InTech-Geochemistry Chapter7
InTech-Geochemistry Chapter7
InTech-Geochemistry Chapter7
net/publication/267260584
CITATIONS READS
9 445
4 authors, including:
Xing-Chun Zhang
Chinese Academy of Sciences
61 PUBLICATIONS 783 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Yong Xia on 08 May 2015.
1. Introduction
Carlin-type gold deposits, also known as sediment-hosted gold deposits are among the
largest hydrothermal gold deposits in the world, currently being sought and mined in the
United States and China (Tretbar et al., 2000; Hu et al., 2002). The region of southwestern
Guizhou (SW Guizhou), which is a region where the Carlin-type gold deposits were found
for the earliest time in China, is an important component of the Yunnan-Guizhou-Guangxi
“gold triangle” province. Carlin-type gold deposits in SW Guizhou, China, are hosted in late
Paleozoic and early Mesozoic sedimentary rocks along the southwest margin of the
Precambrian Yangtze craton. They can be classified as two types, i.e., the fault type and the
strata-bound type, on the basis of their occurrence, shape and structural controls (Zhang et
al., 2003; Xia, 2005). The former type includes the Lannigou, Yata, Banqi, Zhimudang (the
upper orebodies), etc. with gold ores mostly occurring in high-angle compresso-shear faults.
The ore-hosted strata are generally Middle and Lower Triassic in age, ore-bearing rocks are
dominated by muddy siltstones and silty mudstones. The strata-bound gold deposits
include the Shuiyindong, Taipingdong, Zhimudang (the lower orebodies), Getang, Nibao,
etc. Gold ores are hosted mainly in the interbeded rupture zone at the karst discontinity
surface of the Upper-Lower Permian and the Upper Permian strata. The deposits are mostly
concealed ones at depth, the orebodies occur as stratiform, stratoid and lenticular ones and
are developed along the strata, characterized by multi-layer distribution. Ore-hosted rocks
are mainly impure bioclastic limestones and carbonate rocks in organic-rich coal series
formations, with obvious anticline ore-controlling features. They have characteristics similar
to Carlin-type gold deposits in Nevada, including notable enrichment in As, Sb, Hg, and Tl
(Hu et al., 2002; Xia, 2005). Typical characteristics include impure carbonate or calcareous
and carbonaceous host rock that contains disseminated pyrite and arsenopyrite. Gold occurs
either as submicrometer-sized particles or invisibly as solid solution in As-rich rims of pyrite
and arsenopyrite. Late stibnite, realgar, and orpiment fill fractures on the periphery of gold
mineralization. Hydrothermal alteration caused decarbonation, silicification, argillization,
and sulfidation, similar to Carlin-type gold deposits in Nevada (Hofstra and Cline, 2000;
Emsbo et al., 2003; Kesler et al., 2003). Detailed studies in recent years have shed much light
on the geochemistry and metallogenic mechanisms of the Carlin-type gold deposits in the
www.intechopen.com
128 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
region, promoted metallogenic prognosis and exploration, thus making the Shuiyindong
gold deposit become a typical super-large Carlin-type gold deposit. On the other hand, a
great breakthrough has been made in metallogenic prognosis and exploration of Carlin-type
gold deposits on a regional scale.
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 129
Fig. 1. Simplified geologic map of southwestern Guizhou (modified after Zhang et al., 2003),
showing the locations of the major Carlin-type gold (e.g., Shuiyindong and Yata) and
antimony and mercury deposits.
www.intechopen.com
130 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
Fig. 2. (a) Distributions of the major terranes in China (modified after Chung and Jahn,
1995); (b) geological map of the SW Guizhou area and the distribution of the sedimentary
rocks, Permian basalts, tectonic elements, ultramafic dykes and gold deposits.
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 131
www.intechopen.com
132 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 133
www.intechopen.com
134 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 135
produced illite or illite-quartz veinlets, many of which contain pyrite and arsenopyrite. The
dominant primary ore minerals at Yata are arsenian pyrite, arsenopyrite, marcasite, stibnite,
orpiment, and realgar (Zhang et al., 2003). Trace amounts of sphalerite, galena, and
chalcopyrite also occur. Gangue minerals include quartz, dolomite, calcite, and clay
minerals (e.g., illite). Pyrite is the dominant sulfide in the ores (3–5 vol %). It occurs
disseminated in the host rocks as rounded pentagonal, dodecahedral, octahedral, and cubic
Fig. 4. Simplified geologic plan (A) and cross section (B) along the A-A' exploration line of
Yata (after Zhang et al., 2003). Note the vertical (± fault-controlled) orientation of the
orebodies.
www.intechopen.com
136 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 137
basic parameters for measuring the hydrothermal alteration intensity. As, Cu, Sb and Tl,
especially As, can be employed as the indicator elements for ore exploration.
