The Art of War

The Israeli Defence Forces have been heavily influenced by

contemporary philosophy, highlighting the fact that there is
considerable overlap among theoretical texts deemed
essential by military academies and architectural schools
by Eyal Weizman

The attack conducted by units of the Israeli Defence Forces (IDF) on the city of Nablus in April 2002 was
described by its commander, Brigadier-General Aviv Kokhavi, as ‘inverse geometry’, which he explained as
‘the reorganization of the urban syntax by means of a series of micro-tactical actions’.1 During the battle
soldiers moved within the city across hundreds of metres of ‘overground tunnels’ carved out through a dense
and contiguous urban structure. Although several thousand soldiers and Palestinian guerrillas were
manoeuvring simultaneously in the city, they were so ‘saturated’ into the urban fabric that very few would
have been visible from the air. Furthermore, they used none of the city’s streets, roads, alleys or courtyards,
or any of the external doors, internal stairwells and windows, but moved horizontally through walls and
vertically through holes blasted in ceilings and floors. This form of movement, described by the military as
‘infestation’, seeks to redefine inside as outside, and domestic interiors as thoroughfares. The IDF’s strategy of
‘walking through walls’ involves a conception of the city as not just the site but also the very medium of
warfare – a flexible, almost liquid medium that is forever contingent and in flux.

Contemporary military theorists are now busy re-conceptualizing the urban domain. At stake are the
underlying concepts, assumptions and principles that determine military strategies and tactics. The vast
intellectual field that geographer Stephen Graham has called an international ‘shadow world’ of military urban
research institutes and training centres that have been established to rethink military operations in cities could
be understood as somewhat similar to the international matrix of élite architectural academies. However,
according to urban theorist Simon Marvin, the military-architectural ‘shadow world’ is currently generating
more intense and well-funded urban research programmes than all these university programmes put together,
and is certainly aware of the avant-garde urban research conducted in architectural institutions, especially as
regards Third World and African cities. There is a considerable overlap among the theoretical texts considered
essential by military academies and architectural schools. Indeed, the reading lists of contemporary military
institutions include works from around 1968 (with a special emphasis on the writings of Gilles Deleuze, Félix
Guattari and Guy Debord), as well as more contemporary writings on urbanism, psychology, cybernetics,
post-colonial and post-Structuralist theory. If, as some writers claim, the space for criticality has withered
away in late 20th-century capitalist culture, it seems now to have found a place to flourish in the military.

I conducted an interview with Kokhavi, commander of the Paratrooper Brigade, who at 42 is considered one of
the most promising young officers of the IDF (and was the commander of the operation for the evacuation of
settlements in the Gaza Strip).2 Like many career officers, he had taken time out from the military to earn a
university degree; although he originally intended to study architecture, he ended up with a degree in
philosophy from the Hebrew University. When he explained to me the principle that guided the battle in
Nablus, what was interesting for me was not so much the description of the action itself as the way he
conceived its articulation. He said: ‘this space that you look at, this room that you look at, is nothing but your
interpretation of it. […] The question is how do you interpret the alley? […] We interpreted the alley as a place
forbidden to walk through and the door as a place forbidden to pass through, and the window as a place
forbidden to look through, because a weapon awaits us in the alley, and a booby trap awaits us behind the
doors. This is because the enemy interprets space in a traditional, classical manner, and I do not want to obey
this interpretation and fall into his traps. […] I want to surprise him! This is the essence of war. I need to win
[…] This is why that we opted for the methodology of moving through walls. . . . Like a worm that eats its way
forward, emerging at points and then disappearing. […] I said to my troops, “Friends! […] If until now you
were used to move along roads and sidewalks, forget it! From now on we all walk through walls!”’2 Kokhavi’s
intention in the battle was to enter the city in order to kill members of the Palestinian resistance and then get
out. The horrific frankness of these objectives, as recounted to me by Shimon Naveh, Kokhavi’s instructor, is
part of a general Israeli policy that seeks to disrupt Palestinian resistance on political as well as military levels
through targeted assassinations from both air and ground.

