PAPER I: GENERAL SOCIOLOGY: SOCIAL PROCESSES

Syllabus
1. Social Movement: Definition, Concept and Characteristics.
2. Theories: Relative Deprivation, Structural Strain, Revitalisation
3. Social Movement and its relationship with Social Change,
4. Ideology and Leadership.
5. Agents of Social Movements

UNIT 2: THEORIES
 RELATIVE DEPRIVATION THEORY:

According to the theory of relative deprivation, people who feel satisfied with their
current condition are less likely to seek social change. A group experiences relative
deprivation when it compares its socio-economic status with that of a similar group and
perceives to be at a disadvantage. Thus, this theory proposes that social movements
arise due to people’s perception of being mistreated.

A social movement usually starts because the people are unhappy about certain
things. In other words, they feel that they are deprived of something. Social scientists,
particularly political scientists and sociologists, have cited ‘relative deprivation’ as a
potential cause of social movements and deviance. In extreme situations, it can lead to
political violence such as rioting, terrorism, civil wars and other instances of social
deviance such as crime. Some scholars explain the rise of social movements by citing
the grievances of people who feel that they have been deprived of values to which they
are entitled. They may feel that they are not getting enough.

For instance, one can argue that the feminist movement was born in the 1960 because
prior to that time women were "deprived" by society of rights and opportunities
(especially in terms of a career) that were only accorded to men. In a similar manner,
one can argue that the civil rights movement in the U.S. was born because before that
movement non-white people were "deprived" of basic rights and privileges that their
white counterparts enjoyed.

Therefore, relative deprivation refers to the dissatisfaction a social group may feel
when it compares what it obtains with what is obtained by similar groups, and
concludes that it is not receiving what it deserves. According to this theory, movements
are more likely to occur in contexts in which high development expectations have been
generated, followed by economic contractions. This combination produces a
phenomenon of unfulfilled expectations, or at least expectations that are fulfilled more
slowly. For example, the economic contraction caused by the current global pandemic,
which produced unfulfilled expectations in many countries that had optimistic pre-
pandemic growth estimates.

Relative deprivation, as its name indicates, is a subjective measure that depends on

how the social group is perceived in comparison to another similar group; in fact, it has
been defined as a mental state that results from the discrepancy between the
expectations of the people and the quality of life they obtain.
 Feelings of deprivation are relative, as they come from a comparison to
social norms that are not absolute and usually differ from time and place. This
differentiates relative deprivation from objective deprivation (also known as absolute
deprivation or absolute poverty), a condition that applies to all underprivileged people.
This leads to an important conclusion: while the objective deprivation (poverty) in the
world may change over time, relative deprivation will not, as long as social inequality
persists and some humans are better off than others. Hence, it must be differentiated
from the concept of absolute deprivation or poverty.

For relative deprivation, comparison with a peer group is critical, while for poverty there
are standard definitions (e.g., an income level of individuals and households or the
Multidimensional Poverty Index of the United Nations Development Program). For
example, a social group could obtain higher income, modifying their level of absolute
deprivation; however, when compared to another group, they still perceive themselves
as being at a disadvantage, and thus, their relative deprivation will not vary.

Importance of Relative Deprivation in Social Movements

Relative deprivation is a key factor in the emergence and success of social

movements. Social movements are often driven by people who feel that they are being
left behind or excluded from the benefits of society, and who seek to challenge the
existing power structures and systems of inequality. Relative deprivation can be a
powerful motivator for social change, as it inspires people to take action and demand a
better future.

Relative deprivation theory also suggests that social movements are more likely to
emerge when people have a sense of collective identity and solidarity. When people
share a sense of identity and common experiences, they are more likely to mobilize
and join social movements. Social movements can provide a sense of belonging and
purpose for individuals who feel marginalized or excluded from society.

CRITICISM:

1. Subjectivity and Perception: Critics argue that the theory relies heavily on subjective
perceptions of deprivation, which can vary among individuals. What one person
considers deprivation, another may not, making it challenging to establish a universal
measure of relative deprivation.
2. Lack of Predictive Power: Some critics contend that the relative deprivation theory
lacks strong predictive power. Not everyone who experiences relative deprivation
becomes involved in social movements, and not all participants in social movements
necessarily experience high levels of relative deprivation.
3. Alternative Explanations: Critics propose that alternative explanations, such as
political opportunities, resource mobilization, or cultural factors, may provide a more
comprehensive understanding of why people join social movements. The relative
deprivation theory is seen by some as too narrow in its focus on economic disparities.
4. Inability to Explain Non-Participation: The theory primarily explains why people join
social movements, but it doesn't provide a satisfactory explanation for why some
individuals who experience relative deprivation do not participate in collective action. It
lacks a comprehensive account of non-participation.
5. Cultural and Identity Factors: The theory places less emphasis on cultural and
identity factors that can influence social movements. Critics argue that issues related
 to identity, culture, and social values are essential in understanding the dynamics of
collective action.

 STRUCTURAL STRAIN THEORY:

Neil J. Smelser's Structural Strain Theory is a significant framework for grasping why
social movements arise. Presented in his influential work, "Theory of Collective
Behaviour" (1962), Smelser's theory breaks down the complex process of collective
action into several key stages. This essay explores these stages, shedding light on
how societal conditions, individual perceptions, and collective movements are
interconnected.

