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Preface vii
provides an overview of the third edition of the ●● Learning Outcomes and Standards measure stu-
ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2012) and how it can dent results. MyLab Counseling organizes all
be applied to practice in the schools to include assignments around essential learning outcomes and
ASCA’s Mindsets and Behaviors (ASCA, 2014a). national standards for counselors.
●● Greater standardization of ancillary features is found ●● Video- and Case-Based Exercises develop deci-
in nearly every chapter. Most chapters contain incor- sion-making skills. Video- and Case-based Exer-
porated “Cultural Reflection” features, which pro- cises introduce students to a broader range of clients,
vide reflective questions aimed at getting counselor and therefore a broader range of presenting problems,
trainees to consider how every topic in this book than they will encounter in their own pre-professional
requires culturally sensitive modifications and con- clinical experiences. Students watch videos of actual
sideration in implementing the transformed role. client-therapist sessions or high-quality role-play
“Theory into Practice” features provide brief pas- scenarios featuring expert counselors. They are then
sages written by professional school counselors that guided in their analysis of the videos through a series
demonstrate real-life examples of practitioners of short-answer questions. These exercises help stu-
applying the theory and concepts covered in the dents develop the techniques and decision-making
chapter to actual practice venues, thus providing stu- skills they need to be effective counselors before they
dents with concrete applications, along with “Voices are in a critical situation with a real client.
from the Field” features. Activities are included at ●● Licensure Quizzes help students prepare for cer-
the end of every chapter. tification. Automatically graded, multiple-choice
●● As a result of updating the literature, more than 50% Licensure Quizzes help students prepare for their
of the fifth edition’s references are as recent as 2010. certification examinations, master foundational
●● Revisions have been made to the PowerPoint slides course content, and improve their performance in
available to instructors and the test questions pro- the course.
vided in the Instructor’s Manual, and the book is ●● Video Library offers a wealth of observation
fully aligned with Pearson’s MyLab Counseling opportunities. The Video Library provides more
materials. than 400 video clips of actual client-therapist ses-
sions and high-quality role plays in a database
organized by topic and searchable by keyword. The
SUPPLEMENTAL INSTRUCTIONAL Video Library includes every video clip from the
FEATURES MyLab Counseling courses plus additional videos
from Pearson’s extensive library of footage.
Supplemental to this book are pedagogical tools helpful
Instructors can create additional assignments
to school counselor educators choosing to use this book
around the videos or use them for in-class activi-
as a course textbook. The companion Instructor’s Man-
ties. Students can expand their observation experi-
ual contains at least 50 multiple-choice questions,
ences to include other course areas and increase the
20 essay questions, and 15 classroom or individual activ-
amount of time they spend watching expert counse-
ities per chapter. In addition, a comprehensive Microsoft
lors in action.
PowerPoint presentation is available from the publisher
for counselor educators to use or modify for classroom
presentations. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book is dedicated to the tens of thousands of profes-
ALSO AVAILABLE WITH MYLAB sional school counselors and school counselors-in-training
who struggle daily to meet the seemingly ever-expanding
COUNSELING
needs of the students, families, educational colleagues, and
This title is also available with MyLab Counseling, an communities they serve. This dedication extends to the
online homework, tutorial, and assessment program thousands of counselor educators and supervisors who
designed to work with the text to engage students and have devoted their lives to their profession, colleagues,
improve results. Within its structured environment, stu- and students. Thank you for making this a profession to be
dents see key concepts demonstrated through video clips, proud of! I especially want to thank the authors of this and
practice what they learn, test their understanding, and previous editions who contributed their perspectives and
receive feedback to guide their learning and ensure they words of wisdom. They are all true experts in their spe-
master key learning outcomes. cialty areas and are truly dedicated to the betterment of the
viii Preface
profession. It is an honor to work closely with such an Northern Colorado; Peggy L. Ceballos, University of
august group of scholars. Rebecca Fox-Gieg and Kevin North Texas; Trigg A. Even, University of North Texas
Davis of Pearson deserve special mention for their stew- Dallas; and Joe Ray Underwood, Mississippi State
ardship during the editing of this book. I am also grateful University. Finally, I am forever grateful to my family,
to the following reviewers for their helpful and supportive whose tolerance for my periodic quest of solitude makes
comments: Jennifer Murdock Bishop, University of projects such as this possible.
ABOUT THE EDITOR
Bradley T. Erford, Ph.D., LCPC, NCC, LPC, LP, LSP, is (Cengage, 2007, 2013; Pearson Merrill, 2020), Research
a professor in the human development counseling program and Evaluation in Counseling (Cengage, 2008, 2015),
of the Department of Human and Organizational Develop- Educational Applications of the WISC-IV (Western Psy-
ment in the Peabody College at Vanderbilt University. He chological Services, 2006), and Group Activities: Firing
was President of the American Counseling Association Up for Performance (Pearson Merrill, 2007). He is also the
(ACA) for 2012–2013 and also was Treasurer. He is the General Editor of The American Counseling Association
recipient of the ACA Research Award, ACA Extended Encyclopedia of Counseling (ACA, 2009). His research
Research Award, ACA Arthur A. Hitchcock Distinguished specialization falls primarily in development and technical
Professional Service Award, ACA Professional Develop- analysis of psychoeducational tests and has resulted in the
ment Award, Thomas J. Sweeney Award for Visionary publication of more than 70 refereed journal articles, 100
Leadership and Advocacy, and ACA Carl D. Perkins Gov- book chapters, and a dozen published tests. He was a rep-
ernment Relations Award. He was also inducted as an resentative to the ACA Governing Council and the ACA
ACA Fellow. In addition, he has received the Association 20/20 Visioning Committee. He is a past president and
for Assessment in Counseling and Education (AACE) past treasurer of AACE, past chair and parliamentarian of
AACE/MECD Research Award, AACE Exemplary Prac- the American Counseling Association—Southern (U.S.)
tices Award, AACE President’s Merit Award, the Associa- Region, past chair of ACA’s Task Force on High Stakes
tion for Counselor Education and Supervision’s (ACES) Testing, past chair of ACA’s Standards for Test Users
Robert O. Stripling Award for Excellence in Standards, Task Force, past chair of ACA’s Inter-professional Com-
Maryland Association for Counseling and Development mittee, past chair of the ACA Public Awareness and Sup-
(MACD) Maryland Counselor of the Year, MACD Coun- port Committee (co-chair of the National Awards
selor Advocacy Award, MACD Professional Development Sub-committee), chair of the Convention and past chair of
Award, and MACD Counselor Visibility Award. He is the the Screening Assessment Instruments Committees for
editor of numerous texts, including Orientation to the AACE, past president of the Maryland Association for
Counseling Profession (Pearson Merrill, 2010, 2014, Counseling and Development (MACD), past president of
2018), Crisis Intervention and Prevention (Pearson Mer- Maryland Association for Measurement and Evaluation
rill, 2010, 2014, 2018), Group Work in the Schools (Pear- (MAME), past president of Maryland Association for
son Merrill, 2010; Routledge, 2015), Group Work: Process Counselor Education and Supervision (MACES), and past
and Applications (Pearson Merrill, 2011; Routledge, president of the Maryland Association for Mental Health
2019), Transforming the School Counseling Profession Counselors (MAMHC). He is also a senior associate editor
(Pearson Merrill, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015, 2019), Profes- of the Journal of Counseling & Development and the ACA
sional School Counseling: A Handbook of Principles, Pro- Practice Briefs. Dr. Erford is a Licensed Clinical Profes-
grams and Practices (PRO-ED, 2004, 2010, 2016), sional Counselor, Licensed Professional Counselor,
Clinical Experiences in Counseling (Pearson, 2015), An Nationally Certified Counselor, Licensed Psychologist,
Advanced Lifespan Odyssey for Counseling Professionals and Licensed School Psychologist. Dr. Erford was a school
(Cengage, 2017), Applying Techniques to Common psychologist/counselor in the Chesterfield County (VA)
Encounters in School Counseling: A Case-based Approach Public Schools. He maintains a private practice specializ-
(Pearson Merrill, 2014), and The Counselor’s Guide to ing in assessment and treatment of children and adoles-
Clinical, Personality and Behavioral Assessment (Cen- cents. A graduate of The University of Virginia (Ph.D.),
gage, 2006), as well as the author/coauthor of Mastering Bucknell University (M.A.), and Grove City College
the NCE and CPCE (Pearson Merrill, 2011, 2015, 2020), (B.S.), he teaches courses in Testing and Measurement,
40 Techniques Every Counselor Should Know (Merrill/ Lifespan Development, Research and Evaluation in Coun-
Prentice Hall, 2010, 2014, 2020), Assessment for C
ounselors seling, School Counseling, and Stress Management.

