Block 1
Block 1
Block 1
Block
1
MASS MEDIA AND SOCIETY
UNIT 1
Understanding Media and Society 7
UNIT 2
Media Audiences 21
UNIT 3
Media Literacy 35
UNIT 4
Mass Media Policies 50
EXPERTS COMMITTEE
Prof. B.P.Sanjay Prof. J.S. Yadav Prof. B.K. Kuthiala
Former VC, CUTN; PVC, Former Director, IIMC Former VC, MLCRPV
Univ. of Hyderabad, Hyderabad New Delhi Bhopal
Prof. G. Ravindran Prof. Kiran Thakur Prof. Usha Raman
Head, Department of Former Head, Deptt. of S. N. School of Arts &
Communication, University of Communication & Journalism, Communication, University of
Madras, Chennai Savitribai Phule Pune University Hyderabad, Hyderabad
Mr. Shastri Ramachandran Prof. Iftekhar Ahmed Prof. Jaishri Jethwaney
Editor and Columnist Director, MCRC, Jamia Milia Former Head, ADPR, IIMC,
New Delhi Islamia, New Delhi New Delhi
Prof. Usha Rani Ms Sevanti Ninan Ms Pamela Philipose
Former Head, Deptt. of Comm.& Senior Journalist & Founder Senior Journalist and Author,
Journalism, Mysore University Editor, The Hoot, New Delhi New Delhi
Ms Mahalakshmi Jayaram Prof. Biswajit Das Prof. Gita Bamezai
Senior Dy. Editor Director, CCMG, Jamia Milia Head Dept. of Comm.
The Hindu, Chennai Islamia, New Delhi Research, IIMC New Delhi
Dr. Vipul Mudgal Prof. Madhu Parhar Mr. K. Ravikanth
Senior Journalist and Author, Director, STRIDE Director, EMPC
New Delhi IGNOU IGNOU
Prof. Subhash Dhuliya Prof. Shambhu Nath Singh, Dr. O. P. Dewal
Former Director, SOJNMS, Former Director, SOJNMS, Associate Professor
IGNOU IGNOU SOJNMS, IGNOU
Dr. Kiron Bansal, Associate Dr. K.S. Arul Selvan, Associate Dr. Ramesh Yadav, Assistant
Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU
Dr. Shikha Rai, Assistant Dr. Amit Kumar, Assistant Ms. Padmini Jain, Assistant
Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU Professor, SOJNMS, IGNOU
PRODUCTION TEAM
Mr. K.N. Mohanan Mr. Sumati Nair
Asst. Registrar (Publication) Section Officer (Publication)
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi
January, 2020
Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
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COURSE INTRODUCTION: MEDIA AND
SOCIETY
Media draws its sustenance from the society and does not exist in isolation.
Course MJM-024 Media and Society takes an encompassing view of the role
of media on a wide range of issues including media and development, media and
contemporary issues – both at the national as well as global levels.
Block 1: Mass Media and Society covers the broad areas of media audiences,
media literacy and policies. Unit 1: Understanding Media and Society outlines
various aspects that are relevant to the understanding of the concepts, context
and relevance of media in society. Unit 2: Media Audiences examines the
characteristics, types and theories of audiences, and audience research approaches.
Unit 3: Media Literacy empowers you to understand the rationale of media
messages, implications of visual images and economics of the media industry.
Unit 4: Mass Media Policies deals with the significance of media and
communication policies in the life of the people of a country.
Block 3: Media and Contemporary Issues-1 examines the role of media in the
crucial areas of health, education, gender, environment and human rights. Unit
9: Media and Health Issues argues that health communicators can provide a
consistent and tangible approach to sustaining health and making policies and
programmes more people-friendly and transparent. Unit 10: Education and
Media looks at how media and ICT can be harnessed to expand access, promote
efficiency, improve quality of learning, enhance quality of teaching, and improve
management systems at various levels of education. Unit 11: Gender and Media
observes that skewed media portrayal of gender promotes stereotypes and
misrepresantation. Unit 12: Media and Environment focuses on how media
can investigate various processes and popularise innovative ideas to help conserve
our natural resources. Unit 13: Media and Human Rights examines the
individual natural rights as well as collective rights of people.
Block 4: Media and Contemporary Issues -2 will enable you to appreciate the
emerging critical emerging areas and perspectives in society. Unit 14:
International and Intercultural Communication highlights the connections
between foreign policy, communications flows and public opinion. Unit 15:
Technological Revolution describes major technological revolutions that have
taken place since 1430s; and links each revolution with the emergence of a specific
medium such as print, radio, television and digital media. Unit 16: Globalisation
and Media looks at the concept and factors of globalisation and analyses the
emergence of globalisation in India. The last unit of the course, Unit 17:
Alternative Media stresses the need for alternate media to give impetus to
grassroots journalism and highlight the issues of the marginalised sections of
society.
Unit 2: Media Audiences examines the concept of media audiences and its
development historically. It explains ‘group’, ‘crowd’ and different ‘media
audiences’ and their characteristics. How different audiences are influenced by
communication has been a subject of research and debate, more so, with the
rapid expansion and penetration of media. Different theoretical perspectives have
been discussed in the unit to understand media impact on audiences.
Unit 3: Media Literacy stresses the need for media education in the present
globalised media environment. The unlimited avenues for information generation
and dissemination have led to blinding glare and often less clarity about the true
meaning and role of media in society. Media literacy helps in differentiating
between ‘reel’ and the ‘real’ and as such make better use of communication and
media resources.
Unit 4: Mass Media Policies discusses the policies that guide and govern the
functioning and operations of different media in any society; nationally and
globally. Keeping in view the important roles that mass media perform in a
nation’s running, it is pertinent to discuss the policies that govern the media
systems and operations. The technological developments together with social
and cultural values of any society and universal human values have strong bearings
on media policies.
We hope you will enjoy reading this Block and develop a good understanding of
the issues discussed.
Mass Media & Society
6
Understanding Media and
UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING MEDIA AND Society
SOCIETY
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Learning Outcomes
1.2 Defining Society and Mass Media
1.2.1 Historical Context
1.2.2 Information Age Context
1.3 Interpolation of Media and Political System
1.4 Corporate Control of Media
1.5 Regulation versus Self-Regulation
1.6 Media and Public Opinion
1.6.1 Role of Media in Forming Public Opinion
1.6.2 Relationship between Media and Society
1.7 New Media and its Impact on Society
1.7.1 Evolution of the Internet
1.7.2 Emergence of Social Networking Sites
1.7.3 The Dark Side of Virtual World
1.8 Let Us Sum up
1.9 Further Readings
1.10 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The relationship between media and society is symbiotic. Society has a history
of millions of years while media, especially the mass media, of a little over a
century, but both depend on each other for sustenance. Society’s survival and
growth depends on a number of factors among which a system of communication
is crucial, as people in a society get information, education and entertainment
through communication. In this block, we shall discuss various pertinent issues
relating to media and society such as audience, media literacy and media policies.
Such an analysis becomes important as in a short span, media, especially the
news media has been able to influence policy and also question those in authority,
in the public interest, being the watchdog in a democracy. New media is also
expected to take up issues on behalf of the public, articulate public opinion, set
agenda for discussion and debate. Over the years, the news media has become so
pervasive, that many critics see it as a power institution. In fact, any debate on
the mass media oscillates between two extremes, depending on who is saying it.
Some swear by media’s unbridled power, while others believe that media do not
affect the lives of the people. Whatever may be the view, there is no gainsaying
the fact that media have become a part of the everyday life of an average
individual.
This Unit is aimed at synergising various aspects and issues that are relevant to
the understanding of the concepts, context and relevance of media in society.
