Grade 12 Revision Study Guide

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GEOGRAPHY
REVISION
GUIDE
GRADE 12
Downloaded from Stanmorephysics.com
Geography
2
Revision Guide Gr 12/2018
Module 1
Climate & Weather
Geography
3
1. Mid-latitude Cyclones
Origin:
o Polar front (60 N/S)
o Cold polar easterlies meet warm westerlies and move parallel but do not mix.
Alternate names:
o Extra tropical cyclone
o frontal depression
o temperate cyclone
General characteristics:
o Forms between 30-60 N/S
o Moves eastward
o Has two fronts (warm and cold)
o Large diameter
o Lasts between 4-14 days
o Steered by westerlies
o Affects SA in winter
Conditions for formation:

o Frictional drag caused by difference in temperature and speed of the two air masses.
o Air masses must move opposite to each other and parallel.
o Warm subtropical air must meet cold polar air at the polar front.
Stages in formation:
o Initial:
• Cold polar air and warm tropical air move parallel to each other but in opposite directions
at the polar front.
o Wave formation:
• Frictional drag takes place.
• Warm air becomes uplifted.
• Fronts begin to form as air converges to the centre low pressure.
o Mature:
• Wave deepens.
• Cold and warm sectors and fronts fully developed.
• Warm air moves up steep pressure gradient of cold front to form towering cumulonimbus
clouds. (heavy rain over a small area)
• Warm air moves up gentle pressure gradient of warm front to form a broad band of
stratus clouds. (light rain over a large area)
o Occlusion:
• Cold front catches up to the warm front at the apex. (apex is the shortest distance between
the fronts)
• Cold front occlusion: warm air moves up the cold front. (cold front on the ground)
• Warm front occlusion: cold air moves up the warm front. (warm front on the ground)
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Cross section through a mid-latitude cyclone:
Weather associated with Mid-latitude cyclones:

o Cold front weather:
• Low air temperature
• Thunderstorms and hail
• Rise in air pressure
• Low humidity
o Warm front weather:
• Rising air temperature
• Soft rains
• Drop in air pressure
• High humidity
Cyclone families:
o Mid-latitude cyclones form in groups.
o Up to 5 can pass through a certain area in quick succession.
Impact of mid-latitude cyclones:

o Rain:
✓ Water for vineyards and deciduous fruits
 Flooding
o Snow:
✓ Tourist attraction
 Crop damage
o Storms:
 A threat to fishermen at sea
Precautionary and management strategies:

o Build high
o Efficient drainage systems
o Enclose livestock
o Sufficient grain
o Update weather systems
o Secure boats
Geography
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2. Tropical Cyclones
Origin:
o Warm oceans
o Between 5-25 N/S where the Coriolis force is strong enough to form a vortex.
Alternate names:
o Hurricanes
o Willy Willies
o Typhoons
o Cyclones
General Characteristics:
o Shown by circular isobars enclosing intense low pressure
o Moves westwards
o Steered by tropical easterlies
o Diameter: 300-500 km
o Follows erratic paths; unpredictable
Conditions for formation:

o Temperature above 27C (For high evaporation)
o Warm air rising; unstable atmospheric conditions (For convection)
o Latitude between 5-25 N/S (Coriolis force is strong)
o Calm conditions (Wind will not allow vortex to form
o Upper air divergence (To maintain LP centre)
Stages in formation:
o Initial
• Centre pressure above 1000 mb
• Isobars far apart
• Gale force winds
• Cirrus and cumulous clouds
o Immature
• Pressure drops below 1000 mb
• Eye forms
• Wind reaches hurricane strength
• Diameter 100 km
• Cumulonimbus clouds around the eye
o Mature
• Centre pressure well below 1000 mb
• Isobars very close together
• Diameter between 300-500 km
• Dangerous semicircle: effects of intense winds combine with force of cyclone moving
forward (bottom left).
o Dissipating
• Centre pressure rises above 1000 mb
• Occurs when cyclone: Encounters land
Moves over cold oceans
Geography
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Cross section through a tropical cyclone:
Weather associated with tropical cyclones:

o As storm approaches:
• Cumulous clouds
• rain
• windy
• cumulonimbus clouds
• dangerous semicircle: torrential rain and hurricane winds
o Eye:
• Calm
• Cool
• Clear
Impact of tropical cyclones:

o Flooding
o Storm surges
o Crop losses
o Transport disrupted
o Silt in dams
o Ecosystems disrupted
Precautionary and management strategies:

o Stock up water and canned food
o Keep first aid kit
o Keep livestock on higher ground
o Sandbags on river banks
o Evacuation plans
o Early warning systems
Geography
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3. Factors influencing the weather of South Africa
Influence of the plateau

During summer:
o Kalahari high is weakly developed
o Subsidence is low
o Inversion layer forms above the escarpment
o Moist air ridging in from over the Indian ocean is carried over the plateau
o Cloud formation occurs
o Widespread rain
During winter:
o Kalahari high is well developed
o Subsidence is high
o Inversion layer forms below the escarpment
o Moist air ridging in from over the Indian ocean is prevented from reaching the plateau
o Clear weather
Influence of the oceans

Warm Mozambique current:
o East coast
o Raises temperatures
o High rainfall
Cold Benguella current:
o Decreases temperatures
o Dry weather
4. High pressure systems over South Africa
South Atlantic High

o West coast
o Dry, clear, stable weather conditions
o Winds that diverge are dry over the cold ocean
o Fog and mist produced
Ridging of SAH:
o In summer
o Diverts moist air from Indian Ocean onto the land
o Rain on south east coast and eastern plateau
South Indian High

o East coast
o Brings rainfall in summer
o If it lies in the path of a mid-latitude cyclone, SIH is known as blocking high
Kalahari High
o On the interior
o Dominates land in winter
o Interacts with SIH to influence climate of SA differently in summer and winter
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Resultant weather of high pressure cells

Moisture front: a zone between two air masses with different moisture content.
Line thunderstorms:
o Forms over the interior
o Cold air mass over the Atlantic Ocean meets the warm air mass over the Indian Ocean but
does not mix.
o Cold, dry air sinks below the warm moist air
o Cumulonimbus cloud formation occurs
o Flash floods occur on the right of the front
Impact of line thunderstorms:
o Torrential rain causes damage
o Soil erosion
o Gale force winds destroy infrastructure
o Fills dams
5. Low pressure systems over South Africa
Thermal low
o Occurs in summer
o Causes convective thunderstorms over the interior
o Usually more than one over the interior
Cut-off low
o Ridging of SAH and SIH prevents the mid-latitude cyclone from moving east
o Cold front is cut off from the cyclone and extends over the land.
o Moist air is then drawn onto the land resulting in rainfall for several days
Resultant weather of low pressure cells