If you still believe, as the IDF would like you to, that moving through walls is a relatively gentle form of
warfare, the following description of the sequence of events might change your mind. To begin with, soldiers
assemble behind the wall and then, using explosives, drills or hammers, they break a hole large enough to
pass through. Stun grenades are then sometimes thrown, or a few random shots fired into what is usually a
private living-room occupied by unsuspecting civilians. When the soldiers have passed through the wall, the
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occupants are locked inside one of the rooms, where they are made to remain – sometimes for several days –
until the operation is concluded, often without water, toilet, food or medicine. Civilians in Palestine, as in Iraq,
have experienced the unexpected penetration of war into the private domain of the home as the most
profound form of trauma and humiliation. A Palestinian woman identified only as Aisha, interviewed by a
journalist for the Palestine Monitor, described the experience: ‘Imagine it – you’re sitting in your living-room,
which you know so well; this is the room where the family watches television together after the evening meal,
and suddenly that wall disappears with a deafening roar, the room fills with dust and debris, and through the
wall pours one soldier after the other, screaming orders. You have no idea if they’re after you, if they’ve come
to take over your home, or if your house just lies on their route to somewhere else. The children are
screaming, panicking. Is it possible to even begin to imagine the horror experienced by a five-year-old child as
four, six, eight, 12 soldiers, their faces painted black, sub-machine-guns pointed everywhere, antennas
protruding from their backpacks, making them look like giant alien bugs, blast their way through that wall?’3

Naveh, a retired Brigadier-General, directs the Operational Theory Research Institute, which trains staff
officers from the IDF and other militaries in ‘operational theory’ – defined in military jargon as somewhere
between strategy and tactics. He summed up the mission of his institute, which was founded in 1996: ‘We are
like the Jesuit Order. We attempt to teach and train soldiers to think. […] We read Christopher Alexander, can
you imagine?; we read John Forester, and other architects. We are reading Gregory Bateson; we are reading
Clifford Geertz. Not myself, but our soldiers, our generals are reflecting on these kinds of materials. We have
established a school and developed a curriculum that trains “operational architects”.’4 In a lecture Naveh
showed a diagram resembling a ‘square of opposition’ that plots a set of logical relationships between certain
propositions referring to military and guerrilla operations. Labelled with phrases such as ‘Difference and
Repetition – The Dialectics of Structuring and Structure’, ‘Formless Rival Entities’, ‘Fractal Manoeuvre’,
‘Velocity vs. Rhythms’, ‘The Wahabi War Machine’, ‘Postmodern Anarchists’ and ‘Nomadic Terrorists’, they
often reference the work of Deleuze and Guattari. War machines, according to the philosophers, are
polymorphous; diffuse organizations characterized by their capacity for metamorphosis, made up of small
groups that split up or merge with one another, depending on contingency and circumstances. (Deleuze and
Guattari were aware that the state can willingly transform itself into a war machine. Similarly, in their
discussion of ‘smooth space’ it is implied that this conception may lead to domination.)

I asked Naveh why Deleuze and Guattari were so popular with the Israeli military. He replied that ‘several of
the concepts in A Thousand Plateaux became instrumental for us […] allowing us to explain contemporary
situations in a way that we could not have otherwise. It problematized our own paradigms. Most important
was the distinction they have pointed out between the concepts of “smooth” and “striated” space [which
accordingly reflect] the organizational concepts of the “war machine” and the “state apparatus”. In the IDF we
now often use the term “to smooth out space” when we want to refer to operation in a space as if it had no
borders. […] Palestinian areas could indeed be thought of as “striated” in the sense that they are enclosed by
fences, walls, ditches, roads blocks and so on.’5 When I asked him if moving through walls was part of it, he
explained that, ‘In Nablus the IDF understood urban fighting as a spatial problem. [...] Travelling through
walls is a simple mechanical solution that connects theory and practice.’6