7
Mass Media & Society Media is a social institution and as stated earlier, it draws its sustenance from the
society and does not exist outside of the society.
Communication is the basic link among various echelons in a society. With the
coming of mass media, one finds the society’s reflection in news and entertainment
programmes. At a micro level, one learns about various groups divided by caste,
custom, religion or creed either through interpersonal interaction or through media
programming. It is not uncommon to find references to various castes and
communities in the media. To give an example in the Indian context, media
generally debates and discusses voting patterns based on caste during election
times. One finds media covering events and agitations organised by people
belonging to various castes. One has seen coverage of agitation by various caste
groups on securing quota for reservation in government jobs and admissions in
schools and colleges. The Jat agitation in 2016 in Haryana which resulted in
large scale damage to public property and the Gujjar agitation in 2019 in
Rajasthan, which saw disruption in train traffic, can be cited as the two examples.
The mainstream newspapers in their matrimonial ads also divide the ads based
on gender and castes. The purpose of giving these examples is to make you
aware on how media reinforces and establishes what happens within a society or
group. As the media professionals also come from the same social milieu, so
their writings and views are likely to reflect their biases as well.
The mass media as we know it today is about a century old and can be traced to
when newspapers became available for a few pennies. The period was known as
the era of Penny Press.
The First World War saw the mobilisation of press and radio for nationalist war
aims of contending states. This left little doubt about the power of the media
influence on the ‘masses’, who were effectively managed and directed towards
war aims. By 1925, there was already a strongly held view that mass publicity
had the power to rule the people and influence international alliances. Late
nineteenth century thinkers were conscious of the great transformation that was
taking place in which the slower pace of change was giving way to a faster pace.
The experience of Nazi Germany and the erstwhile Soviet Union further
reinforced this view that mass media could be a powerful source of propaganda
on behalf of the ruling elite. Hitler and Goebbels believed that media was an
instrument of propaganda and that if a lie was repeated hundred times, it had the
potential of becoming a truth. Hitler probably was one of the early powerful men
who had an idea about the potential of imagery and media.
After the Second World War, we witnessed a rapid growth of media, which
affected all spheres of life. In the development process also, the role of media
was recognised and due consideration was given by all societies including the
developing world.
While the media has historically been viewed as overly aggressive and insatiable
in its enthusiasm for the latest and hottest news, their watchdog function in a
democratic society posits that people must know what their governments are
doing. The media has the capacity to hold the government accountable, forcing
them to explain their actions and decisions, all of which affect the people, they
represent. The assumption in some societies is that the press speaks for the people,
thus the freedom of speech and freedom of the press acts are seen in the context
of the public interest. Any effort, therefore on the part of the government to
curtail news media’s freedom is seen as against people’s right to free and fair
information. When during Emergency in 1975-77 in India, press coverage was
censored; The Indian Express left the editorial space to denote censorship. “The
blank editorial metaphor of censorship was soon adopted by other newspapers,
including the Statesman”, recorded the paper later.
Today, in the era of globalisation, this role of mass media has undergone a sea
change. It is often argued that news media has become a commodity. There is
also a growing criticism against media for projecting unabashed violence.
According to the leftist thinking, media is an important tool to serve specific
socio-economic and political interests of the dominant class. 9
Mass Media & Society Media academic, Stanley J Baran in his book Introduction to Mass
Communication, Media Literacy and Culture, quoted theorist Marshall McLuhan
to explain the importance of Mass media in our life. Marshall McLuhan would
often ask, “Does a fish know it’s wet?” The answer, he would say, is, “No.” The
fish’s existence is so dominated by water that only when water is absent, the fish
becomes aware of its condition. So is with people and mass media - an average
person is so inundated with media messages in her/his everyday life that s/he is
often not conscious of the presence or influence of media in life. Media scholars
Caren J Deming and Samuel L Becker point out in their book, Media in Society,
that media operation are too vital to our lives to be disregarded. Indeed, being
the fourth and the strongest pillar of democracy, media enjoys a place of privilege
in the society. Various scholars and critics have argued that media is not only a
mirror of the society but also an instrument of social change. Media must have a
close look at the society in all its manifestations with a penetrating eye.
Media theorists Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm in their
book ‘Four Theories of the Press’ argue that press always take the form and
coloration of the social, political structures within which it operates. You have
read the normative media theories – Authoritarian, Libertarian, Communist Media
and Social responsibility theories in detail in Unit 2 Block1 of Course 1, which
are relevant to understand the inter-relation of media and society. Communication
scholars Daniel C Hallin and Paolo Mancini while discussing the four theories
of press in their book, Comparing Media Systems: Three models of Media and
Politics, argue, “one cannot understand the news media without understanding
the nature of the state, the system of political parties, the pattern of relations
between economic and political interests and the development of civil society
among other elements of social structure”.
10
Check Your Progress 1 Understanding Media and
Society
Note: Use the space below for your answers
Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit
1) How media serves as a link with society?
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2) What has been the journey of media from penny press era to the new age
communication?
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Communication academic Geoffrey Craig in his book, The Media Politics and
Public Life, says, “the political system exerts a less formal kind of control over
the media landscape through personal influence of politicians and political actors
on media owners and journalists”. Craig maintains that the influence of political
actors over media on a day-to-day basis can be readily observed and realised.
Governments have the power to enact legislations through which they can bring
considerable pressure on the media. Governments are often criticised for their
power to manipulate and maneuvers media by deciding on which information is
to be released, when and how. Political management of the media also takes
place through various types of political communication in the form of media
events, briefings, news conferences, interviews, photo opportunities etc. Media
being information hungry often ends up publishing what it gets from the sources
of authority.
To give an example, Reliance Industries limited (RIL) is said to have taken equity
in more than 25 media channels/newspapers. This should be an area of concern
for society in general and critics in particular. Hypothetically, let us assume that
there is bad news about any of the RIL companies, it will be of empirical research
interest to find out how these media channels/newspapers that have RIL stake,
cover that news and it will take some time to understand the full import in these
media companies.
2) What in your views are the various ways in which governments may exert
control on media?
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Elizabeth M Perse looks at the Agenda Setting Theory in the context of the
power of the news media to structure the importance of political issues in the
public’s mind. In other words, she explains that through gatekeeping, the news
media select and highlight certain events, people and issues. Because of repetition
of issues, people tend to adopt the news media’s agenda and start believing that
these same events, people and issues are more important than those not covered.
13
Mass Media & Society American sociologists Lazarsfield and Merton held that media performed a status
conferral function for society by focusing attention on important people, events
and issues. The news media do not limit themselves to just establishing the
“salience of certain topics”. Research has shown that how the news is presented
also has a bearing on what people think about issues and events covered.
Media’s attention was not just on the efforts at rescuing thousands of stranded
pilgrims, it also brought to attention through its coverage, the various views,
opinions, news reports on how the fragile ecology of Himalayan region was
utterly disregarded by the commercial developers in connivance with the
authorities to reap monetary benefits. It also stressed on the unpreparedness of
various administrative agencies in handling a mammoth crisis like that one. The
media coverage brought to issue the crisis at not only a micro level but also
macro level, cautioning about many more such disasters in store, if all the
stakeholders especially the government did not feel concerned about the fragile
Himalayan ecology. The various media, especially the mainstream news channels
were questioning, grilling and seeking answers from the political bosses on their
lackadaisical attitude, especially after the alarm bells were rung by the
Comptroller and Auditor General’s report months’ in advance on the mindless
construction work and its possible impact on the state. Media also reflected on
how different political parties were trying to make political mileage out of a
human disaster through blame games. Media in covering incidents and events
become an interpreter of ‘reality’. People who watch news get influenced by
what appears as news.