Berg winds:
o Hot gusty winds that blow from interior to coast
o Air moves from Kalahari high to coastal low
o Diverging air warms at DALR
Effects of berg winds:
o Forest fires
o Livestock death
o Lethargic workers
o Respiratory problems
6. Synoptic weather maps
Isobaric patterns
Ridge- high pressure
Trough- low pressure
Saddle- between two high pressures or two low pressures
Weather stations
wind speed and direction
temperature (air and dew point)
precipitation and cloud cover
Geography
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7. Valley climate
Slope aspect:
o The direction in which a slope faces
o Slopes facing the equator are warmer since they receive direct sunlight
o Shadow zones do not receive sunlight due to blocking relief
Influence of aspect:
o Economic:
• Pole-facing slopes for forestry
• Equator-facing slopes for fruit farming
• Pole-facing for citrus fruit farming
o Settlement:
• Warmer north facing slopes have higher value
• Middle of slopes usually used
o Vegetation:
• South facing- cool and moist- densely vegetated
• North facing- warm and dry- sparsely vegetated
Katabatic winds:
o Downslope movement of air in a valley
o Occur at night
o Cold air sinks to the bottom and warm air is pushed up
o Results in temperature inversion within the valley
o Zone of accumulated warm air- thermal belt
o When valley air cools to below dew point temperature- radiation fog is formed
o Influence on:
• Farming:
 citrus farms on valley floor for maturation of fruit and insect resistance
 deciduous fruit planted on middle slope (warm), ideal for ripening
 frost resistant crops on valley floor
• Settlement:
 Land value at middle slope is high since it is located within the thermal belt
 Land value on valley floor is low since winds trap pollutants here
• Transport:
 Fog may reduce driver visibility which increases the chance of vehicular accidents
Anabatic winds:
o Upslope winds
o Occurs during the day when slopes are heated causing warm air to rise
o Significance: smoke released during the day is carried away by anabatic winds
Geography
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8. Urban climate
Reasons for differences between urban and rural climates:

o Cloud cover:
• More in urban area
• Pollutants act as condensation nuclei
o Precipitation:
• More in urban area
• More clouds result in more rainfall
o Humidity:
• More in rural area
• More vegetation and water bodies (surface water) encourages evaporation
o Wind speed:
• Higher in rural area
• In urban areas, tall buildings obstruct air flow
o Temperature:
• Higher in urban area
• Higher population- more use of geysers, stoves, heaters and more carbon dioxide
• Artificial substances- concrete and metal absorbs heat and glass reflects heat
• Geometric shapes of buildings- reflects and absorbs heat
• Urban activities- generates heat and pollution
• Building density- less air flow to distribute heat
• Efficient drainage- less surface water for evaporation (atmosphere remains hot)
Heat island:
o Occurs during the day
o Region of higher temperature in an urban area surrounded by lower temperatures in rural
areas
o Isotherms: lines joining places with the same temperature
o Factors influencing heat islands:
• Decentralisation
• Clusters of tall buildings
• Rivers and dams
Pollution dome:
o dominant at night
o subsiding cold air traps pollutants and compresses it over the city
o strongly developed in winter months
o can be dispersed by strong winds
Effects of heat island and pollution dome:

o Smog and fog
o Visibility reduced
o Acid rain
o Quality of life reduced
o Respiratory problems
o Global warming
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Strategies to reduce the effects of heat island and pollution dome:

o Plant trees
o Rooftop gardens
o Reflective paints
o Decentralisation
9. Interpretation of synoptic weather maps
Weather symbols:
Comparison between synoptic weather map and satellite image:

Geography
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Module 2
Geomorphology
Geography
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1. Drainage systems in South Africa
Concepts:
o Drainage basin: area drained by a river and its tributaries
o Catchment area: upper reaches of a drainage basin which supplies a river with water
o River system: the main river and its tributaries
o Tributary: smaller streams that join the main river
o Confluence: point where two or more rivers join
o Watershed: high lying area separating two different drainage basins
o Interfluve: land that separates streams in the same drainage basin
o Source: starting point of a river
o River mouth: point where the river enters the sea
o Surface runoff: water that flows on the surface after it rains
o Ground water: water found within the earth’s surface
o Water table: the upper limit of water that is found underground
Types of rivers:
o Permanent (perennial)
• Flows all year
• Associated with high rainfall areas
o Periodic (seasonal)
• Flows only in rainy season
• Associated with semiarid and arid areas
o Episodic
• Flows only after heavy rain
• Lasts for a few hours
o Exotic
• Originates in high rainfall area but flows through dry areas
Stream ordering:
o Fingertip streams are stream order 1
o Confluence of two stream order 1 streams results in stream order 2
o Confluence of two stream order 2 streams results in stream order 3
o The system continues until the main stream is reached
o When a lower order stream meets a higher order stream, the resultant stream is the same as
the higher order stream
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Types of drainage patterns:

o Dendritic
• Resembles branches of tree; tributaries join at acute angles
• Uniform erosion of horizontal sedimentary and massive igneous rocks
o Rectangular
• Main stream has 90 bends and tributaries join at 90
• Forms on igneous rock that has many joints and faulted sedimentary rock
o Radial centrifugal
• River flows away from a central point
• Forms over domes or volcanoes and is associated with massive igneous rock
o Radial centripetal
• River flows towards a central point
• Associated with massive igneous rocks
o Deranged
• Haphazard pattern with many lakes
• Forms over geologically young areas
o Trellis
• Main streams are parallel and short tributaries join at 90
• Forms on rocks that have varying resistance to erosion
• Associated with alternating hard and soft sedimentary rock
• Found in mountainous areas
o Parallel
• Tributary streams stretch out as if parallel
• Occurs in areas of major faults and steeply folded bedrock
Drainage density:
o A measure of the total length of streams per unit area.
Factors affecting drainage density:

o Vegetation- more vegetation → lower drainage density
o Amount of rainfall- more rainfall → higher drainage density
o Gradient- steeper gradient → higher drainage density
o Soil moisture- higher soil moisture → higher drainage density
o Porosity- higher rock porosity → lower drainage density
o Permeability- higher rock permeability → lower drainage density
River discharge
o Downslope flow of water in a river due to gravity
o Laminar flow:
• No obstacles
• Low rate of erosion
• Riverbed even
o Turbulent flow:
• High rate of erosion
• Obstacles present
• Uneven riverbed
o Removal of vegetation, concreting and tarring of surfaces and dams influence stream flow
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2. Fluvial processes
A: River profiles
Cross profile:
o Bank to bank
o Shows depth and width of river
Longitudinal profile:
o From source to mouth
o Shows gradient and length
Relationship of profiles with stages of river and characteristics:

o Upper course:
• V- shaped valley
• Turbulent flow
• Low volume
• Vertical erosion
• Waterfalls and rapids
o Middle course:
• Open V-shape (gentler slopes)
• Less turbulent, becoming laminar
• Volume and load increases
• More lateral erosion
• River begins to meander
o Lower course:
• U- shape valley
• Laminar flow
• Large volume
• Lateral erosion
• Meanders, oxbow lakes, floodplains, braided streams, levees
B: River grading
Graded profile:
o Smooth concave profile
o Rate of erosion and deposition are equal
o Laminar flow
Ungraded profile:
o Has many obstacles
o Young river
o Turbulent flow
Base levels of erosion:

o Temporary: features that prevent a river from further vertical erosion
o Permanent: the lowest level to which a river can erode (sea level)
Geography
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C: River rejuvenation
The process whereby a river which has reached a base level, regains energy and begins to erode
vertically once again
Reasons for rejuvenation:

o Uplift of land
o Increase in volume of water by river capture or high rainfall
o Drop in sea level
Features of rejuvenation
o Knick point: A sharp change in slope of a river
o Terraces: old valley floor forms a terrace on either side of the river due to down cutting
o Valley in a valley: new valley is carved into old valley
o Entrenched meander: meander formed that cut a deep valley into the bedrock
D: Fluvial landforms
Meander:
o Lower course
o A curve or bend along the course of a river
o Outer bank → undercut slope → rapid water flow → high rate of erosion → concave
o Inner bank→slip-off slope→slower moving water→ high rate of deposition→ convex
Ox-bow lake:
o Form from meanders
o Meander neck becomes narrow over time
o During periods of high rainfall, water flows straight, avoiding the meander
o Meander scar: dried up ox-bow lake due to no water supply
Braided stream:
o Seasonal river with abundant bed-load deposited in the lower course
o Gentle gradient and decreased river flow forces deposition of sand islands
o Sand islands obstruct the river’s own path and branches into distributaries
Flood plain:
o Flat land on banks of river made up of layers of silt
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Natural levees:
o Forms on riverbanks subjected to repeated flooding
o After water recedes, a raised bank is left behind (higher than flood plain)
o Yazoo streams: tributaries that cannot join the main river due to the obstruction of levees
Waterfalls:
o Upper course of river
o Hard rock overlies soft rock
o Plunge pool forms base of waterfall
Rapids:
o Sections of turbulent water
o Upper course
o Alternating hard and soft rock causes riverbed to become uneven resulting in turbulent flow
Delta:
o River enters the sea and deposits its load
o Sediments are kept in suspension in fresh water but flocculate in salt water
o Conditions for formation:
• Weak ocean currents
• Large amounts of sediment
• Shallow river mouth
Use of landforms:
o Flood plain:
• Fertile soil for farming
• Flat land allows for use of machinery
• Good water supply for farming
o Waterfalls:
• Tourist attraction
• Generation of hydroelectric power
o Rapids:
o Delta:
• Fertile land for farming
• Fishing
• Drinking water
• Domestic use of water
• Transport
Disadvantages of landforms:
o Floodplain: difficult for construction
o Waterfalls and rapids: dangerous due to fast flowing water
o Deltas:
• Water is dirty and polluted and attracts mosquitoes
• Vulnerable to see levels
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E: River Capture
o Abstraction:
• process whereby watershed changes its position due to uneven steepness on either side.
o River capture:
• one river captures the headwater of another river thereby increasing the size of its own
drainage basin.
Features:
o Captor stream:
• River that has captured the headwater of another river
o Captured stream:
• River that has its water diverted into another river
o Misfit stream:
• Stream that has too little water for the valley in which it flows
o Elbow of capture:
• Right angle bend indicating the point where one river captures the water of another
o Wind gap:
• Dry river valley found immediately after the elbow of capture
Conditions for river capture:

o Difference in gradients of rivers
o One river must receive higher rainfall
o One river must flow down softer rock
Impact of river capture:

o Captor stream:
• Drainage basin increases
• Volume increases
• Flows faster
• Erosive ability increases
• River could be rejuvenated
o Captured stream: opposite to captor stream
Implications of river capture:

o Captured stream:
• Less water for agriculture
• Hydroelectric power cannot be sustained
• Less water for domestic and industrial use
• Water quality will decrease
• Aquatic organisms die resulting in disrupted food chains
o Captor stream: opposite to captured stream
o Superimposed: young river forms on old landform

o Antecedent: new landform found under an old river
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F: Catchment and River Management
Importance:
o Transport of goods using rivers
o Hydroelectric power needs rivers
o Ecosystems in rivers
o Flood control
o Farming uses rivers
o Leisure activities in rivers
o Sustainable use of water from rivers
o Tourist attraction
o Domestic and industrial use of rivers
Impact of people on drainage basins: (www.idome.au)

