Reviewer Sem

Acid and Bases

Acid Properties Bases Properties

 Sour Taste  Bitter Taste

 Provide Hydrogen ions ( H+)  Provide Hydroxide ion (OH-)
 React with active metals to give  Slippery Feeling
hydrogen  Changes the color of Indicators
 Change the Color of the (Blue to Blue) (Red to Blue)-
indicators ( Blue to Red) (Red to Litmus Paper
Red)- Litmus Paper  Neutralizes Acids
 Produces C02 when added to
Limestone
 Neutralizes Bases

Some Acidic Substance Some Basic Substance

 Vinegar  Household Ammonia

 Tomato  Baking Soda ( Sodium Bi
 Citrus Fruit Carbonate)
 Carbonated Beverages  Soap
 Black Coffee  Detergents
 Gastric Fluid  Milk Of Magnesia
 Vitamin C  Oven Cleaners
 Aspirin  Lye
 Ant Venom  Drain Cleaners
 Battery Acid  Antacids

Three Concepts of Acid and Bases:

 Arrhenius Concept (Define acid and bases through their ionic properties)
 Bronsted-Lowry Concept (Define acid and bases through their ability to donate and accept
hydrogen ions and also protons)
 Lewis Concept (Define acid and bases through their ability to donate and accept electrons)
 Acids Formula and Their Strenghts
Name Formula Strength Uses or occurence
Cleaning steel; car
Sulfuric Acid H2 SO4 S batteries; making
plastics, dyes, fertilizers
Cleaning metals and
Hydrochloric Acid HCl S
brick mortar
Making fertilizers,
Nitric Acid HNO3 S
explosives, plastics
Making fertilizers,
Phosphoric Acid H3 PO4 M
detergents
Acetic Acid CH3 COOH W Vinegar
Propanoic Acid CH3 CH2 COOH W Swiss Cheese
HOC(COOH)(CH2
Citric Acid W Fruit
COOH)2
Carbonic Acid H2 CO3 W Carbonated Drinks
Eye Drops, Mild
Boric Acid H3 BO3 W
Antiseptic
Acids

 Molecule or ion able to donate a hydrogen ion to a base

➢ Acidic solution – a solution that contains a higher concentration of H3O ions than OH ions

And furnishes hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution

Type of acids:

1. Strong Acid- acid that is 100% ionized in aqueous solution

2. Weak Acid- acid that is only partially ionized in aqueous solution and established equilibrium with
non-ionized acid

Basic Substances Common Name

Formula Chemical Name Common Name
Na OH Sodium Hydroxide Caustic Soda
K OH Potassium Hydroxide Caustic Potash
NH4 OH Ammonium Hydroxide Ammonia Water
Ca (OH)2 Calcium Hydroxide Lime Water
Ba (OH)2 Barium Hydroxide Baryta Water
Mg (OH)2 Magnesium Hydroxide Milk Of Magnesia
Bases

 molecule or ion able to accept a hydrogen ion from an acid

➢ Basic solution – a solution that contains a higher concentration of Oh ions than H3O ions

And furnishes hydroxide ions in a solutions

Type of Bases:

1. Strong Bases- base that is 100% ionized in aqueous solution

2. Weak Bases- base that is only partially ionized in aqueous solution and established equilibrium with
non-ionized base

3. Base anhydrite – an oxide that forms a base when reacted with water

Reaction Between Acid and Bases:

➢ Acid-base reaction – a reaction in which a hydrogen ion is exchanged between an acid and a base

➢ Neutralization reaction – reaction of equivalent quadratic of an acid and a base

➢ Acid-base indicator – a substance that changes color with changes in acidity or basicity of a solution
(Litmus Paper) ( Natural Indicator Gumamela leaves )

Salts

➢ionic compound composed of the cation from a base and the anion from an acid

Nature of Salts

Salt is produced by the reaction of acid and bases in an aqueous solution. Neutralization

How salt is formed?

1. For acid solutions, ionization- Hydrogen ions become hydronium and unite with water (H20)

2. For Basic Solutions, dissociation- ex. KOH becomes (K + OH)

3. If you mix the two solutions the process is called Neutralization

4. All of the cations of hydroxide and ions also known as spectator ions will be removed.

5. then the solvent water will be evaporated and the two components will not become separated
anymore but will combine after the process. which will form a crystallized structure called salt.