With the coming of the World Wide Web, followed by the popularity of social
media, the world has not been the same. Many feel that Internet has facilitated
democratisation of information; anyone can post anything on the Net and be
heard. Internet has cut across artificial boundaries created by geographical borders
and socio-economic divide. It has helped create a world community, seamless
markets and common consumers. In an era of instant connect, we cannot treat
any issue as ‘local’. In fact anything happening anywhere in the world can ring
a bell across continents. One finds, Internet, especially the social networking
sites, including Facebook and micro-blogging site, Twitter becoming a virtual
turf for gathering followers and putting forth one’s ideology. Despite the fact
that the penetration of the Internet is lower when compared with television and
print media, but the various social media platforms have seen the medium grow
exponentially in the last few years. The reach and access, especially via the mobile
phones is expected to grow many folds in the near future.
Web 2.0 is the version which initiated interactivity on the Internet. The interaction
is twofold, with the content and with the people. So, one can today upvote and
comment on YouTube videos as well as post on a friend’s Facebook page.
Web 3.0 is the future, where the communication will not merely be limited to
people across the web, but between machines connected as well. E.g., today
when your laptop automatically starts updating some software through the Net,
it is communicating with the parent website. Google Search is another example
where a programme navigates through all the web pages available on its index to
find what the user is looking for.
With such a large network and multiple communication channels and novel
methods, the Internet began the era of Globalisation in its true sense. It also gave
birth to many powerful corporations like Microsoft, Apple, Yahoo, Oracle etc.
These are the software industries working on making computers useful to humans,
offline and online. By the year 2000, Internet had heralded significant changes
in global communication and removing the limitations of time and boundary.
Facilities/services like email led to the instant contact with individuals. Electronic
networking proved that Marshall McLuhan’s concept of Global Village seemed
to be on its way to reality.
1) Malware: These are malicious software that spread like ‘Virus’, from one
system to another to seek out data unknown to the users. The software copy
themselves on each connected system and spy on the activities of the users.
In times of Net-banking, these viruses are a threat to personal security,
amounting to cyber-crime.
In the light of the above arguments and analysis, the growth of internet as
an important mass medium cannot be ignored. As Communication,
researchers Morris and Ogan have rightly put, “if we ignore the computer
media, not only will the discipline (of mass communication) be left behind,”
but we, “will also miss an opportunity to explore and rethink answers to
some of the central questions of mass communication research.” However
Curran and Seaton comment that “The net has changed out of all recognition
from its pioneering days when the vision of the net as the redeemer of
social ills was first promulgated. The civic discourse and subculture
experiment that so excited early net commentators has given way to an
increased emphasis on entertainment, business and electronic mail”. The
second defect, they say, is that, “it has failed to grasp that inequalities in the
real world distort cyberspace, and limit its potential for improving society.”
Media scholars Lyn Gorman and David McLean endorse the views of Curran
and Seaton by pointing out that social ills have not disappeared with the
extension of new technologies; real world politics has not been transformed
by the advent of YouTube; global inequalities continue to exclude a sizeable
portion of the world’s population from access to the internet and all that it
offers. They argue that media must be seen in relation to the contexts in
which they originate; whether ‘old’ or ‘new’ – they cannot be divorced
from the ‘real world’s structures and processes.
Check Your Progress 4
Note: Use the space below for your answers
Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit
1) How has the new media, especially the Internet brought about a change in
the world?
17
Mass Media & Society ......................................................................................................................
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The power of media has been resented by institutions, especially political and
economic. It is believed by analysts that the urge to control and regulate media
emanated from a perception that media can play with the reputation of the
powerful and mighty, especially in politics and industry. We also looked at the
ownership patterns and it was argued that when over 90% media is owned by big
business houses, news cannot always be objective.
The unit then looked at the new age media, the Internet, and its potential in
making the world flat with common communities, seamless markets and global
consumers. We also analysed that anybody could write/say and be heard may not
be truly a fact. In an urge for safeguarding national interests, the whole debate on
surveillance of the Internet data has heated up and one wonders if that is the
price individuals and nations pay for what seemed as free access and a democratic
platform for information sharing.
Media and Society: Challenges and Opportunities, Edited by Vir Bala Aggarwal,
Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 2002.
18
Understanding Media and
1.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE Society
ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Media offers a platform to discuss various issues, events and developments.
The debates and discussions on different aspects of our day-to-day lives
create informed opinions. Media organisations and media professionals also
come from the same social milieu, so their writings and views may reflect
their biases as well.
19
Mass Media & Society 2) The Internet media that had the potential of being democratic is not really
so, as one finds curbs and surveillance on individual and countries. It has
come to light that the USA, that controls the information dissemination on
the Net has been snooping on nations, embassies and personal mails of
people.
20
Understanding Media and
UNIT 2 MEDIA AUDIENCES Society
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Learning Outcomes
2.2 History of the Term ‘Audience’
2.3 Understanding ‘Audiences’
2.3.1 Public-Crowd-Group-Mass-Audience
2.3.2 Characteristics of Audiences
2.3.3 Types of Audiences
2.3.4 Audience Typologies
2.4 Theories on Audiences
2.4.1 Bullet Theory
2.4.2 Individual Difference Theory
2.4.3 Social Category Theory
2.5 Audience Conception Traditions
2.5.1 Structural
2.5.2 Behavioural
2.5.3 Cultural
2.6 Approaches to Audience Research
2.6.1 Media Effects
2.6.2 Cultivation Analysis
2.6.3 Uses and Gratification
2.6.4 Cultural Studies
2.6.5 Reception Analysis
2.6.6 Everyday Life
2.7 Future of the Audiences
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Further Readings
2.10 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers
2.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we took an overview of various issues which have bearing
on media and society. This unit examines the concept of media audiences and its
development historically. As discussed in Unit 1 of Block 1, Course 1, you are
aware that one of the elements of communication is ‘receiver’. The S-M-C-R
(Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver) model which is linear in nature gives no
role to ‘receiver’. The subsequent two-way model, including feedback made
‘receiver’ active beings reacting to the message sent by the sender. The term
‘receiver’ became ‘audience’ when the message gained a character of public
performance. But we use the term ‘audience’ in variety of contexts. In the Indian
context we also call them ‘public’, say general viewers in a cinema hall to indicate
those using mass media.
21
Mass Media & Society In this unit, we shall discuss the evolution of the term itself, followed by the
terminological differences between public, crowd, group and audience. We shall
also examine the characteristics and types of audiences, theories about audiences,
audience conception, traditions and few of the audience research approaches.
In oral cultures ‘audience’ was always present whereas with the emergence of
written word the receivers and sender were freed from the constraints of time
and space. Written word made it possible to reach out to receivers not even
anticipated by the sender. The beginning of printing and later with photography,
sound recordings, motion pictures, radio and television and now Internet have
changed the concept of the ‘audience’. It has changed from ‘fixed’, defined,
homogeneous conception to polysemic, unstructured, diverse and heterogeneous
individuals.
Though communication and theatrical processes are much older, last quarter of
the sixteenth century witnessed gradual emergence of polarised identities of
performer and listeners in musical performances. The emergence of broadcast
system then brought out the concept of individuals sitting in the privacy of their
home listening to radio or watching television. These individuals were different
from those attending lectures or concert halls. They were not located at the place
where message was created. Let us take an example that you are watching a film
made on Mahatma Gandhi. Depending upon the type of film (documentary or
feature film or actual footage), the film is made ‘about’ a time/place, it is made
‘in’ a time/place and you as a viewer watch it in another time/place. Receivers
which most often are referred as ‘audience’ of mass media are usually distanced
from the senders.
