TB Manual 7 Dec19
TB Manual 7 Dec19
TB Manual 7 Dec19
Design of Clay
Masonry for
Serviceability
This manual is intended for use by a structural engineer.
While the contents of this publication are believed to be
accurate and complete, the information given is intended
for general guidance and does not replace the services of
professional advisers on specific projects. Local or State
regulations may require variation form the practices and
recommendations contained in this publication. Think Brick
Australia disclaims any liability whatsoever regarding the
contents of this publication.
1 Introduction 7
2 The Use of Clay Masonry in Structures 8
2.1 General 8
2.2 Houses 8
2.3 Multiple-occupancy domestic units 8
2.4 Low-rise commercial and industrial buildings 8
2.5 Multi-storey framed structures 8
2.6 Types of masonry elements 9
2.6.1 General 9
2.6.2 Load bearing walls 9
2.6.3 Veneer walls 9
2.6.4 Cavity walls 9
2.6.5 Single-skin walls 10
2.6.6 Masonry infill panels 10
2.6.7 Piers 11
2.6.8 Freestanding elements 11
2.6.9 Other wall types 11
3 Masonry Properties 12
3.1 General 12
3.2 Masonry units 12
3.2.1 Category and type 12
3.2.2 Dimensions 12
3.2.3 Compressive strengths 12
3.2.4 Lateral modulus of rupture 13
3.2.5 Salt attack resistance grade 13
3.2.6 Coefficient of expansion 13
3.3 Mortar properties 13
3.4 Masonry properties 13
3.4.1 Compressive strength 13
3.4.2 Tensile strength and masonry 14
3.4.3 Shear strength of masonry 14
3.4.4 Elastic modulus 14
3.4.5 Density 14
3.4.6 Bedding 15
3.5 Wall ties and connectors 15
3.6 Damp-proof courses and flashings 15
Charts
1. Robustness limits for clay masonry walls supported on four edges 39
3. Robustness limits for clay masonry walls with one side free 40
This manual provides guidance for the serviceability The following movements should be considered in design
design of clay masonry in buildings. The guidance for serviceability:
is of a general nature and represents industry
recommendations for good practice. Alternative • Expansion or shrinkage of the masonry caused by
methods, where they exist, might be preferred in some moisture
situations for architectural, geographical or other
reasons. • Thermal expansion or contraction
In conjunction with this manual, appropriate reference • Deflection, creep and other movements in associated
should be made to the National Construction Code (NCC)1 materials
and the various relevant Australian Standards, including
Masonry Structures AS 3700² with its Commentary3, and • Foundation movements
Masonry in Small Buildings – Construction AS 4773.24.
• Deformations during the construction process
For structures to remain serviceable, their deflections
and any tendency to crack must be controlled. Little Calculation of deflections in masonry structures must
guidance is given in the standards on appropriate be in accordance with accepted engineering principles
deflection limits, however the robustness provisions and the relevant properties of the materials. The code
in AS 3700 designed to restrict the sizes of members AS 3700 gives values for elastic modulus that can be used
to ensure that serviceability will remain satisfactory. for serviceability design.
There are also a range of semi-empirical procedures to
minimise cracking from external effects and these are The primary means of controlling cracking in masonry
discussed in this manual. structures are the use of footings with adequate stiffness
and the inclusion of control joints, the design of which
Appropriate load factors and the design provisions is discussed in this manual. While some minor cracks
provided in AS 3700 should be used to check serviceability can often be tolerated, crack widths should be kept to a
limit states for particular load conditions imposed on the minimum for aesthetic reasons and to avoid jeopardising
structure, such as serviceability wind loading. durability, especially in reinforced masonry.
The types are briefly described in this section as It is important to note that although veneer walls are
background to the later discussion of serviceability non-structural, they still have the potential to crack from
design. the causes described in Section 4, and must be detailed
and constructed accordingly.
