored for a very short period of time. It acts as a buffer that
holds incoming sensory data long enough for our brains to decide whether or not to process
it further.
There are three main types of sensory memory:
 Iconic Memory (Visual):
Iconic memory stores visual information for a fraction of a second (about 0.2 to 0.4
seconds). It helps maintain a continuous visual experience, even when our eyes move
rapidly.
An example of iconic memory is when you see a sparkler creating a trail of light in the dark;
evenafter it's gone, you might still see the light streak for a brief moment.
 Echoic Memory (Auditory):
Echoic memory stores auditory information for a short period of time (about 3 to 4
seconds). It allows us to remember what we have just heard, even if we are not paying close
attention. An example is when someone says a string of numbers, and you can repeat
thembackafewseconds later, thanks to your echoic memory.
 Haptic Memory (Tactile):
Haptic memory briefly stores tactile or touch-based information, allowing us to

perceiveandreact to physical sensations. E.g. touching a hot thing.
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2. Short-Term Memory:
Short-term memory is the capacity to store a small amount of information in the mind and
keep it readily available for a short period of time. It is also known as primary or active
memory.
While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information
allows it to continue to the next stage: long-term memory. Most of the information stored
in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds.
This capacity can be stretched somewhat by using memory strategies such as chunking,
which involves grouping related information into smaller chunks.
However, the information in short-term memory is also highly susceptible to interference.

Any new information that enters short-term memory will quickly displace old information.
Similar items in the environment can also interfere with short-term memories.
3. Long-Term Memory:
Long-Term Memory (LTM) holds unlimited amounts of information indeterminately. Even,
though no one can remember every minute detail of every moment throughout a lifetime, it
is generally believed that LTM stores all meaningful episodic events, i.e., those that have
received adequate attention, have been sufficiently rehearsed, and have been attributed
semantic properties.
There are two main storage components in LTM:
a. Explicit memory: is conscious awareness of facts and events (Declarative Memory).

It is further divided into two types.
 Episodic Memory: the ability to recall personal experiences and events as images;
details about past experiences.
 Semantic Memory: the ability to recall personal experiences and events that are
meaningful in terms of connections between sources of recurring information which has
been learned.
b. Implicit Memory: is unconscious and holds procedural information.