ix
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Gary E. Goodnough, NCC, is the chair of the Counselor p ositions include Director of Clinical Experiences at Loy-
Education and School Psychology Department at Plym- ola University Maryland and faculty in the school coun-
outh State University, New Hampshire. He received a seling program, Chief of the Student Services and
Ph.D. in counselor education from the University of Vir- Alternative Programs Branch at the Maryland State Depart-
ginia in 1995 and is a National Certified Counselor and ment of Education, state specialist for school counseling, a
state-licensed clinical mental health counselor. A former local school system counseling supervisor, a middle and
high school director of guidance, he has coedited a book high school counselor, and a special education teacher. She
on school counseling, written several articles and book has made numerous presentations over the course of her
chapters, and made numerous regional and national profes- career, particularly in the areas of ethics and legal issues for
sional presentations. counselors and public policy and legislation. Dr. Linde is an
ACA Fellow and the recipient of the ACA Carl Perkins
Vivian V. Lee is associate professor in the Counseling and Award, the Association for Counselor Education and
Human Development Program at Johns Hopkins Univer- Supervision’s (ACES) Program Supervisor Award, the
sity. Prior to joining the faculty at JHU, Lee was associate Southern Association for Counselor Education and Super-
professor of transcultural counseling at University of vision’s (SACES) Program Supervisor Award, and ACA
Malta. She is the former Senior Director at the National President’s Award, as well as numerous awards from the
Office for School Counselor Advocacy of the College Maryland state counseling association and from the state of
Board. She is a former teacher, secondary school counse- Maryland for her work in student services and youth suicide
lor, director of school counseling, and counselor educator. prevention. She has held a number of leadership positions
She continues to teach school counseling courses as an in the ACA and its entities and was the 2009–2010 Presi-
adjunct at the University of Maryland at College Park. Her dent and the 2012–2013 Treasurer of the ACA.
work includes research in the area of school counselor pro-
fessional development, she has served as trainer with the Patricia J. Martin is a nationally recognized leader in the
Education Trust’s National Center for Transforming reform of school counseling and efforts to solidify counse-
School Counseling Initiative, and she has published arti- lors’ work as an integral part of the primary mission for
cles and book chapters on developing school counseling schools. She has served as a public school educator for over
programs, conflict resolution and violence, and group 35 years, as well as a mathematics teacher, school counse-
counseling. She received her master’s and doctoral degrees lor, district supervisor of counselors, high school principal,
from the University of Virginia and worked in public edu- chief educational administrator, and assistant superinten-
cation for 24 years before joining the College Board. dent of schools. She has developed and managed institu-
tional programs and system policies that directly impact
Erin H. Leff is an attorney, mediator, and retired master’s- access and educational equity for all students. Pat provided
level psychologist who has worked in special education for leadership nationally in the development and implementa-
over 30 years. She earned an M.S. in educational psychol- tion of a multi-year Wallace Foundation Grant at Education
ogy from the University of Wisconsin–Madison and a J.D. Trust, Inc.—The National Initiative for Transforming
from Rutgers–Camden. She has worked as an attorney, a School Counseling (1995–2001), redefining the role of
psychologist, and a program administrator in multiple school counselors and establishing redesigned models for
states. She has been a special education due process hear- counselor education pre-service programs focused on advo-
ing officer, appeals officer, and mediator. She has provided cacy and equity in educational outcomes for all students.
training on various topics in special education and media- Recently (2003–2013) at the College Board, Pat led the
tion. She also has provided instruction on special educa- National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA),
tion law and process at the graduate level. creating national prominence for counselors in education
reform by developing a distinct body of college and career
Lynn Linde is the Senior Director of the Center for readiness work, the largest depository in the nation, for
Counseling Practice, Policy and Research at the American advancing school counselors’ role in this venue. In addition,
Counseling Association (ACA). She received her master’s at NOSCA she led the development of surveys and dissem-
degree in school counseling and her doctorate in counseling ination of results from the 2011 and 2012 National Surveys
from George Washington University. Her previous of School Counselors, seminal works supported by the

xi
xii About the Authors
Kresge Foundation, which is guiding the national agenda Connecticut Association for Counselor Education and Super-
for college and career readiness today. As a team member vision. She is actively involved with statewide advocacy
of the National Consortium of School Counseling for Post- efforts to support K–12 comprehensive school counseling
secondary Success, she worked in support of former First programming. She is an invited team member of the Con-
Lady Michelle Obama’s Reach Higher Initiative, advanc- necticut Reach Higher Team, which is focused on improving
ing the White House College Opportunity Agenda. school counseling programs to increase college access and
opportunity. She has published articles in the areas of coun-
Spencer G. Niles is Dean and Professor at the School of selor preparation and college and career readiness and has
Education at the College of William & Mary. Previously, delivered numerous presentations on program advocacy.
he served as Distinguished Professor and Department
Head for Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Spe- Rachelle Pérusse is an Associate Professor in the School
cial Education at the Pennsylvania State University. Prior Counseling Program at the University of Connecticut.
to joining the faculty at Penn State, he served on the coun- Before becoming a school counselor educator, Dr. Pérusse
selor education faculty at the University of Virginia. Dean worked as a high school counselor in a rural school district
Niles was recently identified as one of the most influential in Georgia with predominantly first-generation and low-
deans of education in the United States. He is a Past Presi- income students and students of color. She was President of
dent of Chi Sigma Iota International and President Elect of both the Connecticut School Counselor Association
the National Career Development Association (NCDA). (CSCA) and the North Atlantic Region for Counselor Edu-
He is the recipient of the NCDA Eminent Career Award, cators and Supervisors. She represented CSCA on the State
ACA’s Thomas Sweeney Visionary Leadership and Advo- of Connecticut’s P-20 Council for Career and College
cacy Award, President’s Award, David Brooks Distin- Readiness and served on the Connecticut Department of
guished Mentor Award, ACA Extended Research Award, Higher Education’s College Readiness Project. She received
ACA’s Visionary Leader and Advocate Award, and Uni- the NOSCA National Advocacy Award for leadership in
versity of British Columbia Noted Scholar Award. Niles is creating a college-going culture at the master’s school coun-
a Fellow of ACA and NCDA. He has served previously as selor preparation level. In 2014, she was invited to speak on
President for the National Career Development Associa- a panel at First Lady Michelle Obama’s first White House
tion (2003–2004), Editor for The Career Development Convening on School Counseling. Her current research is
Quarterly, Editor for the Journal of Counseling & Devel- focused on preparing all students in grades 4 through 8 to
opment, and continues to serve on numerous journal edito- attend a postsecondary option of their choice, as well as
rial boards. He has authored or coauthored approximately increasing the number of girls and students of color who
140 publications and delivered over 150 presentations on choose a STEM career. Dr. Pérusse has had several articles
career development theory and practice. He has taught in published about national trends in school counselor educa-
over 25 countries and is an Honorary Member of the Japa- tion and has co-edited two books: Critical Incidents in
nese Career Development Association, Honorary Member Group Counseling and Leadership, Advocacy, and Direct
of the Italian Association for Educational and Vocational Service Strategies for Professional School Counselors.
Guidance, a member of the Board of Directors for the
International Center for Career Development and Public Elana Rock is an Associate Professor of Special Educa-
Policy, and a Lifetime Honorary Member of the Ohio tion in the Teacher Education Department at Loyola Uni-
Career Development Association. versity Maryland. She earned a B.A. in psychology from
the University of Pennsylvania, an M.A. in teaching chil-
Jennifer Parzych, Ph.D., has been an assistant professor and dren with emotional disturbance from New York Univer-
coordinator in the school counseling program at Southern sity, and an Ed.D. in special education from Johns Hopkins
Connecticut State University since 2015. Prior to this University. Dr. Rock has served as an expert research
appointment, she was an assistant professor in the school consultant to the U.S. District Court’s Special Master over-
counseling program at Mercy College in New York from seeing special education service delivery in Baltimore City
2013 to 2015. She received a Ph.D. in counselor education Public Schools and continues to consult with schools and
from the University of Connecticut in 2013. Before becoming school districts on special education issues. Her research
a school counselor educator, she was a school counselor at publications and presentations focus on children with con-
the high school and middle school levels in Connecticut for comitant high-prevalence disorders, the evaluation of ser-
15 years. Professionally, she has served as the president vice delivery in special education, and special education
(2014–2015) and middle-level vice president (2013–2014) teacher education. Prior to earning her doctorate, she
and is currently the treasurer of the Connecticut School taught elementary and secondary students with learning
Counselor Association. She is also President Elect of the disabilities and emotional/behavioral disorders.
BRIEF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Becoming a Professional School Counselor: Current Perspectives, Historical Roots,

and Future Challenges 1
Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 2 The ASCA National Model: Developing a Comprehensive, Developmental School

Counseling Program 26
Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 3 Transformational Thinking in Today’s Schools 42

Patricia J. Martin
Chapter 4 Systemic, Data-Driven School Counseling Practice and Programming for

Equity 67
Vivian V. Lee and Gary E. Goodnough
Chapter 5 Accountability: Assessing Needs, Determining Outcomes, and Evaluating

Programs 94
Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 6 Outcome Research on Evidence-Based School Counseling Interventions and

Programs 131
Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 7 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Issues in School Counseling 145

Lynn Linde
Chapter 8 Culturally Competent School Counselors: Affirming Diversity by Challenging

Oppression 172
Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 9 Leadership and Advocacy for Every Student’s Achievement and

Opportunity 190
Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 10 Implementing the Developmental School Counseling Core Curriculum in the

Classroom 211
Rachelle Pérusse, Jennifer Parzych, and Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 11 Academic K–12 Development and Planning for College and Career
Readiness 232
Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 12 Promoting Career and Individual Planning in Schools 250

Spencer G. Niles and Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 13 Counseling Individuals and Groups in School 269

Bradley T. Erford

xiii
xiv Brief Contents
Chapter 14 Consultation, Collaboration, and Encouraging Parent Involvement 293

Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 15 Systemic Approaches to Counseling Students Experiencing Complex and

Specialized Problems 316
Bradley T. Erford, Vivian E. Lee, and Elana Rock
Chapter 16 The Professional School Counselor and Students with Disabilities 341
Elana Rock and Erin H. Leff
Chapter 17 Helping Students with Mental and Emotional Disorders 382

Bradley T. Erford
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Becoming a Professional School Counselor: Current Perspectives, Historical