o Waste disposal- pollution affects water quality
o Wetlands- being destroyed by human activities (farming, alienation, pollution)
o Water transfer schemes- affect river flow and aquatic ecosystems
o Irrigation- reduces water downstream
o Dams- affects river flow
o Overgrazing- removal of vegetation reduces infiltration
o Mining- acid level in water increases
o Embankment- holds back sediment which prevents delta formation
o Afforestation- reduces stream discharge and encourages infiltration
o Urbanisation- artificial substances encourage runoff
o River pollution:
• Domestic sewage
• Agricultural wastes (herbicides and pesticides)
• Industrial wastes (including heated water)
o Impact of river pollution:
• Loss of oxygen in rivers due to excessive decomposition of pollution
• Eutrophication
Management strategies:
o Buffer zones
o Awareness campaigns
o Recycling
o Fines
o Testing of water quality
o Vegetate
o Educate farmers
o Wetlands must be conserved
Geography
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Module 3
Rural & Urban Settlements
Geography
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1. Study of Settlements
o Settlement: a place where people live which includes buildings, economic activities and
transport networks
o Site: the exact physical land on which a settlement is placed
o Situation: the location of a settlement in relation to its surrounding area
o Rural: farmsteads, villages or hamlets where there is limited development and technology
o Urban: densely populated settlements with a lot of manmade structures and a few open
spaces such as towns or cities
o Site factors:
• Water
• Relief
• Soil
• Climate
• Accessibility
• Tradition
• Natural resources
o Situation factors:
• Transport and accessibility
2. Rural Settlements
Influence of site and situation on rural settlements:

o Wet point settlement:
• found where there is a shortage of water
• located near a water source
o dry point settlement:
• found where water is a threat
• located on higher ground to avoid flooding
o defence:
• located on high ground or in meander loop or between mountains
• for safety reasons
o accessibility:
• bridging point: located near the shallow point of a river for easy crossing
• gateway: in gap hills
Classification of rural settlements according to pattern:
o dispersed
• houses or farms are far apart or scattered and isolated
• advantages:
✓ farmers can experiment with new machinery
✓ larger profit capability
✓ privacy
• disadvantages:
 lack of social life
 easy target for criminals
 services far
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o nucleated
• houses or farms found close together
• advantages:
✓ ability to share equipment
✓ social advantages
✓ safety higher
• disadvantages:
 lack of privacy
 small profits
 smaller plots of land
o linear/ ribbon
• houses located in a line along a road, narrow valley or river
o planned
• houses are grouped around a specific feature e.g. Market
o crossroads
• accessibility to transport causes settlements to develop along meeting roads
o semi-circular
• settlement found along the coast
• sea acts as a physical barrier
Classification of rural settlements according to function:

o rural areas are uni-functional
o associated with primary activities
o dispersed or nucleated
o farmsteads, hamlets or villages
Land use in rural areas:

o subsistence farming
• farmer grows crops to meet his family’s needs
• small scale and traditional methods
• variety of crops planted in small quantities
• no contribution to economy
o commercial farming
• large farms that are capital intensive
• main purpose is to make profits
• one main crop planted on a large scale
• uses modern equipment and farming methods
o intensive farming
• every available piece of land is used for farming
• high yield per hectare
• labour and capital intensive
o extensive farming
• occurs over a large area
• yield per hectare is comparatively lower
• occurs where land is less fertile
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3. Rural Settlement Issues
o rural-urban migration: movement of people from farms to urban areas

o rural depopulation: decreasing number of people that live in rural areas due to rural-urban
migration
causes of rural depopulation:

o people leave rural areas because:
• hard work, long hours and low pay
• poor quality housing
• basic services are far away
o people want to move to cities because of:
• greater variety of jobs and higher pay
• improved housing and services
• access to basic services
• efficient transportation
• food security
consequences of rural depopulation

o in rural areas:
• basic services will close down
• production in rural areas decreases
• arising of ghost settlements
• brain drain
• resources under-utilised
o in urban areas:
• growth of informal settlements
• crime increases
• traffic congestion
• insufficient services
• waste management uncontrollable
• diseases spread as hygiene decreases
strategies to address rural depopulation:

o improve roads and transport facilities
o create more job opportunities through decentralisation
o improve salaries and working conditions
o improve basic services
o increase capital for farmers
o provide training courses
reasons to manage rural depopulation:

o rural areas provide food for the country
o rural areas influence GDP
o rural areas provide the country with raw materials
o employment can be found in rural areas
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Social Justice Issues in Rural Areas
access to resources:
Water
o reasons for water shortages
• low rainfall
• few lakes
• rivers are non-perennial
• high evaporation
• dams dry up
• domestic wastage
• pollution of clean water
o conserving water
• farmers should use drip irrigation
• mix fertilisers with water
• use treated wastewater
• use tanks to catch and store rainwater
• use boreholes
Soil
o reasons for soil erosion
• deforestation
• overgrazing
• over-cropping and monoculture
• high rainfall
o soil management strategies
• afforestation on steep slopes
• terracing
• contour ploughing
• use of natural manure
Land reform:
o land restitution:
• compensating people for the land they lost due to forced removals
• compensation by money or land
o land tenure reform:
• provides security to South Africans regarding land ownership
• prevents unfair eviction
o land redistribution:
• providing land to previously disadvantaged people for housing or farming
purpose of land reform:

o redresses injustice of apartheid
o promotes economic growth and alleviates poverty
challenges with land reform:

o willing buyer/seller clause delays negotiating prices
o costly
o lack of training given to new owners
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4. Urban settlements
o urbanisation: process whereby an increased percentage of people live in urban areas

o urban growth: increase in the absolute number of people in urban areas
o urban expansion: the physical growth of an urban settlement
o urban sprawl: formless uncontrolled growth of urban areas
o rate of urbanisation: percentage by which an urban population increases
o level of urbanisation: percentage of people that live in urban areas
Classification of urban settlements (according to function):

o central places
• provide goods and services to the surrounding rural population
o trade and transport towns (develop where transport routes meet)
• break-of-bulk points- goods transferred from one form of transport to another
• gap/gateway towns- originate due to physical barriers; transport routes converge
• junction towns- located at transport junctions
o specialised towns
• settlements with one dominant function
5. Urban Hierarchies
megalopolis
conurbation
metropolis
city
town
village
hamlet
farmstead
Urban hierarchy:
o hierarchy refers to the arrangement of settlements in an area from smallest to largest
o based on population, range and number of offered services and sphere of influence
Central place:
o refers to a settlement that provides goods and services to the surrounding rural population
o central place theory explains the relative size and spacing of settlements
Threshold population:
o the minimum number of customers needed to make a business profitable
Sphere of influence:
o the market area from where an urban settlement draws its customers
o dependent on the size and number of functions offered by the centre
range of goods:
o maximum distance that people are willing to travel to buy goods or services
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low order goods and services:

o goods used daily
o have a small range
o have a small sphere of influence
low order centres:
o offer low order services or functions
o small threshold population
high order goods and services:
o goods and services that are required infrequently
o have a large range
o have a large sphere of influence
high order centres:
o variety of services or functions offered
o large threshold population
6. Urban Structure and Patterns
A: Street Patterns
o grid iron/rectangular
• streets intersect at right angles
• found on land that is flat
• hampers traffic flow
• does not work on steep land
o radial
• roads radiate away from central point
• joined by ring roads
• traffic congestion at the centre
• ring roads allow for traffic bypass
o unplanned/irregular
• maze of streets with no order
• associated with broken relief
o planned irregular
• new urban developments
• ensures a smooth flow of traffic
• hilly relief
B: Building Density
o number of buildings per unit area

o density decreases from city centre outwards
o due to high land values in the city centre, buildings are close together and tall
C: Urban Profile
o the side view of a city showing building density and building height
o land value influences the shape of an urban profile
o building density and height is greatest where land value is highest
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D: Land Use Zones
Factors influencing location of urban land use zones:

o accessibility:
• the ease with which a place can be reached
• CBD has greatest accessibility
• Heavy industries locate near transport routes
o Compatibility:
• Degree to which functions attract each other
• Recreational areas are found near residential areas- high compatibility
o Specialised requirements:
• Some land use zones require special features to develop e.g. a water source
o Land values
o Centrifugal force (push factors)
o Centripetal forces (pull factors):
• Functional magnetism: functions that benefit each other
• Functional convenience: CBD highly convenient since close to work
• Functional prestige: a certain area becomes well known for a specific function offered
Urban land use zones:
1. CBD (central business district)

o Found in city centre
o High degree of accessibility
o Tallest buildings and highest building density
o Combination of high and low order goods offered
o Grid iron street pattern
o High traffic congestion
o Commercial decentralisation:
• City is invaded by illegal immigrants, becomes dilapidated
• Forms:
 Isolated store cluster (low order centre)
 Commercial ribbon development (along main roads)
 Outlying business centres (high and low order centre located in densely populated
area)
 Planned neighbourhood shopping centre (found in residential area)
 Planned regional shopping centre
 Informal trading (low order goods sold by unlicensed businesses)
2. Transition Zone
o Located on the edge of CBD
o Mixed land use zone
o Buildings are old and dilapidated
o Characteristics:
• Informal traders on pavements
• Lots of street children
• Many foreigners
• High crime rate
Geography
28
3. Residential Zone
o Occupies the most amount of urban land
o Wealth segregates this zone:
• High income residential
 Away from CBD and heavy industries
 Good views
 Well maintained
 High land value
 Many recreational facilities
• Middle income residential
 Medium size houses
 Location varies, but approximately 15-20min from CBD
 Mostly occupied by government workers
• Low income residential
 Located near industrial areas
 Close to CBD
 Small houses found close together
 Little to no recreational facilities
 Houses are old and neglected
 Informal settlements found in LEDC
▪ Unplanned, built with various materials, lack of basic services, no proper
roads and poor hygiene
 Ghettos or slums found in MEDC
▪ Found in transition zone
▪ Old and densely populated buildings
4. Industrial Zone
o Heavy industrial zones
• Pollution
• Far from high income residential zones
• Found on outskirts of urban areas due to requirement of large spaces
• Close to transport facilities
• Produce heavy goods
o Light industrial zones
• Occupies small spaces
• Little pollution
• Locate near to customers
• Produce small and comparatively lighter goods
5. Green Belts
o Piece of land found within a city that has natural vegetation
o Protects natural environments
o Improves air quality
6. Rural-urban Fringe
o Outskirts of city
o Mixture of rural and urban functions
o Land here is cheap
o Sewage, cemeteries, airports etc. found here
Geography
29
E: Models of Urban Structure
Burgess- concentric zone model:
CBD
industries
low income
housing
middle income
housing
high income
housing
o inner zones invade outer zones in a process called invasion and succession
o does not have all land use zones
o no commercial decentralisation
o no consideration of relief
o little accessibility
Hoyt- sector model:
o sectors develop along main transport routes

o unrealistic due to circular CBD- relief not considered
Harris and Ullman- multiple nuclei model:
o cellular pattern allowing for growth into each other

o caters for decentralisation, relief and all land use zones
o shows the true complexity of cities
Geography
30
Modern American-western city:

o multi-centred
o CBD called downtown
o High level of commuting
o Decentralisation
o Sharply defined land use zones
Third world city:

o Land use zones are mixed
o Lots of informal trading
o City centres are compact
o Poor infrastructure
o Social problems in excess
South African city:

o Influenced by colonialism and apartheid
o Land use zones influenced by group areas act
o Post-apartheid- income determines where people live, not race
7. Urban Settlement Issues
A: Urban issues related to rapid urbanisation
Inner-city problems:
o Rise of squatter settlements
o Industrial expansion is slower than the rate of urbanisation
o Unequal provision of services
o Poverty and unemployment
o Environmental pollution
o Crime and violence
Urban blight:
o Deterioration of parts of an urban area
o Area of decay is transition zone
o Owners do not maintain buildings in this area
o Solutions:
• Slum clearance- demolishing old buildings and starting from scratch. Housing provided
for residents
• Regeneration- improving physical environment by renovating old buildings, creating
employment and improve quality of life
• Invasion and succession- replacing the original function with a new function
• Gentrification- low cost housing bought by wealthy people and are modernised
• Façadism- front of building preserved for heritage remembrance but the rest of the
building is renovated
Lack of planning:
o Low income residential areas found on outskirts
o Results in high rate of commuting putting pressure on transport
o Poor service provision results in protests
Geography
31
Traffic congestion:
o Build-up of vehicles on roads occurring mostly during peak hours
o Causes:
• People live far from work
• Inefficient public transport
• Poor road safety
• Excessive use of private vehicles
• Expensive parking
• Grid iron street patterns
o Solutions:
• Monitoring of public transport
• Introduce rapid and safe transport
• Decentralisation
• Cycle lanes
• Ring roads
• Park and ride facilities
• Multi-storey parking bays
Overcrowding and housing shortages:

o Shortage of living space due to rapid urbanisation
Service provision:
o Municipalities are struggling to provide basic services due to rapid urbanisation
o Resulting in protests for better service delivery
B: Informal Settlements
• Illegally built settlements due to lack of housing by poor people