2.6.2 Load bearing walls
Load bearing walls rely on their compressive load 2.6.4 Cavity walls
resistance to support other parts of the structure. Cavity wall construction is a traditional form of building,
Buckling and crushing effects, which depend on the which is still common in some parts of Australia. It
wall slenderness and interaction with the slab or roof provides a wall having good thermal and strength
above, determine the compressive capacity of a wall. properties, without the need to maintain an external
Compressive strength is influenced by the shape of coating. Cavity walls are constructed of two leaves
the units, particularly the presence and size of hollow of masonry separated by a cavity, which is typically
cores. External load bearing walls will usually be a cavity 50mm in width and is intended primarily to prevent
construction (see Section 2.6.4) to ensure adequate water water penetration into the building. The two leaves
penetration resistance, but single-skin walls are used in can be of different materials and thicknesses. As for the
some areas. case of veneer walls, the non-load bearing leaf must be
adequately supported by wall ties so that lateral loads are
Proper detailing of flashings, damp-proof courses and 2.6.6 Masonry infill panels
weep-holes is essential to ensure that the cavity wall Unreinforced masonry infill panels have the potential
remains an effective waterproof barrier. As for the case of to add considerably to the strength and rigidity of a
veneer walls, the presence of flashing and a damp proof framed structure if they are designed and detailed for
course will affect behaviour under lateral load. composite action. The extent of composite action will
depend on the level of lateral load, the degree of bond
Cavity walls must be suitably detailed to avoid distress or anchorage at the interfaces, the geometry, and the
and cracking in the masonry from the causes described in stiffness characteristics of the frame and infill masonry.
Section 4. The possibility of mobilising the infill, especially to resist
seismic loads, can be considered in design.
2.6.5 Single-skin walls
This form of construction has been used in recent years, However, this is not usually done in Australia and it is
particularly in northern Australia, utilising hollow generally considered good practice to leave gaps at the
clay units similar to traditional hollow concrete units. vertical edges and top of infill panels to allow for long-
A single load bearing leaf of masonry is used for the term movements in the masonry. The infill panels are
external walls and water penetration is prevented by secured to the frame by ties, which permit the desired
the use of suitable coatings or render on the surface relative movements, and flexible sealant fills the gaps. In
of the masonry, often combined with a roof system these cases, composite actions will not occur until large
incorporating overhanging eaves. frame deflections have taken place.
2.6.7 Piers
Masonry piers can either be isolated (supporting a slab)
or engaged (providing enhanced load resistance to a
wall). Isolated piers are designed for compressive load
capacity in the same way as loadbearing walls. The effect
of engaged piers is taken into account by the use of an
effective thickness for the wall/pier combination.
Item Tolerance
Damage Category Typical damage and consequences Approximate crack width limit
4.2.3 Differential settlement of foundations of coal removal has been by the ‘bord and pillar’ system,
Differential settlement of foundations can result from a where initially only 30% to 40% of the coal left is mined,
variety of causes, including non-uniform consolidation, with substantial pillars of coal left to support the strata
construction of the building over variable ground above. These pillars may then be removed later as part
conditions, and local shear failure of part of the foundation. of the secondary extraction process. Subsidence of the
surface will occur shortly after this secondary extraction
Cracks resulting from uneven settlement can take several is complete.
forms, but are usually a combination of stepped and
vertical cracks. They are similar in many respects to the A more recently developed alternative process is ‘retreat
mechanisms described in Section 4.2.2, although the long wall mining’ in which the complete coal seam is
extent of the distress will depend upon the location and temporarily supported by a moveable propping system.
nature of the differential settlement. This temporary propping system advances with the
longwall and surface subsidence occurs progressively18.
4.2.4 Mine subsidence Mine subsidence can subject houses and their footing
Several areas of Australia have, or can expect to have, coal systems to severe movements. The ground movements
mining under residential areas. The traditional method include lateral strains, settlement, curvature and tilt.