Roots, and Future Challenges 1
Bradley T. Erford
On Becoming a Professional School Counselor: Your Destiny 1

The Rise of Professional School Counseling in the United States 2
The Role of the Professional School Counselor in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s 4
Student Personnel Administration 4
Psychologists, Working as Researchers and Clinicians 5
Personnel Work in Industry 5
Social Work 5
Mental Health and Psychiatry 5
Guidance as the Personalization of Education 6
Guidance as the Integration of Education 6
Guidance as the Coordination of Student Personnel Services 6
School Counseling Comes into Its Own: The 1950s and 1960s 7
The National Defense Education Act, 1958–1968 8
The Great Society Legislation of the 1960s 9
The Years of Consolidation and Refinement: The 1970s and Beyond 9
Multicultural Diversity 10
The Latter Decades of the 20th Century 11
Continuing and Future Issues for the School Counseling Profession 15
Traditional and Emerging Practices 20
Realizations Guiding the Transformation of the Professional School Counselor 20
Living the Transformed Role 24
Summary/Conclusion 25
Activities 25
Chapter 2 The ASCA National Model: Developing a Comprehensive, Developmental School
Counseling Program 26
Bradley T. Erford
The ASCA Mindsets and Behaviors and National Model 26

Themes of the ASCA National Model 27
Foundation 27
Delivery 30
School Counseling Core Curriculum 30
Individual Student Planning 31
Responsive Services 31
Indirect Student Services 32

xv
xvi Contents
Management 33
Annual Agreement 33
Advisory Council 33
Use of Data, School Program Data, and Program Results Data 34
Action and Lesson Plans 34
Calendars 34
Assessments: School Counselor Competencies, Program Assessment,
and Use of Time 36
Accountability System 37
Roles of Other School Personnel in the Comprehensive School Counseling Program 39
Teachers 39
Resource Teachers 39
Principals and Assistant Principals 39
School Psychologists 40
School Social Workers (Visiting Teachers, Pupil Personnel Workers) 40
School Nurses 40
Secretaries (Administrative Assistants) 40
Activities 41
Chapter 3 Transformational Thinking in Today’s Schools 42
Patricia J. Martin
School: The Primary Workplace for School Counselors 42

The Context of Professional School Counseling 42
Four Forces Driving Change in Schools 43
Inequities in the Educational System 43
Changes in the Nation’s Demographics and School Populations 44
Changes in the Economy and the Workplace 45
Major Changes in Education Public Policy 46
Education Reform 49
The College and Career Readiness Policy and School Reform 49
Policies That Promote College-Level Rigor for All Students Drive Changes in School
Counselor Practice 50
Transforming the School Counseling Profession 52
School Reforms Prompt the Transforming School Counseling Movement 52
The Transforming School Counseling Initiative: The Education Trust, Inc. 52
National Standards for School Counseling Programs 53
The ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs 55
The Reach Higher Initiative 55
Impact of Change on School Counselor Practice 56
Accountability in School Counselor Practice 56
Advocacy in School Counseling Practice 58
National Guidance for Transformed School Counseling Functions 59
A Call for Change in School Counselor Preparation Programs 60
Contents xvii
Accountability: Practice That Demonstrates School Counseling Counts 60

Leadership and Transformed School Counselor Practice 61
What Prevents Professional School Counselors from Changing? 61
A Sense of Urgency Is Propelling Change 63
Activities 65
Chapter 4 Systemic, Data-Driven School Counseling Practice and Programming for Equity 67
Vivian V. Lee and Gary E. Goodnough
Implementing the New Vision of School Counseling 67

Program Vision—Commitment to Social Justice 67
Equity—A Working Definition 68
Program Structure—Making a Paradigm Shift to Systems 70
Understanding Systems in School Counseling 71
Integrated Educational and School Counseling Programs 72
Outcomes/Results 73
District and School Policies 74
Understanding the Role of Data 74
Data Skills 75
Measuring Progress toward Access, Attainment, and Achievement Data 75
Systemic Assessment 80
Data-Driven Goals 81
Planning the School Counseling Program 83
Strategic Planning and Program Development 83
The Program Calendar 84
Implementation at Multiple Levels of Programmatic Intervention 85
Individual Level of Intervention 85
Group Level of Intervention 85
Classroom Level of Intervention 85
Grade Level of Intervention 85
School Level of Intervention 86
School District Level of Intervention 86
Family Level of Intervention 86
Community Level of Intervention 87
Evaluating the Systemic, Data-Driven School Counseling Program 89
Activities 93
Chapter 5 Accountability: Assessing Needs, Determining Outcomes, and
Evaluating Programs 94
Bradley T. Erford
Accountability in School Counseling 94

Needs Assessment 96
Data-Driven Needs Assessments 96
Perceptions-Based Needs Assessments 98
xviii Contents
Program (Process) Assessment 105

Service Assessment 105
Results or Outcome Evaluation 106
Important Assessment Terms 108
Sources of Evidence 108
Practical Program Evaluation Considerations 108
Assessing Outcomes through a Hierarchical Aggregated Process 109
Designing Outcome Studies 109
Action Research 113
Reporting the Results 113
Performance Appraisal 116
Activities 130
Chapter 6 Outcome Research on Evidence-Based School Counseling Interventions and
Programs 131
Bradley T. Erford
Outcome Research in School Counseling 131

Is School Counseling Effective? 132
Which Students Benefit from School Counseling Interventions? 133
What Are the Effective Methods for Delivering School Counseling Programs? 134
School Counseling Core Curriculum 134
Individual Student Planning 137
Responsive Services 137
Does a Fully Implemented School Counseling Program Make a Difference? 142
Activities 144
Chapter 7 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Issues in School Counseling 145
Lynn Linde
Professional Associations and Credentialing Organizations 145

Ethical Standards and Laws 146
ACA Code of Ethics 147
The Practice of Internet or Technology-Assisted Distance Counseling 151
ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors 153
Decision Making Using Ethical Standards 154
Other Sources of Information and Guidance 155
The Court System 155
Statutory Law 156
State and Local Agencies 156
Making Decisions 157
Additional Legal Considerations 159
Professional Competence 159
Contents xix
“Can I Be Sued?” and “What Is Malpractice?” 160

Subpoenas 161
Confidentiality 161
Limits to Confidentiality 162
Confidentiality and Privileged Communication 163
Minor Consent Laws 164
Records and Personal Notes 165
Educational Records 165
Personal Notes 167
The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 167
Child Abuse 168
Suicide 168
Activities 171
Chapter 8 Culturally Competent School Counselors: Affirming Diversity by Challenging
Oppression 172
Bradley T. Erford
Multicultural and Anti-Oppression Terminology 175

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling 177
Multicultural Competence 178
The Need for Culturally Competent School Counselors 178
Integrating Multicultural and Anti-Oppression Topics in School Counseling Programs 179
Empowerment-Focused Interventions 180
Individual Counseling 180
Group Counseling 181
Consultation 181
Assessment 181
School Counseling Core Curriculum Lessons 182
School Counseling Program Coordination 182
Data Collection and Sharing 183
Increasing Professional School Counselors’ Multicultural Competence 186
Investigate One’s Own Cultural, Racial, and Ethnic Heritage 186
Attend Workshops, Seminars, and Conferences on Multicultural and Diversity Issues 186
Join Counseling Organizations Focused on Cultural and Social Justice Equity
Competencies 186
Read Literature Written by Culturally Diverse Authors 186
Become Familiar with Multicultural Education Literature 186
Professional School Counselor Multicultural Competence Checklist 187
Practice Cases 187
Activities 189
xx Contents
Chapter 9 Leadership and Advocacy for Every Student’s Achievement and

Opportunity 190
Bradley T. Erford
Professional School Counselors: Leading and Advocating 190

Professional School Counselors as Leaders 192
Research in School Counseling Leadership Practices 193
Leadership in Professional School Counseling Organizations at Local, State, and National
Levels 195
Professional School Counselors as Advocates 195
Challenging Barriers to Achievement and Opportunity 196
Advocacy in Transformed School Counseling Programs 197
Applying Advocacy Competencies in Schools 197
Empowering Students with Achievement and Opportunity Competencies 199
Empowering Parents and Guardians with Achievement and Opportunity Advocacy
Skills 200
Empowering Educators with Achievement and Opportunity Advocacy Skills 202
Empowering School Systems for Achievement and Opportunity Advocacy 203
Empowering Community Stakeholders for Achievement and Opportunity Advocacy 205
Publicizing School Counseling Program Achievement and Opportunity Advocacy
Outcomes 206
From Status Quo Gatekeepers to Systemic Change Advocates and Leaders 207
Savvy School Counselors Publicize Achievement and Opportunity Gap Outcomes 208
Activities 210
Chapter 10 Implementing the Developmental School Counseling Core Curriculum in the
Classroom 211
Rachelle Pérusse, Jennifer Parzych, and Bradley T. Erford
The Scope and Responsibility of the School Counselor 211

The Effect of Core Curriculum Classroom Instruction on Student Development 212
The Role of the Professional School Counselor in Delivering the Core Curriculum 214
Setting Up and Managing a Classroom Environment 215
Arranging the Classroom 215
Working with the Classroom Teacher’s Rules 216
Preventing Discipline Issues in the Classroom 216
Managing Disruptive Behaviors as a Counselor in the Classroom 217
Crafting a Curriculum 217
Creating Units and Lessons 220
Scope and Sequence 220
Conceptualizing a Unit 220
Learning Considerations for Planning Units and Lessons 221
Learning Objectives 222
Contents xxi
Constructing Differentiated Developmental Lessons and Activities 224