Structural Conduciveness:
At the heart of Smelser's theory is the idea of "structural conduciveness," emphasizing
the importance of societal conditions that set the stage for social movements. This
includes things like economic inequalities and social injustices, which create an
environment where people start feeling dissatisfied with how things are. These
conditions lay the foundation for potential collective action by providing the right
circumstances for societal strain to develop.

Structural Strain:
Structural strain is a crucial concept in Smelser's theory, representing the perceived
mismatch between what society values and what its structures can actually achieve.
When people feel this misalignment, they get frustrated and discontented. This
frustration becomes a trigger, motivating individuals to seek change and fix the
perceived societal imbalance. This phase is pivotal because it sets the groundwork for
the emergence of a shared sense of dissatisfaction.

Generalized Belief:
In response to structural strain, a "generalized belief" system emerges among the
affected population. This shared ideology aims to explain why the strain is happening
and suggests ways to fix it. This shared belief becomes a unifying force for people who
share similar dissatisfactions. Developing a collective identity and purpose is crucial for
fostering solidarity among the participants in the movement. This stage represents the
transformation of individual dissatisfaction into a coherent worldview that guides
collective actions.

Precipitating Factors:
While structural strain sets the stage, "precipitating factors" act as catalysts,
transforming silent dissatisfaction into active mobilization. These factors can be events,
instances of injustice, or symbolic moments that grab public attention. Precipitating
factors serve as triggers, pushing individuals to recognize the urgency of addressing
their shared grievances. These incidents galvanize the population and propel them
toward collective action, marking the transition from dissatisfaction to organized
mobilization.
Mobilization for Action:
 With structural strain, shared beliefs, and precipitating factors in place, the social
movement enters a phase of "mobilization for action." This involves the organized use
of resources, both human and material, to facilitate protests, demonstrations, and other
forms of activism. The movement transitions from a state of shared dissatisfaction to
coordinated collective action aimed at addressing the root causes of the perceived
societal strain. Mobilization represents the coming together of individual
dissatisfactions into a united force for change.

Social Control Response:

As a social movement gains momentum, it inevitably faces a response from
established institutions and authorities trying to maintain the status quo. This response
is known as "social control response" and can take the form of legal measures, police
intervention, or other strategies aimed at suppressing the movement. This dynamic
interaction between the movement and social control measures adds complexity to
Smelser's theory, showcasing the resistance movements face from existing power
structures.

EXAMPLES:
Western Example - Civil Rights Movement (U.S.): The Civil Rights Movement in the
United States during the 1950s and 1960s exemplifies Smelser's Structural Strain
Theory. Structural strain was evident in the racial segregation and systemic
discrimination against African Americans. The movement, marked by leaders like
Martin Luther King Jr., emerged in response to the perceived gap between societal
values of equality and the discriminatory social structures.

Indian Example - Naxalite Movement: The Naxalite Movement in India, particularly in

the late 1960s, reflects structural strain theory. The movement originated in response
to economic disparities, landlessness, and social injustices faced by marginalized
communities. The perceived misalignment between societal values and the existing
power structures fuelled the mobilization for agrarian reform and social justice.

CRITICISM:

1. Oversimplification: Some argue that the theory oversimplifies the complex nature of
social movements by focusing primarily on structural factors, neglecting the role of
individual agency, cultural elements, and the diversity of motivations within a
movement.

2. Limited Predictive Power: Critics suggest that the theory may lack strong predictive
power, as not all societies experiencing structural strain witness the emergence of
social movements, and not all social movements can be explained solely by structural
factors.

3. Neglect of Cultural Factors: The theory places less emphasis on cultural and
ideological elements, overlooking the influence of shared values, symbols, and identity
in shaping social movements.
4. Static Nature: Some critics argue that the theory presents a relatively static view of
structural conditions, not adequately accounting for the dynamic nature of societal
changes and evolving grievances over time.

5. Inability to Explain Non-Participation: Critics contend that the theory falls short in
explaining why some individuals or groups facing structural strain do not participate in
social movements, highlighting a gap in its explanatory scope.

 REVITALISATION THEORY:
Revitalization theory, proposed by Anthony F.C. Wallace, provides a unique way of
looking at how social movements come about. This theory suggests that social
movements happen when there's a cultural crisis or big changes in a society. The
focus here is on charismatic leaders who step up during these times, offering a vision
to renew or change existing beliefs and institutions.

This urge for revitalisation can generate a movement, which promotes patriotism, and
national pride could be caused by youth movements, which encourage young people
to help and organise the oppressed, or the literacy movements are other examples.
These movements are started in order to solve a problem collectively. They do not
merely protest against what they define as wrong but also try to provide an alternative.

Cultural Disruptions and Crises:

According to revitalization theory, social movements often start when there's a cultural
crisis or disturbance that challenges the usual ways of thinking and living. This crisis
might come from outside influences like globalization or from conflicts within the
society. The theory says that these disruptions create an opportunity for movements to
emerge and deal with the breakdown of traditional values.