To understand the IDF’s tactics for moving through Palestinian urban spaces, it is necessary to understand
how they interpret the by now familiar principle of ‘swarming’ – a term that has been a buzzword in military
theory since the start of the US post cold War doctrine known as the Revolution in Military Affairs. The swarm
manoeuvre was in fact adapted, from the Artificial Intelligence principle of swarm intelligence, which assumes
that problem-solving capacities are found in the interaction and communication of relatively unsophisticated
agents (ants, birds, bees, soldiers) with little or no centralized control. The swarm exemplifies the principle of
non-linearity apparent in spatial, organizational and temporal terms. The traditional manoeuvre paradigm,
characterized by the simplified geometry of Euclidean order, is transformed, according to the military, into a
complex fractal-like geometry. The narrative of the battle plan is replaced by what the military, using a
Foucaultian term, calls the ‘toolbox approach’, according to which units receive the tools they need to deal
with several given situations and scenarios but cannot predict the order in which these events would actually
occur.7 Naveh: ‘Operative and tactical commanders depend on one another and learn the problems through
constructing the battle narrative; […] action becomes knowledge, and knowledge becomes action. […] Without
a decisive result possible, the main benefit of operation is the very improvement of the system as a system.’8

This may explain the fascination of the military with the spatial and organizational models and modes of
operation advanced by theorists such as Deleuze and Guattari. Indeed, as far as the military is concerned,
urban warfare is the ultimate Postmodern form of conflict. Belief in a logically structured and single-track
battle-plan is lost in the face of the complexity and ambiguity of the urban reality. Civilians become
combatants, and combatants become civilians. Identity can be changed as quickly as gender can be feigned:
the transformation of women into fighting men can occur at the speed that it takes an undercover ‘Arabized’
Israeli soldier or a camouflaged Palestinian fighter to pull a machine-gun out from under a dress. For a
Palestinian fighter caught up in this battle, Israelis seem ‘to be everywhere: behind, on the sides, on the right
and on the left. How can you fight that way?’9

Critical theory has become crucial for Nave’s teaching and training. He explained: ‘we employ critical theory
primarily in order to critique the military institution itself – its fixed and heavy conceptual foundations. Theory
is important for us in order to articulate the gap between the existing paradigm and where we want to go.
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Without theory we could not make sense of the different events that happen around us and that would
otherwise seem disconnected. […] At present the Institute has a tremendous impact on the military; [it has]
become a subversive node within it. By training several high-ranking officers we filled the system [IDF] with
subversive agents […] who ask questions; […] some of the top brass are not embarrassed to talk about
Deleuze or [Bernard] Tschumi.’10 I asked him, ‘Why Tschumi?’ He replied: ‘The idea of disjunction embodied
in Tschumi’s book Architecture and Disjunction (1994) became relevant for us […] Tschumi had another
approach to epistemology; he wanted to break with single-perspective knowledge and centralized thinking. He
saw the world through a variety of different social practices, from a constantly shifting point of view.
[Tschumi] created a new grammar; he formed the ideas that compose our thinking.11 I then asked him, why
not Derrida and Deconstruction? He answered, ‘Derrida may be a little too opaque for our crowd. We share
more with architects; we combine theory and practice. We can read, but we know as well how to build and
destroy, and sometimes kill.’12

In addition to these theoretical positions, Naveh references such canonical elements of urban theory as the
Situationist practices of dérive (a method of drifting through a city based on what the Situationists referred to
as ‘psycho-geography’) and détournement (the adaptation of abandoned buildings for purposes other than
those they were designed to perform). These ideas were, of course, conceived by Guy Debord and other
members of the Situationist International to challenge the built hierarchy of the capitalist city and break down
distinctions between private and public, inside and outside, use and function, replacing private space with a
‘borderless’ public surface. References to the work of Georges Bataille, either directly or as cited in the
writings of Tschumi, also speak of a desire to attack architecture and to dismantle the rigid rationalism of a
postwar order, to escape ‘the architectural strait-jacket’ and to liberate repressed human desires.

In no uncertain terms, education in the humanities – often believed to be the most powerful weapon against
imperialism – is being appropriated as a powerful vehicle for imperialism. The military’s use of theory is, of
course, nothing new – a long line extends all the way from Marcus Aurelius to General Patton.

Future military attacks on urban terrain will increasingly be dedicated to the use of technologies developed for
the purpose of ‘un-walling the wall’, to borrow a term from Gordon Matta-Clark. This is the new
soldier/architect’s response to the logic of ‘smart bombs’. The latter have paradoxically resulted in higher
numbers of civilian casualties simply because the illusion of precision gives the military-political complex the
necessary justification to use explosives in civilian environments.