Limestone
Claystone
Claystone
limestone
limestone
siltstone
siltstone
Element Element
Muddy
Muddy
Muddy
Muddy
Au 79.80 55.14 69.33 82.50 Zr 1.15 1.34 1.32 0.70
Sc 1.06 1.14 1.15 0.50 Nb 1.32 1.42 1.29 0.68
TiO2 1.25 1.04 1.19 0.62 Mo 1.59 6.56 1.42 1.48
V 0.65 1.46 1.23 0.66 Cd 1.87 2.76 2.67 6.31
Cr 0.55 2.32 1.01 0.54 Sn 0.57 2.20 1.79 0.97
MnO 1.25 1.69 0.45 1.20 Sb 2.91 7.95 11.73 32.80
Co 1.30 1.41 1.86 0.62 Cs 1.94 1.39 1.05 0.32
Ni 1.22 1.12 1.06 0.72 Ba 1.01 0.73 1.14 3.07
Cu 3.74 2.27 2.47 1.57 Hf 0.95 1.29 1.29 0.73
Zn 2.07 1.92 1.04 0.82 Ta 1.17 1.29 1.28 0.73
Ga 1.32 1.18 1.38 0.63 Tl 109.0 53.27 69.07 34.92
Ge 0.50 1.17 1.20 0.71 Pb 1.53 1.52 1.62 1.30
As 22.00 19.39 94.26 63.08 Th 0.96 1.04 1.21 0.79
Rb 1.60 1.14 1.51 0.87 U 0.70 3.34 1.47 2.01
Sr 0.25 0.60 0.51 0.86 ree 0.95 1.52 1.42 0.72
Y 0.84 1.61 1.31 0.74
Table 1. Average values of elements in ore-bearing rock seires and content ratios of elements
of normal rocks of the Shuiyindong gold deposit (unit: wt% for TiO2, MnO, and 10-6 for the
others).
The result of elements analysis of rocks and ores indicates that the contents of Au, As, Cu,
Sb, Tl in rocks are similar and original differences of their contents in rocks is much smaller
than the differences caused by hydrothermal alteration. The average contents of these
elements in mineralized rocks are tens times even hundred times higher than
nonmineralized rocks. So, the contents of these elements are controlled by action of ore-
forming fluids. These elements are most basic elements representing action of ore-forming
fluids and indicator elements of prospecting.
www.intechopen.com
138 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
As La Au La
Pyrite outer zone
Pyrite core Gold circle
Arsenopyrite
A B
Fig. 5. Scan images of As La(A) and Au La(B) compositions of fine-grained pyrite by electron
microprobe spectral scaning.
5. The Sm-Nd isotopic composition of the Shuiyindong gold deposit and its
ore-forming geochronological study
In the Carlin-type gold deposits there are usually no minerals suitable for traditional dating,
so the problem of metallogenic time has not yet been solved. In the past the fission track
method, the quartz fluid inclusion Rb-Sr method and the pyrite Pb-Pb method were used to
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 139
constrain the metallogenic ages, giving a larger age range of 80–170 Ma (Hu et al., 2002).
Studies by researchers from the Institute of Ore Deposits Geology showed that there are
usually developed carbonate veins or realgar (orpiment)-stibnite-carbonate veins in the fault
zones exposed on the surface or the hanging-wall of orebodies in the Carlin-type gold
mining districts of SW Guizhou. The extensive development of such carbonate veins may
imply that there had occurred such geochemical processes as interactions between Au-
bearing hydrothermal solutions and Fe-bearing carbonate strata or cements (decarbonation)
and they would be the most direct macroscopic geological manifestion of decarbonation
during gold metallogenesis.