Charismatic Leaders and Prophetic Movements:

Revitalization theory highlights the importance of charismatic leaders who play a key
role in guiding social movements. These leaders are seen as visionaries who can
articulate a compelling story that addresses the challenges the society is facing. The
theory calls these movements "prophetic" because they're led by leaders who offer a
vision of renewing and transforming the culture.

Stages of Revitalization Movements:

Revitalization movements usually go through several stages. First, there's a period of
cultural stress, marked by disruptions and confusion. Charismatic leaders emerge
during this time, attracting followers who are drawn to the promise of cultural renewal.
Then comes a stage of cultural distortion, where the leader's vision clashes with
established norms, causing tension and conflict.
The third stage is cultural revitalization itself. Successful movements manage to bring
about cultural change, either by adjusting existing beliefs or introducing completely
new ones. This transformative process, guided by the charismatic leader, aims to
resolve the initial cultural stress and bring back a sense of order and meaning. Finally,
the movement may enter a stage of routinization, where its teachings become
institutionalized, potentially leading to new norms and structures.

Application of Revitalization Theory:

Revitalization theory helps us understand a variety of social movements throughout
history and today. It can be used to analyse religious movements, like when
charismatic leaders rise or new religious movements form to address spiritual crises.
It's also applicable to political and cultural movements responding to rapid societal
changes, globalization, or challenges to established power structures.

EXAMPLES:
In a workplace facing a productivity crisis and low employee morale, a charismatic
leader emerges, presenting a vision for cultural revitalization. The leader introduces
innovative work practices, fosters a positive organizational culture, and motivates
employees to embrace a renewed sense of purpose, resulting in improved productivity
and job satisfaction.

The Protestant Reformation in the 16th century serves as a historical example of

revitalization theory. Martin Luther, a charismatic leader, challenged the established
norms of the Catholic Church, presenting a vision for reform and cultural renewal. His
teachings sparked a transformative movement that reshaped religious beliefs, leading
to the emergence of Protestantism and influencing cultural and social structures across
Europe.

Critiques and Limitations:

Critics of revitalization theory argue that it oversimplifies the complex dynamics of
social movements by placing excessive emphasis on charismatic leaders and cultural
disruptions. They contend that the theory may neglect other crucial factors, such as
structural and economic considerations, that play significant roles in the emergence
and evolution of social movements. Additionally, some scholars argue that the theory's
focus on charismatic leaders might not fully capture the diverse motivations and
complexities within movements, potentially limiting its explanatory power.
 UNIT 3: SOCIAL MOVEMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Relationship between Social Movement and Social Change:

Social movement is a form of social behaviour. It is one of the ways of life like that of
social development. An individual expresses his behaviour by two ways, i.e. by
personal ways and through collective ways. The behaviour of individual which is done
on collective basis may be good or may be bad for society according to circumstances.
Social movement and social change are closely related to each other. Generally, the
main aim of social movement is to solve the problems due to ill practices in society.
When there is a feeling of insufficiency in a part of life, then only to change the
circumstances, social movement occurs. Therefore, social movement develops
reforms and changes the situations. The background of social change determines the
social movement. The relationship between social movement and social change can
be studied through following headings:

1. Reciprocal relationship:
Social movements do not necessarily bring solutions to the social problems. They may
champion the cause of social problems but cannot always promise a lasting solution.
Social movements may promise. to bring about social change and they do bring it. But
it is not a one-way-process. Not only do social movements bring about change, but
social change sometimes gives birth to movements.

2. Change is motivating agent of movement:

The aim of social movement is to change the system or any part of it. Social
movement reforms the system or through movement that personal problems are
solved which becomes unbearable for members of the group. Social movement is
applied to gain new aim, new system, new thoughts and new values.

3. The background of change determines the structure and direction of social

movement:
The process of change is continuous and it continues in every society and at any time.
The background of this change encourages the members of the group. Hence, even a
general state of change leads to a big movement. For example- In 19th century, due to
the transmission of western education, values and thoughts in India, there emerged a
wave of humanistic and idealistic approach. As a result of which people realized
the problems of Sati system, child marriage, etc. and tried to remove these
malpractices. As a result of the positive atmosphere from western education, leaders
like Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar etc. through Brahma Samaj,
schools for girls, etc. reform the status of women in Indian society.

4. Movement is the agent of desired change:

Social movement leads to those changes in the social system which is generally
desired. The nature of change is determined in the beginning of a movement. On the
basis of some values and standards, it is understood that some changes are
unavoidable and to get them, the way of movement is selected.
5. Movement accelerates changes:
Social change in general is a slow and steady process. But sometimes when there is a
need to accelerate it, movement is done. Generally, social movement brings a rapid
change in a small interval of time. For example- For need of revolution, there happens
a revolutionary movement which leads to vast changes in small time.

6. Socio-economic development, movement and social change:

In developing countries, the socio-economic processes effect the social movement. In
general, in every developing country rural reconstruction, economic development
and different types of programmes which provide employment and business
opportunities in the society has resulted in the upliftment of backward classes in
society. But due to some political interference and other reasons we are unable to
achieve our aim. This leads to the development of insufficiency, frustration and
alienation in the sections of society, which resulted in social movement. In India, the
Naxalite movement, Movements related with reservation issue which have occurred
and are occurring now in the states of Punjab, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, etc. are
examples of social movement which came into being due to imbalanced economic
growth and loopholes in policies and programmes

7. Social movement restricts indefinite changes:

Social movement not only brings a rapid change in small time but also it restricts
indefinite changes which are not accepted by the society. For example- Swadeshi
movement led by Mahatma Gandhi was a symbolic movement to restrict the
transmission of western culture.