Media fragmentation and abundance in the late twentieth century has led to more
focus on ‘receivers’ for varied reasons. With Internet, the audience became further
distanced from physical notion of space and time. In digital age, politically,
socially, technologically and even economically, the concept of audience demands
a re-definition. This has led to the advent of Web 2.0, social media applications
and diffusion of mobile phones which has wired the world creating and eventually
breaking online-offline dichotomies.
In 21st century, with the creation of ‘international’ audiences, media have become
more of marketable commodities and cultural artifacts for world trade. Media
messages are treated as goods that need to be packaged, marketed and distributed
to reach perceptual ‘audiences’, some created by artificial demands, others pre-
existent due to social and cultural affinity to the media and message content.
Audiences then become ‘consumers’ of media goods. Media and entertainment
became one industry covering publishing, film and television production,
performance genre including a variety such as popular music and sports.
Mosco and Kaye (2000) remark, “The concept of the audience is one of the
governing ideas in mass communications research. It is also one of the most
hotly contested…the concept was created largely out of marketing departments
of companies with a stake in selling products through media”. They further remark
that it has now expanded the scope of media studies but it is found puzzling why
the discipline of communication studies still keeps using this marketing concept.
23
Mass Media & Society
2.3 UNDERSTANDING ‘AUDIENCES’
If you examine your own experience of listening to radio, watching television or
films, listening to music, being on social networking sites or even being part of
a concert, you would know what it is being a member of an ‘audience’. The
English word ‘audience’ has Latin roots - audire meaning to hear. Mosco and
Kyle (2000) elaborate the context where earliest use of the word was found in
14th century. They remark that audience referred primarily to formal hearing in
front of a magistrate, court official or sovereign and how sense of power is
inherently linked to the word/concept. We also use words like ‘mass’ or ‘group’
as the connotation of audience. Let us understand how there are different meanings
to words that get used interchangeably.
2.3.1 Public-Crowd-Group-Mass-Audience
You know your friends; it’s a group. Usually in a group, members know each
other, share common values, have knowledge about membership, have a certain
structure of relationships and continue over time with some goals to achieve.
The crowd is larger and restricted. It is observable and within a particular place.
Crowd gathers at the place of demonstration or an accident. It has spontaneity of
formation and dispersal, unlike a group. Crowd also shares same ‘mood’ and
some degree of identity but it does not have any structure or moral or social
composition.
Unlike group and crowd, public is relatively large, more dispersed and enduring.
Public conceptually refers to political formation around a cause or an issue.
Protesters, union gatherings indicate publics who work to achieve political change.
Democratic societies gave rise to the need for ‘informed citizenry’. Publics are
thus linked to public opinion. In State supported public service broadcasting, the
audience is public and not the consumer, as is the case with commercial
broadcasting.
McQuail (2000) attributes the credit of defining mass to Herbert Blumer in 1939.
Blumer defined mass as a new type of social formation in a modern society
unlike the other concepts. Mass refers to different, heterogeneous, fluid, desperate,
irrational, un-intellectual, scattered, loose, anonymous, large number of
individuals as a collective. Mass reflects members not knowing each other yet
share similar ‘interest’. The concept of mass also assumes an element of
manipulation by someone else. They are not self-aware, without self-identity
and are incapable of acting together to attain any objectives. The term mass also
gets used for ‘mass market’, ‘mass electorate’ unlike audience.
Audience as a set of spectators for public event, readers of printed book, viewers
of motion picture visiting cinema-hall, television viewers, internet users or
members on social networking sites – indicate ‘institutionalisation’ by media.
Audiences unlike mass have been much more dispersed, individualised, privatised
and large due to the advent of digital media. Audiences get impacted by changes
in technology and society. Media audience unlike all other concepts are linked to
media as receivers and they have exposure to a common message. They have
their likes and dislikes, interests and preferences and expectations in their
engagement with the media.
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2.3.2 Characteristics of Media Audiences Media Audiences
2) Anonymity: The audience members do not know each other. Their nature
varies depending upon the medium. There is no face to the audience. At
times the audience gets appropriated and at times rejects messages that
sender would have thought would succeed. Public knows everything but
the senders do not know them.
5) Time: The audiences are also defined in terms of ‘daytime’, ‘prime time’,
‘first telecast’, and ‘repeat show’, ‘regular’ or ‘one-time’ and so on. Prime
time audiences are usually assumed to be working people whereas afternoon
shows are for home makers. With newer technologies like Video on Demand,
recording of live telecast and digital media, the notion of real-time audiences
need to be further studied.
6) Medium/Channel/Content: Media organisations try to define those they
attempt to reach out as their audiences. The type of medium by its very
nature also defines broad characteristics of its audiences. For example,
newspapers are usually for literates whereas radio programming language
will define its intended listeners. Even within the same medium, genre/
type of content defines its audience. Language, semantic codes, genres,
subjects and styles define who the audiences are for that message. We see
that in today’s television environment channels differentiate themselves
through content. Researchers have shown how genre defines its audiences
like soap operas for women and sports and news for men. There is also a
concept of ‘gendered audience’. Gendered audience refers to the nature,
type, volume of particular media usage by males or females and how their
roles, preferences, interests influence these choices.
8) Longevity: Audiences for any given medium may or may not be fixed for
a continuous period of time, depending upon the medium; audience may
change their preferences or shift away. Even in a medium like television,
the audience for a given programme may vary as people move in and out of
channel or programme using remote control.
As student of mass communication, you need to be aware that media
audiences are rooted in the society’s social and cultural systems and techno-
economic base. Members of the audience produce, reproduce, develop and
distribute culture through media. In the following section, an attempt has
been made to discuss different types of audiences.
There can be group audience or a mass audience. As you know from earlier
discussions, group refers to ‘taste’ culture or ‘class’ culture, such as people who
like watching a particular programme or like an actor. There is also a ‘fan culture’.
Group audiences usually have similar interests and are interested in particular
‘type’ of media content. Mass audience represents audiences created for mass
media like television or film. The same media content is mass distributed to
people for mass consumption.
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2.3.4 Audiences Typologies Media Audiences
Ien Ang (1991) in her landmark book “Desperately seeking the audience” takes
an institutional perspective. Referring to television audiences, she notes American
television audience as ‘market’ whereas European television audience as ‘public’.
She uses Rom Harre’s concept of audience as ‘taxonomic collective’ which is
“an entity of serialised, in principle unrelated individuals who form a group
solely because each member has a characteristic that is like that of each other
member” (Harre, 1991).
Check Your Progress 1
Note: Use the space below for your answers
Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit
1) Mention some differences in ‘participant’ and ‘spectator’ audiences.
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The theory came at a time when Hitler had monopolised mass media to unify
German public; radio and television were becoming popular and persuasion
industries such as advertising and propaganda were emerging. Walter Lippman,
in his 1922 work titled ‘Public Opinion’ gave importance to the role of media.
27
Mass Media & Society There were also studies during that time examining the influence of motion
pictures on children and number of propaganda theories. It was a time when
power of media was over-estimated.
The theory views a needle or bullet being ‘injected’ or ‘shot in’ at the ‘mass’
audience and audience get immediately influenced. The underlying assumptions
are that audiences are passive, do not have other sources of information and they
are going to believe whatever media transmits. There have been few examples
of this. The Indian media telecast of Lord Ganesha idols drinking milk, which
made everyone else go and try it or the American experience of ‘War of Worlds’
in forties when millions of Americans believed that aliens were invading earth
and so they fled their homes. Bullet theory assumes audience as an enormous,
undifferentiated mass.
The theory was refuted when evidences of audiences rejecting media messages
or differentially interpreting them came through researches.
This theory presented that since the media messages are perceived selectively by
the individual member, the retention, interpretation and influence are also
individual specific as each individual possess diverse psychological mechanisms.