REE analyses indicated that there are significant differences between the calcite veins closely
associated with gold metallogenesis and those with no connection with gold metallogenesis
on a regional scale (Table 2, Figs. 6 and 7). The analytical results of Sm-Nd isotopic
composition for calcite veins which have close genetic connections with gold mineralization
are listied in Table 4 and the calculated results of Sm-Nd isotopic ages are shown in Fig.8.
All the results showed that the considerably reliable mineralization age of the super-large
Shuiyindong strata-bound Carlin-type gold deposit is 134–136 Ma (Early Cretaceous), just
corresponding to the tectonic background of the regional lithosphere expansion(Su
Wenchao et al., 2009).
Sample No. La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Cal-08 0.43 1.77 0.45 3.33 2.38 1.08 3.99 0.7 3.07 0.49 1.05 0.1 0.57 0.07
Cal-11 0.73 3.08 0.73 5.58 3.82 1.89 5.85 0.96 4.32 0.65 1.3 0.14 0.72 0.09
Cal-16 0.18 0.68 0.15 1.05 0.48 0.19 0.57 0.1 0.44 0.08 0.21 0.02 0.14 0.02
Cal-03 6.54 17.1 3.1 16.06 3.81 1.87 3.46 0.46 1.96 0.3 0.61 0.06 0.29 0.04
Cal-17 0.63 2.1 0.4 2.4 0.95 0.41 1.51 0.26 1 0.14 0.22 0.02 0.12 0.02
Cal-10 0.64 1.58 0.38 2.26 0.85 0.28 1.2 0.2 1.02 0.2 0.5 0.05 0.31 0.04
Cal-05 1.66 3.96 0.71 3.5 0.85 0.6 0.95 0.12 0.51 0.09 0.21 0.02 0.1 0.01
Cal-20 1.28 4.18 0.67 3.4 1.04 0.34 1.06 0.18 0.75 0.13 0.3 0.04 0.21 0.03
Cal-21 0.99 3.46 0.59 3.16 1 0.37 1.16 0.18 0.89 0.15 0.35 0.04 0.23 0.03
Cal-12 0.09 0.32 0.07 0.46 0.22 0.09 0.32 0.06 0.29 0.05 0.12 0.01 0.07 0.01
Cal-14 0.67 0.25 0.2 0.99 0.21 0.07 0.24 0.03 0.16 0.03 0.07 0.01 0.05 0.01
ZK1648-14 0.45 0.89 0.17 0.95 0.3 0.12 0.46 0.08 0.36 0.07 0.14 0.02 0.09 0.01
ZK3101-22 0.17 0.55 0.12 0.81 0.81 0.17 0.43 0.07 0.31 0.05 0.1 0.01 0.05 0.01
ZK2002-31 0.21 0.7 0.16 1.23 0.32 0.47 2.72 0.64 3.37 0.55 1.02 0.09 0.47 0.07
NN-03 2.06 3.1 0.49 2.357 0.565 0.182 0.961 0.171 1.009 0.221 0.609 0.085 0.5 0.074
NN-04 0.63 1.26 0.22 1.13 0.339 0.0178 0.45 0.064 0.361 0.068 0.149 0.018 0.087 0.011
NN-05-1 2.3 4.41 0.71 3.368 0.795 0.227 1.018 0.18 0.971 0.203 0.569 0.078 0.449 0.071
NN-05-2 1.49 2.47 0.34 1.234 0.2 0.046 0.192 0.032 0.189 0.036 0.103 0.015 0.087 0.013
Table 2. REE data (×10-6)
for calcite samples in the orebodies and wall rocks of the
Shuiyindong gold deposit.
www.intechopen.com
140 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
Fig. 6. The chondrite-normalized REE patterns for the calcite veins associated with Au
mineralization in the Shuiyindong gold deposit. All data are normalized according to the
chondrite REE values of Sun and McDonough (1989).
Fig. 7. The chondrite-normalized REE patterns for the calcite veins which have no genetic
connection with gold mineralization. All the data are normalized according to the chondrite
REE values of Sun and McDonough (1989).