8. Social movement determines the structure of change:

Social change not only motivates social movement but it is also a consequence of
social movement. Through movement, there is a determination of forthcoming
structure of social change. Movement determines that what will be the new structure of
system, new institutions and new standards of social change.
 UNIT 1: SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
 DEFINITION:
The International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences (1972) defines a social movement
as a variety of collective attempts to bring about change. The attempts may be to bring
about change in certain social institutions and to create an entirely new social order. Or
the attempts may represent a socially shared demand for change in some aspects of
the social order.

Turner and Kilhan define a social movement as a “collectivity which acts with some
continuity to promote or resist change in the society or group of which it is a part”.

These definitions bring out, above all things, two important qualifying features of a
social movement. Firstly, that social movements involve collective action as against
actions of a small group of individuals. Secondly, the collective attempt is designed to
promote change or resist change in the society in which the attempt is made. So
collective attempt may be to alter, inaugurate, supplant, restore or reinstate all or some
aspects of the social order.

Example of social movement:

The SNDP Movement (Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Movement) is an example of
a social movement which has social, political, educational and religious dimensions to
it. The movement arose as a backward classes’ movement in the nineteenth century in
Kerala. It focused on the conflict between untouchable castes (Izhavas, toddy tappers
of South Travancore, Kerala) and the clean Hindu upper castes (Nayars, Nambudiris).
The Izhavas were subject to several ritual as well as civil disabilities. They had to
maintain a prescribed limit of distance from the upper caste, could not use the roads,
tanks, wells or temples used by the higher castes. They were denied admission to the
traditional caste Hindu schools and were kept away from administrative jobs. Under
the leadership of Sri Narayana Guru Swamy, the Izhavas formulated a programme of
social uplift. The issues they undertook were right of admission to public schools,
recruitment to government employment, entry into temple and political representation.
They fought for social mobility, for shift in the traditional distribution of power, and
transformed themselves into a large ethnic block, which became politically viable.

 FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: Given by Touraine (1968)

- Mediation: They help to relate the individual to the larger society. They give each
person a chance to participate, to express his ideas and to play a role in the process of
social change.

- Pressure: Social movements stimulate the formation of organised groups that work
systematically to see that their plans and policies are implemented.

- Clarification of Collective Consciousness: This is a significant function. Social

movements generate and develop ideas which spread throughout society. As a result,
group consciousness arises and grows.
 TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:
Social movements can be classified under various typologies depending on such
factors like aim of the movement, organisation, means adopted to achieve the aims,
value strength and so on. Some of the types are:

1. Migratory movements:
These movements take place when a large number of people leave one country and
settle in some other place or country. The major reasons for mass migration may be
discontent or dissatisfaction with the existing situations or circumstances or looking for
new opportunities for a bright future. Mere migration of people from one place to
another cannot be called migratory movement. The Zionist Movement (the back-to-
Israel movement is known as Zionism) and the movement of people from East
Germany to West Germany are some examples of migratory social movements.

2. Reform movements:
This type of a movement constitutes a collective attempt to change some parts of a
society without completely transforming it. A reform movement accepts the basic
pattern of the social order of that society and orients itself around an ideal. It makes
use of those institutions such as the press, the government, the school, the church and
so on to support its programme. Reform movements usually, rise on behalf of some
distressed or exploited group. Reform movements are almost impossible in an
authoritarian society. Such movements are mainly possible in democratic societies
where people tolerate criticism. For example, the socio-religious reform movement of
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in India aimed to remove social practices like
sati, denial of education to women, ban on widow remarriage, ill treatment of widows,
child marriage, caste disabilities and so on.

3. Revolutionary movements:
Such a movement seeks to overthrow the existing system and replace it with a totally
different one. Revolutionary movements aim at reconstructing the entire social order.
They challenge the existing norms and propose a new scheme of values.
Revolutionary movements are quite opposite to the reform movements. Revolutionists
generally believe that reform is not possible under the existing social system.
Usually, revolutionary movements arise when people have no other alternative to
reform the social system other than changing it as a whole. Revolution serves as an
alternative to the individuals to come out of their existing misery. The examples that
immediately come to one’s mind are the French Revolution and the Russian
Revolution which resorted to overthrow the existing socio-political order prevailing in
France and Russia respectively.

4. Resistance movements:
A resistance movement can be described as a movement that arises not only for the
purpose of instituting change, but also to block change or to eliminate a previously
instituted change. Revolutionary movements arise as people are dissatisfied and feel
that the pace of social change is very slow, whereas resistance movements occur
when people consider that the change is rapid. The movement against Hindi of
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam is a typical example of resistance movement.
5. Revivalist Movement:
A revivalist movement seeks to take the system back to its original pristine purity. Most
of the movements try to involve people in the political process and bring about political
awareness among the people. Some movements aim at bringing about a change in the
lives of certain sections of society, such as the downtrodden as well as women.

