Structure of

Structure of English

Preface
Structure of English is a course that designed to make students understand English
as a language. This provides them with the tools to analyze the English language. Along
with the more technical aspects of grammatical analysis, this course will describe how
English sentences are constructed and will develop the skills of students that are necessary
to analyze sentence structure some of the tools and methods of modern linguistics. The
aim of this course is to introduce aspects of the structure of the English language, focusing
on grammatical structures (syntax and morphology) rather than phonological structure. It
is a compilation of four (4) modules that provide comprehensive discussion on sentence
basics, kinds of clauses, word formation, and different kinds of sentences which will
surely help the students to improve their knowledge and skills in English.

Each module consists of the following parts:

Set of Goals Applying What was

This part enumerates Learned
the objectives that This part will let the
must be attained at students to apply what
the end of the lesson. they have learned by
doing some activities.

Knowing the Truth Supporting

This part discusses Evidences
the facts and content This part includes the
of the lesson. link/s and book/s
where the information
were taken.
Acceptance
This part will allow
the learners to
contemplate and
reflect on what they
have learned from the
lesson.

This module aims to make the students familiar with the sentence basics specifically
the parts of speech, its uses and rules of using it, different kinds of clauses, the processes
of word formation and the structure of sentences. The activities given in this module are
essential and able to use different learning approaches which will surely help the student to
develop their grammatical competence. It has an end view of developing the learners’
grammatical competence as well as their communicative competence.
 ------

STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

CHAPTER 1
Sentence basics
Parts of
Speech

SET OF GOALS

At the end of this lesson, the learners are expected to: (ILO)
 Demonstrate understanding of grammar, levels and dimension of grammar and grammatical
terminologies;
 Create sentences noting the dimensions of grammar of English language;
 Enhance understanding of the phonological, lexical, syntactic, and semantic structures in English;
 Analyze the form, meaning and use of particular grammar constructions or cluster construction
and any other pertinent informations;
 Use concepts and metalanguage to explain the closer alignment of basic structure to the target
use.
 Revise sentences providing relevant facts about form, meaning and use of each major
construction in English; and
 Enhance students’ understanding of English grammar demonstrating linguistic competence.

KNOWING THE TRUTH

INTRODUCTION

Parts of speech are sentence elements that work together to make up a sentence. Just as a car is not a
functioning car without all of its synchronized parts working together, a sentence is not a functioning sentence
without the correct usage and combination of its essential parts of speech. The difference is that not all basic
sentence parts—or parts of speech—have to be included all of the time to actually make up a complete and
functioning sentence, but its parts do have to work together accurately for a writer to convey his or her intended
ideas. The basic parts of speech include: Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, and Article.

DISCUSSION

Nouns
• A noun is a word describing who or what in a sentence—it can be a person, place or thing.
Remember, a “thing” can be anything—an animal, a device, a point, an object, an event, and so
on. A noun is usually an essential part of any basic sentence. It’s typically who or what the
sentence is about, but other nouns are often also included in longer or more complex sentences.
• A proper noun names a particular person, place or thing, and the first letter of a proper noun is
always capitalized. From the examples listed above, Larry, Isabel, Kevin, Trevor, Lance, Animal
Planet, Alaska, Austin, Texas, “Live Music Capital of the World,” New York Times, and “Live
Music Capital of the South” are all proper nouns.
 STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

 Common nouns– are not specific and don’t require capitalization. These are just generic names of
persons, things, or places.
 Examples: car, chair, pen, notebook
 Concrete– this kind refers to nouns which you can perceive through your five senses.
Examples: folder, sand, board
 Abstract- unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns are those which you can’t perceive through your five
senses.
Examples: happiness, grudge, bravery
 Count– it refers to anything that is countable, and has a singular and plural form.
Examples: video, ball
 Mass– this is the opposite of count nouns. Mass nouns are also called non-countable nouns, and they
need to have “counters” to quantify them.
Examples of Counters: kilo, cup, meter
Examples of Mass Nouns: rice, flour, garter
 Gender Specific Nouns- are nouns that are definitely male and female.
Examples: King, Actress
 Deverbal Nouns- are nouns derived from verbs. Verbal nouns have no verb-like properties. verbal nouns
are shown with adjectives to differentiate them from gerunds. Gerunds are modified with adverbs not
adjectives.
Examples: *a good building *a fine drawing *an effective attack
 Gerund Nouns- They are type of common nouns that are formed from verbs and with –ing ending.
Gerunds are different from other nouns because they can take an object or be modified with an adverb.
Examples:
 I love baking bread.
 Thinking laterally is required to solve this problem.
 Compound Nouns- are nouns made up of two or more words. Some compound nouns are hyphenated,
some are not, and some combine their words to form a single word.
Examples:
 Mother-in-law
 Board of members
 Court-martial
 Manservant
 Pickpockets
 Possesive Nouns- A possessive noun shows ownership. It uses apostrophe (‘) or an apostrophe plus an –s
at the end of the word.
Examples:
 The boys’ basketball team is walking down the hall
 I borrowed my sister’s shirt.
Gender of Nouns- indicate the sex or the absence of sex.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Number of Nouns
 Singular/Plural
 Rule 1. To make regular nouns plural, add –s to the end.
 lecture- lectures
 book- books
 Rule 2. If the singular noun ends in –s, -ss, -sh,-ch, -x, or –z, add –es to the end to make it
plural.
 box-boxes
 church-churches
 buzz-buzzes
 bus-buses
 Rule 3. In some cases, singular nouns ending in –s or –z require that you double the –s or
–z prior to adding –es for pluralization.
 Fez- fezzes
 Gas-gasses
 Rule 4. If the noun ends with –f or –fe the f is often changed to –ve before adding the –s
to form the plural version.
 Wife- wives
 Wolf – wolves
Exceptions:
 Roof- roofs, belief- beliefs, chef- chefs, chief- chiefs
 Rule 5. If a singular noun ends in –y and the letter before –y is a consonant, change the
ending to –ies to make the noun plural.
 lily-lilies
 berry-berries
 Rule 6. If a singular noun ends in –y and the letter before –y is a vowel, simply add an –s
to make it plural.
 Ray- rays
 Boy- boys
 Rule 7. If a singular noun ends in –o, add –es to make it plural
 tomato- tomatoes
 potato-potatoes
Exceptions: photo-photos, piano-pianos, halo-halos
 *In the case of volcano, both volcanos and volcanoes are correct.
 Rule 8. If the singular noun ends in –us, the plural ending is frequently –i.
 Cactus- cacti
 Focus- foci
 Rule 9. If the singular noun ends in –is, the plural ending is -es.
 Analysis- analyses
 Ellipsis-ellipses
 Rule 10. If the singular nouns end in –on, the plural ending is –a.
 Phenomenon- phenomena
 Criterion-criteria
 Rule 11. Some nouns don’t change at all when they are pluralized.
 sheep-sheep
 series-series
 Rule 12. Add –s to the end of singular nouns ending in –ful.
 Cupful – cupfuls
 Spoonful - spoonfuls
Structure of English