 Procedural Memory: the ability to remember strategies in task performance as
sequential events or as sets of stimulus-responses.
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Memorization techniques:
Mnemonic devices are learning strategies used to boost your memory. Whether or not you
realize it, you probably use mnemonics in your daily life to help you retain and recall
information.
1. Acronyms and acrostics
You may already be familiar with acronyms and acrostics as a mnemonic device. This
method requires you to create a new word or group of words by taking the first letter of
each word and putting them together.
For example, to remember the names of the planets in our solar system, you might use this
acrostic mnemonic: my very educated mother just served us noodles.
2. Rhyming mnemonics
Rhyming mnemonics take advantage of catchy beats and patterns created by ending each
line with a rhyme to help you retain information. Here's a rhyming mnemonic I still use to
this day to help avoid spelling errors: "I before E except after C."
3. Chunking
Have you ever repeated a phone number out loud by grouping numbers together? For
example, "six, four, seven, triple five, eleven, twenty-one" (instead of "6-4-7-5-5-5-1-1-2-1").
This is chunking. It's another mnemonic device that involves grouping individual pieces of
information—like long strings of numbers—into larger, more memorable groups.
4. Write it down
While typing your notes might be faster and more convenient, especially if you have to take
in a lot of information, there are advantages to doing things the old-fashioned way (i.e.,
taking pen to paper).
In a nutshell:
Human memory is a complex process that researchers are still trying to better understand.
Our memories make us who we are, yet the process is not perfect. While we are capable of
remembering an astonishing amount of information, we are also susceptible to memory-
related mistakes and errors.
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Speech perception
Introduction:
Speech perception is the process by which the sounds of language are heard, interpreted,
and understood. The study of speech perception is closely linked to the fields of phonology
and phonetics in linguistics and cognitive psychology and perception in psychology.
Research in speech perception seeks to understand how human listeners recognize speech
sounds and use this information to understand spoken language.
The process of perceiving speech begins at the level of the sound signal and the process of
audition. After processing the initial auditory signal, speech sounds are further processed to
extract acoustic cues and phonetic information. This speech information can then be used
for higher-level language processes, such as word recognition.
Process of Perception:
Speech perception is a complex cognitive process in psycholinguistics that involves the
recognition and interpretation of spoken language. It encompasses several stages, from the
initial reception of sound waves to the extraction of meaning from speech. Here is an
overview of the process of speech perception in psycholinguistics:
1. Auditory Input:
The process begins when sound waves, produced by a speaker's vocal cords, travel through
the air and reach the listener's ears.
2. Auditory Reception:
The listener's ears capture the sound waves and transform them into electrical signals,
which are then sent to the brain's auditory processing areas.
3. Acoustic Signal Analysis:
The brain processes the incoming acoustic signals to identify basic features of speech
sounds, such as pitch, duration, and intensity. These features help distinguish different
phonemes (the smallest distinctive units of sound in a language).
It's important to note that speech perception is a dynamic process, and these stages often
interact and overlap. Additionally, the speed and accuracy of speech perception can vary
depending on factors such as the listener's language proficiency, familiarity with the
speaker's accent, and the clarity of the speech signal. Psycholinguists study these processes
to gain insights into how humans process and understand spoken language.
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Semantic, Prosodic and Syntactic Features in Speech Perception:
1. Semantic features:
Semantics relations refer to the ways in which words, phrases, or symbols are related to one
another in terms of meaning within a language. These relations are crucial in understanding
how language conveys meaning and how words interact to create coherent communication.
Here are some important semantic relations:
i) Synonymy:
Synonymy occurs when two or more words have similar or nearly identical meanings. For
example, "happy" and "joyful" are synonyms. Recognizing synonyms enhances language
comprehension and allows for word variety in communication.
ii) Antonymy:
Antonymy involves words with opposite meanings. Examples include "hot" and "cold,"
"happy" and "sad," and "fast" and "slow." Antonyms provide contrast and help clarify
meaning.
iii) Hyponymy/Hypernymy:
Hyponymy is a relationship where one word (the hyponym) is a specific instance or type of
another word (the hypernym). For example, "apple" is a hyponym of "fruit," and "car" is a
hyponym of "vehicle." Recognizing these relationships helps organize knowledge
hierarchically.
iv) Polysemy:
Polysemy occurs when a single word has multiple related meanings. For example, "bank"
can mean a financial institution or the side of a river. Recognizing polysemy helps in
understanding word usage in different contexts.
v) Homonymy:
Homonyms are words that sound or look the same but have different meanings. For
instance, "bat" can refer to both a flying mammal and a piece of sports equipment.
Distinguishing between homonyms relies on context and pronunciation.
The importance of semantic relations
The importance of semantic relations in language lies in their role in creating a meaningful
and coherent communication system. They help convey nuances, establish connections
between words, and enable speakers and listeners to understand each other. Semantic
relations also play a vital role in natural language processing, machine learning, and artificial
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intelligence, where understanding the meaning of text is crucial for various applications like
search engines, chatbots, and language translation.
2. Prosodic Features:
The term 'prosody' may not be as well known as phonetics or phonology, but it's an
essential part of understanding speech. Prosody is the study of how language sounds, and
sound can provide a lot of important information beyond what is literally being said!
In linguistics, prosody, also known as prosodic or suprasegmental phonology, is concerned