6. Utopian Movements:
These are attempts to take the society or a section of it towards a state of perfection. A
Utopian Movement is a movement which is expected to create an ideal social system,
or a perfect society, which can only be imagined but cannot exist in reality. Utopian
movements conceive man as good, co-operative, and altruistic. The Utopian ideal and
the means of it are often vague, but many utopian movements have quite specific
programmes for social change. The most successful Utopian Movement in the recent
history is the Israeli kibbutz. Sarvodaya Movement is another example of a Utopian
Movement.

 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:

1. Collective Identity and Shared Purpose:

Social movements are characterized by a collective identity and a shared purpose
among participants. Individuals within the movement identify with a common cause,
belief system, or goal, forming a cohesive group. This shared identity fosters a sense
of solidarity and unity, driving collective action.

Social movements often emerge in response to perceived injustices or grievances, and

the collective identity serves as a rallying point for individuals who share similar
concerns. Whether it's civil rights, environmental justice, or gender equality, the shared
purpose unifies participants and provides a foundation for coordinated efforts.

2. Mobilization and Organization:

Effective social movements exhibit a capacity for mobilization and organization.
Mobilization involves the activation and engagement of individuals within the
movement, encouraging their participation in various activities such as protests,
demonstrations, or advocacy efforts. Organization refers to the structured coordination
of resources, including manpower, finances, and communication channels.

Movements often rely on leaders, organizers, and networks to mobilize supporters and
strategically plan actions. Whether facilitated through grassroots initiatives, formal
organizations, or online platforms, the ability to mobilize and organize is critical for
sustaining momentum and achieving movement objectives.

3. Collective Action and Protest:

Social movements are characterized by collective action and often involve forms of
protest to express dissent or demand change. Protest activities can range from
peaceful demonstrations and marches to more confrontational strategies, depending
on the nature of the movement and the sociopolitical context.
 Collective action serves as a visible expression of the movement's goals, drawing
attention to the issues at hand and putting pressure on relevant authorities. Protest
activities are essential tools for conveying the urgency and significance of the
movement's objectives, contributing to the broader impact of the collective effort.

4. Challenge to Established Norms and Power Structures:

Social movements inherently challenge established norms, beliefs, and power
structures within a society. They arise when individuals or groups perceive a
misalignment between societal values and the existing structures that perpetuate
injustice or inequality. Movements seek to challenge and transform these structures,
advocating for social, political, or cultural change.

Whether addressing issues of racial discrimination, economic inequality, or

environmental sustainability, social movements challenge the status quo by
questioning and contesting prevailing norms and power dynamics. The act of
challenging established structures is intrinsic to the transformative goals of social
movements.

5. Fluidity and Adaptability:

Social movements demonstrate a degree of fluidity and adaptability, evolving in
response to changing circumstances, external pressures, and feedback from the
broader society. Movements that exhibit adaptability can navigate challenges,
capitalize on emerging opportunities, and sustain relevance over time.

This characteristic is particularly evident in the utilization of technology and social

media as tools for mobilization and communication. Movements that can adapt to new
communication platforms and evolving social landscapes are better equipped to reach
and engage diverse audiences, contributing to the movement's resilience and
effectiveness.

6. Grassroots Participation:
A fundamental characteristic of social movements is grassroots participation, involving
individuals from various backgrounds and communities. Grassroots involvement
implies that the movement gains strength and momentum from ordinary citizens rather
than solely relying on established institutions or elite groups.

The inclusive nature of grassroots participation contributes to the diversity of

perspectives within a movement, enriching its narrative and expanding its reach.
Grassroots involvement also enhances the movement's legitimacy, as it is grounded in
the experiences and concerns of a broad cross-section of society.

7. Persistence and Long-Term Impact:

Successful social movements exhibit persistence and a capacity for creating long-term
impact. Achieving meaningful social change often requires sustained effort and
resilience in the face of obstacles. Movements that endure setbacks, adapt to
changing circumstances, and remain committed to their goals can leave a lasting
imprint on society.
 Long-term impact may manifest in policy changes, shifts in public opinion, or cultural
transformations. The enduring legacy of a social movement is often measured by its
ability to catalyse lasting societal changes and influence the trajectory of collective
values and norms.

 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:

1. Preliminary Stage:
This stage can also be called “the unrest stage". In this stage we find some confusion
or discontentment among people. Hence, they are restless. ln fact, as N.J. Smelser
has pointed out "All social movements begin with some feeling of discontent with the
existing social order.'' Discontent is always a product of a relationship between
objective conditions and ideas about those conditions. The preliminary stage
represents the genesis of a social movement, characterized by the identification of a
problem or grievance within society. During this phase, individuals or communities
become aware of issues that challenge established norms, values, or practices.
Preliminary stages often involve spontaneous expressions of discontent, individual
grievances, or localized protests. The spark of awareness and dissatisfaction lays the
foundation for potential collective action. However, at this point, the movement lacks a
cohesive identity and organized structure.