 Rule 13. Add –s to the most important noun in a hyphenated word.

 Editor-in-chief – editors-in-chief
 Brother-in-law – brothers-in-law
 Rule 14. Add –s to proper nouns which do not end in –s.
 Mr. and Mrs. Macatangay
 – the Macatangays
 Rule 15. Add –es to proper nouns which do end in –s.
 Mr. and Mrs. Robles
 – the Robleses
 Rule 16. Mass nouns are not pluralized.
 Instead, say or write a glass of milk, piece of advice
 Rule 17. Some nouns are used only in the plural form.
 Scissors
 Trousers
 shorts
 Rule 18. A number of nouns ending in –s are singular.
 News
 Mathematics
 Measles
 Rule 19. Make individual letters and abbreviations plural by adding –’s
 B’s
 A’s
 Additional information (irregular nouns)- Irregular plural by changing vowels, changing the
word, or adding different ending.
 Man-men
 Person- people
 Mouse-mice
 Child-children
 Foot-feet
 Goose-geese
 Tooth-teeth
 Louse-lice
 Cactus-cacti
 Appendix-appendices
 Ox-oxen
Uses of Nouns
 Subject of the Sentence- a noun is used as the subject of the sentence.
 Father works in the farm.
 The lady walks gracefully.
 Miss Cruz goes to school early.
 Predicate noun- a noun that is usually after the linking verb.
 Mario is a teacher.
 My friend is an architect.
 Rosario was a valedictorian.
 Direct Object- a noun that receives the action of the verb.
 The girl lost the bag,
 The robber killed the policeman.
 Jack slammed the door.
 Indirect Object- a noun that receives the secondary action of the verb
 The secretary gave her boss a gift.
 I bought my grand daughter a new dress.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

 Object of Preposition- a noun that serves the object of the preposition.

 The bus came from Pampanga.
 Today, we talked about Shakespeare.
 An Appositive- a noun renaming or identifying the person or thing first mentioned.
 My friend, an architect, has just arrived.
 We went to Baguio, the summer capital of the Philippines.
 Direct Address- a name or word used in directly addressing the person.
 Paulo, wake up!
 Mr. President, the conference room is now ready for the meeting.
 Object Complement- Is a word that completes the meaning of the direct object. It is used
when the direct object would not make complete sense by itself.
 The parents named the girl Sandy.
 My neighbor calls Michael Jackson a great singer.
PRONOUNS
 Pronouns can be used in place of nouns (when appropriate), and a pronoun operates just like a
noun in a sentence. It’s important to remember, however, to use pronouns carefully. Often times,
writers make the mistake of referring to a noun with a pronoun without first providing and
introducing the actual noun a pronoun is replacing. This creates confusion for readers since it’s
then not clear who or what a pronoun is referring to. Also, once introduced, nouns should be
mentioned again here and there throughout a paragraph to remind readers of the name or title of a
noun (or noun phrase) even if it’s only a common noun, such as “philosophy student” or “kitten.”
 Kinds of Pronoun
 Personal Pronouns- are used as a substitute for a person's name. There are two kinds:
subjective and objective pronouns. That is, they either act as the subject of the sentence or the
object of the sentence.
 I, you, he, she, it, we, they
 Possessive Pronouns- show ownership or possession of a noun.
 Our, your, his, her, its (note there is no apostrophe), their, my.
 Mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs.
 Indefinite Pronouns- don't point to particular nouns. We use them when an object doesn't
need to be specifically identified. As such, it can remain indefinite.
 Few, everyone, all, some, anything, nobody.
 Relative Pronouns- are used to connect a clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun. We often see
them when we need to add more information.
 Who, whom, which, whoever, whomever, whichever, that
 Intensive Pronouns- emphasize, or intensify, nouns and pronouns. Typically, we find them
right after the noun they're intensifying. These pronouns typically end in -self or -selves.
 Myself, himself, herself, themselves, itself, yourself, yourselves, ourselves
 Demonstrative Pronoun- take the place of a noun that's already been mentioned. They can be
singular or plural. There are five of them.
 These, those, this, that, such
 Interrogative Pronoun- do just what they say. They work in sentences that are posing a
question.
 Who, whom, which, what, whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever
 Reflexive Pronouns- are similar to intensive pronouns. The difference between the two is that
intensive pronouns aren't essential to a sentence's meaning. Meanwhile, reflexive pronouns
are. Also, they're used when the subject and the object of a sentence refer to the same person
or thing. These pronouns end in -self or -selves.
 Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

ADJECTIVES
 Adjectives are modifiers. They modify nouns or pronouns. This means they change the
image of a noun or pronoun.
 Adjectives can be located by asking the questions:
 What kind?
 Which one?
 How many?
 How much?