with the way connected speech sounds. Because of this, some people refer to prosody as
the ‘music’ of language. Prosodic features are a set of linguistic features (also known as
suprasegmentals) that are used to convey meaning and emphasis in spoken language.
i) Intonation
Intonation usually refers to the rise and fall of our voices. However, there’s a little more to it
than that, and our intonation is based on a few different factors. These are:
 Dividing speech into units.
 Changes in pitch (high or low).
 Changing the length of syllables or words.
ii) Stress
Stress refers to the emphasis we place on certain words or syllables. Stress can be added to
a word by
 Increasing the length.
 Increasing the volume.
 Changing the pitch (speaking in a higher or lower pitch).
iii) Pauses
Pauses can help add structure to our speech and often functions in the same way a full stop
does in written text. Pauses can also signal that we are hesitant about what we’re about to
say or can be used for emphasis and dramatic effect.
iv) Rhythm
Rhythm is less of a prosodic feature itself and more the result of the combination of other
prosodic features and variables. Rhythm refers to the ‘movement’ and flow of speech
determined by the stress, length, and number of syllables.
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Functions of Prosodic Features in Speech:
 The prosodic features we use can say a lot about how we’re feeling. We can often tell
whether someone is feeling sad, happy, scared, excited etc. based on the way their
voice sounds.
 Prosody is another way of adding meaning to the things we say. This is because
the way in which we say things can change their intended meaning. Prosodic features
have no meaning on their own and instead we must consider the use and context of
prosody in relation to the utterance (units of speech).
3) Syntactic Features:
Syntactical features in speech perception refer to the aspects of language related to
sentence structure and grammar that influence how we perceive and understand spoken
language. These features are essential for processing the grammatical and syntactic aspects
of speech. Here are some of the syntactical features in speech perception:
i) Word Order:
Syntactical features include the recognition of word order patterns in a sentence. For
example, in English, word order typically follows a subject-verb-object (SVO) pattern, as in
"She eats apples." Recognizing the order of words helps listeners determine the roles of
different elements in the sentence.
ii) Phrase Structure:
Speech perception involves identifying and processing the hierarchical structure of phrases
and clauses within sentences. This includes recognizing noun phrases (NP), verb phrases
(VP), prepositional phrases (PP), and how they are combined to form more complex
structures.
iii) Grammatical Relations:
Listeners use syntactical features to determine the grammatical relationships between

words in a sentence, such as subject-verb agreement, object-verb agreement, and the roles
of modifiers.
iv) Sentence Type:
Syntactical cues help listeners distinguish between different sentence types, such as
declarative statements, interrogative questions, imperatives, and exclamatory sentences.
Sentence type affects how the message is perceived and interpreted.
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v) Syntactic Ambiguity Resolution:
In cases where a sentence is structurally ambiguous (e.g., "I saw the man with the
telescope"), syntactical features are used to disambiguate and interpret the intended
meaning based on the syntactic structure.
vi) Subject-Verb Agreement:
Listeners rely on subject-verb agreement to determine the number and person (e.g.,
singular or plural, first person or third person) of the subject and verb in a sentence.
vii) Negation:
Identifying negation in speech, such as the use of "not" or other negating words, is crucial
for understanding the presence or absence of certain elements or actions in a sentence.
Understanding these syntactical features is vital for speech perception, as they enable
listeners to parse sentences, extract meaning, and construct a coherent understanding of
spoken language based on its grammatical structure. Syntactical features interact with other
linguistic aspects, such as semantics and prosody, to create a comprehensive perception of
speech.
TRACE Model of Speech Perception