2. Popular Stage:
The popular stage is marked by the expansion and organization of the movement. As
awareness grows, individuals with similar concerns come together to form a collective
identity. Leaders may emerge to articulate the grievances and mobilize supporters. In
the popular stage, the movement begins totally around a figure or a leader who
promises to -alleviate the sufferings of the people. This leader may be a charismatic
leader with some extraordinary qualities who is capable of giving a leadership to the
movement. He may speak of reform, revolution, resistance or express himself in such
a way that the followers are made to feel that he will do something or the other to find
solution to their problem. This phase witnesses an increase in public visibility, with the
movement gaining traction and attracting a broader base of participants. Popular
stages are characterized by protests, demonstrations, and the development of shared
goals and strategies. The movement gains momentum, drawing attention to the issues
at hand and initiating a collective response.

3. Formalization Stage:
In the formalization stage, the movement undergoes a process of structuring and
organization. This is the stage in which programmes are developed, alliances are
forged, and organisations and tactics are developed. In this stage, a party,
organisation, or group of individuals may put forward an alternative vision, world-view
or ideology, to understand, analyse and solve a prevailing crisis. Once the ideology
gains acceptance among people, efforts must be made to translate it into a
programme which calls for collective action. This leads to the birth of the movement.
As the movement grows in influence and complexity, there is a need for more
formalized structures, leadership hierarchies, and strategic planning.
 Organizations or networks may be established to coordinate activities, manage
resources, and communicate internally and externally. This formalization enhances the
movement's efficiency and coordination but can also introduce challenges, such as
bureaucracy and potential conflicts over leadership or goals.

4. Institutionalization Stage:
Successful movements may enter an institutionalization stage where their goals
become integrated into societal institutions, policies, or cultural norms. If the movement
becomes successful, then it destroys itself in its last stage of development when it
becomes an institution. "At this point, it is no longer a collective behaviour, because it
is organised, follows accepted norms of society, and has replaced its emotional base
with the assumption that change will take time. When once, it assumes this stage, the
institution tries to bring down the wrath of the people and assures them that things
would become normal in due course. With this, the active life of the movement may
come to an end. This stage signifies a transformative impact on the broader social
landscape. The movement's objectives may be reflected in legislative changes, policy
reforms, or shifts in public attitudes. The institutionalization stage represents a
consolidation of the movement's achievements, where its influence becomes
embedded in established structures. Movements that reach this stage may see a more
enduring and systemic impact on the issues they addressed.

5. Dissolution Stage:
The dissolution stage occurs when a movement experiences a decline in activity,
influence, or relevance. Several factors can contribute to the dissolution of a social
movement. Internal divisions, changes in leadership, or a failure to adapt to evolving
circumstances may weaken the movement. External factors, such as shifts in public
opinion, political climates, or the resolution of the initial grievances, can also lead to a
decline. In some cases, movements may deliberately dissolve after achieving their
goals or transforming into other forms of advocacy. The dissolution stage does not
necessarily imply failure; it can also signify a shift in focus or strategy as the
movement's objectives are met, or as new challenges emerge.

Summary:
In summary, social movements progress through a series of stages, each with distinct
characteristics and challenges. The preliminary stage sets the foundation for collective
action, followed by the popular stage where the movement gains momentum and
visibility. The formalization stage introduces structured organization, and successful
movements may enter the institutionalization stage, leaving a lasting impact on societal
structures. Finally, the dissolution stage marks the end of the movement, whether due
to internal challenges, external influences, or the achievement of its goals. These
stages provide a framework for understanding the dynamic lifecycle of social
movements and their role in shaping social, political, and cultural landscapes.
 CAUSES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: According to Vidya Bhushan Sachdeva, social
movements do not just happen. It is social unrest which gives rise to a social
movement. The social unrest may be caused by the following factors:

1. Cultural Drifts:
Cultural drift refers to a gradual but significant shift in societal values, norms, and
beliefs. According to Vidya Bhushan Sachdeva, cultural changes can create a sense of
disorientation and alienation, leading to the emergence of social movements. When
individuals perceive a misalignment between traditional cultural values and the
evolving socio-cultural landscape, it can trigger a collective response. The society
undergoes constant changes. The values and behaviour are changing all the time in
civilized societies. In the course of cultural drift, most people develop new ideas. To get
these ideas operative in the society they organize a movement. The development of a
democratic society, the emancipation of women, the spread of mass education, the
removal of untouchability, the equality of opportunity for both the sexes, and the growth
of secularism are some examples of cultural drift.

2. Social Disorganization:
A changing society is, to some extent, disorganized because changes in different parts
of the society do not take place simultaneously. One part changes more rapidly than
the other, thereby producing numerous lags. Industrialization has brought about
urbanization which in turn has caused numerous social problems. Social
disorganization brings confusion and uncertainty, because the old traditions no longer
form a dependable guide to behaviour, and individuals become rootless. They feel
isolated from society. A feeling develops that the community leaders are indifferent to
their needs. Individuals feel insecure, confused, and frustrated. Confusion and
frustration lead to social movements. In the context of social disorganization,
movements often emerge as mechanisms to address the perceived breakdown of
social order. They seek to reestablish a sense of community, justice, and stability.
Movements for economic justice, labour rights, or affordable housing, for example,
may arise in response to economic disorganization and inequality.