 Adjectives change the meaning of a noun by somehow changing the image of it. That’s
why they are called modifiers.

 KINDS OF ADJECTIVES

 Descriptive adjectives- DESCRIBE!

 The add some sensory image to your sentence which allows the reader to see, smell, hear,
touch, or taste something in the sentence.
 They can tell you about a noun’s size, color, shape, taste, and more. Some examples are
small, red, round, friendly, and salty. For example: “The large, yellow house is on the
corner.” Here large and yellow are descriptive adjectives that describe the house.

 Proper Adjectives

 One type of descriptive adjective is called the proper adjective.

 Proper adjectives are derived from, or come from, proper nouns. This means that they
must always be capitalized.
 Proper adjectives sometimes are formed by adding a suffix to the proper noun.

ARTICLES

 There are three articles: a, an, the

 “The” is called a definite article because it points out nouns more specifically. It
can be used in both singular and plural nouns.
 “A” and “an” are called indefinite articles because they do not point nouns out as
specifically. It can only be used before singular nouns.

 Possessive adjectives show ownership of a noun. These words are the same as the
possesive pronouns. There are fourteen possessive adjectives:

 my, mine, our, ours your, yours, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs

 Demonstrative adjectives point out a noun. They are the same words as the demonstrative
pronouns. There are four demonstratives: This, that, these, those
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

 Indefinite Adjectives
 Indefinite adjectives point out nouns. They often tell “how many” or “how much” of something.
There are seventeen of them:

 all, any, another, both, each, either, few, little, many, more, most, much, neither, one, other,
several, some.

 Interrogative Adjectives

 Interrogative adjectives are used to ask questions.

 Three of them were also interrogative pronouns: Which, what, whose

 Location of Adjectives
Adjectives can be located in three places in a sentence.

1. The most common location is directly in front of the noun it is modifying.

Ex. the big dog, the new toy
2. Another location is after a linking verb or verb of condition. These are called predicate
adjectives. Ex. The game was interesting
3. The final location of adjectives occurs after a noun when it is set off by commas.
Ex. The book, well-written and suspenseful, kept my interest.

 Adjectives have three forms depending on the number of nouns being described or
compared.

Positive Comparative Superlative

(Describing one) (Comparing (Comparing

two) -er + than three or more)
the + -est
tall taller than the tallest

rich richer than the richest

big bigger than the biggest

VERB- a word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and forming the main part
of the predicate of a sentence. Verbs are inflected to show tense.
 Regular Verb- Most verbs are regular verbs. Regular verbs are those whose past
tense and past participles are formed by adding a -d or an -ed to the end of the verb.
 Irregular verb- A verb in which the past tense is not formed by adding the usual -
ed ending for it does change its spelling. Examples of irregular verbs are sing (past
tense sang); feel (felt); and go (went)
 "Be" verbs indicate a state of being.
ADVERB -is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
 The different types of adverbs are:
 Adverb of Manner– this refers to how something happens or how an action is done.
Example: Annie danced gracefully.
 Adverb of Time- this states “when” something happens or “when” it is done.
Example: She came yesterday.
 Adverb of Place– this tells something about “where” something happens or ”where”
something is done. Example: Of course, I looked everywhere!
 Adverb of Degree– this states the intensity or the degree to which a specific thing
happens or is done. Example: The child is very talented.
The italicized adverb answers the question, “To what degree is the child talented?”
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

 Adverbs of affirmation -are words which declare that a given statement or fact is
true, or positive. Example. He will surely go there.
 Adverbs of negation are completely opposite from affirmation. They show that
the speaker doesn’t believe there is any chance things will go the way they say.
Example: Sam has never been there.
 Adverbs of interrogation - adverbs that are used to ask questions.
Examples: How ,much, How often, When, Where, Why
CONJUNCTION
 is a part of a speech which joins words, phrases, or clauses together.

Examples of Conjunctions: and, yet, but, for, nor, or, and so

PREPOSITION

 this part of a speech basically refers to words that specify location or a location in time.