Media content while activating them do not do so indiscriminately. Unlike bullet
theory, the media effect is limited as it is based on the individual differences.
This theory negated the role of social structures and membership of the individual
with the social group. Since it isolated the individual from his/her social
environment, it gives no framework to media producers to make messages for
individuals. Uses and gratification approach to audiences also stems from this
theory.
All the three theories discussed above define the nature of audience in relation to
the mass media. By now you know that, no single theory is right or wrong and
each explains the context in which they were born. It also needs to be understood
28 that mass communication as a discipline is still inventing its own foundation.
Most of the earlier theories were born out of sociology, psychology, anthropology Media Audiences
and so on. Also, being a behavioural science, most theories are normative and
culture-specific. You will read more about theories in Course MJM-030.
Activity-1
2.5.1 Structural
With the development of mass media, it became essential to know who was
using which medium. This tradition looks at media system and individual media
use. Also known as audience measurement, it examined ‘reach’ of print media
based on circulation figures, gathering data essential for managements to seek
advertisements. Apart from size of the audience, the need to know basic social
compositions, linked advertising with market research industry. Structural
tradition looks at demographics, amount and kind of media exposure, ‘flow’ of
audience from one media to another and so on. It is centered on questions like
‘who does what with which media’.
2.5.2 Behavioural
This tradition explores effects and use of media by its audiences. As we discussed
earlier, the early mass media research was based on ‘effects’ of media on children
or young people. Early studies viewed audience as passive, receiving media
unknowingly, getting exposed to ‘impact’ or ‘influence’. Most of the effects
research adopted experimental methods and manipulated communication
(channel, content, reception) to examine audience response. Another type of
behavioural tradition is media ‘use’ research. A lot of structural data was
juxtaposed with the media use data to draw conclusions about media effects. A
great deal of research on motives and selection patterns of audiences have also
been undertaken within this tradition. Here the questions are ‘what does the
medium do to people’ unlike socio-cultural tradition which questions ‘what people
do with media’.
2.5.3 Cultural
Unlike both the previous traditions, this tradition looks at media as institutions
and how audiences negotiate meaning of media texts. Reception analysis, cultural
studies and everyday life approaches represent this tradition. It not only looks at
media content but also the context of reception. More qualitative and ethnographic
29
Mass Media & Society in nature, this tradition examines social and cultural context of meaning
production by audiences. It also attempts to examine how media messages are
embedded in ideology and how audiences negotiate their meanings from those
messages. The objective here is not to examine influence or use but the nature of
relationship and rituals associated with the consumption by the audiences.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: Use the space below for your answers
Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit
Outline the main characteristics of the following traditions of audience research:
1) Structural
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2) Behavioural
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3) Cultural
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Gratification studies built on the notion of selectivity give active role to audience
members. It states that viewer/listener chooses messages and media not only to
define prior opinions and habits but also to satisfy needs, interests and strivings.
Media are used to escape, achieve social mobility or for reassurance. Rooted in
functional analysis, this approach links content as well as effects research.
Activity-2
Now you can appreciate that in understanding media and society relationship,
audience is an important element. Media audiences define the communication
and it is because of them that communication takes place. With digital
technologies the future of audience has become more dynamic as audience has
become media producer now.
In the next unit we shall discuss the concept of media literacy and its need in the
present times.
34
Media Audiences
UNIT 3 MEDIA LITERACY
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Learning Outcomes
3.2 Media Literacy: Concept and Definition
3.2.1 Need for Media Literacy
3.2.2 Functions of Media Literacy
3.3 Process of Media Literacy
3.4 Core concepts of Media Literacy
3.4.1 Messages are constructed
3.4.2 Messages are constructed using creative language
3.4.3 Different people experience same media message differently
3.4.4 Media have embedded values
3.4.5 Messages are organised to gain power
3.5 Evaluation of the Credibility of Information
3.6 Let Us Sum up
3.7 Further Readings
3.8 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers
3.0 INTRODUCTION
We have discussed in the previous unit that the globalised media environment
and unlimited avenues for information generation and dissemination have led to
most people falling under the category of media audiences and being influenced
by it. We begin our interaction with media at a very early age and the relationship
strengthens as years go by. New media and messages make an inroad into our
everyday existence and leave an imprint on our minds.
McLuhan’s famous adage, ‘Medium is the message’ clearly emphasised the role
of the medium in comprehending the message. We come across various media
sending forth messages – some complimentary and some contradictory. In such
a scenario, it is easy for us to get into the habit of imbibing the messages without
comprehending them. We face, what is commonly termed as ‘Information
overload’.
Media literacy empowers you to understand the media, the rationale of media,
the reasons for messages, the implication of visual images and the economics of
the media industry. You will be capable of not only finding the answers to your
questions from the media but also raise pertinent questions when required. Thus,
you will not get carried away by the images of real or imaginary world that are
put before you by the media.
Media literacy also helps you understand your surroundings. It helps you make
more informed decisions, as you are able to see the hidden meanings behind the
messages. In brief, media literacy makes you a more discerning user of media
outputs.
a) Influence of media on our daily life: You must have observed that even
little toddlers and small children are addicted to mediated communication
all day. For some of our children, television acts as a baby sitter and internet
36
as a friend. In such a situation, it is important that children should also be Media Literacy
media literate and understand that Tom and Jerry are only cartoons and in
real life one can get hurt if one runs like them!
c) Media is urban and elite oriented, but the society is not: In our real
lives, we have to work hard for a living and in our films and television
serials; life is depicted to be very rosy. A media literate person will not feel
frustrated at this situation and will understand that real life is different from
what is depicted. Thus, media literacy helps us to see the difference.
d) Technology changes the look of the world every day: Media products
flood the market and change the way people read, talk, write and understand.
A media literate person is able to follow the media as per his/her individual
requirement and is not led by the diktats of the market.
Healthy Educated
Democracy electorate
Critical
evaluation of
political
manifestoes
Media literacy does not intend to create critiques of media systems or the society
who are forever looking for political agendas, stereotypes or misrepresentations;
it however, does intent to create a media consumer who is capable of taking wise
decisions and is not unintentionally influenced by media.
Media literacy does not function as a means to criticise the media and find faults
with all the messages as it would amount to taking a very narrow dimension to
this vast field. However, it involves critically analysing the media only when
you have thoroughly understood the meaning behind the messages.
37
Mass Media & Society Although some experts believe that media literacy is the knowledge of media
production - it is not. Creating media products is a very specialised aspect of
media literacy which actually begins from understanding media messages and
systems.
Media literacy aims to help you look at the media experience from multiple
perspectives, which would include your own educated opinion about media
messages. Media literacy does NOT tell you to not interact with the media. It
only teaches you to interact carefully, think critically and understand intelligently.
‘What’ is the message that is being sent forth by the medium - it is influenced by
many factors and may not be error free.
Channel refers to the medium being used. Each medium has its own
characteristics and the nature of the message changes.
The above process will also help you to look at the messages coming from the
media with a new perspective.
• Biases and prejudices can be recognised and treated likewise;
• We can read between the lines;
• The intent of the sender becomes clear;
• The media and media channels are understood from the messages they
send forth and also how they do it;
• We understand the ideology of a media organisation that brings out these
messages; and
• We understand our society better.
The fact that you have learnt how to ‘read’ the media messages will also help
you to ‘write’ in a better format. You will be able to organise your thoughts, draft
your text, add images and/or sounds, edit, and present the final message.
Activity-1
Watch a popular advertisement and analyse the following:
• What is being sold?
• How is it being sold?
• How is it different from other products/ads?
• Are the claims verifiable?
• What is the character sketch and product placement like?