Introducing Lessons 224
Developmental Activities 224
Conclusion, Assessment, and Follow-Up 225
Activities 231
Chapter 11 Academic K–12 Development and Planning for College and Career
Readiness 232
Bradley T. Erford
Academic and Career Planning in the Modern Era 232

Who Are the Underserved in U.S. K–12 Education? 232
What Key Organizations and Frameworks in Career and College Readiness Are Helping
Professional School Counselors as Systemic Change Agents? 233
What Key Assessment and Learning Tools Do School Counselors Use in Collaboration with
Other Educators to Strengthen Academic Preparation in Schools? 235
What Is College and Career Readiness? 237
What Are the Data? 237
What Is Equity in College and Career Readiness Academic Outcomes? 244
How Can Professional School Counselors Lead and Advocate Systemic Change for College
and Career Readiness in School Counseling Programs? 245
NOSCA’s Eight Components of College and Career Readiness Counseling 245
What Are Academic Planning and Development? 245
What Is K–12 Academic Development? 246
What Are the School Counselor’s Roles and Responsibilities in Academic Planning and
Development? 247
How Does the Professional School Counselor Collaborate Effectively with Teachers,
Administrators, and Parents/Guardians in Academic Development for Students? 247
What Are the Critical Interventions? 248
Activities 249
Chapter 12 Promoting Career and Individual Planning in Schools 250
Spencer G. Niles and Bradley T. Erford
The Tradition of Career-Planning Interventions in Schools 250

Career and Educational Planning Today 250
Implementing Systematic and Well-Coordinated Career-Planning Programs 252
Career Assessment 253
Career and Educational Planning in Elementary School 255
Career and Educational Planning in Middle or Junior High School 258
Career and Educational Planning in High School 261
Multicultural Implications of Career Planning 265
Developing Life-Role Readiness and Salience 265
Activities 268
xxii Contents
Chapter 13 Counseling Individuals and Groups in School 269

Bradley T. Erford
Individual Counseling in Schools 269

Developmental Considerations 271
Early Childhood 271
Middle Childhood 272
Adolescence 273
A Counseling Model for Children and Adolescents 273
Building a Therapeutic Alliance 273
Assessing Specific Counseling Needs 275
Designing and Implementing Interventions 277
Conducting Outcome Evaluation and Termination 278
Solution-Focused Brief Counseling 279
Reality Therapy/Choice Theory 281
Group Counseling in Schools 282
Types of Groups 283
Setting Up Groups in Schools 285
Conducting Group Work 288
Activities 292
Helping Lab Videos 292
Chapter 14 Consultation, Collaboration, and Encouraging Parent Involvement 293
Bradley T. Erford
The Counselor as Consultant: Case Examples 293

Consultation Models 294
The Triadic-Dependent Model: Traditional Expert-Directed Consultation 294
The Collaborative-Dependent Model: Partnership and Problem Solving 298
The Collaborative-Interdependent Model: Addressing Issues with Multiple Causes Across
Multiple Contexts 299
Systems-Level Consultation Process 303
Step 1: Enter the System 303
Step 2: Join the System 304
Step 3: Initiate Problem Solving 305
Step 4: Frame Change 306
Step 5: Evaluate Change 307
Step 6: Facilitate Closure 307
School Consultation and Collaboration with Diverse Populations 307
Collaborative Consultation: Reaching Out to the Broader Community 308
Encouraging Parent/Guardian Collaboration in Their Children’s Educational Experiences 309
School Outreach and Changing Family Needs 310
Contents xxiii
Communicating Effectively with Parents and Guardians 312

Activities 315
Chapter 15 Systemic Approaches to Counseling Students Experiencing Complex and
Specialized Problems 316
Bradley T. Erford, Vivian E. Lee, and Elana Rock
The Changing Needs of Students and Families 316

Resiliency: Focusing on What’s Right, Rather than What’s Wrong 317
Identifying and Categorizing Students with Complex Problems 318
Systemic Approaches to Working with Students Experiencing Complex Problems 319
System Failures: Who Is to Blame? 320
Why Haven’t Needs of Students Experiencing Complex Problems Been Addressed? 320
Working with Youth with Complex Problems 321
Responding to Crisis Situations 321
Suicide 324
Violence and Threat Assessment 326
Substance Abuse 327
Grief Work and Children from Changing Families 330
Dropout Prevention 333
Conflict Resolution and Peer Mediation Program Development 336
Effective Systemic Intervention for Students with Complex Problems 338
Activities 340
Chapter 16 The Professional School Counselor and Students with Disabilities 341
Elana Rock and Erin H. Leff
Improving Outcomes for Students with Disabilities 341

Serving Students with Disabilities 342
Federal Legislation 343
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 344
Section 504 and the Americans with Disabilities Act 351
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) 352
Related Services for Students with Disabilities Under the IDEA and Section 504 353
Counseling Services 353
Parent/Guardian Counseling and Training 353
Rehabilitation Counseling Services 354
Transition Services Under the IDEA 355
Providing Services to Support Students with Disabilities 355
Developing and Using Response to Intervention 355
Multidisciplinary Team Responsibilities 358
Provision of Direct Services to Children with Disabilities 368
Individualized Transition Program Planning 371
Secondary Transition Programming 372
xxiv Contents
General Issues for Professional School Counselors Serving Students with Disabilities 378
Cultural Considerations 378
Activities 381
Chapter 17 Helping Students with Mental and Emotional Disorders 382
Bradley T. Erford
Prevalence of Mental Health Issues in Youth 382