Examples of Prepositions: above, below, throughout, outside, before, near, and since

INTERJECTION
 this part of a speech refers to words which express emotions. Since interjections are
commonly used to convey strong emotions, they are usually followed by an exclamation
point.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Acceptance

1. Enumerate the parts of speech and explain its usage.

STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

1. Create 20 sentences and identify the parts of speech used in each

sentence.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Supporting Evidence

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 : Grammar Handbook.
http://www.capella.edu/interactivemedia/onlinewritingcenter/do
wnloads/grammar.pdf

 R : Types of
2 Pronounshttps://grammar.yourdictionary.com/p
art-of-speech/pronouns/types-of-pronouns.html
 R : Types of Words and Word-Formation Processes in English
http://webdelprofesor.ula.ve/humanidades/azapata/materi
5
as/english_4/unit_1_types_of_words_and_word_formation_p
rocesses.pdf?fbclid=IwAR02i4qTD0IyauxfCzR3IuYhDjGpr1VM
515pH7mL_U11TLfZVTTWWALIIkw
 R : Multi-word Verbs https://walton.uark.edu/business-
communication-lab/Resources/downloads/Multi-
7
word_Verbs.pdf?fbclid=IwAR1zhOBwhTK_
maau6J4aqD39L1-nP8s1IGyO9xDKxncDcneYwwGaNbgQIyE
: The Structure of English Language.
 R http://www.universalteacher.org.uk/lang/engstruct.htm
8

 R
9
 R
1
0
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

CHAPTER 2
KINDS OF CLAUSES

Set of Goals

At the end of this lesson, the learners are expected to: (ILO)
 Demonstrate understanding of grammar, levels and dimension of grammar and grammatical
terminologies;
 Create sentences noting the dimensions of grammar of English language;
 Enhance understanding of the phonological, lexical, syntactic, and semantic structures in English;
 Analyze the form, meaning and use of particular grammar constructions or cluster construction
and any other pertinent informations;
 Use concepts and metalanguage to explain the closer alignment of basic structure to the target
use.
 Revise sentences providing relevant facts about form, meaning and use of each major
construction in English; and
 Enhance students’ understanding of English grammar demonstrating linguistic competence.

Knowing the Truth

INTRODUCTION

Isn't it marvelous that a finite system like the English language can be manipulated in an infinite number
of ways? Grammar clauses help make this true, and they're particularly helpful for students as they learn
more about writing and reading comprehension. This chapter aims to discuss different clauses as well as
complement element.

DISCUSSION
Clause
 is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb.
Different types of Clause
 NON FINITE CLAUSE
 includes a secondary verb — a verb not inflected for tense, person or number
(e.g., infinitival, gerundial or past participial verb form) — and occasionally a
subject (e.g., his, him for). A nonfinite clause is a dependent clause, which can
serve as a subject, a verbal complement, a prepositional complement, or a noun
complement.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

 VERBLESS CLAUSES

 NEGATIVE CLAUSE
 In English grammar, negation is a grammatical construction that contradicts (or
negates) all or part of the meaning of a sentence. Also known as
a negative construction or standard negation. In standard English, negative
clauses and sentences commonly include the negative particle not or the
contracted negative n't
Structure of English

 Negative clauses negate a matter so they are mostly marked in some way.
 The smallest way to negate is to use a separate negative word that is just added to the clause.

 COMPLEMENT
 Complements are one of the types of clause element.
 A complement clause is a clause which is used as the complement of some other word (typically
as the complement of a verb, adjective or noun).
 Thus, in a sentence such as He never expected that she would come, the clause that she would
come serves as the complement of the verb expected and so is a complement clause.
 Types of Complement Clauses
 "Recently, linguists working in the influential theory known as 'generative
grammar' have used the term 'complement' to refer to variously closely related
kinds of subordinate clause.
 Subordinate clauses which on their own serve as the direct object of verbs such
as believe, tell, say, know, and understand; the subordinate clauses are the
complements of these verbs.
 He believes that they will win if he puts on the shirt at just the right time before
the game starts.
 Subordinate clauses which modify various nouns such as story, rumor, and fact,
and adjectives such as proud, happy, and sad; the subordinate clauses are the
complements of these nouns and adjectives.
 ADVERBIAL ELEMENT
 Adverbials perform a wide range of functions within a clause.
 Some adverbials specify circumstances that accompany an event or a state. For example, an
adverbial may specify when, where, why or how an event took place.
 In the following clauses the adverbials are highlighted.
 After the war, the manufacture of arms was forbidden.
 A sensible savings plan is preferable, because of the financial advantage of
saving over borrowing.
 The nerve was divided with a pair of scissors.
 Other adverbials indicate how a clause is related to a previous one.
 However, the government recovered 7 billion of the debt.
 Moreover, treatment with digoxin may precipitate digitalis intoxication.
 A third group of adverbials provide comments on the content of the clause, e.g. with respect to
the speaker's or writer's attitude towards the truth or content of the clause.
 Apparently, large groups are perceived as more threatening than small ones.
 Admittedly, the old critics did not question progress as such.
 A clause may contain more than one adverbial. The following clause has three adverbials.
 In general, however, the army would need more funds to purchase more and
better weapons.
 CLAUSE STRUCTURE
 All clauses in English have at least two parts, a noun phrase (subject) and a verb phrase:
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

 But most clauses have more than two parts:

 The first noun phrase of a sentence is the subject. English clauses always have a subject:
 His father has just retired. He was a teacher. (NOT Was a teacher.)
I'm waiting for my wife. She is late. (NOT Is late.)
 except for the imperative, which is used for orders, invitations and requests:
Stop!
Please come to dinner tomorrow.
Play it again, please.
 If we have no other subject, we use there or it. We call this a dummy subject:
There were twenty people at the meeting.
There will be an eclipse of the moon tonight.
It's a lovely day.
It's nearly one o’clock.
 VERB PATTERNS
 Different verbs have different patterns, so the structure of the clause depends on the verb.
 Transitive and intransitive verbs
A transitive verb has the structure noun + verb + noun
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Acceptance

1. What are the different parts of clause

structure?
2. Create 10 sentences and distinguish
the parts of clause structure in each
sentence.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Applying What Was