• Lack basic services
• Mostly found in LEDCs
• Problems:
 Vulnerable to elements
 Susceptible to wild fires
 Spread of diseases
 Crime, drugs, poverty
 Unhygienic
• Solutions:
 Relocation
 Self-help schemes
 Provision of basic services
C: Justice Issues in Urban Areas
Social injustices:
o Causes of unequal access to resources and services
• Greed and corruption
• Nepotism
• Lack of public participation
Geography
32
o Impact
• Xenophobia
• Violent protests
• Crime
Economic injustices:
o Poverty
• Causes
 Lack of education
 Wages in primary sector too low
 Unemployment
• Solutions
 Basic income grant
 Increase support to farmers
 Skills programmes
• Impact
 Increased crime
 Malnutrition
 Increased illness
 Low standard of living
o Poor public transport
• Impact
 Frequent accidents
 Pollution
 Traffic congestion
• Solutions
 Improve bus routing
 Upgrade taxi ranks
 Dedicated public transport lanes
 Introduce eco-friendly transport systems
 Subsidies for public transport improvement
Environmental injustices:
Type cause effect solution
o CO o Health problems o Electricity saving
o Sulphur o Acid rain campaigns
o Power stations o Destruction of o Strict control of
Air pollution o Domestic ecosystems pollution by
activities o Global warming government
o Use ozone
friendly products
o Extend green belts
o Industries o Hypertension and o Noise barriers
o Airplanes hearing loss o Altering flight
o Traffic o Reduces quality paths
Noise pollution o Fire crackers of life o Restrict times of
day for certain
noise levels
Destruction of o Population growth o Soil erosion o Legislation
ecosystems o Settlement o Pollution of o Education
expansion freshwater
Geography
33
Module 4
Economic Geography
Geography
34
1. Structure of the Economy
Primary sector:
o Concerned with extraction of raw materials from the environment
o E.g. farming, fishing, forestry, mining
Secondary sector:
o Activities that process raw materials into useful goods
o E.g. steel making, food canning, construction
Tertiary sector:
o Provision of services
o E.g. doctors, accountants, teachers, lawyers
Quaternary sector:
o Hi-tech sector linked to research and development
o E.g. scientists and researchers
GDP- total goods and services produced in a country in one year

GNP- total goods and services produced in a country by the permanent inhabitants in one year
2. Agriculture
Contribution to SA economy:
o Food production- sufficient to meet demand rids need of imports
o Earner of foreign exchange- 10% of exports
o Contribution to GDP- farmers pay taxes
o Job creation- 10% of labour force employed
o Industrial development- stimulation of industries by high volume of raw materials
Role of small-scale and large-scale farmers:

Small-scale farmers Large-scale farmers
Description Small but economically viable piece Production of crops for local and
of land used with the purpose of overseas markets to make a profit
making a profit.
o Limited fertiliser o Fertilisers
Inputs o Manual labour o Machinery
o Some capital o Large amounts of capital
o Intensive farming o Paid labour
o GM seeds
o Small plots of intensive o Large plots of extensive
Farm size farming farming
o Irrigation: weirs, small dams o Irrigation schemes
and pipes o Highly mechanised
Yield o High per hectare o Medium per hectare
o Monoculture o Variety of crops
o To reduce poverty in rural o To produce large quantities
Importance areas of food for local and
o To provide employment international markets
o Promotes food security o To provide employment
Problems o Poor infrastructure o Climate change
o Poorly financed o Increasing cost of labour
o Lack of trained farmers o Lack of subsidies
Geography
35
Main products produced:

o Cattle:
• EC, FS, KZN, LP and NC
• Problems:
 Foot and mouth disease and tick problems
 Variable price of beef
 Limited grazing due to SA’s hot conditions
o Maize:
• Highveld
• Staple food of population
• Earner of foreign exchange
• Creates job opportunities
o Sugarcane:
• Provides employment
• Hulett, Illovo, TSB
• Ideal growing conditions:
 Long, warm growing season
 Lots of sunlight and moisture
 Dry, sunny and cool conditions for ripening
Factors favouring agriculture: Factors hindering agriculture:

o Trade opportunities (well-developed o Climate change (effects on soil, water
transport infrastructure) and temperature)
o Research o Droughts and floods
o Climatic variation o Diseases and pests
o Available labour supply o Fluctuating prices
o Government support o Wild fires
o Crime
o Labour strikes
o Lack of funding and training
Food security:
o When enough nutritious food is produced to meet the needs of people
o Famine: lack of food, giving rise to starvation and malnutrition
o Importance:
• Needed to maintain good health of people
• Prevents social uprising
• Prevents hunger and famine
• Malnutrition can be prevented
o Factors affecting food security:
Negatively Positively
o Thin and infertile soils, soil erosion o Greater variety of crops due to climatic
o Droughts and floods variation
o Pests and diseases o Government incentives
o Deforestation o GM seeds
o Lack of capital
o Poor infrastructure in rural areas
o HIV infected workers
Geography
36
3. Mining
o Earner of foreign exchange- export of minerals
o Contribution to GDP- mining companies pay tax
o Job creation
o Industrial development- demand for tools and machinery stimulates industries
Significance of mining to development of SA:

o Discovery of diamonds started the mining industry
o Contributed to rapid urbanisation
o Established the JSE
o Led to development of secondary and tertiary industries as well as infrastructure
Main products produced:

Coal mining: Platinum: Gold:
o Most of SA’s o Large contribution to o Largest foreign income
electricity is coal GDP earner
generated o Labour strikes said to o Challenges:
o Used by Mittal, impact contribution to • Labour strikes
SASOL and is exported GDP • Diseases spreading
o Challenges: o Challenges: in workforce due to
• Labour strikes • Declining mine conditions
• Limited resource competitiveness • Poor working
• Environmental • Labour strikes conditions
issues • Union disputes • Environmental
• Hesitant investors problems
Ways to reduce mine strikes:

o Profit sharing
o Communication improvement between management and workforce
o Improve working conditions
o Skills development programmes
Factors favouring mining Factors hindering mining

o Variety of minerals o Strikes and protests
o Large mineral reserves o Minimum wage increase
o Low production costs of surface o Transport costs
minerals o Fluctuating prices due to foreign
o Lower rock temperatures allow for exchange
deeper mining o Mine disasters
o Access to cheap labour o Distance to markets
o Government assistance
Geography
37
4. Secondary Sector
A: Contribution to SA economy
o Contribution to GDP- money is generated in the form of taxes