Factors Contributing to the High Incidence of Emotional Disturbance 383
The Professional School Counselor’s Role 384
Barriers to Providing Mental Health Services in Schools 385
Current and Future Trends in the Way Services Are Provided 385
What Professional School Counselors Need to Know About Mental and Emotional
Disorders 386
Diagnosis and Treatment Planning 387
Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Disorders Ordinarily First Diagnosed in School-Age Children or
Adolescents 387
Intellectual Developmental Disorder 387
Specific Learning, Motor, and Communication Disorders 389
Autism Spectrum Disorders 390
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 391
Tic Disorders 393
Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders 393
Feeding and Eating Disorders in Children and Adolescents 395
Elimination Disorders: Encopresis and Enuresis 397
Depressive Disorders 397
Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders 398
Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders 400
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 400
Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders 401
Reactive Attachment Disorder 401
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 401
Adjustment Disorders 403
Anxiety Disorders 403
Separation Anxiety Disorder 403
Generalized Anxiety Disorder 404
Activities 405
References 407
Name Index 423
Subject Index 427
Another random document with
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even to forgotten and moth-eaten twopenny pamphlets, which may
be used to the disadvantage of his own country. But, as to the
Hartford Convention, sir, allow me to say that the proceedings of
that body seem now to be less read and studied in New England than
farther south. They appear to be looked to, not in New England, but
elsewhere, for the purpose of seeing how far they may serve as a
precedent. But they will not answer the purpose—they are quite too
tame. The latitude in which they originated was too cold. Other
conventions, of more recent existence, have gone a whole bar’s
length beyond it. The learned doctors of Colleton and Abbeville have
pushed their commentaries on the Hartford collect so far that the
original text writers are thrown entirely into the shade. I have
nothing to do, sir, with the Hartford Convention. Its journal, which
the gentleman has quoted, I never read. So far as the honorable
member may discover in its proceedings a spirit in any degree
resembling that which was avowed and justified in those other
conventions to which I have alluded, or so far as those proceedings
can be shown to be disloyal to the constitution, or tending to
disunion, so far I shall be as ready as any one to bestow on them
reprehension and censure.
Having dwelt long on this convention, and other occurrences of
that day, in the hope, probably, (which will not be gratified,) that I
should leave the course of this debate to follow him at length in those
excursions, the honorable member returned, and attempted another
object. He referred to a speech of mine in the other house, the same
which I had occasion to allude to myself the other day; and has
quoted a passage or two from it, with a bold though uneasy and
laboring air of confidence, as if he had detected in me an
inconsistency. Judging from the gentleman’s manner, a stranger to
the course of the debate, and to the point in discussion, would have
imagined, from so triumphant a tone, that the honorable member
was about to overwhelm me with a manifest contradiction. Any one
who heard him, and who had not heard what I had, in fact,
previously said, must have thought me routed and discomfited, as
the gentleman had promised. Sir, a breath blows all this triumph
away. There is not the slightest difference in the sentiments of my
remarks on the two occasions. What I said here on Wednesday is in
exact accordance with the opinions expressed by me in the other
house in 1825. Though the gentleman had the metaphysics of
Hudibras—though he were able
“to sever and divide
A hair ’twixt north and north west side,”
he could not yet insert his metaphysical scissors between the fair
reading of my remarks in 1825 and what I said here last week. There
is not only no contradiction, no difference, but, in truth, too exact a
similarity, both in thought and language, to be entirely in just taste. I
had myself quoted the same speech; had recurred to it, and spoke
with it open before me; and much of what I said was little more than
a repetition from it. In order to make finishing work with this alleged
contradiction, permit me to recur to the origin of this debate, and
review its course. This seems expedient, and may be done as well
now as at any time.
Well, then, its history is this: the honorable member from
Connecticut moved a resolution, which constituted the first branch of
that which is now before us; that is to say, a resolution instructing
the committee on public lands to inquire into the expediency of
limiting, for a certain period, the sales of public lands to such as have
heretofore been offered for sale; and whether sundry offices,
connected with the sales of the lands, might not be abolished without
detriment to the public service.
In the progress of the discussion which arose on this resolution, an
honorable member from New Hampshire moved to amend the
resolution, so as entirely to reverse its object; that is to strike it all
out, and insert a direction to the committee to inquire into the
expediency of adopting measures to hasten the sales, and extend
more rapidly the surveys of the lands.
The honorable member from Maine (Mr. Sprague) suggested that
both these propositions might well enough go, for consideration, to
the committee; and in this state of the question, the member from
South Carolina addressed the Senate in his first speech. He rose, he
said, to give his own free thoughts on the public lands. I saw him
rise, with pleasure, and listened with expectation, though before he
concluded I was filled with surprise. Certainly, I was never more
surprised than to find him following up, to the extent he did, the
sentiments and opinions which the gentleman from Missouri had put
forth, and which it is known he has long entertained.
I need not repeat, at large, the general topics of the honorable
gentleman’s speech. When he said, yesterday, that he did not attack
the Eastern States, he certainly must have forgotten not only
particular remarks, but the whole drift and tenor of his speech;
unless he means by not attacking, that he did not commence
hostilities, but that another had preceded him in the attack. He, in
the first place, disapproved of the whole course of the government
for forty years, in regard to its dispositions of the public land; and
then, turning northward and eastward, and fancying he had found a
cause for alleged narrowness and niggardliness in the “accursed
policy” of the tariff, to which he represented the people of New
England as wedded, he went on, for a full hour, with remarks, the
whole scope of which was to exhibit the results of this policy, in
feelings and in measures unfavorable to the west. I thought his
opinions unfounded and erroneous, as to the general course of the
government, and ventured to reply to them.
The gentleman had remarked on the analogy of other cases, and
quoted the conduct of European governments towards their own
subjects, settling on this continent, as in point, to show that we had
been harsh and rigid in selling when we should have given the public
lands to settlers. I thought the honorable member had suffered his
judgment to be betrayed by a false analogy; that he was struck with
an appearance of resemblance where there was no real similitude. I
think so still. The first settlers of North America were enterprising
spirits, engaging in private adventure, or fleeing from tyranny at
home. When arrived here, they were forgotten by the mother
country, or remembered only to be oppressed. Carried away again by
the appearance of analogy, or struck with the eloquence of the
passage, the honorable member yesterday observed that the conduct
of government towards the western emigrants, or my representation
of it, brought to his mind a celebrated speech in the British
Parliament. It was, sir, the speech of Colonel Barre. On the question
of the stamp act, or tea tax, I forget which, Colonel Barre had heard a
member on the treasury bench argue, that the people of the United
States, being British colonists, planted by the maternal care,
nourished by the indulgence, and protected by the arms of England,
would not grudge their mite to relieve the mother country from the
heavy burden under which she groaned. The language of Colonel
Barre, in reply to this, was, “They planted by your care? Your
oppression planted them in America. They fled from your tyranny,
and grew by your neglect of them. So soon as you began to care for
them, you showed your care by sending persons to spy out their
liberties, misrepresent their character, prey upon them, and eat out
their substance.”
And does this honorable gentleman mean to maintain that
language like this is applicable to the conduct of the government of
the United States towards the western emigrants, or to any
representation given by me of that conduct? Were the settlers in the
west driven thither by our oppression? Have they flourished only by
our neglect of them? Has the government done nothing but prey
upon them, and eat out their substance? Sir, this fervid eloquence of
the British speaker, just when and where it was uttered, and fit to
remain an exercise for the schools, is not a little out of place, when it
was brought thence to be applied here, to the conduct of our own
country towards her own citizens. From America to England it may
be true; from Americans to their own government it would be
strange language. Let us leave it to be recited and declaimed by our
boys against a foreign nation; not introduce it here, to recite and
declaim ourselves against our own.
But I come to the point of the alleged contradiction. In my remarks
on Wednesday, I contended that we could not give away gratuitously
all the public lands; that we held them in trust; that the government
had solemnly pledged itself to dispose of them as a common fund for
the common benefit, and to sell and settle them as its discretion
should dictate. Now, sir, what contradiction does the gentleman find
to this sentiment in the speech of 1825? He quotes me as having then
said, that we ought not to hug these lands as a very great treasure.
Very well, sir; supposing me to be accurately reported in that
expression, what is the contradiction? I have not now said, that we
should hug these lands as a favorite source of pecuniary income. No
such thing. It is not my view. What I have said, and what I do say, is,
that they are a common fund—to be disposed of for the common
benefit—to be sold at low prices, for the accommodation of settlers,
keeping the object of settling the lands as much in view as that of
raising money from them. This I say now, and this I have always
said. Is this hugging them as a favorite treasure? Is there no
difference between hugging and hoarding this fund, on the one hand,
as a great treasure, and on the other of disposing of it at low prices,
placing the proceeds in the general treasury of the Union? My
opinion is, that as much is to be made of the land, as fair and
reasonably may be, selling it all the while at such rates as to give the
fullest effect to settlement. This is not giving it all away to the states,
as the gentleman would propose, nor is it hugging the fund closely
and tenaciously, as a favorite treasure; but it is, in my judgment, a
just and wise policy, perfectly according with all the various duties
which rest on government. So much for my contradiction. And what
is it? Where is the ground of the gentleman’s triumph? What
inconsistency, in word or doctrine, has he been able to detect? Sir, if
this be a sample of that discomfiture with which the honorable
gentleman threatened me, commend me to the word discomfiture for
the rest of my life.
But, after all, this is not the point of the debate; and I must bring
the gentleman back to that which is the point.
The real question between me and him is, Where has the doctrine
been advanced, at the south or the east, that the population of the
west should be retarded, or, at least, need not be hastened, on
account of its effect to drain off the people from the Atlantic States?
Is this doctrine, as has been alleged, of eastern origin? That is the
question. Has the gentleman found anything by which he can make
good his accusation? I submit to the Senate, that he has entirely
failed; and as far as this debate has shown, the only person who has
advanced such sentiments is a gentleman from South Carolina, and a
friend to the honorable member himself. This honorable gentleman
has given no answer to this; there is none which can be given. This
simple fact, while it requires no comment to enforce it, defies all
argument to refute it. I could refer to the speeches of another
southern gentleman, in years before, of the same general character,
and to the same effect, as that which has been quoted; but I will not
consume the time of the Senate by the reading of them.
So then, sir, New England is guiltless of the policy of retarding
western population, and of all envy and jealousy of the growth of the
new states. Whatever there be of that policy in the country, no part of
it is hers. If it has a local habitation, the honorable member has
probably seen, by this time, where he is to look for it; and if it now
has received a name, he himself has christened it.
We approach, at length, sir, to a more important part of the
honorable gentleman’s observations. Since it does not accord with
my views of justice and policy, to vote away the public lands
altogether, as mere matter of gratuity, I am asked, by the honorable
gentleman, on what ground it is that I consent to give them away in
particular instances. How, he inquires, do I reconcile with these
professed sentiments my support of measures appropriating portions
of the lands to particular roads, particular canals, particular rivers,
and particular institutions of education in the west? This leads, sir, to
the real and wide difference in political opinions between the
honorable gentleman and myself. On my part, I look upon all these
objects as connected with the common good, fairly embraced in its
objects and its terms; he, on the contrary, deems them all, if good at
all, only local good. This is our difference. The interrogatory which
he proceeded to put, at once explains this difference. “What interest,”
asks he, “has South Carolina in a canal in Ohio?” Sir, this very
question is full of significance. It develops the gentleman’s whole
political system; and its answer expounds mine. Here we differ toto
cœlo. I look upon a road over the Alleghany, a canal round the falls of
the Ohio, or a canal or railway from the Atlantic to the western
waters, as being objects large and extensive enough to be fairly said
to be for the common benefit. The gentleman thinks otherwise, and
this is the key to open his construction of the powers of the
government. He may well ask, upon his system, What interest has
South Carolina in a canal in Ohio? On that system, it is true, she has
no interest. On that system, Ohio and Carolina are different
governments and different countries, connected here, it is true, by
some slight and ill-defined bond of union, but in all main respects
separate and diverse. On that system, Carolina has no more interest
in a canal in Ohio than in Mexico. The gentleman, therefore, only
follows out his own principles; he does no more than arrive at the
natural conclusions of his own doctrines; he only announces the true
results of that creed which he has adopted himself, and would
persuade others to adopt, when he thus declares that South Carolina
has no interest in a public work in Ohio. Sir, we narrow-minded
people of New England do not reason thus. Our notion of things is
entirely different. We look upon the states not as separated, but as
united. We love to dwell on that Union, and on the mutual happiness
which it has so much promoted, and the common renown which it
has so greatly contributed to acquire. In our contemplation, Carolina
and Ohio are parts of the same country—states united under the
same general government, having interests common, associated,
intermingled. In whatever is within the proper sphere of the
constitutional power of this government, we look upon the states as
one. We do not impose geographical limits to our patriotic feeling or
regard; we do not follow rivers, and mountains, and lines of latitude,
to find boundaries beyond which public improvements do not benefit
us. We, who come here as agents and representatives of those
narrow-minded and selfish men of New England, consider ourselves