Learned

1. Construct sentences with the use of different types of

clauses.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Supporting Evidence

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Grammar Handbook.
http://www.capella.edu/interactivemedia/onlinewritingcenter
/downloads/grammar.pdf

o o Types of Pronouns
https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-
speech/pronouns/types-of-pronouns.html
o o Word Formation Processes
https://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/0008867/Subjects/8714_5Wor
d%20Formation%20Processes.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2qxh5SNVZ4
VxP9CP0Ip68dTXFdG YHXyHfXCdr2i6fk58q1GEfkB7Wy-0
 The Structure of English Language.
http://www.universalteacher.org.uk/lang/en gstruct.htm
 Young, David (2015). The Structure of English Clauses. New York:
Routledge.
 STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

CHAPTER 3
WORD FORMATION
PROCESSES

Set of Goals

At the end of this lesson, the learners are expected to: (ILO)
 Demonstrate understanding of grammar, levels and dimension of grammar and grammatical
terminologies;
 Create sentences noting the dimensions of grammar of English language;
 Enhance understanding of the phonological, lexical, syntactic, and semantic structures in English;
 Analyze the form, meaning and use of particular grammar constructions or cluster construction
and any other pertinent informations;
 Use concepts and metalanguage to explain the closer alignment of basic structure to the target
use.
 Revise sentences providing relevant facts about form, meaning and use of each major
construction in English; and
 Enhance students’ understanding of English grammar demonstrating linguistic competence.

Knowing The Truth

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, the terms ‘word formation’ does not have a clear cut, universally accepted usage. It is
sometimes referred to all processes connected with changing the form of the word by, for example,
affixation, which is a matter of morphology. In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes of
creation of new lexical units. Although it seems that the difference between morphological change of a
word and creation of a new term is quite easy to perceive, there is sometimes a dispute as to whether
blending is still a morphological change or making a new word. There are, of course, numerous word
formation processes that do not arouse any controversies and are very similar in the majority of
languages.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

DISCUSSION

Word-Formation Processes in English

 is the process of building new words by means of existing elements of language according
to certain patterns and rules.
 How new words are being formed in the language.
 The process consists of a combination of morphemes that are rule-governed (a new word is
formed)
 Word Formation
 Neologism—a new word in our language and the use of different forms of that new word.
 Etymology– the study of the origin and history of a word is known as its etymology– Latin
and Greek.
 There are many different ways in which new words can enter a language. Many words used
today were considered once a misuse of language, e.g., handbook, aviation
 The constant creation of new terms and the new uses of old terms are a sign of the vitality
of language (alive) which is shaped by the need of its users
 Major Word Formation Processes
(Processes that are formed frequently or commonly in the use of the English language)
1. Affixation - process of forming words by adding affixes to morphemes. adding an
established prefix or a suffix to the existing base.
Example: sing +er= singer un+real=unreal

a) Suffixation- is characteristic of noun and adjective formation

- a suffix usually changes not only the lexical meaning of a word but also its
grammatical meaning or its word class, e.g. to bake – baker, beauty – beautiful

Noun-forming Suffixes:
-or: actor, visitor, director
-er/eer: speaker, engineer, opener
-ist: scientist, satirist, journalist
-ess: hostess, stewardess, actress
-ty/ity: cruelty, purity, stupidity
-ure/ture: failure, exposure, mixture
-dom: freedom, kingdom,
-age: passage, marriage, postage
-ance/ence: appearance, preference
-hood: likelihood, brotherhood, neighbourhood
-ing: reading, opening, beginning
-ion/sion/tion/ition/ation: operation, permission, description
-ness: kindness, goodness, wilingness
-y/ery: difficulty, enquiry, robbery, slavery
-ship: partnership, membership, kinship
-ment: government, development, movement
-t: complaint, restraint
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Adjective-forming Suffixes:

-able/ible: comfortable, fashionable, sensible

-ic/atic: atomic, heroic, systematic
-ful: beautiful, helpful, careful
-y: bloody, dirty, sunny
-less: useless, homeless, careless
-al/ial/tial: personal, influential, preferential
-ive/ative/itive: active, creative, sensitive
-ant/ent: pleasant, different, excellent
-en: wooden, golden, woollen
-like: childlike, ladylike
-ing: amusing, interesting, charming
-ous: dangerous, famous, mysterious
-ish: bookish, childish, foolish
-ly: friendly, lovely, manly

Verb-forming Suffixes:
-ize/ise: civilize, modernize
-ify/fy/efy: simplify, glorify
-en, deepen, sharpen, lengthen

Adverb-forming Suffixes:
-ly: formally, calmly, easily
-ward/wards: homeward, afterwards, backwards
-wise/ways: clockwise, otherwise, sideways
-fold: twofold, threefold

B) Prefixation
- a prefix usually changes or concretizes the lexical meaning of a word and only rarely parts of
speech, e. g. write – rewrite, smoker – non-smoker
Prefixes are sometimes used to form new verb: circle – encircle, large – enlarge etc

Negation or Opposition:
un-: unable, unfair, unpack, unzip
dis-: disagreeable, dislike
a-: amoral, atypical
in-: informal, inexperience
im-: (before b, m, p) impossible, immoral
il-: (before l) illegal, illogical
ir-: (before r) irregular, irrational
non-: nonsmoker, non-scientific
de-: decode, defrost, devalue