Here another use of theory as the ultimate ‘smart weapon’ becomes apparent. The military’s seductive use of
theoretical and technological discourse seeks to portray war as remote, quick and intellectual, exciting – and
even economically viable. Violence can thus be projected as tolerable and the public encouraged to support it.
As such, the development and dissemination of new military technologies promote the fiction being projected
into the public domain that a military solution is possible – in situations where it is at best very doubtful.

Although you do not need Deleuze to attack Nablus, theory helped the military reorganize by providing a new
language in which to speak to itself and others. A ‘smart weapon’ theory has both a practical and a discursive
function in redefining urban warfare. The practical or tactical function, the extent to which Deleuzian theory
influences military tactics and manoeuvres, raises questions about the relation between theory and practice.
Theory obviously has the power to stimulate new sensibilities, but it may also help to explain, develop or even
justify ideas that emerged independently within disparate fields of knowledge and with quite different ethical
bases. In discursive terms, war – if it is not a total war of annihilation – constitutes a form of discourse
between enemies. Every military action is meant to communicate something to the enemy. Talk of ‘swarming’,
‘targeted killings’ and ‘smart destruction’ help the military communicate to its enemies that it has the capacity
to effect far greater destruction. Raids can thus be projected as the more moderate alternative to the
devastating capacity that the military actually possesses and will unleash if the enemy exceeds the
‘acceptable’ level of violence or breaches some unspoken agreement. In terms of military operational theory it
is essential never to use one’s full destructive capacity but rather to maintain the potential to escalate the
level of atrocity. Otherwise threats become meaningless.

When the military talks theory to itself, it seems to be about changing its organizational structure and
hierarchies. When it invokes theory in communications with the public – in lectures, broadcasts and
publications – it seems to be about projecting an image of a civilized and sophisticated military. And when the
military ‘talks’ (as every military does) to the enemy, theory could be understood as a particularly intimidating
weapon of ‘shock and awe’, the message being: ‘You will never even understand that which kills you.’

Eyal Weizman is an architect, writer and Director of Goldsmith’s College Centre for Research Architecture. His
work deals with issues of conflict territories and human rights.

A full version of this article was recently delivered at the conference ‘Beyond Bio-politics’ at City University,
New York, and in the architecture program of the Sao Paulo Biennial. A transcript can be read in the
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March/April, 2006 issue of Radical Philosophy.

1 Quoted in Hannan Greenberg, ‘The Limited Conflict: This Is How You Trick Terrorists’, in Yediot Aharonot;
www.ynet.co.il (23 March 2004)
2 Eyal Weizman interviewed Aviv Kokhavi on 24 September at an Israeli military base near Tel Aviv.
Translation from Hebrew by the author; video documentation by Nadav Harel and Zohar Kaniel
3 Sune Segal, ‘What Lies Beneath: Excerpts from an Invasion’, Palestine Monitor, November, 2002;
www.palestinemonitor.org/eyewitness/Westbank/what_lies_beneath_by_sune_segal.html 9 June, 2005
4 Shimon Naveh, discussion following the talk ‘Dicta Clausewitz: Fractal Manoeuvre: A Brief History of Future
Warfare in Urban Environments’, delivered in conjunction with ‘States of Emergency: The Geography of
Human Rights’, a debate organized by Eyal Weizman and Anselm Franke as part of ‘Territories Live’, B’tzalel
Gallery, Tel Aviv,
5 November 2004
5 Eyal Weizman, telephone interview with Shimon Naveh, 14 October 2005
6 Ibid.
7 Michel Foucault’s description of theory as a ‘toolbox’ was originally developed in conjunction with Deleuze in
a 1972 discussion; see Gilles Deleuze and Michel Foucault, ‘Intellectuals and Power’, in Michel Foucault,
Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews, ed. and intro. Donald F. Bouchard,
Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1980, p. 206
8 Weizman, interview with Naveh
9 Quoted in Yagil Henkin, ‘The Best Way into Baghdad’, The New York Times, 3 April 2003
10 Weizman, interview with Naveh
11 Naveh is currently working on a Hebrew translation of Bernard Tschumi’s Architecture and Disjunction, MIT
Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1997.
12 Weizman, interview with Naveh