4.3.5 The influence of render • The sand grading – this significantly affects the mix
Cement-based render is a commonly used finish in – water demand and the plastic properties of the
domestic masonry construction, and the choice of mix. The water demand influences the subsequent
an appropriate render is important if it is to perform behaviour of the render, particularly its shrinkage
adequately in service. Failure of render can occur either characteristics.
by loss of bond with the backing wall (drumminess) or by
cracking. It is also possible for render shrinkage to cause • The standards of workmanship, the accuracy of
distress in the masonry backing. Whether or not failure batching of the materials and the possible abuse of
occurs by loss of bond or cracking will depend upon the plasticising and other additives.
degree of shrinkage of the render, the quality of the bond,
and the movement of the backing. Where the adhesion In addition to these shrinkage effects, cracking of cement
of the wall will absorb a proportion of the shrinkage renders can result from:
stresses, the remainder of the stresses are dissipated by
cracking. A good review of render properties has been • Structural movements.
given by Jones25.
• Restraints provided by intersecting walls, door and
Rendering is a wet process with a high content of water window openings.
to provide workability. Drying after placement causes
shrinkage in the render, which creates tensile stresses • Joints in the background material.
that may cause the render to crack. The potential degree
of cracking depends upon: • Interaction with the background masonry
(particularly if the render undergoes dimensional
• The amount of water in the mix – the higher the variation at a different rate from that of the
water content, the greater the potential degree of masonry).
cracking.
• The rate of water loss from the mix – the faster the
5.1 General hence its stiffness) will depend upon the materials and
construction of internal and external walls, the number
If the causes and mechanisms of cracking are and location of articulation joints, and the length and
understood, masonry can be constructed to perform play layout of walls. The required beam stiffness increases
satisfactorily and remain essentially free of cracks for its with increasing soil reactivity and decreasing structural
design life. Many of the problems described in Section 4 ductility. In most cases the deemed-to-comply provisions
can be avoided by good design and detailing, combined of AS 2870 can be applied.
with acceptable standards of workmanship.
Alternatively, if a first-principles soil-structure
5.2 Foundation design interaction analysis is to be performed, the approach set
out in AS 2870 can be utilised.
Provided it is possible to define the external effects to
which a house is to be subjected, a foundation system Table 2 summarises the appropriate differential
with the required stiffness and strength can be designed movement limits for footing and rafts supporting houses
using the principles and details given in AS 2870. with various forms of construction.
For these procedures to be effective, it is imperative Appropriate design and construction of a footing
that the degree of soil reactivity be established with does not necessarily guarantee a trouble-free life for
a reasonable degree of certainty. A consistent set of the structure. It is essential that the foundation be
assumptions must be made with regard to the degree maintained and guidance is available on means to
of soil reactivity, the footing system (for example strip accomplish this26.
footings or slab on ground), the structural system, and
the form of masonry construction (articulated or non- Provided the influence of ground strains can be
articulated). eliminated by suitable detailing19, the design of a
foundation system for a house to be subjected to
The deflection that can be tolerated in the footing (and mine subsidence would follow procedures similar to
Table 3. Relative differential movement limits for footings and rafts supporting houses
Maximum sagging or
Deflection limit as a
Construction hogging movement
proportion of span
(mm)
Figure 7. Effect of foundation movement on articulated Figure 8. Effect of foundation movement on articulated
walls (doming foundation) walls (dishing foundation)
Table 4. Recommended maximum spacing of 10mm wide articulation joints in walls up to 4m high
This is a summary covering simple cases. For more information, refer to AS3700, AS4773.1 and CCAA TN 61.
Site classes are as follows (refer AS2870)
A= Most sand and rock sites
S= Most silt and some clay sites
M= Moderately reactive clay sites
D= Dense reactive clay sites
H1 = Highly reactive clay sites with high ground movement due to moisture changes
H2 = Highly reactive clay sites with very high ground movement due to moisture changes
E= Extremely reactive clay sites
For E class sites, a footing design prepared by an engineer is required together with a complementary articulation
joint spacing.
As described previously, masonry cracking can result 6.3.1 Raking and re-pointing
from a variety of causes such as ground movements, Raking and re-pointing is often carried out when
dimensional changes in the masonry or interaction with cracking occurs in the mortar joints. The procedure is
other structural elements. Sometimes the cracking will also used to make good the surface of joints that have
be structurally significant; in other cases, it will only be been eroded by exposure to a degrading environment.
aesthetic. The process requires a skilled tradesperson and involves
the raking out of the mortar in the joint to a certain
When cracks occur, the most suitable method of repair is depth and making the joint good with compatible
determined to some extent by the nature of the cracking. mortar.