For Example, The Formation of KCl Salt: HCl and KOH in a aqueous solution

Ionization of acidic solution:

HCl (Acidic Solution) + Water (H3O+) + Cl-

Dissociation of Basic Solution:

KOH K + OH-

Neutralization:

(H3O+) + Cl + K + OH- = K + Cl + 2H20

Spectator Ions

H3O+ +OH= 2H20

Other ways of formations of Salt:

1. Direct Union Of elements

Some metals react directly with certain nonmetals and form a salt. For example, burning sodium in an
atmosphere of chlorine gas produces sodium chloride

2Na + Cl2 = 2NaCl

2. Reaction of a metal with an acid. Many metals replace hydrogen in an aqueous acid and form the
corresponding salt. Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid and forms zinc chloride and hydrogen.

Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl + H2

3. Reaction of a metallic oxide with an aqueous acid. The oxides of some metals react with an acid and
forms salt. Magnesium oxide, when treated with hydrochloric acid, forms. If calcium oxide is substituted
for magnesium oxide in this reaction, the salt formed is calcium chloride

MgO + 2HCl (aq)= MgCl2 + H2O

CaO + 2HCl = CaCl2 + H2O

4. Reaction of nonmetallic oxide with a base.

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO2(s) + H2O

5. Acid-base neutralization When an acid neutralizes a soluble hydroxide, a salt may be recovered from
the water solvent. This salt corresponds to the metallic ion of the base and the nonmetallic ion of the
acid. Many different salts can be prepared by neutralization. An example is the reaction between
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide mixed in chemically equivalent quantities. When the solvent
water is evaporated, sodium chloride is
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

6. Ionic reaction Two salts may be prepared in ionic reaction of one of them is practically insoluble. The
equation for the reaction between solutions of sodium sulfate and barium chloride is

BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → 2NaCl + BaSO4(s)

Since both reactants are dissociated in water solution, the ionic equation is more useful.

Ba+(aq) + SO4-(aq) → Ba+ + SO4-(s)

7. Reaction of an acid with a carbonate. A salt can be obtained form this reaction because the other
products are water and carbon dioxide gas. If hydrochloric acid is added to a solution of sodium
carbonate, the following reaction occurs:
2HCl + Na2CO3 → 2NaCl + H2O + CO3

8. Reaction of a metallic oxide with a nonmetallic oxide. An oxygen-containing salt may be formed by the
reaction between a basic oxide and an acidic oxide. Water is not involved in this process. Instead, the dry
oxides are mixed and heated. Metallic carbonates and phosphate are typical of the salts produced.

MgO + CO2 → MgCO3

CaO + CO2 → CaCO3

3CaO + P2O5 → Ca3(PO4)2

(Naming) Nomenclature Salts:

Salts are derived from acids and are named by using the suffix ate for a salt of an ic acid; the suffix ite for
a salt of an ous acid. Salts are binary acids have the suffix ide

Acids Sodium Name

H CL NaCl Sodium Chloride
H ClO Na ClO Sodium Hypochlorite
H ClO2 Na Cl02 Sodium Chlorite
H ClO3 Na ClO3 Sodium Chlorate
H ClO4 Na ClO4 Sodium PerChlorate

Kind of Salts:

1. Normal Salts- Normal salts are salts which do not contain replaceable hydrogen or hydroxyl group

Na2SO4

2. Acid salts are salts which contain a replaceable oxygen or hydroxyl group

NaHSO4
3. Basic salts contain a replaceable oxygen or hydroxyl group
BiOCl, Pb(OH)C2H3O2

4. Mixed or double salts are salts formed when the hydrogen atoms of an acid are replaced by two or
more different metals
KAI(SO4)212H2O

5. Complex salts are salts that form complex ions (a combination of a simple ion with another ion or a
molecule).
Ag(NH3)2Cl
Properties of Salt:

 In general, most salts in the crystalline state are electrovalent and are composed of ions oriented
in a definite way.
 Certain salts form from hydrates and water
 Certain salts hydrolyze

Salts are the most numerous of chemical compounds. Many of these salts are used industrially and in
household work. Among them are:

Common Name Chemical Name

Na Cl Table Salt Sodium Chloride
Na2CO310H2O Washing Soda Sodium Carbonate decahydrate
KNO3 Saltpeter- Saline Potassium Nitrate
Na NO3 Chile Saltpeter Sodium Nitrate
Na HCO3 Baking Soda Sodium bicarbonate

More Shits of Knowledge:

 pH is measure of the H3O concentration of a solution

 POH is a measure of the OH- concentration of a solution
 If the solution has a pH of 7, it is neutral, less than 7, it is acidic and more than 7, it is a base

 The strength of acids and bases can be described using the degree of ionization and ionization
constant
 An indicator is a substance that changes color at a certain pH range
 Acid tastes sour and change blue litmus paper to red
 A base is a compound that is bitter and slippery to the touch it changes red litmus paper to blue
 Salt is the substance formed when the hydrogen of an acid is partially or wholly replaced by an
active metals
Naming of Chemicals

Naming Acids:

I. The prefix hydro and a suffix ic denote an acid with no oxygen (binary acid)
Hydro + “Root word of the element”+ ic then acid

HCl- Hydrochloric Acid

HBr- Hydrobromic Acid

II. For oxygen–containing acids (ternary acids). – the suffix ic is used to denote the common
oxygen-containing acid of an element: thus HClO3 is chloric acid, in which the valence of chlorine
is -5.
 The suffix ous denotes the acid in which the element exhibits its next lower valence;
thus, HClO2 is chlorous acid, in which chlorine has a valence of -3.
 The prefix hypo and the suffix ous denote the acid in which a non-metallic element has a
valence lower than the ous acid; thus HClO is a hypochlorous acid, in which chlorine has
a valence of -1.
 The prefix per and the suffix ic denote the acid for the next higher valence above the ic
acid, thus HClO4 is perchloric acid, in which chlorine has a valence of -7

Ternary Acid

“The root word of the element” + right suffix

Ic- common oxygen-containing acid

Ous -lower valence than ic

Hypo and ous- Lower Valence than "ous”

Per and ic- next higher valence than the ic acid

Example: Same as for the Bromine Example:

Perchloric Acid- HClO4 Persulfuric Acid- H2SO5

Chloric Acid- HCl03 Sulfuric Acid- H2SO4

Chlorous Acid- HClO2 Sulfurous Acid- H2SO3

Hypochlorous Acid- HClO Hyposulfurous Acid – H2SO2

III. Most of the ic acids contain 3 or 4 oxygen atoms per molecule.

HNO3 – nitric acid HBrO3 – bromic acid HIO3 – iodic acid

H2 SO4 – sulfuric acid H3PO4 – phosphoric acid H3ASO4 – arsenic acid

Amphiprotic Compounds

 Any substance that can act as either an acid or a base according to the Bronsted definition is
described as amphiprotic.

(Naming of Bases) Nomenclature of bases:

Bases are named as metallic hydroxides. If the metal has a higher oxidation state, the suffix ic is
used: if it has a lower oxidation state, the suffix ous is used.

“Root name” + Suffix (Ic, Ous) then hydroxide

Fe OH3- Ferric Hydroxide

Fe OH2- Ferrous Hydroxide

Basic Substances Common Name

Formula Chemical Name Common Name
Na OH Sodium Hydroxide Caustic Soda
K OH Potassium Hydroxide Caustic Potash
NH4 OH Ammonium Hydroxide Ammonia Water
Ca (OH)2 Calcium Hydroxide Lime Water
Ba (OH)2 Barium Hydroxide Baryta Water
Mg (OH)2 Magnesium Hydroxide Milk Of Magnesia

Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds:

Rules of Writing Ionic Compounds:

I. First, the positively charged ion goes first before the negatively charged ion.
Na+ Cl- K+ Cl-

II. Find the charge of the positively charged and negatively charged ion then find their Least
Common Multiple.
+1 -1 +1 -1

III. Determine the subscripts through division by dividing the LCM by the charge of the elements
regarding the positive and negative sign. If the answer is one, it is not necessary to write the
subscript

NaCl KCL

1/1 1/1
Formula Writing for Elements

1. Monoatomic elements need one atom to make a molecule, hence they are written without subscripts.
In general, metals are monoatomic. Ex. Mg, Sn, Ag, K, Ca, etc. are monoatomic. Mono means one

2. Diatomic elements need two atoms to make a molecule, hence they are written with the subscript 2.
In general, gases ( or elements that can exist in the gaseous state) are diatomic. Ex. Nitrogen – N2,
Hydrogen – H2 , Iodine – I2, Chlorine – Cl2, Oxygen – O2.