as bound to regard, with equal eye, the good of the whole, in
whatever is within our power of legislation. Sir, if a railroad or canal,
beginning in South Carolina, appeared to me to be of national
importance and national magnitude, believing as I do that the power
of government extends to the encouragement of works of that
description, if I were to stand up here and ask, “What interest has
Massachusetts in a railroad in South Carolina?” I should not be
willing to face my constituents. These same narrow-minded men
would tell me that they had sent me to act for the whole country, and
that one who possessed too little comprehension, either of intellect
or feeling—one who was not large enough, in mind and heart, to
embrace the whole—was not fit to be intrusted with the interest of
any part. Sir, I do not desire to enlarge the powers of government by
unjustifiable construction, nor to exercise any not within a fair
interpretation. But when it is believed that a power does exist, then it
is, in my judgment, to be exercised for the general benefit of the
whole: so far as respects the exercise of such a power, the states are
one. It was the very great object of the constitution to create unity of
interests to the extent of the powers of the general government. In
war and peace we are one; in commerce one; because the authority of
the general government reaches to war and peace, and to the
regulation of commerce. I have never seen any more difficulty in
erecting lighthouses on the lakes than on the ocean; in improving the
harbors of inland seas, than if they were within the ebb and flow of
the tide; or of removing obstructions in the vast streams of the west,
more than in any work to facilitate commerce on the Atlantic coast. If
there be power for one, there is power also for the other; and they are
all and equally for the country.
There are other objects, apparently more local, or the benefit of
which is less general, towards which, nevertheless, I have concurred
with others to give aid by donations of land. It is proposed to
construct a road in or through one of the new states in which the
government possesses large quantities of land. Have the United
States no right, as a great and untaxed proprietor—are they under no
obligation—to contribute to an object thus calculated to promote the
common good of all the proprietors, themselves included? And even
with respect to education, which is the extreme case, let the question
be considered. In the first place, as we have seen, it was made matter
of compact with these states that they should do their part to
promote education. In the next place, our whole system of land laws
proceeds on the idea that education is for the common good;
because, in every division, a certain portion is uniformly reserved
and appropriated for the use of schools. And, finally have not these
new states singularly strong claims, founded on the ground already
stated, that the government is a great untaxed proprietor in the
ownership of the soil? It is a consideration of great importance that
probably there is in no part of the country, or of the world, so great a
call for the means of education as in those new states, owing to the
vast number of persons within those ages in which education and
instruction are usually received, if received at all. This is the natural
consequence of recency of settlement and rapid increase. The census
of these states shows how great a proportion of the whole population
occupies the classes between infancy and childhood. These are the
wide fields, and here is the deep and quick soil for the seeds of
knowledge and virtue; and this is the favored season, the spring time
for sowing them. Let them be disseminated without stint. Let them
be scattered with a bountiful broadcast. Whatever the government
can fairly do towards these objects, in my opinion, ought to be done.
These, sir, are the grounds, succinctly stated, on which my vote for
grants of lands for particular objects rest, while I maintain, at the
same time, that it is all a common fund, for the common benefit. And
reasons like these, I presume, have influenced the votes of other
gentlemen from New England. Those who have a different view of
the powers of the government, of course, come to different
conclusions on these as on other questions. I observed, when
speaking on this subject before, that if we looked to any measure,
whether for a road, a canal, or any thing else intended for the
improvement of the west, it would be found, that if the New England
ayes were struck out of the list of votes, the southern noes would
always have rejected the measure. The truth of this has not been
denied, and cannot be denied. In stating this, I thought it just to
ascribe it to the constitutional scruples of the south, rather than to
any other less favorable or less charitable cause. But no sooner had I
done this, than the honorable gentleman asks if I reproach him and
his friends with their constitutional scruples. Sir, I reproach nobody.
I stated a fact, and gave the most respectful reason for it that
occurred to me. The gentleman cannot deny the fact—he may, if he
choose, disclaim the reason. It is not long since I had occasion, in
presenting a petition from his own state, to account for its being
intrusted to my hands by saying, that the constitutional opinions of
the gentleman and his worthy colleague prevented them from
supporting it. Sir, did I state this as a matter of reproach? Far from it.
Did I attempt to find any other cause than an honest one for these
scruples? Sir, I did not. It did not become me to doubt, nor to
insinuate that the gentleman had either changed his sentiments, or
that he had made up a set of constitutional opinions, accommodated
to any particular combination of political occurrences. Had I done so,
I should have felt, that while I was entitled to little respect in thus
questioning other people’s motives, I justified the whole world in
suspecting my own.
But how has the gentleman returned this respect for others’
opinions? His own candor and justice, how have they been exhibited
towards the motives of others, while he has been at so much pains to
maintain—what nobody has disputed—the purity of his own? Why,
sir, he has asked when, and how, and why New England votes were
found going for measures favorable to the west; he has demanded to
be informed whether all this did not begin in 1825, and while the
election of President was still pending. Sir, to these questions retort
would be justified; and it is both cogent and at hand. Nevertheless, I
will answer the inquiry not by retort, but by facts. I will tell the
gentleman when, and how, and why New England has supported
measures favorable to the west. I have already referred to the early
history of the government—to the first acquisition of the lands—to
the original laws for disposing of them and for governing the
territories where they lie; and have shown the influence of New
England men and New England principles in all these leading
measures. I should not be pardoned were I to go over that ground
again. Coming to more recent times, and to measures of a less
general character, I have endeavored to prove that every thing of this
kind designed for western improvement has depended on the votes
of New England. All this is true beyond the power of contradiction.
And now, sir, there are two measures to which I will refer, not so
ancient as to belong to the early history of the public lands, and not
so recent as to be on this side of the period when the gentleman
charitably imagines a new direction may have been given to New
England feeling and New England votes. These measures, and the
New England votes in support of them, may be taken as samples and
specimens of all the rest. In 1820, (observe, Mr. President, in 1820,)
the people of the west besought Congress for a reduction in the price
of lands. In favor of that reduction, New England, with a delegation
of forty members in the other house, gave thirty-three votes, and one
only against it. The four Southern States, with fifty members, gave
thirty-two votes for it, and seven against it. Again, in 1821, (observe
again, sir, the time,) the law passed for the relief of the purchasers of
the public lands. This was a measure of vital importance to the west,
and more especially to the southwest. It authorized the
relinquishment of contracts for lands, which had been entered into at
high prices, and a reduction, in other cases, of not less than 37½ per
cent. on the purchase money. Many millions of dollars, six or seven I
believe at least,—probably much more,—were relinquished by this
law. On this bill New England, with her forty members, gave more
affirmative votes than the four Southern States with their fifty-two or
three members. These two are far the most important measures
respecting the public lands which have been adopted within the last
twenty years. They took place in 1820 and 1821. That is the time
when. And as to the manner how, the gentleman already sees that it
was by voting, in solid column, for the required relief; and lastly, as
to the cause why, I tell the gentleman, it was because the members
from New England thought the measures just and salutary; because
they entertained towards the west neither envy, hatred, nor malice;
because they deemed it becoming them, as just and enlightened
public men, to meet the exigency which had arisen in the west with
the appropriate measure of relief; because they felt it due to their
own characters of their New England predecessors in this
government, to act towards the new states in the spirit of a liberal,
patronizing, magnanimous policy. So much, sir, for the cause why;
and I hope that by this time, sir, the honorable gentleman is
satisfied; if not, I do not know when, or how, or why, he ever will be.
Having recurred to these two important measures, in answer to
the gentleman’s inquiries, I must now beg permission to go back to a
period still something earlier, for the purpose still further of showing
how much, or rather how little reason there is for the gentleman’s
insinuation that political hopes, or fears, or party associations, were
the grounds of these New England votes. And after what has been
said, I hope it may be forgiven me if I allude to some political
opinions and votes of my own, of very little public importance,
certainly, but which, from the time at which they were given and
expressed, may pass for good witnesses on this occasion.
This government, Mr. President, from its origin to the peace of
1815, had been too much engrossed with various other important
concerns to be able to turn its thoughts inward, and look to the
development of its vast internal resources. In the early part of
President Washington’s administration, it was fully occupied with
organizing the government, providing for the public debt, defending
the frontiers, and maintaining domestic peace. Before the
termination of that administration, the fires of the French revolution
blazed forth, as from a new opened volcano, and the whole breadth
of the ocean did not entirely secure us from its effects. The smoke
and the cinders reached us, though not the burning lava. Difficult
and agitating questions, embarrassing to government, and dividing
public opinion, sprung out of the new state of our foreign relations,
and were succeeded by others, and yet again by others, equally
embarrassing, and equally exciting division and discord, through the
long series of twenty years, till they finally issued in the war with
England. Down to the close of that war, no distinct, marked and
deliberate attention had been given, or could have been given, to the
internal condition of the country, its capacities of improvement, or
the constitutional power of the government, in regard to objects
connected with such improvement.
The peace, Mr. President, brought about an entirely new and a
most interesting state of things; it opened to us other prospects, and
suggested other duties; we ourselves were changed, and the whole
world was changed. The pacification of Europe, after June, 1815,
assumed a firm and permanent aspect. The nations evidently
manifested that they were disposed for peace: some agitation of the
waves might be expected, even after the storm had subsided; but the
tendency was, strongly and rapidly, towards settled repose.
It so happened, sir, that I was at that time a member of Congress,
and, like others, naturally turned my attention to the contemplation
of the newly-altered condition of the country, and of the world. It
appeared plainly enough to me, as well as to wiser and more
experienced men, that the policy of the government would
necessarily take a start in a new direction, because new directions
would necessarily be given to the pursuits and occupations of the
people. We had pushed our commerce far and fast, under the
advantage of a neutral flag. But there were now no longer flags,
either neutral or belligerent. The harvest of neutrality had been
great, but we had gathered it all. With the peace of Europe, it was
obvious there would spring up, in her circle of nations, a revived and
invigorated spirit of trade, and a new activity in all the business and
objects of civilized life. Hereafter, our commercial gains were to be
earned only by success in a close and intense competition. Other
nations would produce for themselves, and carry for themselves, and
manufacture for themselves, to the full extent of their abilities. The
crops of our plains would no longer sustain European armies, nor
our ships longer supply those whom war had rendered unable to
supply themselves. It was obvious that under these circumstances,
the country would begin to survey itself, and to estimate its own
capacity of improvement. And this improvement, how was it to be
accomplished, and who was to accomplish it?
We were ten or twelve millions of people, spread over almost half a
world. We were twenty-four states, some stretching along the same
seaboard, some along the same line of inland frontier, and others on
opposite banks of the same vast rivers. Two considerations at once
presented themselves, in looking at this state of things, with great
force. One was that that great branch of improvement, which
consisted in furnishing new facilities of intercourse, necessarily ran
into different states, in every leading instance, and would benefit the
citizens of all such states. No one state therefore, in such cases,
would assume the whole expense, nor was the co-operation of several
states to be expected. Take the instance of the Delaware Breakwater.
It will cost several millions of money. Would Pennsylvania, New
Jersey, and Delaware have united to accomplish it at their joint
expense? Certainly not, for the same reason. It could not be done,
therefore, but by the general government. The same may be said of
the large inland undertakings, except that, in them, government,
instead of bearing the whole expense, co-operates with others to bear
a part. The other consideration is, that the United States have the
means. They enjoy the revenues derived from commerce, and the
states have no abundant and easy sources of public income. The
custom houses fill the general treasury, while the states have scanty
resources, except by resort to heavy direct taxes.
Under this view of things, I thought it necessary to settle, at least
for myself, some definite notions, with respect to the powers of
government, in regard to internal affairs. It may not savor too much
of self-commendation to remark, that, with this object, I considered
the constitution, its judicial construction, its contemporaneous
exposition, and the whole history of the legislation of Congress under
it; and I arrived at the conclusion that government had power to
accomplish sundry objects, or aid in their accomplishment, which
are now commonly spoken of as Internal Improvements. That
conclusion, sir, may have been right or it may have been wrong. I am
not about to argue the grounds of it at large. I say only that it was
adopted, and acted on, even so early as in 1816. Yes, Mr. President, I
made up my opinion, and determined on my intended course of
political conduct on these subjects, in the 14th Congress in 1816. And
now, Mr. President, I have further to say, that I made up these
opinions, and entered on this course of political conduct, Teucro
duce. Yes, sir, I pursued, in all this, a South Carolina track. On the
doctrines of internal improvement, South Carolina, as she was then
represented in the other house, set forth, in 1816, under a fresh and
leading breeze; and I was among the followers. But if my leader sees
new lights, and turns a sharp corner, unless I see new lights also, I
keep straight on in the same path. I repeat, that leading gentlemen
from South Carolina were first and foremost in behalf of the
doctrines of internal improvements, when those doctrines first came
to be considered and acted upon in Congress. The debate on the bank