o foreign exchange- money from exports are used on imports for development of the country
o job creation- increases purchasing power of people and improves life quality
B: Types of industries
Heavy industries:
o large scale
o generates pollution
o outskirts of settlement
o close to bulk transport facilities
o uses lots of raw materials and energy
o e.g. Iscor (steel), oil refining, engineering
Light industries:
o small products manufactured
o close to CBD
o small areas used
o little pollution generated
o road transport used
o e.g. clothing manufacturers
Raw material orientated industries:

o locate close to source of raw materials since they are bulky and expensive to transport
o e.g. sugar mill
Market orientated:
o locate close to market/customers since goods produced are perishable
o e.g. cheese industry
Footloose industries:
o location not dictated by access to materials or markets
o service orientated
o no pollution generated
o highly skilled
o e.g. research companies
Ubiquitous industries:
o can locate anywhere
o fulltime services offered
o e.g. telecommunication services
Break-of-bulk industries:
o located between source of raw materials and customers, where transport type changes
o e.g. sugar refineries
Geography
38
C: Factors favouring industrial development in SA
Raw materials:
o wide range available in abundance
Labour supply:
o access to skilled and semiskilled labour
o access to tertiary education to skill labour force
water supply:
o close to water supply for industrial use (manufacturing or cooling machinery)
o water transfer schemes supplement water supply
Energy supply:
o large coal reserves for electricity generation
o industries locate close to source of energy
transport:
o well established transport infrastructure
o 8 seaports and 4 international airports
Political intervention:
o Government policies in place to support local industries
o Incentives given to industries
Competition and trade:

o International trade facilitated by harbours and airports
o No trade barriers
o Access to local and international markets promotes competition and trade
D: Factors hindering industrial development in SA
Over-concentration:
o Traffic congestion
o Higher rentals due to demand for land- lower profits
o Higher salary demands
Transport:
o Unreliable
o Repair of roads and railways is costly
o Markets are far away
o Isolated from most world markets
o High export costs make it hard for local industries to compete with industries close to large
international markets
Labour supply:
o Brain drain results in loss of skilled workers, making it necessary to employ foreigners at
high costs
o Lack of funding to uplift education results in lack of skilled labour force
o Workers demand higher pay by striking which hinders production
Geography
39
Air pollution:
o Industries have the responsibility to reduce air pollution since it is the main contributor.
o Effects of industrial pollution:
• Negative impact on human health
• Kills animals and plants
• Causes imbalance in ecosystems
• Degrades air quality
• Damages buildings
• Reduces quality of life
o Causes of air pollution:
• Lack of policies to control air pollution:
Allows industries to bypass laws
• Unplanned industrial growth:
In industrial towns, pollution level increases above norm
• Use of outdated technology:
Industries rely on old technology that generates large amounts of waste
• May small scale industries:
Escape environmental regulations and release more pollution than normal
Water supply:
o Water is scarce in SA
o Large companies forced to recycle water
o Pollution is dumped into usable water
o Solutions:
• Recycling and reusing water
• Lowering toxicity in operations involving water
• Make production process more water efficient
Raw materials:
o Use of imported raw materials increases production costs
o Cost of imports fluctuates with foreign exchange rate
Competition and trade:

o Local industries cannot compete with imported goods from china
o Fluctuating rand value creates instability
Geography
40
E: Four Core Industrial Areas of South Africa
PWV- Pretoria Witwatersrand Vereeniging (Gauteng):

Factors favouring location Factors hindering development Main industrial activities
o Market o Overuse of water from Vaal o Chemical
• Dense population river o Iron and steel
resulting in high o Pollution
demand for goods o Great distance from ports o Metal processing
• High buying power o Explosives
o Transport
• Dense network of roads
and railways
o Labour
• Dense population-
larger labor force
o Raw materials
• Gold
• Iron ore
• Maize
• Platinum
o Water
• Eastern half- receives
adequate rainfall
• Vaal river water
supplemented by
TUVA water transfer
scheme
o Electricity
• Cheap since coal is
mined here
• Short distance from
source
o Relief
• On Highveld where
land is flat
Port Elizabeth- Uitenhage

o market o periodic drought o Car assembly
• import and export of o no coal fields so electricity o Leather goods
goods made easy by is expensive o textiles
harbour o expensive labour and
o transport frequent strikes
• good links with the rest
of SA
• harbour
o raw materials
• wool
• subtropical fruit
• cotton
o relief
• flat land
Geography
41
Durban-Pinetown (eThekwini)
o Market o Capacity of harbour is o Oil and sugar refining
• Densely populated limited o Ship building
• High demand for o Hilly topography restricts o Food and drink
manufactured goods growth of harbour o Textiles
o Transport o Footwear
• Harbour o Soap making
• Many links to rest of
the country
o Labour
• Large labour force due
to large population
o Raw materials
• Sugarcane
• Dairy
• Meat
• Subtropical fruit
o Water
• Abundant rain
• Presence of perennial
rivers (Tugela &
Umgeni)
South Western Cape

o Market o Electricity is expensive o Food processing
• High purchasing power since coal fields are far o Textiles
• Coastal- access to large away o Fish and fruit canning
overseas markets o Water shortages- located on o Wine
o Transport the western half that o Petrol refineries
• Table bay for overseas receives less rainfall
trade o Few mineral resources
• Dense railway network
for local links
o Labour:
• Dense population of
skilled and unskilled
o Raw materials:
• Deciduous fruit
• Grape
• Fish
o Relief:
• Flat land
Geography
42
F: Strategies for industrial development in SA
Overview of apartheid industrial development strategies

o Good hope plan
• To spread economic wealth in SA
• Lead to the regions making up the 9 provinces
• De-concentration points created
• Isolated industrial development points
• Tax incentives to encourage industrial growth
• Border industries created on homelands
Overview of post-apartheid industrial development strategies

o Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP)
• Improved quality of life
• Redistribution of wealth, healthcare, jobs, and basic services
• Aimed at local development
o Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR)
• Macro-economy policy
• Focuses on redistribution of wealth to eliminate poverty
• Attracts foreign investment
• Focuses on country as a whole by:
 Creating jobs
 Increasing exports
 Developing infrastructure
o Accelerated and shared growth in SA
o National development plan
Industrial development zones (IDZs)
o Specialised industrial zone