Formula Writing for Compounds

1. Only elements (or radicals) with opposite valence (plus and minus) can form a compound.

Ex. Na+ and K+ can not form a compound because they have the same kind of valence (both positive).
Na+ and Cl- can form a compound

2. The element (or radical) with the positive valence is usually written first followed by the element (or
radical) with a negative valence. Ex. Na+ is written before Cl.

3. The total positive valence must be numerically equal to the total negative valence. In other words, the
algebraic surr. The positive and negative valence must be equal to zero. Total positive valence = total
positive valence x no. of atoms (or subscript) Total negative valence = negative valence x no. of atoms

Ex. Barium chloride – BaCl2 the total positive valence is 2, from Ba and the total negative valence is 2 (-1
x 2 atoms).

Criss-cross Method: Ba2Cl-1 Ba1 Cl2 or BaCl2

Barium= +2 Valence

Chlorine= -1 Valence

4. Elements (radicals) with the same numerical (but opposite) valence combine in the ratio of one to one
(atom or radical).

Ex. 𝐴𝑙+3 PO4 = formula of aluminum phosphate is AlPO4. B𝑎+2 SO4 = formula of barium sulfate is
BaSO4. They become one is to one ratio meaning subscripts will be remove.

Al+3 + PO4-3 AlPO4 Ba+2 SO4-2 BaSO4

5. Radicals which are to be taken more than once must be enclosed in parenthesis.

Ex. Calcium nitrate; 𝐶𝑎+2 , NO3-. Following rule 3, we must take 2 nitrate radicals to make the total
positive valence equal to the total negative valence. Hence the formula of calcium nitrite is Ca(NO3)2

Criss-cross method To avoid confusion we need a parenthesis

Ca +2 NO3 -1 Ca NO32 Ca(NO3)2
 6. Whenever possible, reduce the subscripts to a simpler set of subscripts.

Ex. Stannic sulfide is written SnS2 and not Sn2S4. Lowest term if possible
Sn2 S4 Sn S2

NOTE: 1. For the element carrying the lower valence, the ending –OUS is used. 2. For the element
carrying the higher valence, the ending –IC is used. Illustration: Mercury has 2 common valences: +1 and
+2. 𝐻𝑔+1 is called mercurous; 𝐻𝑔+2 is called mercuric

Naming Binary Compounds

Binary Compounds are made up of two elements

 You just need to combine the names of two element

Magnesium Chloride= MgCL2

Plumbic Oxide= PbO2 (Since ic is the suffix of lead we will use te higher valence of the lead) it has 2
valence 2,+4.
Mg +2 Cl -1 MgCl2

Criss-Cross Since it was possible to reduce the subscripts, we will reduce it

Pb+ 4 O-2 Pb2 O4 PbO2

Naming of inorganic compound

Binary compounds There are two types of binary compounds: ionic and molecular.

An ionic compound is a combination of a metal and a nonmetal while a molecular compound consists of
two nonmetals.

Binary salts:

 To name a binary compound of a metal (with fixed positive valence) and a nonmetal, write the unmodified
name of the metal followed by the name of the nonmetal (modified to and an ide)

Example:

Barium Oxide

Magnesium Chloride

 A binary compound of a metal (with more than one valence) and a nonmetal can be named.

➢ By using prefixes (mono-1, di-2, tri-3, tetra-4, penta-5, hexa-6, hepta-7 and so on) to indicate the
number of atoms. For mono u don’t need to put mono instead just put the name of the element

Examples: FeCl3 – Iron Trichloride Fe Cl2- iron dichloride

Prefixes:
 By using the suffix -ous for the positive element with a lower
Di- two
valence and the suffix -ic fo the positive element with higher
Tri- three valence.

Tetra- four Example: FeCl3 – ferric chloride FeCl2 – ferrous chloride

Penta- five  By using Roman numeral following the name of the metal to
indicate its oxidation state (oxidation number).
Hexa- six
FeCl3 – iron (III) chloride FeCl2 – iron (II) chloride
Hepta- seven
 Binary compounds of two nonmetals
Octa – eight  To name a binary compound of two nonmetals,
Nona- nine a prefix is used to indicate the number of atoms.