• Repetition, making it possible:

re-: reread, rebuild, reunited
en-/em-: enrich, enlarge, embitter

Degree, measure or size:

super-: supersonic, superhuman
semi-: semi-final, semidetached
hyper-: hyperactive, hypersensitive
ultra-: ultrahigh, ultraviolet
over-: overtime, overpopulated
 STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Time and place, order, relation:

post-: post-war, postpone, postgraduate
inter-: international, intercontinental
pre-: pre-war, prehistoric, prearrange
ex-: ex-president, ex-husband, ex-film-star

Number and numeral relation:

bi-: bilateral, bilabial
uni-: unisex, unicycle, unilateral
auto-: autobiography, autopump, auto-suggestion
multi-: multinational, multi-storey, multilingual

Attitude, collaboration, membership:

anti-: antisocial, antiwar, antifreeze
counter-: counter-offensive, counter-revolution
pro-: pro-English, pro-vice-chancellor

Pejoration:
mis-: misinform, mislead, misuse
pseudo-: pseudo-scientific, pseudo-intellectual

2. COMPOUNDING
• Process that forms new words from two or more independent words. is one of the principal, most
productive, and the oldest way of creating words in English

 Examples of words formed by the compounding process: girl+friend= girlfriend text+book=textbook

 Nouns – motorway, breakfast, skinhead
 Adjectives – snow-white, hard-working
 Verbs – daydream, broadcast
 Adverbs – downstairs, sometimes, today
 Pronouns – somebody, anyone, myself
 Prepositions – into, without, within
 Conjunctions – whenever, however
Compound words can be written in three different ways:
 Open- with a space between the parts of the compound
e.g., toy store, diving board, flower pot.
 Hyphenated- with a hyphen (-) separating the elements of the compound
e.g., flower-pot, air-brake, she-pony.
 Solid- without a space or hyphen between the component elements of the compound
e.g., flowerpot, washrooms, pickpocket.
 Possible combination for compound words:
On+n=n
e.g., sunrise, hand-shake, cigar smoker, windmill
O v+n=n
e.g., rattlesnake, call-girl, dance-hall
O adj. + n = n
e.g., darkroom, highbrow
O n + adj. = adj.
e.g., airsick, bottle-green
O pron. + n = n
e.g., she-pony, he-goat
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

O prep. + v = v
e.g., overtake, undergo
O prep. + n = n
e.g., onlooker, off-day
O adj. + adj. = adj.
e.g., gray-green, Swedish-American

 Three TYPES of Multi Word Verb:

• verbs that consist of more than one word
• which consist of a verb and one or two particles or prepositions
 Prepositional Verbs- consist of a main verb and a preposition (links a noun or pronoun to other words in a
sentence)
verb + preposition = run into, come by, go over,
 Phrasal Verbs- consist of a main verb and a particle (function word that does not have meaning on its own
and depends on the main verb to have meaning)
verb + participle = broke down, dress up, pass away, think over
 Phrasal-Prepositional Verbs- consist of a main verb, a particle, and a preposition—in that order.
verb + participle + preposition = run out of, look forward to, put up with, hang out with
3. REDUPLICATION
• Process of forming new words either by doubling an entire word (total reduplication) or part of a
word (partial reduplication)
• English makes use of reduplication very sporadically
• Total reduplication is extremely rare!
• Examples of partial reduplication: humpy-dumpy hocus-pocus
4. SUPPLETION- a relationship between forms of a word wherein one form cannot be phonologically
or morphologically derived from the other (this process is rare).
Examples: am-was go-went
 MINOR WORD FORMATION PROCESSES (Occur less frequently in the English language)
1. BACK FORMATION
O the process by which new words are formed by the deletion of a supposed affix from an already
existing word
O Creative reduction due to incorrect morphological analysis.
O Examples:
• editor - edit
• Television - televise
• babysitter - babysit
2. CLIPPING
O Shortening a word by deleting one or more syllables.
• Facsimile – fax
• Hamburger – burger
• Gasoline - gas
• Advertisement – ad
3. CONVERSION
O Assigning an already existing word to a new syntactic category. It is the process of gaining new
words in a different part of speech without adding any derivative elements.
O Examples:
• butter (N) - V to butter the bread
• permit (V) - N an entry permit
• empty (A) - V to empty the litter-bin
• must (V) - N doing the homework is a must
PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

4. ACRONYM
• Words that are formed from the initials of several words.
Examples: CD- Compact Disk RAM- Random Access Memory
• Formed from the initial letters of a set of other words; e.g. CD (compact disk) we pronounce each
single letter,
• or pronounced as new single words : NATO, NASA, UNESCO, laser (light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation), ATM 9automatic teller machine), PIN (personal identification
number)
5. COINAGE
• The least common process of word formation
• Invention of totally new terms. Trade names for commercial products that become general terms
or household names: kleneex, xerox, google, ebay.
• After their invention, they tend to become everyday words in the language.
• •Eponyms— new words that are based on the name of a person or a place e.g. hoover, sandwich,
jeans.
6. BORROWING
• one of the most common process of word formation.
• English language has adopted many words from other languages such as: croissant (French),
piano (Italian), sofa (Arabic).
• Other languages borrow words from English such as suupaamaaketto (Japanese), French saying
le stress, and le weekend.
7. CALQUE
• loan translation (a special type of borrowing): direct translation of the elements of a word into
the borrowing language. French term gratte-ciel –scrape-sky, Dutch wolkenkrabber –cloud
scratcher or German Wolkenkratzer (cloud scraper) all are calques of English skyscraper. Other
examples: perros calientes (hot dogs).
8. BLENDING
• Taking the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word.
• •E.g. gasoline + alcohol = gasohol; smoke + fog =smog
breakfast + lunch = brunch
• Also can be used to describe the mixing of languages, e.g., Spanglish
9. DERRIVATION
the most common word formation process in the production of new English words
• Derivation— by joining small ‘bits’ of the language which do not have separate listing in the
dictionaries. These small bits are called affixes. E.g. (un, mis, pre, ful, less, ish, ism, ness) in
words like:
• Unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful, careless, boyish, terrorism, sadness
•Prefixes—added at the beginning of the word. (un-, mis-)
•Suffixes—at the end of the word. (-less, -ish)
• E.g. mislead, disrespectful, foolishness
•Infixes– when an affix is incorporated inside a word, not normally used in English but when used
indicate aggravating circumstances – e.g absogoddamlutely, godtripledammit, Singabloodypore
10. MULTIPLE PROCESSES
• Deli – borrowing, delicatessen (German) an then clipped.
• Snowballed— compounding (snow and ball) and then converted from noun to a verb
• Lase– acronyms and then bacformation (laser into lase);
• waspish attitude, comes from WASP (white Anglo-Saxon Protestant) lost the capital letters and
gained a suffix, -ish in the derivation process
• Yuppie– young urban professional + -ie (hypocorism)
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Acceptance