o Promotes competition and attracts foreign investment
o Locate near harbours and airports
o World-class infrastructure and industrial parks
o Government incentives offered (tax deductions and reduced import costs)
Geography
43
o East London IDZ:

o Automotive
o Marine aquaculture
Industry types o Agro-processing
o Pharmaceuticals
o ICT & electronics and business processes
o Excellent transport
o Automotive industry provides economic growth
Advantages of location o Clustered industries reduce logistics cost
o Close to ports
o Duty free imports for goods used in manufacturing
o Zero VAT on supplies used to manufacture export goods
Incentives o Discounted utility services and affordable land prices
o Lack of skilled labour
Flaws o Poor harbour facilities
o Limited electricity supply
o High demand for water
Spatial development initiatives (SDIs)
o Development corridor: development along a major transport route

o Links IDZs
o Provides communities with opportunities to participate in economic activities
o Promotes job creation
o Promotes use of local resources to generate economic growth
Geography
44
o Phalaborwa SDI
o Limpopo
Location o Favourably situated for economic links with other countries
o Runs through Great North Road
o Platinum, iron ore, coal, diamonds
Resources o Wood
o Mangoes, papayas, avocados, potatoes
o Use underutilised resources sustainably
Objectives o Develop small-scale mining
o Integrate urban and rural areas
o Promote tourism
o Poverty and unemployment
Challenges o Unmaintained roads
o Poor infrastructure
o Lack of clean water
o West Coast SDI

Location o Stretches from Cape Town to Northern Cape border
o Rich in avian resources- Lambert’s Bay Waterfront
o Cultural heritage
Resources o Fish
o Rich in biodiversity
o fruit
o protect west coast environment
Objectives o promote job opportunities and economic growth
o develop social well-being of people
o promote infrastructure development
o lack of technical skills
Challenges o inadequate marketing
o growing informal settlements
o xenophobia
o sand mining decreases tourism
G: Industrial centralisation and decentralisation
Advantages of centralisation Disadvantages of centralisation

o 4 core areas highly developed o Uneven spread of wealth
o Clustering of similar industries o Peripheral areas remain underdeveloped
o Infrastructure and service network o Congestion and pollution
establishment o Social problems
o Good market o Labour issues due to poor living conditions
o Large labour force o Demand for housing
o Declination of rural towns
Decentralisation
Reasons to move out of Effects Reasons to move into rural Effects
urban areas areas
o Depletion of o Job losses o Available land o Improved
primary resources o New office parks o Cheaper land infrastructure
o Decreased demand o Urban blight o Closer to market o Improved services
o Functional o Job creation
magnetism
Geography
45
5. Tertiary sector
o Involve selling of goods and provision of services

o Hairdressers, doctors, internet cafes, repair companies
o Provides employment to skilled population
o Contributes to GDP via tax
o Provides population with higher incomes and better standard of living
o Encourages growth of financial and business services
The role of international trade in economic development:

o Benefits of international trade
• Access to foreign currency
• Variety of goods for consumers
• Promotes competition
• Better international relations
• Exchange of technical knowhow
• Increases sales and profits
o Disadvantages of international trade:
• Local production suffers
• Rich countries influence poorer nations and take control
The role of transport in economic development:

o Dense transport infrastructure results in high level of development
o Better accessibility to markets
o Efficient transport reduces costs
o Provides employment
o Encourages domestic and international trade
6. Informal sector
o Definition: unregistered workers
o Characteristics
• Self-employed workers
• Casual labour
• Unskilled or semiskilled workers
o Importance:
• Provides income and reduces unemployment
• Consumers can buy goods in small quantity cheaply
• Allows for people to grow entrepreneurial skill
o Reasons for development:

• Large scale job losses due to mechanisation
• Many people lack formal qualifications and they cannot get jobs in formal sector
• Immigrants cannot find legal employment
Geography
46
o Problems faced:
• Traders harassed by authorities
• Traders lack assess to proper trading facilities
• Unreliable income
• Banks do not grant loans to traders
o Measures to improve informal sector:

• Introduce licensing requirements
• Dedicate areas for informal trading
• Provide infrastructure for traders
• Provide easier access to bank loans
Written by Zaid Ganie, in accordance with The Department of Basic Education, Geography Examination Guidelines,
Grade 12, 2017.

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Conditions for formation:

Cross section through a mid-latitude cyclone:

Weather associated with Mid-latitude cyclones:

Impact of mid-latitude cyclones:

Precautionary and management strategies:

Conditions for formation:

Cross section through a tropical cyclone:

Weather associated with tropical cyclones:

Impact of tropical cyclones:

Precautionary and management strategies:

3. Factors influencing the weather of South Africa

Influence of the plateau

Influence of the oceans

4. High pressure systems over South Africa

South Atlantic High

South Indian High

Resultant weather of high pressure cells

5. Low pressure systems over South Africa

Resultant weather of low pressure cells

6. Synoptic weather maps

Reasons for differences between urban and rural climates:

Effects of heat island and pollution dome:

Strategies to reduce the effects of heat island and pollution dome:

9. Interpretation of synoptic weather maps

Comparison between synoptic weather map and satellite image:

1. Drainage systems in South Africa

o River system: the main river and its tributaries

o Tributary: smaller streams that join the main river

o Confluence: point where two or more rivers join

o Watershed: high lying area separating two different drainage basins

o Interfluve: land that separates streams in the same drainage basin

o Source: starting point of a river

o River mouth: point where the river enters the sea

o Surface runoff: water that flows on the surface after it rains

o Ground water: water found within the earth’s surface

o Water table: the upper limit of water that is found underground

Types of drainage patterns:

Factors affecting drainage density:

Relationship of profiles with stages of river and characteristics:

Base levels of erosion:

Reasons for rejuvenation:

Conditions for river capture:

Impact of river capture:

Implications of river capture:

o Superimposed: young river forms on old landform

F: Catchment and River Management

Impact of people on drainage basins: (www.idome.au)

Influence of site and situation on rural settlements:

Classification of rural settlements according to pattern:

Classification of rural settlements according to function:

Land use in rural areas:

3. Rural Settlement Issues

o rural-urban migration: movement of people from farms to urban areas

causes of rural depopulation:

consequences of rural depopulation

strategies to address rural depopulation:

reasons to manage rural depopulation:

Social Justice Issues in Rural Areas