The world is full of people, all of them are engaged in doing something in their
lives but only some actions of some people become news. Some actions are told
to the rest of the world because some people in some organisations think that the
action was important. Are you able to understand where this whole series of
thought is leading? This means that ‘news’ is different from the ‘event’. An
event has to be worthy of becoming news and for this it goes through a process
of news selection and gathering by a news organisation. It should therefore have
specific qualities to qualify as news. Once it qualifies, the reporter narrates the
event in his/her words to the audience. Thus by the time, an event becomes
news, it has gone through a lot of additions and subtractions.
Let us further understand this with a diagram:
The camera acts as our eye - it decides what we should see. The cameraperson’s
judgment at the site of the accident gives shape to the enormity of damage and
anguish. We see the world through the eye of the camera. In addition to the video
is the audio. The sound adds its own pathos to the scene. Sorrowful music is
played to make the scene come alive, but in real life no music is played when we
are sad. The music in messages gives us the cue to laugh or cry and the medium
tells us that this is a sad story and you should feel bad. The surprising aspect is
that we start to feel just as the media tells us to. This means that we get caught in
the mood created by the medium and start understanding the world from its
point of view. If we could understand the language of the medium we would not
be so naïve and yet be able to appreciate the message.
• S/he reaches the venue and searches out the person from whom s/he can
get to know more about the event.
• S/he talks to few persons about the event.
• S/he takes note of the ongoing activity and returns to office.
• S/he writes the story.
That is why, it is important to understand that media are always viewpoint oriented
even when they are trying to be objective.
Analysing Audience
Analysing Text Why this message?
What text type is this? Who is the intended reader?
What is attracting my How does the message show
attention? reality?
Am I able to understand the Is the message meant for me?
message in one reading? Will everybody understand the
message the way I do?
Media
Triangle
Analysing Production
Who wrote this story? Why?
How have the parts of the story been used?
How does the placement of the story matter?
Who benefits from this story?
Who may be disadvantaged because of the story?
• Notice the characters. How are they dressed? Do they tell you anything
from their clothes? The colours chosen? The way they speak? The hairstyle?
Are you able to identify a definite effort that has gone into creating the
characters in order to make them believable?
• Now, turn off the sound and watch the characters again. Do they seem
similar to what they were last time? Are they less effective?
44
• Now, turn off the video and listen to the sound. Are you able to imagine the Media Literacy
character from the background score? Are you able to recognise the accents
in their voices? Are you able to ‘see the film in your mind’?
• Have you been able to see the effort put in by the film maker with the help
of so many other people in creating an ambience and atmosphere for you?
He has succeeded in making you believe that these are real people leading
real lives.
Try this exercise with an advertisement, a news cast, a news story and you will
be able to see the layers of meaning. While watching TV or a film it may not be
possible to conduct this type of analysis but after some time, it becomes a habit
and the mind is able to understand the messages as narratives and not ‘real’.
Studies have found that audience like to believe the exemplars more than the
base rate. When they read the news stories they understand the narrative from
their own perspective and relate them to their personal lives.
Example: Exemplar about Accident/Fire News
Fire claims City heart hotel
City loses heritage structure
City heart hotel, the oldest building in Shanbag, was reduced to ashes in a fire
mishap last night. No loss of life or injury is reported. One of the proprietors Mr.
Hari Gupta, 64, made a miraculous escape from his first-floor office by jumping
out of a window.
The fire is believed to have started at about 9.00 p.m., when many customers
were finishing dinner. It is suspected to have originated in the kitchen on the
ground floor. The two storey building with a timbered frontage was engulfed in
flames almost immediately. The cause of the fire is not known.
Talking to the press, the Divisional Officer R. Sinha, who commanded the rescue
operations, said “The building was already burning fiercely by the time we arrived.
It was a pretty desperate situation.” The fire control operation proved to be
difficult because of narrow streets and presence of onlookers. The fire department
was assisted by the police and auxiliary firemen to clear the street and carry out
the fire fighting operation.
City heart hotel in Main market was built in 1825 and was fairly unique in the
Shanbag area because of its historic appearance. It had recently been purchased
by brothers, Mr. Hari Gupta and Mr. Ravi Gupta. None of them was available
for comment.
45
Mass Media & Society With the loss of City heart hotel, Shanbag has lost not only its oldest building
but also a famous tourist destination.
This is the 5th incident of fire in the city this month. Approximately goods worth
Rs. 5 Crores have been lost in this fire.
The facts in the story are divided into Base rate and Exemplars:
Base Rate
1) Age of proprietor: 64
2) Time of the start of fire: 9.00 pm
3) The year of establishing of the hotel: 1825
4) Place of origin of fire: Kitchen
5) Number of floors of the building: 2
6) Type of facade: Timberage frontage
7) Number of fire incident: 5th
8) Loss estimate: Rs 5 Crores
Exemplar
1) Timber frontage is a risky material to use for façade. All owners of houses
with timber frontage will be worried
2) All those who dined in the hotel in the past will remember their experiences
3) Neighbouring building owners will be worried about the safety of their
buildings.
4) Other hotels will worry about their fire safety measures.
A look at the above data clearly depicts the parts of the news story that will be
remembered by the readers. Try this method with some other media messages,
films, advertisements, television serials etc. and you will find yourself recalling
the exemplars more than the base rate.
The meaning of media literacy, its need, purpose and process was explained.
Media Literacy was defined as education which helps audiences of different age
groups becomes competent, critical and literate in all media forms. The five core
concepts of media literacy were examined to help you to evaluate the credibility
of information from different sources. The deconstruction of a media message
was explained - how emotions are deliberately created for us with a lot of effort
by experts. The difference between base rates and exemplars in the media
messages was described and how you can create your own messages using a
variety of media tools explained.
46
We hope that the discussion will enable you to navigate through the media Media Literacy
messages and access information from a variety of sources. You will be able to
analyse and explore how messages are “constructed “in any of the media (print,
verbal, visual or multi-media) and evaluate media’s explicit and implicit messages
with your own interpretations.
Tyner, K. (2000). Literacy in a digital world: Teaching and Learning in the Age
of Information. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.
We are capable of not only finding the answers to our questions but also
raise pertinent questions when required. We will not get carried away by
the images of real or imaginary world that are put before us by the media.
We will not only be able to distinguish between fact and fiction but also
between half truths and lies.
2) There is a need for us to become media literate for the following reasons:
c) Media literacy helps us understand the world better and free us from
the stereotypes created by the images projected at us.
d) Media is urban and elite oriented but the society is not. Media literacy
helps us to see the difference. In our real lives, we have to work hard
47
Mass Media & Society for a living and in our films and television serials; life seems to be
very rosy. A media literate person will not feel frustrated at this situation
and understand that real life is different from what is depicted.
e) Technology changes the look of the world every day. Media products
flood the market and change the way people read, talk, write and
understand. A media literate person is able to follow the media as per
one’s individual requirement and is not led by the diktats of the market.
3) The process of Media Literacy begins with the audience. We are the
consumers of media products. When we become media literate, we start to
collect relevant and useful information and comprehend its meaning
effectively. This process is carried out in the following manner:
• Messages have both base rates and exemplars and a media literate
person can discern the difference between the two.
3) The benefits gained from the media messages are not only in terms of
financial gain. All the participants of the media message process will gain
from the messages if they understood how to read, understand and create
media messages. The public gains when it is media literate and is able to
distinguish between the real and the contrived. It also gains when it can see
through propaganda, publicity, advertisement, and storytelling. Private
interests are limited to media owners at the financial level but at the personal
level each participant gains through one’s ability to give and take media
48
messages. Media houses gain in terms of finances and also in terms of Media Literacy
power. If a media house is able to get the audience to tune into its
programmes day after day, it is able to sell space to the advertisers at a good
rate and make profit. The media house can also tailor messages to suit a
certain political ideology, a life philosophy, a lifestyle or an image. This
way, in a democratic country mass media messages can be used to tilt the
power equation towards the highest bidder.