3. Social Injustice:
When a group of people feel that injustice was done to them, they become frustrated
and alienated. Such feeling of injustice provides fertile soil for social movements. The
feeling of social injustice is not limited to the miserable poor. Any group, at any status
level, may come to feel itself the victim of social injustice. The wealthy class may feel a
sense of injustice when faced with urban property ceiling law—or high taxes—intended
to benefit the poor. Social injustice is a subjective value judgment. A social system is
unjust when it is so perceived by its members. Thus, social movements occur when-
ever such kind of social situation arises. In a stable and well-integrated society, the
chances for social movements are very rare. Movements advocating for civil rights,
gender equality, environmental justice, and other similar causes are driven by a deep-
seated commitment to rectifying perceived injustices. Sachdeva contends that social
movements serve as instruments of resistance against oppressive systems and
structures. They amplify the voices of those who are marginalized or oppressed,
demanding accountability, equality, and fairness.
 Other causes:

4. Economic Inequality:
Economic inequality is identified as a significant cause by Sachdeva. Disparities in
wealth, income, and opportunities create conditions of discontent, particularly when a
significant portion of the population feels excluded from economic benefits. Social
movements may emerge to address economic inequalities, calling for fair wages,
better working conditions, or economic policies that promote inclusive growth.

5. Political Repression:
Sachdeva underscores political repression as a cause of social movements. When
individuals or groups face restrictions on their political rights, freedom of expression, or
participation in democratic processes, it can fuel discontent. Social movements may
arise as a means to challenge authoritarian regimes, demand political freedoms, and
advocate for participatory governance.

 ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:

1. Collective Identity:
Collective identity is a foundational element of social movements. It refers to the
shared sense of belonging, purpose, and identity among individuals who come
together to address a common cause or grievance. This collective identity provides a
unifying force, fostering a sense of solidarity among participants. It involves the
recognition of a shared narrative, values, and goals that bind individuals into a
cohesive movement. A strong collective identity enhances the movement's
cohesiveness, resilience, and capacity for mobilization. It creates a sense of belonging
and common purpose, motivating individuals to actively participate in collective
actions.

2. Shared Beliefs and Values:

Shared beliefs and values form the ideological foundation of social movements. These
are the guiding principles and convictions that define the movement's worldview and
provide a rationale for challenging existing norms or structures. Shared beliefs
articulate why the movement perceives certain issues as unjust or in need of change.
Common beliefs and values serve as a unifying framework, shaping the movement's
narrative and influencing the strategies employed. They contribute to the creation of a
collective consciousness that guides the movement's direction and actions.

3. Organizational Structure:
Social movements often develop organizational structures to facilitate coordination,
resource mobilization, and decision-making. These structures can range from informal
networks to more formalized organizations with defined roles, hierarchies, and
communication channels. The organizational structure helps manage the complexities
of collective action and provides a framework for sustained activism.
 An effective organizational structure enhances the movement's capacity to plan and
execute strategies. It enables efficient resource utilization, communication, and the
ability to respond to changing circumstances, contributing to the movement's overall
effectiveness.

4. Mobilization and Tactics:

Mobilization involves the activation and engagement of individuals within the
movement. Tactics refer to the methods and strategies employed to achieve movement
goals. Mobilization and tactics are intertwined elements that drive the movement's
visibility and impact. Mobilization efforts seek to attract and involve a broad base of
supporters, while tactics include a diverse range of actions such as protests,
demonstrations, advocacy campaigns, and other forms of direct action. Effective
mobilization and well-chosen tactics are essential for gaining public attention,
influencing decision-makers, and creating a significant impact. The strategic use of
tactics contributes to the movement's ability to convey its message and achieve its
objectives.

5. External Challenges and Opportunities:

Social movements operate within a broader socio-political context, facing external
challenges and opportunities. External challenges may include repression, opposition
from established institutions, or societal resistance to change. Opportunities arise from
shifts in public opinion, changes in political landscapes, or moments of crisis that
create openings for the movement to garner support. Understanding external
challenges and opportunities is crucial for strategic decision-making. Movements that
navigate external dynamics effectively can leverage opportunities and develop
resilience in the face of challenges.

6. Change and Impact:

The ultimate goal of a social movement is to bring about change and have a lasting
impact on societal structures, policies, or cultural norms. Change can take various
forms, including legal reforms, shifts in public attitudes, or institutional transformations.
The impact of a social movement is measured by its ability to catalyse meaningful and
sustainable change in the areas it seeks to address. Assessing the movement's
change and impact provides insight into its success and legacy. Movements that
achieve tangible results contribute to shaping the trajectory of societal development
and may inspire subsequent activism.
 UNIT 4: IDEOLOGY AND LEADERSHIP
 ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:
While studying social movements we will inevitably find that in the initial phase or even
later on, one person or a small group has motivated the others to start a movement. In
most of the movements, we will find that they were shaped by a leader. The Rajbanshi
Kshatriya movement was under the leadership of Panchanan Thakur who was the first
to assert that the Rajbanshis were Kshatriyas. He mobilised the people around this
demand. The women’s movement too has several leaders in different parts of the
country. In Kerala the SNDP movement had Sri Narayana Guru as its chief leader. The
movement was, characterised by collective leadership with a division of labour among
the different types of elites.