The TRACE model of speech perception is a prominent theoretical framework in
psycholinguistics that explains how humans recognize spoken words and proces s speech
sounds. Developed by James McClelland and Jeffrey Elman in the 1980s, the TRACE model
is based on the principles of connectionism, a neural network approach to cognitive
processing. The model was designed to account for various aspects of speech perception,
including the role of context, phonemic ambiguity, and the perception of continuous
speech.
Layers in TRACE Model:
The TRACE model consists of three key layers:
1. Phonemic Layer:
 This layer represents the basic speech sounds, or phonemes, of a language. It contains
nodes that correspond to individual phonemes, and these nodes are interconnected.
2. Word Layer:
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 The word layer consists of nodes that represent whole words. Each word is associated
with its corresponding phonemic representation in the phonemic layer. The connections
between the phonemic and word layers are bidirectional, allowing for activation to flow
in both directions.
3. Feature Layer:
 The feature layer contains nodes representing distinctive features of phonemes. These
features could include information about place and manner of articulation, voicing, and
other phonetic attributes.
The TRACE model operates through a dynamic process of activation and competition.
Here's how it works:
 When a listener hears a spoken word, the acoustic signal activates nodes in the
phonemic layer corresponding to the perceived speech sounds.
 Activation then spreads from the phonemic layer to the word layer, where words
that match the activated phonemes become more strongly activated.
 Words that are inconsistent with the input are inhibited, and competition takes
place among word candidates. The most strongly activated word(s) are recognized as
the perceived word(s).
 Activation may also spread from the phonemic layer to the feature layer, providing
additional information about the phonetic characteristics of the speech sounds.
For example:
A listener hears the beginning of bald, and the words bald, ball, bad, bill become active in
memory. Then, soon after, only bald and ball remain in competition (bad, bill have been
eliminated because the vowel sound doesn't match the input). Soon after, bald is
recognized. TRACE simulates this process by representing the temporal dimension of
speech, allowing words in the lexicon to vary in activation strength, and by having words
compete during processing.
Challenges the traditional notion of modularity

TRACE theory of speech perception challenges the traditional notion of modularity in the
processing of continuous speech. Modularity posits that the human mind consists of
specialized cognitive modules, each responsible for specific functions or domains of
knowledge, and that these modules operate independently and efficiently. However, TRACE
theory introduces a more interactive and interconnected view of speech perception that
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challenges strict modularity. Here's how TRACE theory challenges modularity in the context
of continuous speech perception:
1. Interactive Activation and Cascaded Processing:
In the TRACE model, speech perception is not a series of isolated and modular processes.
Instead, it is characterized by interactive activation and cascaded processing. When a
listener hears continuous speech, information flows continuously through the model,
activating phonemes, words, and their corresponding features in parallel. This
interconnectedness suggests that different linguistic levels (phonemic, lexical, semantic)
interact dynamically during speech perception.
2. Feedback and Top-Down Processing:
TRACE incorporates feedback mechanisms and top-down processing, allowing higher-level

linguistic knowledge and context to influence lower-level processing. This means that prior
knowledge, expectations, and context play a significant role in shaping how speech sounds
are perceived. In contrast, modular models might assume that each module operates
independently of context.
3. Recognition of Coarticulation and Context Effects:
In continuous speech, phonemes often undergo coarticulatory effects, where the

pronunciation of a phoneme is influenced by adjacent phonemes. TRACE accounts for this
phenomenon by allowing phoneme activations to influence each other, making it sensitive
to the context in which phonemes occur. This dynamic adjustment challenges the idea of
phoneme processing as a rigid and modular process.
4. Phoneme Restoration Effect:
The phoneme restoration effect is a phenomenon where listeners can "fill in" missing
phonemes in a speech stream based on context. TRACE provides a natural account of this
effect by allowing for the influence of contextual information on phoneme perception,
which might not be easily explained within a modular framework.
5. Integration of Prosodic and Suprasegmental Features:
Prosody, including intonation and stress patterns, plays a crucial role in speech perception.
TRACE integrates prosodic features and their influence on word recognition, emphasizing
the interconnectedness of segmental (phonemic) and suprasegmental (prosodic) aspects of
speech.
6. Adaptability and Flexibility:
TRACE's flexibility and adaptability in processing continuous speech reflect the dynamic
nature of speech perception. It suggests that the perception of speech sounds is not rigidly
Page | 36
modular but rather influenced by real-time adjustments based on the incoming acoustic
signal and linguistic context.
In summary, the TRACE theory challenges modularity in continuous speech perception by

proposing an interactive and context-sensitive model of speech processing. It emphasizes
the dynamic interplay between different linguistic levels, the role of feedback and top-down
processing, and the adaptability of speech perception to real-world, context-rich
environments. While modularity posits separate and domain-specific modules, TRACE
suggests a more integrated and interactive approach to understanding how humans
perceive and process speech.
In a Nutshell:
Overall, the TRACE model provides insights into how humans recognize and process spoken
language by considering the dynamic interactions between phonemic representations, word
candidates, and contextual information. It has been influential in shaping our understanding
of speech perception and has been used to account for various experimental findings in
psycholinguistics.
Prescriptive grammar and Descriptive grammar

Prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar are two contrasting approaches to
understanding and analyzing a language. They serve different purposes and focus on
different aspects of language usage. Here are the key differences between the two:
1. Purpose:
 Prescriptive Grammar: Prescriptive grammar aims to establish and enforce rules for
"correct" language usage. It provides guidelines on how a language should be spoken
and written to adhere to established standards. Prescriptive grammar is often
associated with language authorities and institutions.
 Descriptive Grammar: Descriptive grammar seeks to objectively describe and

analyze how a language is naturally used by its speakers. It does not prescribe rules
but rather observes and documents linguistic phenomena as they occur in real-life
language usage.
2. Rules:
 Prescriptive Grammar: Prescriptive grammar prescribes rules and norms for

language usage. It dictates what is considered grammatically correct and often
Page | 37
emphasizes formal language standards. It may discourage the use of certain dialects,
colloquialisms, or non-standard forms.
 Descriptive Grammar: Descriptive grammar focuses on describing language as it is

spoken and written by native speakers. It does not judge or prescribe what is
"correct" or "incorrect" but rather seeks to understand and document the diverse
ways in which language is used.
3. Authority:
 Prescriptive Grammar: Prescriptive grammar often relies on language authorities,

style guides, and institutions to establish and enforce rules. These authorities may
include grammarians, language academies, or publishing houses .
 Descriptive Grammar: Descriptive grammar is based on empirical observation and

linguistic analysis. It does not rely on external authorities but rather on data -driven
research and linguistic principles.
4. Flexibility:
 Prescriptive Grammar: Prescriptive grammar tends to be more rigid and less

accommodating of linguistic change. It may resist evolving language trends and
innovations.
 Descriptive Grammar: Descriptive grammar is flexible and adaptable. It recognizes

that language is constantly evolving and embraces the changes and variations that
occur over time.
5. Acceptance of Variation:
 Prescriptive Grammar: Prescriptive grammar often views linguistic variation as

incorrect or non-standard. It may stigmatize regional dialects, slang, or informal
language.
 Descriptive Grammar: Descriptive grammar acknowledges and accepts linguistic

variation as a natural part of language. It studies dialects, sociolects, a nd idiolects
without judgment.
6. Application:
 Prescriptive Grammar: Prescriptive grammar is often taught in formal education

settings, used in writing style guides, and applied in formal writing, such as academic
papers, official documents, and professional communication.
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 Descriptive Grammar: Descriptive grammar is used by linguists and language

researchers to analyze and understand language patterns. It is not typically used to
prescribe rules for language usage.
In summary, prescriptive grammar prescribes rules for "correct" language usage and is often
associated with formal written language, while descriptive grammar objectively describes
and analyzes how language is naturally used in various contexts. Descriptive grammar is the
focus of linguistic research, whereas prescriptive grammar is concerned with language
standards and norms.
PAST PAPERS QUESTION LONG