49
Mass Media & Society
UNIT 4 MASS MEDIA POLICIES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Learning Outcomes
4.2 Meaning of Media Policy
4.3 Objectives of Media Policies
4.4 Divergent Views on Media Policies
4.4.1 Regulated Media Policy
4.4.2 Unregulated Media Policy
4.5 Obstacles in Adopting Media Policies
4.6 Media Policies: Global Perspectives
4.7 Experts’ Recommendations in Media Policies
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.9 Further Readings
4.10 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers
4.0 INTRODUCTION
As you are aware, mass media plays a significant role in the life of the people of
any country. The main objectives of a nation’s mass media organisations are to
inform, educate, and entertain all sections of a nation’s people. Mass media are
also termed as the Fourth Estate of a democratic country, the other three pillars
being: the Legislature or the Parliament; the Executive or the government’s
administrative machinery; and the Judiciary.
While the main functions of the legislature or parliament are to make, enact,
legislate and pass laws, including rules and regulations for the administration
and governance of the country; the primary responsibility of the executive is to
implement these laws. The main job of the judiciary is to adjudicate the disputed
issues and resolving diverse contentious conundrums that may arise between the
parties within the government and among the common people. The most important
job of a nation’s mass media is to inform the people about its government’s day-
to-day functioning, and how it conducts its administrative business. In addition,
the mass media are also charged with the work of educating the people to ensure
that the government is performing that job effectively, to the satisfaction of the
people. Besides, they are also expected to entertain the people seeking leisure
through media. The mass media also perform the duty of being a watchdog on
government, and public leaders to warn and alert them in case they happen to
deviate from their requisite responsibilities and duties ascribed to them under
the rules and regulations, and to be in tune with the constitutional provisions.
Keeping in view the important roles that mass media perform in a nation’s running,
it is pertinent to discuss the policies that govern the media systems and operations.
In this unit, we shall examine various issues related with mass media policies in
India.
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Mass Media Policies
4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss the meaning, role and objectives of media policy;
• describe the divergent views on media policies;
• outline the media policy scenario in India;
• describe the global perspectives on media policies;
• examine the obstacles and impediments in adopting media policies; and
• discuss the policy contours in the print media.
In addition, media policies will entail the government rules and regulations for
encouraging media businesses to flourish and also levying strict controls and
regulations on the media establishments, and their owners to operate their media
units under the rigour of laws and rules of the land. This includes the terms and
requirements to be abided by, to set up a newspaper, magazine, television or a
radio station, or other media outlets. This may involve issuing licenses, according
51
Mass Media & Society sanctions for provision of facilities to the media entrepreneurs to buy equipment
- transmitters, printing presses, television studios and camera equipment. Above
all, allowing commercial use of these facilities as deemed crucial by media
establishment owners to earn profits.
According to Robin Mansell and Mark Raboy, “Global media and communication
policy must take into account ‘technological innovation, institutional dynamics,
democratisation and processes favouring inclusiveness and plurality… must
embrace formal mechanisms of the state — legislation, regulation, and
prescriptive practices — and informal settings, offering opportunities for non-
state actors to express their opinions about the ideals (e.g., affordable and universal
access to networks or diverse content) to which the media should aspire.”
In the Indian context, the objectives of media policies have been identified
differently by different persons and different media organisations. Pran Chopra,
former editor of a prominent English daily, The Statesman, says, “National media
policy should help media fulfill the objective of providing access to information
to the largest number of people, preserve their credibility and work as two-way
channel”. By media policy, he adds, “I mean those decisions of the national
government which might help the media fulfill functions that are appropriate for
them in a democratic and pluralistic country like India. I consider four functions
of the media to be the most important in the Indian context. First, the media
should provide to the largest number of people easy access to information which
is reliable, relevant, and abundant. Second, the media must provide reasonably
free channels of expression for opinions which are well informed, responsible
and adequately reflect all relevant points of view. Third, media should be a two-
way channel; not only addressing messages to the audience but also giving the
audience a forum for the expression of its concerns. The fourth overrides all
these three functions: the media must preserve their credibility’.”
Since mass media continuously, by their very nature, churn out information, day
in day out, that deeply and comprehensively touch and impact our lives, and our
relationship with the government, it is desirable that media policies make citizens’
life meaningful and productive. Massive developments, particularly in evolution
of new media have taken rapid strides during the last few decades. These trends
are widely discernible in government functioning and government-public ties
and it will be risky to ignore these new trends in media technologies.
Besides, mass media have always been, ubiquitously influencing every area of
human life all over the world. Mass media provide information to the government
about what’s shaping people’s views, and how government and all its departments
are affecting their lives. Such regular communication flow facilitates the
government in formulating its own programmes and schemes of action in
52
multifarious areas of the nation’s developmental tasks for overall good of all Mass Media Policies
levels of society. Media persons being in constant touch with the powers are
able to keep their fingers on the pulse of the public thinking and help maintain
live channels of feedback about what is happening in government circles and
vice-versa.
Moreover, transnational mass media corporations are creating all pervasive impact
of their operations and contents on the ideals, opinions, thought processes, values
and lifestyles of the developing countries’ masses. The situation in India is peculiar
- while the print media, mass-circulation daily newspapers especially, are in private
sector, the government-owned and operated electronic media, radio and television,
are fast losing audiences. The privately-owned cable and satellite electronic media
(more than 800) are thronging and are speedily luring away the audience.
Moreover, with the constitutional guarantee of freedom of press, the government
cannot have any direct influence on the private media – print or electronic.
Consequently, any type of government-structured media policy fails to deliver
government-directed information. In such a scenario, media policies prepared or
enforced in Indian environment cannot possibly have any controlled, promotional
or propagandist flavour about government programmes and schemes. Keeping
these factors in view, former Press Council Chairman, A.N. Sen, opined that it
might not be ‘wise to seek to lay down firm national media policy, as the effective
implementation of such policy may create more problems than it is likely to
solve.’
Check Your Progress: 1
Notes: 1 Use the space below for your answer.
2 Compare your answers with those ones given at the end of this Unit.
1) What does ‘media policy’ mean?
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Mass Media & Society Therefore, deliberating on the objectives of national media and communication
policies, Government of India’s Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
appointed a sectoral innovation council. It has suggested that the primary
objectives of the media policies should be ‘promoting, preserving, and protecting
India as a free, independent, sovereign democratic, dynamic, progressive nation.’
Mass media will have to fully support the nation’s aspirations, freely, fully and
creatively at community, regional, national and international levels, and help
express, exchange, disseminate, information, knowledge, experiences and ideas
for building India as a prosperous, just, equitable and secular nation. Also
encourage setting up, managing, and supporting such operations, institutions for
achieving this objective.
The government expects that media policies in India, should relate, cover and
affect nation’s all media of mass communication, such as radio, television, news
agencies, films, Internet, video, theatre, outdoor media, advertising and public
relations. Therefore, it is fully maintained that the country’s mass media are
public trust; the nation’s independence and sovereignty are paramount. The
nation’s media should serve the deprived and disadvantaged sections.
The uncontested fact is that media policies should encourage media pluralism,
universal access, cultural enrichment, developing all languages of the country,
education and development, promotion of human rights and inculcate
accountability. Thus, it is extremely important that national media and
communication policies are conceived in the context of national realities, free
expression of thought, and respect for individual and social rights.