If the bond between mortar and brick has been broken
and the structural integrity of the walls is threatened, the Hand pointing of joints to a depth of 15 mm can be
aim of the repair should be to restore adequate strength effective if the repair is only for cosmetic reasons.
to the cracked area (particularly tensile strength). If the However, it is usually ineffective if the bond strength of
crack is not of structural significance, then re-pointing of the cracked joint must be restored. It is very difficult to fill
the joint might be sufficient. Various repair methods are the joint completely and to generate the required suction
briefly described as follows. of the unit on the mortar, using mortar of relativity stiff
consistency. In addition, shrinkage of the fresh mortar
6.2 Stabilisation of the cause of cracking will often cause cracking to recur at the same interface.
Before repair of the cracked area can be carried out, Best results are achieved if the joint is raked to a
the cause of the cracking must be identified and the significant depth (50 mm to 60 mm) and then pressure-
movement stabilised to avoid recurrence. This might filled with a polymer-modified cement mortar, which
involve any of the following: has better penetration and bonding characteristics than
a conventional mortar. To allow for colour matching of
• Underpinning of foundations. the finished joint, a conventional mortar can be used.
This has provided good results in repairs of brickwork
• Stabilisation of soil moisture content by adequate damaged in the Newcastle earthquake.
drainage and provision of ‘apron’ paths around
perimeter walls, removal of offending trees, or the 6.3.2 Reconstruction of selected areas
placement of an impermeable moisture barrier For obvious reasons demolition and re-building of a
around the building. damaged section of masonry should restore its structural
integrity. However its problems are often encountered
• Insertion of suitable control joints to cater for at the junction of a new and existing work to create a
expected masonry movements. key. In these cases, similar problems to those described
in raking and re-pointing can be encountered, as a bond
• Bracing of the structure if cracking is being caused has to be established at the junction of the new and old
by excessive movements of the roof or other framing masonry.
systems.
A bond can usually be achieved in the bed joints below
These remedies are described in some detail by Sorenson the bricks in the toothed area. However, at the vertical
and Tasker13. junction of the last perpend joints and the existing
For a structure to remain serviceable, it must be durable • Industrial – within 1 km of major industrial
throughout its life, assuming a reasonable level of complexes producing significant acidic pollution.
building maintenance is carried out. The main causes of
durability failure are corrosion of embedded steel items • Moderate – areas within 50 km of the coast and more
and the effects of crystalline salts in the masonry. Salts than 1 km from a non-surf coast, AND 10 km from
can be drawn in from the ground, or be present in building a surf coast. These are considered to be subject to
materials such as the sand used to mix the mortar. light industrial pollution and/or very light marine
influence.
To ensure adequate serviceability, AS 3700 requires that
members and structures have the necessary durability • Mild – typically inland, more than 50 km from
to withstand the expected wear and deterioration the coast and away from industrial areas. This
throughout the intended life without the need for environment has been subdivided as follows:
excessive maintenance. For any building element,
the required durability depends on the exposure • Mild-tropical – within the tropical climatic zone (for
environment, the location within the building and the example, Katherine and Mt Isa).
importance of the structure. A typical design life is 50
years. • Mild-temperate – within the temperate climatic
zone (for example, Dubbo and Mildura).
While AS 3700 is not explicit about the intended
life or the importance of the structure, it gives • Mild-arid – within the arid climatic zone (for
extensive deemed-to-satisfy solutions for each of the example, Alice Springs and Kalgoorlie).
wall components and for a range of environmental
conditions. In order to satisfy the requirements, each The locations referred to in Table 5.1 of AS 3700 are
component must be graded in accordance with its described in Clause 5.4 of the standard. They are as
respective durability. follows:
AS 3700 separates the exposure environment of the • Exterior – exposed to the environment on the
structure as a whole and the location of the masonry outside of a building (for example, an exposed leaf
within it. Durability requirements are stipulated for of masonry, including the cavity space and wall ties,
each combination of environment and location. The Mild and components embedded in an external wall,
climatic zone is subdivided based on a climatic zone map including lintels and tie-down straps).