1. Jean Piaget explains the organizational framework of information processing perspective
through sensory motor development. Discuss?
2. What is Tracce model of speech perception?
3. Write note on the following:
a) Prosodic factors in speech recognition
b) Discourse Processing
4. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between first and second language acquisition?
5. Naturist theory(The Natural approach) explores the linguistic aspect of language acquisition and
provides answer to the question of how people acquire a second language. Explain.
6. Write a detailed note on Universal Grammar and its correlation with innate capacity to learn language.
7. What is modular approach in speech processing and how is it challenged by Trace theory?
8. Enumerate various factors affecting language learning and elaborate the effect of each factor on
learning process.
9. What do you understand by behaviourism and mentalism? How do the mentalist respond to the
behaviourist approach?
10. Write a comprehensive note on the following topics:
(a) Krashen's theory of Second Language Acquisition
(b) Interlanguage
11. Prosodic, semantic, and syntactic features contribute to speech perception in various ways.
Furthermore Trace theory challenges modularity in continuous speech. Elaborate.
Page | 39
12. How does the factor of cognitive style make a difference in acquiring the SLA?
13. After the age of 2 years, Piaget suggests that a child goes through various developmental stages while
acquiring first language. Describe these stages and the experiences the child undergoes through theses
stages.
14. What is Universal Grammar Paradigm? How does it facilitate in acquiring 2nd Language?
15. Psycholinguistics lies interface between Psychology and Linguistics and has broadened encompass a
wide range of topics and disciplines. Discuss.
16. Discuss the brain with reference to the comprehension and production of the language. How can
aphasia(disorder) disturb the process of language?
17. How do age and personality make a difference in acquiring the SLA?
18. How does the universality of language support the view that language is biologically based?
19. How do cognitive style and motivation make a difference in acquiring the SLA?
20. Make a list of reasons for multilingualism, if you know more than one language. Categorize
these reasons as primarily based on individual preference and ne ed in social and political
circumstances.
21. What is information processing system? What are the ways of speech percept ion?
22. Why are linguists interested in describing rather than prescribing grammar?
23. How do age and aptitude make a difference in acquiring the SLA?
Page | 40

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Psycholinguistics BS 8th UoS

Psycholinguistics also encompasses the psychology of language as well as linguistic

Language Production: From Thoughts to Words

Research Fields of Psycholinguistics:

Language Disorders: Insights from Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics contributes to our understanding of language disorders, such as aphasia,

Psycholinguistics is a captivating field that unravels the intricate relationship between

innovative methodologies, psycholinguistics will continue to deepen our understanding of

There are two types of language acquisition;

 First Language Acquisition

1. First Language Acquisition

First language acquisition, also known as language development or language learning, is a

Stages of First Language Acquisition:

1. The Prelinguistic Stage

3. One-Word or Holophrastic Stage:

Factors affecting First Language Acquisition:

2. Second Language Acquisition:

Stages of Second Language Acquisition:

Krashen stages (or Krashen Theory of SLA)

Factors affecting Second Language Acquisition:

Individual learner factors in psycholinguistics refer to the characteristics and attributes of

Here's a more detailed explanation of how age influences language learning in

 Critical Period Hypothesis:

 Syntax and Grammar:

 Accent and Identity:

Metacognition: Metacognition involves self-awareness and the ability to monitor and

3. Motivation and Attitude

2. Analytical vs. Holistic Processing:

3. Verbal vs. Non-Verbal Processing:

5. Affective and Personality Factors

ii) Personality Factors:

Conscientiousness: Learners high in conscientiousness tend to be organized, disciplined,

Agreeableness: Learners with high agreeableness may be more motivated to communicate

1. Language Learning Aptitude: Language learning aptitude is often considered a stable,

2. Factors Influencing Aptitude: Aptitude for language learning can be influenced by a

Theories of Language Acquisition

It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within psycholinguistics.

Here, we shall discuss the acquisition of language.

• I.e. gain the ability to be aware of language and to understand it.

Psycholinguistics has therefore attempted general theories of language acquisition and

Behaviorism Theory of Language Acquisition

Operant Conditioning in Behaviorism:

Operant conditioning involves reinforcement and imitation.

Positive reinforcement refers to the process of rewarding or reinforcing desirable behavior

Negative reinforcement is the encouragement of certain behaviors by removing or avoiding

1. Babbling is no imitation; no stimulus for it is given.

• Then, how it would be: Sample: I painted a glass red.

Child: I saw a glass red(!?)

He placed acquisition of language within the context of a child's mental or cognitive

1. The Sensorimotor Stage

2. The Preoperational Stage

3. The Concrete Operational Stage

4. The Formal Operational Stage

1. The Sensorimotor Stage

 Socialised - Children begin to use language as a tool to communicate with others.

2. The Preoperational Stage

3. The Concrete Operational Stage

4. Formal operational stage ( Age 12 and up)

Stages Age Goal