Indian Scenario
It is essential to point out here that while the Republic Constitution of India
guarantees freedom of speech and expression under the Article 19(1) (a), the
national media scenario in the country these days scarcely inspires general
confidence. Print media, particularly the daily press, are almost under the control
of private sector. Though the Government of India has its own radio and television
channels, several well-known private electronic media companies also
individually own, control and successfully operate multi-lingual radio and
television networks and are extremely popular with the audiences all over the
country.
This may not be true in case of the government-owned and operated channels,
such as, Akashvani, Doordarshan, Films Division; and telecommunication
networks have been laid down in their individual operational charters by
competent authorities.
However, the fact remains that all media outfits, irrespective of their ownership,
generally abide by journalistic, standards, rules and norms laid down by Central
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting and other national journalists and media
ethics and standards bodies, such as the Press Council of India, Electronic Media
Advisories Councils, Advertising Standards Council, Editors Guild of India,
National Union of Journalists, Audit Bureau of Circulation, among others.
Another view in this regard is that of a noted media researcher, Professor Ben
Bagdikian of University of Southern California, USA, who opines, “Modern
democracies need a choice of politics and ideas, and that choice requires access
to truly diverse and competing sources of news, literature, entertainment and
popular culture.”
In many controlled societies of West Asia, Latin America, Africa, and one-party
governments of Cuba, Venezuela, North Korea, China and Russia, maintain a
56
strict vigil on media ownership, operations and performances. Frequent Mass Media Policies
government interferences in most of these countries have often created
interminable obstacles in media organisations’ routine operations. In addition,
numerous other hurdles created in media’s free play include: denying or delaying
grant of licensing to set up media equipment such as transmitting stations, studio
services, channel broadcasts, printing plants etc. Authorities also very often
maintain strict supervision on media persons’ daily news reporting and
investigating scams and feature stories. Also, reporters function under a constant
fear of information denial by government agencies on the issues of public interest
and public concern; questioning sources of information and news, and compelling
journalists to disclose sources, fear of censoring stories, and jailing reporters.
Thus, while many a media specialists support and ardently advocate adoption of
free media and communication policies, the ground reality is that it’s a hard path
to tread on. There are practical and genuine difficulties in supporting free national
media and communication policies in given national exigencies, or constitutional
provisions.
We have seen the diverse pattern of media policies structured in some countries
detailed above. It will therefore be noticed that every nation has its own rules
and regulations under which the mass media units operate and function. Generally
speaking, a nation’s political, economic, religious and cultural considerations
limit and demand the media to operate within those goals; media’s own views
are immaterial. These could also be deemed as the government’s strict terms and
conditions or requirements. But such conditions or restrictions could ultimately
become impediments, dictated by a government in adoption of a particular pattern
of the media and communication policies.
In addition to governmental settings, there are several known and unknown basic
physical and infrastructural obstacles that could impede a smooth and easy
ushering in of the desired media and communication policies in many developing
countries. Robin Mansell and Marc Raboy have specifically underlined the
following: technological innovations; institutional dynamics; democratisation;
and, the processes favouring inclusiveness and plurality rather than exclusion
and inequality. These impediments will stand in the path of adopting newer and
modern media policies. In such situations, the state itself is a veritable impediment.
Thus, they can create and innovate insurmountable impediments in the adoption
of independent media policies. There is a lot of substance that the MacBride
Commission asserts: the success of communication, in both form and content, is
inextricably linked with steps to make society itself less oppressive and unequal,
more just and democratic. This fact should be highlighted rather than concealed.
By now, most countries have realised these truisms.
Check Your Progress 2
Notes: 1 Use the space below for your answer.
2 Compare your answers with those ones given at the end of this Unit.
1) Briefly indicate what in your view should be the basis of forming media
policy.
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However, when the state discovered that media could be manipulated against
the authority of the state, it came forward to license, control, and regulate these.
This was done ‘mainly to enhance’ the state’s interest.
2) Range and expanse of media available nationally will define its availability
in terms of geography and social, language, religious and economic
groupings of the population in the country.
3) Economics of the media will determine the type, size, and design of the
media establishments, as dictated by the nation’s economic and commercial
rules and regulations for conducting business in media — print, electronic
or digital.
It is from these considerations that we will examine briefly the media policy
logistics currently in operation in some countries:
Every newly established mass media enterprise in the U.S. has to seek a license
to start work in its chosen area. The license is issued for eight years; the renewal
of this license depends upon the number and kinds of objections and complaints
against the media unit. Though there are several restrictions on starting new
59
Mass Media & Society media enterprises, including the newspaper— broadcast cross-ownership rule
that prohibits common ownership of a full-service broadcast station and a daily
newspaper in the same market. Identical rules apply on radio and television cross-
ownerships.
U.K.: The United Kingdom regulates media through the OFCOM, Office of
Communications, created in 2003. The UK’s ownership rules prescribe that in
every local area, there must be three separate media companies for radio, television
and newspapers; there is a 20% control limit on ownership in respect of television,
radio and newspaper. Separate conditions apply on the television—radio areas
covered; and on circulation in case of newspapers.
Media in Mexico function under the 1940 General Communication Law, updated
by the Federal Radio and Television Law of 1960. Two Mexican agencies
administer media: Communication and Transportation Ministry, and the Interior
Ministry. These agencies, however, keep strict vigil on the contents of media
advertising, objectionable programming on television and the criticism of national
government.
GHANA: The national media policy of Ghana applies on the following mass
communication media: print, broadcasting, and film. It also covers the following
mass communication services: wire services, advertising, and public relations.
A fundamental goal of the policy is that the media shall serve the well-being of
60 all Ghanaians, especially the disadvantaged. The policy places the print,
broadcasting and film media as well as the news services into the working Mass Media Policies
categories, i.e., public media, commercial media, and community media. It regards
all the media and media services as public trust. It therefore holds that the public
interest shall be paramount in the operations of all media, public, commercial
and community.
The policy broadly sketches the main national and global influences and issues
and principles that arise from the influences and developments. These include,
in addition to the principles of media as a public trust, the freedom and
independence of the media, media pluralism, and universal access. Issues include
cultural impoverishment, marginalisation of local languages, education and
development, technological competence, human resources, institutional capacity
and public accountability. The definition of policy followed in Ghana: policy
that’s common to all the media and policy that’s specific to individual media and
services. Policy statements and implementation guidelines have been given in
both the cases.
But, as could be seen from the above discussion on the media policies, there are
several schools of thought supporting, and opposing a particular set of national
media and communication policies. One school of thought opines that the
governmental authorities should lay down the nation’s media policies that should
be strictly adhered to by all media of mass communication. Whereas, the liberal
school of thought argues that the governments should suggest some broad
principles and parameters taking into consideration nation’s constitution,
international relations, national aspirations, national values and customs and
traditions and cultural heritage. Within these broad guidelines, media should be
free to adopt, self regulate and observe these national goals, and global codes of
conduct in performing their day-to-day functions.
2 Compare your answers with those ones given at the end of this Unit.
62
Since media policies are deemed globally important, we looked at some of the Mass Media Policies
elemental and important determining considerations of media policies as offered
by media researchers. We also talked about the position of media policies’ adoption
in some of the important foreign countries, such as the U.S.A., U.K., Germany,
Ghana, France, Mexico, etc., in this regard
Finally, we presented the policy contours for the media policies impacting print
and electronic media in India. The question as to what will happen to media
policies, what shape, content and affect these will exercise on the national and
global politics in the near future though hard to forecast, and the current
meteorically developing media and information technologies will surely hold
the key.
Mansell, R., & Raboy, M. (2014). The Handbook of Global Media and
Communication Policy. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.
Raboy, M., & Landry, N. (2006). Civil society, communication, and global
governance. New York: Peter Lang.
64
Mass Media Policies
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