(Figure 5.1 of AS 3700).
• Exterior-coated – exposed to the environment on the
The exposure environments referred to in Table 5.1 of AS outside of a building but protected by a weather-
3700 are described in more detail in Clause 5.3 of the resistant coating (if above the damp-proof course)
standard. They are as follows: or membrane (if below the damp-proof course).
The standard describes painted systems that are
• Severe marine – up to 100 metres from a non-surf considered acceptable for the weather-resistant
coast and up to 1 km from a surf coast. The coast is coating but not for the membrane.
defined as the mean high-water mark.
• Interior – enclosed within the building, once
• Marine – between 100 metres and 1 km from a non- completed (for example, internal walls and the inner
surf coast and between 1 kilometre and 10 kilometres leaf of a cavity wall).
from a surf coast. As before, the coast is defined as
The resistance of mortar joints to degradation during the Table 5.1 in AS 3700 sets out a range of exposure
life of a building is related to surface hardness, which is conditions and lists the required mortar grade for each.
strongly related to cement content. Low hardness will Deemed-to-satisfy proportions are given in AS 3700 Table
lead to progressive erosion of the surface of the joints 11.1 for achieving the various grades of mortar. AS 3700
by physical damage, wind action, insect attack and the Appendix E, includes a test method for mortar durability32
effects of salt crystallisation. and acceptance criteria for the various mortar grades are
given in Table 11.2. The resulting scratch index correlates
Mortar is classified in AS 3700 as grades M1, M2, M3 or well with the cement content of the mortar and is also
M4. These grades are used for durability requirements strongly affected by joint tooling and the presence of
as well as for strength properties. Mortar of type M1 fines, such as lime, in the mortar mix. The operation of
can only be used for restoration work to match existing the test is described and illustrated in TBA Manual 10
construction and therefore has no corresponding Construction Guidelines for Clay Masonry.
Clay M2
Subject to non-saline
wetting General Purpose M3 R3 15
and drying
Clay M2
Any
Above a DPC Protected Concrete R1 5
or Calcium M3
Exterior-coated Silicate
(see Note 1)
Clay M2
Clay M2
Clay M2
Clay M2
Clay M2
Moderate Exterior Protected Concrete R1 5
or Calcium M3
Silicate
Marine
Exterior General Purpose M3 R3 15
(see Note 3)
Severe marine
Exterior Exposure M4 R4 25
(see Note 4)
Special
Exterior (See Note 5) (See Note 5) R5 (See Note 5)
(see Note 5)
35 / Design of Clay Masonry for Serviceability Design of Clay Masonry for Serviceability / 35
1. Exterior-coated exposure requires protection 7.4 Ties, connectors and lintels
in accordance with Clause 5.4.2. The coating
requirements are different for locations above and Wall ties are readily available for a range of exposure
below a DPC. environments in galvanised steel, stainless steel and
polymer. Designers and specifiers should consider
2. Soils in marine or severe marine environments shall carefully the consequences of failure during the design
be considered as aggressive. Where sulfate attack life of the building and choose the materials accordingly.
from groundwater is possible, Type SR cement shall Ties and connectors are very expensive to replace if
be used. Type SR cement may be either blended or they fail, much more so than many other building
portland cement. components and many times their original cost.
3. All external elements in contact with freshwater or A measure of conservatism is therefore warranted in the
subject to non-saline wetting and drying shall be use of ties; jeopardising the integrity of the building for
treated as for a marine environment. a saving of a few dollars does not make sound economic
sense.
4. All external elements in contact with saline or
contaminated water or subject to saline wetting The Newcastle earthquake in 1989 exposed many cases
and drying shall be treated as for a severe marine of corroded wall ties, leading to catastrophic collapse
environment. of the masonry. The problem of corroded wall ties is
exacerbated by the fact that they cannot be seen until an
5. Requirements for especially aggressive environments extreme event such as an earthquake or high wind causes
depend on the nature of the corrosive agents and failure, by which time it is too late. Even examination of
cannot be defined. Units, mortars, covers or coatings the cavity using an endoscope is not sufficient to reveal
shown by test, or known by experience, to be the damage, because it tends to be worst just inside the
resistant to the particular corrosive agent shall be mortar joint on the cavity side. A typical example of a
used. corroded cavity tie is shown in Figure 14. The small extra
investment required for stainless steel ties would prevent
6. Joints exposed in marine, severe marine and special these problems and ensure a lifetime commensurate
environments shall be tooled to give a dense, water with that of the clay masonry units.
shedding finish (see Clause 4.9.2).