1. What are the types of multiword verb?

2. Create 10 Sentences using different
types of multi word verb.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Applying What Was

Learned

List down the different word-formation processes and give 5

examples for each process. Tell whether if it belongs to major
word formation processes or minor word formation processes.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

Supporting Evidence

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

GrammarHandbook.
http://www.capella.edu/interactivemedia/onlinewritingcenter
/downloads/grammar.pdf

: Discourse Analysis Scribbr https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/discours

: Linguistic Society of America. https://www.linguisticociety.org/resourc
conversation
: Types of Words and Word-Formation
http://webdelprofesor.ula.ve/humanidades/azapata/materias/english_4/
ion_processes.pdf?fbclid=IwAR02i4qTD0IyauxfCzR3IuYhDjGpr1VM515pH7m
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

CHAPTER 4
SENTENCE STRUCTURE

SET OF GOALS

At the end of this lesson, the learners are expected to: (ILO)
 Demonstrate understanding of grammar, levels and dimension of grammar and grammatical
terminologies;
 Create sentences noting the dimensions of grammar of English language;
 Enhance understanding of the phonological, lexical, syntactic, and semantic structures in English;
 Analyze the form, meaning and use of particular grammar constructions or cluster construction
and any other pertinent informations;
 Use concepts and metalanguage to explain the closer alignment of basic structure to the target
use.
 Revise sentences providing relevant facts about form, meaning and use of each major
construction in English; and
 Enhance students’ understanding of English grammar demonstrating linguistic competence.

KNOWING THE TRUTH

INTRODUCTION

In English grammar, sentence structure is the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in a
sentence. The grammatical function or meaning of a sentence is dependent on this structural organization,
which is also called syntax or syntactic structure. This chapter aims to discuss the basic sentence structure
and types of sentences according to function.

DISCUSSION
In traditional grammar, there are four types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex. Each sentence is defined by the use of independent and dependent clauses,
conjunctions, and subordinators.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

 Independent clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a subject and
a verb and is a complete idea.
• I like spaghetti.
• He reads many books.
 Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached to an
independent clause to become complete. This is also known as a subordinate clause.
• Although I like spaghetti,…
• Because he reads many books,…
 Subject: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that does an action. Determine the subject in a
sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”
• I like spaghetti.
• He reads many books.
 Verb: Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. Determine the verb in a
sentence by asking the question “What was the action or what happened?”
• I like spaghetti.
• He reads many books.
• The movie is good. (The be verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a linking verb. It
links the subject, in this case "the movie," to the complement or the predicate of the sentence, in
this case, "good.")
 Object: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action. Determine the object in
a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom?/For whom?”
• I like spaghetti.
• He reads many books.
 Prepositional Phrase: A phrase that begins with a preposition (i.e., in, at for, behind, until, after,
of, during) and modifies a word in the sentence. A prepositional phrase answers one of many
questions. Here are a few examples: “Where? When? In what way?”
• I like spaghetti for dinner.
• He reads many books in the library.

English Sentence Structure

The following statements are true about sentences in English:

 A new sentence begins with a capital letter.

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point).

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a subject that is only given once.

o Smith he obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase.

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.

o He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).

 A sentence must have a complete idea that stands alone. This is also called an independent clause.
o He obtained his degree.
PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

1. SIMPLE SENTENCE
 A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers.
However, it contains only one independent clause.
Here are a few examples:

• She wrote.
• She completed her literature review.
• He organized his sources by theme.
• They studied APA rules for many hours.

2. COMPOUND SENTENCES
 A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two independent clauses
can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.
Here are a few examples:

• She completed her literature review, and she created her reference list.
• He organized his sources by theme; then, he updated his reference list.
• They studied APA rules for many hours, but they realized there was still much to learn.
Using some compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

3. COMPLEX SENTENCES
 A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the
causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.
 If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the other
hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma separating the two
clauses.
Here are a few examples:

• Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her methods section.
Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.

• Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to follow.
Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.

• They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.
Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an independent clause.

• Using some complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

4. COMPOUND—COMPLEX SENTENCES

 Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains at least two
independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

EXAMPLES:
• She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her methods section even
though she finished her methods course last semester.
• Although he organized his sources by theme, he decided to arrange them chronologically, and he
carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization.
• With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many hours, and they decided that
writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise, and objective.
• Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.
• Pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so that the reader is easily
able to follow the intended meaning.