question, on the tariff of 1816, and on the direct tax, will show who
was who, and what was what, at that time. The tariff of 1816, one of
the plain cases of oppression and usurpation, from which, if the
government does not recede, individual states may justly secede
from the government, is, sir, in truth, a South Carolina tariff,
supported by South Carolina votes. But for those votes, it could not
have passed in the form in which it did pass; whereas, if it had
depended on Massachusetts votes, it would have been lost. Does not
the honorable gentleman well know all this? There are certainly
those who do full well know it all. I do not say this to reproach South
Carolina; I only state the fact, and I think it will appear to be true,
that among the earliest and boldest advocates of the tariff, as a
measure of protection, and on the express ground of protection, were
leading gentlemen of South Carolina in Congress. I did not then, and
cannot now, understand their language in any other sense. While this
tariff of 1816 was under discussion in the House of Representatives,
an honorable gentleman from Georgia, now of this house, (Mr.
Forsyth,) moved to reduce the proposed duty on cotton. He failed by
four votes, South Carolina giving three votes (enough to have turned
the scale) against his motion. The act, sir, then passed, and received
on its passage the support of a majority of the representatives of
South Carolina present and voting. This act is the first, in the order
of those now denounced as plain usurpations. We see it daily in the
list by the side of those of 1824 and 1828, as a case of manifest
oppression, justifying disunion. I put it home to the honorable
member from South Carolina, that his own state was not only “art
and part” in this measure, but the causa causans. Without her aid,
this seminal principle of mischief, this root of upas, could not have
been planted. I have already said—and, it is true—that this act
preceded on the ground of protection. It interfered directly with
existing interests of great value and amount. It cut up the Calcutta
cotton trade by the roots. But it passed, nevertheless, and it passed
on the principle of protecting manufactures, on the principle against
free trade, on the principle opposed to that which lets us alone.
Such, Mr. President, were the opinions of important and leading
gentlemen of South Carolina, on the subject of internal
improvement, in 1816. I went out of Congress the next year, and
returning again in 1823, thought I found South Carolina where I had
left her. I really supposed that all things remained as they were, and
that the South Carolina doctrine of internal improvements would be
defended by the same eloquent voices, and the same strong arms as
formerly. In the lapse of these six years, it is true, political
associations had assumed a new aspect and new divisions. A party
had arisen in the south, hostile to the doctrine of internal
improvements, and had vigorously attacked that doctrine. Anti-
consolidation was the flag under which this party fought, and its
supporters inveighed against internal improvements, much after the
same manner in which the honorable gentleman has now inveighed
against them, as part and parcel of the system of consolidation.
Whether this party arose in South Carolina herself, or in her
neighborhood, is more than I know. I think the latter. However that
may have been, there were those found in South Carolina ready to
make war upon it, and who did make intrepid war upon it. Names
being regarded as things, in such controversies, they bestowed on the
anti-improvement gentlemen the appellation of radicals. Yes, sir, the
name of radicals, as a term of distinction, applicable and applied to
those who defended the liberal doctrines of internal improvements,
originated, according to the best of my recollection, somewhere
between North Carolina and Georgia. Well, sir, those mischievous
radicals were to be put down, and the strong arm of South Carolina
was stretched out to put them down. About this time, sir, I returned
to Congress. The battle with the radicals had been fought, and our
South Carolina champions of the doctrine of internal improvements
had nobly maintained their ground, and were understood to have
achieved a victory. They had driven back the enemy with
discomfiture; a thing, by the way, sir, which is not always performed
when it is promised. A gentleman, to whom I have already referred in
this debate, had come into Congress, during my absence from it,
from South Carolina, and had brought with him a high reputation for
ability. He came from a school with which we had been acquainted,
et noscitur a sociis. I hold in my hand, sir, a printed speech of this
distinguished gentleman, (Mr. McDuffie,) “ON INTERNAL
IMPROVEMENTS,” delivered about the period to which I now refer, and
printed with a few introductory remarks upon consolidation; in
which, sir, I think he quite consolidated the arguments of his
opponents, the radicals, if to crush be to consolidate. I give you a
short but substantive quotation from these remarks. He is speaking
of a pamphlet, then recently published, entitled, “Consolidation;”
and having alluded to the question of re-chartering the former Bank
of the United States, he says: “Moreover, in the early history of
parties, and when Mr. Crawford advocated the renewal of the old
charter, it was considered a federal measure; which internal
improvement never was, as this author erroneously states. This latter
measure originated in the administration of Mr. Jefferson, with the
appropriation for the Cumberland road; and was first proposed, as a
system, by Mr. Calhoun, and carried through the House of
Representatives by a large majority of the republicans, including
almost every one of the leading men who carried us through the late
war.”
So, then, internal improvement is not one of the federal heresies.
One paragraph more, sir.
“The author in question, not content with denouncing as
federalists Gen. Jackson, Mr. Adams, Mr. Calhoun, and the majority
of the South Carolina delegation in Congress, modestly extends the
denunciation to Mr. Monroe and the whole republican party. Here
are his words. ‘During the administration of Mr. Monroe, much has
passed which the republican party would be glad to approve, if they
could!! But the principal feature, and that which has chiefly elicited
these observations, is the renewal of the SYSTEM OF INTERNAL
IMPROVEMENTS.’ Now, this measure was adopted by a vote of 115 to
86, of a republican Congress, and sanctioned by a republican
president. Who, then, is this author, who assumes the high
prerogative of denouncing, in the name of the republican party, the
republican administration of the country—a denunciation including
within its sweep Calhoun, Lowndes, and Cheves; men who will be
regarded as the brightest ornaments of South Carolina, and the
strongest pillars of the republican party, as long as the late war shall
be remembered, and talents and patriotism shall be regarded as the
proper objects of the admiration and gratitude of a free people!!”
Such are the opinions, sir, which were maintained by South
Carolina gentlemen in the House of Representatives on the subject of
internal improvements, when I took my seat there as a member from
Massachusetts, in 1823. But this is not all; we had a bill before us,
and passed it in that house, entitled, “An act to procure the necessary
surveys, plans, and estimates upon the subject of roads and canals.”
It authorized the president to cause surveys and estimates to be
made of the routes of such roads and canals as he might deem of
national importance in a commercial or military point of view, or
for the transportation of the mail; and appropriated thirty thousand
dollars out of the treasury to defray the expense. This act, though
preliminary in its nature, covered the whole ground. It took for
granted the complete power of internal improvement, as far as any of
its advocates had ever contended for it. Having passed the other
house, the bill came up to the Senate, and was here considered and
debated in April, 1824. The honorable member from South Carolina
was a member of the Senate at that time. While the bill was under
consideration here, a motion was made to add the following proviso:
—
“Provided, That nothing herein contained shall be construed to
affirm or admit a power in Congress, on their own authority, to make
roads or canals within any of the states of the Union.”
The yeas and nays were taken on this proviso, and the honorable
member voted in the negative. The proviso failed.
A motion was then made to add this proviso, viz:—
“Provided, That the faith of the United States is hereby pledged,
that no money shall ever be expended for roads or canals except it
shall be among the several states, and in the same proportion as
direct taxes are laid and assessed by the provisions of the
constitution.”
The honorable member voted against this proviso also, and it
failed.
The bill was then put on its passage, and the honorable member
voted for it, and it passed, and became a law.
Now, it strikes me, sir, that there is no maintaining these votes but
upon the power of internal improvement, in its broadest sense. In
truth, these bills for surveys and estimates have always been
considered as test questions. They show who is for and who against
internal improvement. This law itself went the whole length, and
assumed the full and complete power. The gentleman’s vote
sustained that power, in every form in which the various
propositions to amend presented it. He went for the entire and
unrestrained authority, without consulting the states, and without
agreeing to any proportionate distribution. And now, suffer me to
remind you, Mr. President, that it is this very same power, thus
sanctioned, in every form, by the gentleman’s own opinion, that is so
plain and manifest a usurpation, that the state of South Carolina is
supposed to be justified in refusing submission to any laws carrying
the power into effect. Truly, sir, is not this a little too hard? May we
not crave some mercy, under favor and protection of the gentleman’s
own authority? Admitting that a road or a canal must be written
down flat usurpation as ever was committed, may we find no
mitigation in our respect for his place, and his vote, as one that
knows the law?
The tariff which South Carolina had an efficient hand in
establishing in 1816, and this asserted power of internal
improvement—advanced by her in the same year, and, as we have
seen, approved and sanctioned by her representatives in 1824,—
these two measures are the great grounds on which she is now
thought to be justified in breaking up the Union, if she sees fit to
break it up.
I may now safely say, I think, that we have had the authority of
leading and distinguished gentlemen from South Carolina in support
of the doctrine of internal improvement. I repeat that, up to 1824, I,
for one, followed South Carolina; but when that star in its ascension
veered off in an unexpected direction, I relied on its light no longer.
[Here the Vice-President said, Does the Chair understand the
gentleman from Massachusetts to say that the person now occupying
the chair of the Senate has changed his opinion on the subject of
internal improvement?] From nothing ever said to me, sir, have I
had reason to know of any change in the opinions of the person
filling the chair of the Senate. If such change has taken place, I regret
it; I speak generally of the state of South Carolina. Individuals we
know there are who hold opinions favorable to the power. An
application for its exercise in behalf of a public work in South
Carolina itself is now pending, I believe, in the other house,
presented by members from that state.
I have thus, sir, perhaps not without some tediousness of detail,
shown that, if I am in error on the subject of internal improvements,
how and in what company I fell into that error. If I am wrong, it is
apparent who misled me.
I go to other remarks of the honorable member—and I have to
complain of an entire misapprehension of what I said on the subject
of the national debt—though I can hardly perceive how any one could
misunderstand me. What I said was, not that I wished to put off the
payment of the debt, but, on the contrary, that I had always voted for
every measure for its reduction, as uniformly as the gentleman
himself. He seems to claim the exclusive merit of a disposition to
reduce the public charge; I do not allow it to him. As a debt, I was, I
am, for paying it; because it is a charge on our finances, and on the
industry of the country. But I observed that I thought I perceived a
morbid fervor on that subject; an excessive anxiety to pay off the
debt; not so much because it is a debt simply, as because, while it
lasts, it furnishes one objection to disunion. It is a tie of common
interest while it lasts. I did not impute such motive to the honorable
member himself; but that there is such a feeling in existence I have
not a particle of doubt. The most I said was, that if one effect of the
debt was to strengthen our Union, that effect itself was not regretted
by me, however much others might regret it. The gentleman has not
seen how to reply to this otherwise than by supposing me to have
advanced the doctrine that a national debt is a national blessing.
Others, I must hope, will find less difficulty in understanding me. I
distinctly and pointedly cautioned the honorable member not to
understand me as expressing an opinion favorable to the
continuance of the debt. I repeated this caution, and repeated it more
than once—but it was thrown away.
On yet another point I was still more unaccountably
misunderstood. The gentleman had harangued against
“consolidation.” I told him, in reply, that there was one kind of
consolidation to which I was attached, and that was, the
consolidation of our Union; and that this was precisely that
consolidation to which I feared others were not attached; that such
consolidation was the very end of the constitution—the leading
object, as they had informed us themselves, which its framers had
kept in view. I turned to their communication, and read their very
words,—“the consolidation of the Union,”—and expressed my
devotion to this sort of consolidation. I said in terms that I wished
not, in the slightest degree, to augment the powers of this
government; that my object was to preserve, not to enlarge; and that,
by consolidating the Union, I understood no more than the
strengthening of the Union and perpetuating it. Having been thus
explicit; having thus read, from the printed book, the precise words
which I adopted, as expressing my own sentiments, it passes
comprehension, how any man could understand me as contending
for an extension of the powers of the government, or for
consolidation in the odious sense in which it means an accumulation,
in the federal government, of the powers properly belonging to the
states.
I repeat, sir, that, in adopting the sentiments of the framers of the
constitution, I read their language audibly, and word for word; and I
pointed out the distinction, just as fully as I have now done, between
the consolidation of the Union and that other obnoxious
consolidation which I disclaimed; and yet the honorable gentleman
misunderstood me. The gentleman had said that he wished for no
fixed revenue—not a shilling. If, by a word, he could convert the
Capitol into gold, he would not do it. Why all this fear of revenue?
Why, sir, because, as the gentleman told us, it tends to consolidation.
Now, this can mean neither more or less than that a common
revenue is a common interest, and that all common interests tend to
hold the union of the states together. I confess I like that tendency; if
the gentleman dislikes it, he is right in deprecating a shilling’s fixed
revenue. So much, sir, for consolidation.
As well as I recollect the course of his remarks, the honorable
gentleman next recurred to the subject of the tariff. He did not doubt
the word must be of unpleasant sound to me, and proceeded, with an
effort neither new nor attended with new success, to involve me and
my votes in inconsistency and contradiction. I am happy the
honorable gentleman has furnished me an opportunity of a timely
remark or two on that subject. I was glad he approached it, for it is a
question I enter upon without fear from any body. The strenuous toil
of the gentleman has been to raise an inconsistency between my
dissent to the tariff, in 1824 and my vote in 1828. It is labor lost. He
pays undeserved compliment to my speech in 1824; but this is to
raise me high, that my fall, as he would have it, in 1828 may be the
more signal. Sir, there was no fall at all. Between the ground I stood
on in 1824 and that I took in 1828, there was not only no precipice,
but no declivity. It was a change of position, to meet new
circumstances, but on the same level. A plain tale explains the whole