Figure 14. Corroded tie exposed by a failure during the
7. Means for determining salt attack resistance grades Newcastle earthquake
for masonry units are given in AS/NZS 4455.1 and
AS/NZS 4456.10.
Walls Where –
The principle is that even if a wall is designed to satisfy
all the prescribed loads, it should not be so slender as H = Clear height of the member (in metres)
to fail under some unintended or accidental load and it t r = minimum thickness of the member
should have adequate stiffness. If the wall is capable of Cv = Robustness coefficient for vertical span. For piers
withstanding a minimum level of lateral load of 0.5 kPa, unreinforced vertically – 13.5. For piers reinforced
it is deemed to have the necessary robustness. vertically or pre-stressed - 30.
It is important to realise that the walls, irrespective of The stiffening action of engaged piers is only taken into
their level of loading (and including non-loadbearing account for walls in pure vertically spanning walls. Even
walls) must satisfy the robustness requirements of AS then, the piers must be quite substantial before they
3700. are effective. Note that an engaged pier has insufficient
strength and stiffness to provide lateral support to
It is also important to consider the effects of chasing the wall. Both leaves of a cavity wall are considered to
and the presence of openings in walls when assessing act together for the purposes of robustness, unlike for
robustness. The edge of an opening is usually considered compressive strength design.
to be an unrestrained edge of the wall.
The design rules can be expressed as limiting heights and
Piers lengths for a given wall thickness. These are shown as
Unreinforced isolated piers are more vulnerable than charts for various wall configurations in Section 8.2.
walls and the limiting slenderness ration for an isolated
pier is therefore approximately half the value for a similar The charts for walls with side support (leading to two-
wall. A pier has both length and width less than one-fifth way bending) show a smooth curve, unlike the cases
of the height. with only top and bottom support, and this recognises
the importance and effect of having at least one vertical
support to stabilise the wall.
Chart 1. Robustness limits for clay masonry walls supported on four edges
Chart 3. Robustness limits for clay masonry walls with one side free
Chart 5. Robustness limits for clay masonry walls supported at top and bottom
1. National
Construction Code Volume 1: 14. AS 3600-2009, Concrete structures, 25. Jones, I. Render – The Technologists
Class 2 to Class 9 Buildings and Volume Standards Australia, Sydney, 2018. Viewpoint, External Rendered
2: Class 1 and Class 10 Buildings (Housing 15. AS 4100-1998, Steel structures, Surfaces Symposium. Cement and
Provisions). Australian Building Standards Australia, Sydney, 1998. Concrete Association of Australia,
Codes Board, Canberra, 2019. Sydney, May 2001.
16. AS/NZS 1170.0:2002, Structural
2. AS 3700-2018 Masonry structures, design actions Part O: General 26. B
uilding Technology File 18: Foundation
Standards Australia, Sydney, 2018. principles, Standards Australia, Maintenance and Footing Performance:
Sydney, 2002. A Homeowners Guide (formerly
3. AS 3700-2012 Supplement 1, Masonry Information sheet 10-91) CSIRO
structures – Commentary, Standards 17. Page, A.W.: Kleeman, P.W & Bryant, Division of Building Construction
Australia, Sydney, 2012. I. Development of Serviceability and Engineering, Melbourne 2003.
Criteria for Masonry Structures – a
4. AS 4773.2:2015 Masonry in small Preliminary Report, Proceedings of 27. Manual 10, Construction Guidelines for
buildings – Construction, Standards the 6th North American Masonry Clay Masonry, Think Brick Australia,
Australia, Sydney, 2015. Conference, Philadelphia June 1993. Sydney, February 2008.
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