Leaders are important for movements because they help clarify the issues and thus
shape the movement. It is the leaders who provide guidance to a movement. They
prevent it from becoming a desperate, unruly collection of people. A movement can
degenerate into a mob if it does not have a leader or a group of leaders guiding it.

The importance of leadership does not necessarily mean that it is all pervading, Social
Movements that people have no independent role to play and they are manipulated by
the leaders. On the contrary, the leadership is expected to reflect the views of the
people. Just as we have seen earlier that social movements arise when there is a
concrete problem and when people become aware of it. Similarly, a leader is able to
visualise this problem. The person does not necessarily create it. The most important
aspect of leadership is that it tries to articulate the views of the participants. It is
impossible for all people to give their views simultaneously. This would result in chaos.
The leader tries to present these views in an organised manner.

At the same time the leadership of a movement also tries to impress its own views on
the people. The leader has ideas about the movement, the shape it will take and the
nature of its demands. Leadership therefore involves a two- way process. On the one
hand the leader tries to lead according to his understanding of the situation and the
issues involved. On the other hand, the leader incorporates the views and ideas of the
participants and articulates them in the process. Both aspects must be present to
ensure a stable leadership of a movement. If a leader only tries to impose his or her
own views without taking into account the views of the participants the movement is
likely to degenerate. A similar situation will occur if the leadership solely relies on the
diverse views of the participants without enunciating its own.

We can therefore see that leadership is necessary for helping to develop and shape a
social movement. The objectives of a social movement arise out of the problems the
people are facing. In the case of the reservation movements both pro and anti) it would
mean greater seats for that section of the people. For the women’s movement it would
mean greater freedom and less oppressive social restrictions. At the same time, how
the participants attempt to achieve the stated objectives will be largely determined by
the leadership the movement can throw up.
 ROLE OF IDEOLOGY IN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:
Ideology very simply denotes a set of related beliefs held by a group of people. It helps
in understanding a situation. Further it legitimises actions pursued by the people.
Therefore, just as a leader is important for guiding a movement, an ideology is also
important as it makes people understand and justify the implications of their actions.

In very rare cases are people attracted to a movement because of a promise for better
facilities. There is something deeper, which makes people committed to it. People do
not join a movement because they take a fancy to a leader. Normally they follow the
leader because of what he represents, i.e., the ideas that he places before the people.
People can be lured by promises of better physical facilities and opportunities for social
life only for a short time. They however need something more to sustain their interest
in the movement. This is where ideology plays a role in sustaining the movement. One
can rarely conceive of a social movement without an ideology.

Ideology distinguishes one social movement from one another, even though the goals
of both may be similar. This can be explained through an example. We can often see
that social movements having the same goals may adopt different means to attain
them. Both the Naxalite movement and the Bhoodan movement had the same goal of
helping to overcome the problems of the rural poor. The Bhoodan movement adopted
a peaceful, non-violent approach. It sought to distribute land to the poor by appealing
to the rich landowners to donate their surplus land to the rural poor. The Naxalite
movement on the other hand adopted more forceful means. It believed that the
landlords were the enemies of the poor. Hence the only way to help the poor would be
to eliminate their enemies. Both movements justified their actions. Therefore, we can
see that Ideology indicates the goals, means and forms of practical activities of social
groups and of individuals. It supplies the justification for various social, political and
moral ideals.

We can take another example to illustrate the above point. The movement for
preservation of the ecology has taken different paths. The aim of these different
movements is the same: preservation of the natural environment. However, there are
differences on how environment should be preserved. Sundarlal Bahuguna is leading a
social movement, which has become internationally renowned. His emphasis is on
protection of trees in the hilly regions. The Chipko movement, as it is called, has been
effective in preventing felling of trees in the Gharwal region of Uttar Pradesh. This
movement also believes that if the environment is to be preserved, growth of industries
must be checked, industrialisation will destroy the environment, and subsequently, the
local population. On the other hand, there is another movement in the same region
based on the same goal of preserving the forests, led by Chandi Prasad Bhatt. The
means are somewhat different from those of the Chipko movement. Bhatt’s movement
believes that small industries should be allowed in this region to provide employment
to the people. The existence of forests is necessary, this movement asserts, but if
forest related employment is not available the people may be forced to cut down trees
to earn their livelihood. This movement views industrialisation as a form of
modernisation but it has to be regulated. The Chipko movement has a different view on
this matter. The divergence in the two movements is not based on scientific analysis,
though both use scientific data to prove their respective stands. Ideology plays an
important part in determining these actions and in analysing the situation. Bhatt’s
movement Social Movements believes that industrialisation is a form of progress
whereas Bahuguna’s movement has different views on this. Both justify their
approaches on ideological basis.

Apart from helping to distinguish one movement from another, ideology helps to
sustain a movement. It distinguishes a social movement from mere instances. People
can be mobilised when they feel that they are being deprived. However, in order to
carry on the movement, they need some justification for their actions. The Kshatriya
movement began when the Rajbanshis felt that they were being treated as inferiors.
But in order to sustain the movement they needed the belief that they were in fact
originally from an upper caste. We can therefore see that ideology is an important
component of a social movement. It conceives a movement, sustains it and offers
solutions. Both leadership and ideology are indispensable as leaders operate within
the ideological framework.
UNIT 5: AGENTS OF SOCIAL MOVEMENT