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(Original PDF) Transforming the School

Counseling Profession 5th Edition

Chapter 1 Becoming a Professional School Counselor: Current Perspectives, Historical Roots,

Chapter 2 The ASCA National Model: Developing a Comprehensive, Developmental School

Chapter 3 Transformational Thinking in Today’s Schools 42

Chapter 4 Systemic, Data-Driven School Counseling Practice and Programming for

Chapter 5 Accountability: Assessing Needs, Determining Outcomes, and Evaluating

Chapter 6 Outcome Research on Evidence-Based School Counseling Interventions and

Chapter 7 Ethical, Legal, and Professional Issues in School Counseling 145

Chapter 8 Culturally Competent School Counselors: Affirming Diversity by Challenging

Chapter 9 Leadership and Advocacy for Every Student’s Achievement and

Chapter 10 Implementing the Developmental School Counseling Core Curriculum in the

Chapter 12 Promoting Career and Individual Planning in Schools 250

Chapter 13 Counseling Individuals and Groups in School 269

Chapter 14 Consultation, Collaboration, and Encouraging Parent Involvement 293

Chapter 15 Systemic Approaches to Counseling Students Experiencing Complex and

Chapter 17 Helping Students with Mental and Emotional Disorders 382

Chapter 1 Becoming a Professional School Counselor: Current Perspectives, Historical

On Becoming a Professional School Counselor: Your Destiny 1

The ASCA Mindsets and Behaviors and National Model 26

School: The Primary Workplace for School Counselors 42

Accountability: Practice That Demonstrates School Counseling Counts 60

Implementing the New Vision of School Counseling 67

Accountability in School Counseling 94

Program (Process) Assessment 105

Outcome Research in School Counseling 131

Professional Associations and Credentialing Organizations 145

“Can I Be Sued?” and “What Is Malpractice?” 160

Multicultural and Anti-Oppression Terminology 175

Chapter 9 Leadership and Advocacy for Every Student’s Achievement and

Professional School Counselors: Leading and Advocating 190

The Scope and Responsibility of the School Counselor 211

Constructing Differentiated Developmental Lessons and Activities 224

Academic and Career Planning in the Modern Era 232

The Tradition of Career-Planning Interventions in Schools 250

Chapter 13 Counseling Individuals and Groups in School 269

Individual Counseling in Schools 269

The Counselor as Consultant: Case Examples 293

Communicating Effectively with Parents and Guardians 312

The Changing Needs of Students and Families 316

Improving Outcomes for Students with Disabilities 341

Prevalence of Mental Health Issues in Youth 382

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