RUN ON SENTENCES
 A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (also known as complete
sentences) are connected improperly.
• Example: I love to write papers I would write one every day if I had the time.
• There are two complete sentences in the above example:
• Sentence 1: I love to write papers.
• Sentence 2: I would write one every day if I had the time.
 One common type of run-on sentence is a comma splice. A comma splice occurs when
two independent clauses are joined with just a comma.
• Example of a comma splice: Participants could leave the study at any time, they needed to
indicate their preference.
• Sentence 1: Participants could leave the study at any time.
• Sentence 2: They needed to indicate their preference.
 Some comma splices occur when a writer attempts to use a transitional expression in the middle
of a sentence.
• Example of a comma splice:
• Sentence 1: The results of the study were inconclusive
Transitional expression (conjunctive adverb): therefore
• Sentence 2: More research needs to be done on the topic
To fix this type of comma splice, use a semicolon before the transitional expression and add a
comma after it. See more examples of this on the semicolon page.

 CORRECTING RUN ON SENTENCES

A run-on sentence can be fixed by connecting its parts correctly. There are several ways to connect
independent clauses.

1. Use a period. The easiest way to fix a run-on is to split the sentence into smaller sentences using a
period. This revision works especially well with longer sentences. Check, however, to make sure
that this solution does not result in short, choppy sentences.
Revision example: I love to write papers. I would write one every day if I had the time.
 STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH
2. Use a semicolon. Inserting a semicolon between independent clauses creates a grammatically correct
sentence. Using a semicolon is a stylistic choice that establishes a close relationship between the two
sentences.

Revision example: I love to write papers; I would write one every day if I had the time.

3. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction. A comma, paired with a coordinating conjunction (e.g.,
"and," "but," or "or"), corrects a run-on sentence. This method emphasizes the relationship between the
two clauses.

Revision example: I love to write papers, and I would write one every day if I had the time.

4. Use a subordinating conjunction. Turn one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause. A
subordinating conjunction (e.g., "because," "unless," and "although") connects two clauses to create
a complex sentence. This option works to cement the relationship between the two parts of the sentence
and may improve the flow of the clauses.

Example: Because I love to write papers, I would write one every day if I had the time.

However you decide to revise for run-on sentences, remember that maintaining sentence variety helps to
keep the writing clear and interesting for your readers.

 SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
 A sentence fragment is a string of words that does not form a complete sentence; there is a
necessary component of a complete sentence missing. This missing component may be a subject
(usually a noun) or a predicate (verb or verb phrase) and/or when the sentence does not express a
complete idea.
Here is an example of a fragment with a missing subject.
Example of a fragment: Shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.
The sentence above is a fragment since there is no subject (Who shows no improvement?). Fragments can
be corrected by identifying the missing element and including it.
Revision: The patient shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.
Here is an example of a fragment with a missing predicate, or action:
Example of a fragment: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that contributed to
the body of knowledge in their fields, which was obstetrics.
Notice here that although the sentence is quite long, it still contains no action (What are the
doctors doing?). Once identified, the sentence can be corrected easily.

Revision: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that contributed to the body of
knowledge in their field, improved their knowledge of obstetrics.

TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION

1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCE (simple/assertive )
 It states fact or declare statement.
There are patterns in forming declarative sentence.
1. S+V+ Adv.
She dances gracefully.
They performed yesterday.
2. S+V+ DO
The class took a test.
3. S+LV+ Adj.
Liza is gorgeous.
4. S+LV+ Complement
English is an international language
STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH

2. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE
Sentence that ask questions or inquire about something. It always ends with question mark.
There are two ways to form an interrogative sentence.
a) Beginning with helping verbs (am, is, are, was, were, have, has, had) or modal auxiliaries
(shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might,etc.).
Examples:
 Is there something wrong?
 Should I go there?

 Beginning with (WH questions) who, what, when, where, whom, which, how, how much, how
many, etc.

Examples:

 What time is it?

 How many people have died there?

3. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE

A sentence that expresses a request, command, order, advice, suggestion is an imperative sentence.

In an imperative sentence, the subject is usually unexpressed; it is understood rather.

Pattern: Subject (invisible)+V+O/where

Examples:

 Take care of yourself.

 Come here.

4. OPTATIVE SENTENCE

A sentence that expresses wish for something or someone.

Pattern: May+ assertive

Examples:

 May you live long.

 May you be happy.

5. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE

An exclamatory sentence is the one in which sudden expressions of surprise, grief, joy, anger, and
fear are made. It always ends with the sign of exclamation (!) .

Examples:

 How a talented girl she is!

 I cannot believe he would do that!
PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

ACCEPTANCE

1. List down the different types of sentences according to

function and define each.
2. List down the Basic English sentence structure and discuss
each.
PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

APPLYING WHAT WAS

LEARNED

1. Create 10 sentences showing different types of sentences

according to function.
2. Construct a blog which can show the use of different sentence
structures.
PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

Supporting Evidence

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

GrammarHandbook.
http://www.capella.edu/interactivemedia/onlinewritingcenter
/downloads/grammar.pdf

: Discourse Analysis Scribbr https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/discourse

: Linguistic Society of America. https://www.linguisticociety.org/resource
conversation
: Types of Words and Word-Formation
http://webdelprofesor.ula.ve/humanidades/azapata/materias/english_4/u
ion_processes.pdf?fbclid=IwAR02i4qTD0IyauxfCzR3IuYhDjGpr1VM515pH7m