Deca- ten Examples: NO – nitrogen monoxide N2O3 – dinitrogen trioxide

Lesson 2 Molecular Orbital, Molecular Formula, and Superconductivity

Molecular Orbital

A mathematical function describing the location and wave-like behavior of an electron in a molecule.

Avogadro’s Constant/Number: 6.02214076 x 1023 / 6.022 × 10²³

Band structures are a representation of the allowed electronic energy levels of solid materials and are
used to better inform their electrical properties. A band structure is a 2D representation of the energies
of the crystal orbitals in a crystalline material

The highest energy band containing electrons is called the valence band
the next higher, empty band us called the conduction band.
 In insulators the valence band is fully occupied with electrons due to the covalent bonds. The
electrons can not move because they're "locked up" between the atoms. To achieve
conductivity, electrons from the valence band have to move into the conduction band. This
prevents the band gap, which lies in between the valence band and the conduction band.
 In conductors, the valence band is either not fully occupied with electrons, or the filled valence
band overlaps with the empty conduction band. In general, both states occur at the same time,
the electrons can therefore move inside the partially filled valence band or inside the two
overlapping bands. In conductors there is no band gap between the valence band and
conduction band.
Superconductors are characterized by the absence of any kind of resistance to the flow of electrons. The
conductive material must, however, be supercooled (e.g., using liquid nitrogen) to very low
temperatures (e.g., around -253° C) to eliminate any resistance.

Conductors are the materials or substances Semiconductors are materials which have a
which allow electricity to flow through conductivity between conductors (generally
them. They conduct electricity because metals) and nonconductors or insulators (such
they allow electrons to flow easily inside as most ceramics). Semiconductors can be pure
Conductor
them from atom to atom. Also, Semi-Conductors
conductors Superconductor Insulators or
elements, such as silicon or germanium,
allow the transmission of heat or light from compounds such as gallium arsenide or
one source to another. cadmium selenide
 Silver Resistors Alluminum Glass
Superconductors are solids that at low temperatures
Alluminum Capacitors Nobium Plastic
exhibit zero resistance to the flow of electrical current,
Iron Diodes Cuprates Rubber
a phenomenon known as superconductivity. The
Copper Transistor Wood
temperature at which the electrical resistance of a
substance drops to zero is its superconducting
transition temperature (T c )

Examples:

Empirical Formula:

The empirical formula of a compound is defined as the formula that shows the ratio of elements present
in the compound, but not the actual numbers of atoms found in the molecule. The ratios are denoted by
subscripts next to the element symbols.The empirical formula is also known as the simplest formula
because the subscripts are the smallest whole numbers that indicate the ratio of elements.

Molecular Formula:

A molecule is comprised of two or more atoms that have been chemically combined. A molecular
formula is a chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the kinds and numbers of atoms
present in a molecule of the compound. Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen as shown
below

Simple terms :

 Semi Conductors is a material with electrical conductivity intermediate between those of metals
and insulators
 Superconductors are solid that at low temperature exhibit zero resistance to the flow of
electrical current
 Conductor a substance, body or device that readily conducts heat and electricity
 Molecular Orbital is a mathematical function describing the location and wave-like behavior of
an electron in a molecule
 Molecular compound substance consistency of atom that are covalently bonded
 Molecular formula a chemical formula that gives the total number of atoms of each element in
each molecule of a substance
 Empirical formula show the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound
 Structural formula show how the atoms in a molecule are bonded to each other
God damnn!!!!!!!!!!!!
Ohhhh YOU’RE HERE

Percentage Composition Formula:

1. Find the Molar mass of each element ( Mass of each element)

2. Find the Molecular Mass ( Mass of the Molecule) (Kabuuan)
3. Then Divide the mass of element to the Molecular Mass then multiply it by 100
I. Example: Ca C02 II.

Ca=40.08 X 1= 40.08 Add all of the Sums

40.08 + 12 + 32= 84. 08 Amu

C= 12 X 1=12

O= 16 X 2= 32

III.

Ca= 40.08/84.08 X100 = 47.66

C= 12/84.08 X 100= 14.27

O= 32/84.08 X 100= 38.05

ADD ALL THE ANSWERS :

47.66 + 14.27 + 38.05 = 99.98

 Empirical Formula

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