Sm Nd 147Sm/144Nd 143Nd/144Nd(2σ)
Sample No. 87Sr/86Sr(2σ)
(×10-6) (×10-6) (atomic) (atomic)
Cal-08 2.3002 3.0752 0.4522 0.512762±6 0.707083±10
Cal-11 3.8689 5.5334 0.4227 0.512735±5 0.707203±21
Cal-16 0.4683 1.0775 0.2628 0.512593±9 0.707482±13
Cal-03 3.6978 14.5286 0.1539 0.512496±7 0.707251±25
Cal-17 0.9178 2.2416 0.2475 0.512579±6 0.707991±11
Cal-10 0.8437 2.1825 0.2337 0.512567±8 0.707217±13
Cal-05 0.8203 3.2117 0.1544 0.512497±8 0.707152±16
Cal-20 0.9776 3.2226 0.1834 0.512523±12 0.707125±13
Cal-21 0.9602 2.8964 0.2004 0.512537±7 0.707143±10
Cal-12 0.2227 0.457 0.2946 0.512064±6 0.707729±8
Cal-14 0.2044 0.9306 0.1328 0.511922±15 0.707614±10
ZK1648-14 0.2869 0.8801 0.1971 0.511978±20 0.708003±24
ZK3101-22 0.812 0.9904 0.4957 0.512241±18 0.707610±11
ZK2002-31 0.39 0.9459 0.2493 0.512024±7 0.706620±18
Table 3. Sm, Nd and Sr isotopic compositions of calcite veins from the Shuiyindong gold
deposit.
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 141
www.intechopen.com
142 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
Fluid inclusions observed in this study have negative crystal, elongate, or irregular shapes
(Fig. 9). Fluid inclusions types were classified based on their appearance at 25°C andby their
Raman spectra and occur in successive stages of the vein and alteration paragenesis.
Type Ia inclusions are two-phase, liquid-rich aqueous inclusions with 10 to 20 vol percent of
a low-density vapor bubble at room temperature. They occur in early barren milky quartz
veins at Shuiyindong and Yata. Primary inclusions of this type occur along growth zones of
quartz and have negative crystal shapes, generally less than 25 μm in diameter (Fig. 9B, E).
Secondary inclusions are elongate or irregular and occur along trails crosscutting quartz
grains or grain boundaries (Fig. 9C, F). Raman spectroscopy analysis has failed to accurately
determine the composition of the vapor phase of this type of inclusion because the bubble
moved as the laser beam was focused on it. Raman peaks of CO2, N2, and CH4 have,
however, been detected.
Type Ib inclusions are two- or three-phase aqueous-carbonic inclusions with a dominant
aqueous liquid phase and a relatively constant carbonic (vapor + CO2 liquid) fraction of 15
vol percent (Fig. 9H). They are commonly observed in quartz veinlets with arsenian pyrite
and arsenopyrite of the main stage of gold mineralization at Yata and in jasperoidal quartz
of the main stage at Shuiyindong. Primary inclusions are typically 20μm in diameter, occur
along growth zones of quartz, and have negative crystal shapes (Fig. 9G, H). Some
inclusions along microfracture planes within quartz grains are pseudosecondary based on
their spatial relationship to the growth zones and healed fractures. Both microthermometry
and Raman spectroscopy analyses have revealed that the main component of the volatile
phase of the inclusions is CO2, with minor N2 and trace CH4.
Type II inclusions are rare, two-phase, aqueous-carbonic inclusions with variably high
proportions of a carbonic phase ranging from 45 to 90 vol percent (Fig. 9K). In samples from
Yata, they occur in late drusy quartz with realgar, stibnite, and calcite.
Type III inclusions are monophase carbonic inclusions (Fig. 9L) and generally less than 15
μm in diameter. They are restricted to late quartz-realgar veins or veinlets at Yata and occur
along trails crosscutting quartz grains. Both microthermometry and Raman spectroscopy
have revealed that the volatile phase is mainly composed of CO2 and N2, with trace CH4.
Petrographic relationships indicate that CO2-poor aqueous inclusions of type Ia can be
interpreted to approximate the mineralizing fluid, which was responsible for precipitation
of early ore minerals in veins but predates the deposition of the bulk of disseminated gold-
bearing arsenian pyrite and arsenopyrite deposition in both deposits. CO2-rich fluids of type
Ib are interpreted to correspond to the main gold-bearing fluid in both deposits. The same
aqueous-carbonic fluids also occur together with type II and III carbonic fluids in the late
quartz-realgar veins at Yata. Type II and III fluids are interpreted to represent the waning or
outflow stage of economic gold mineralization.
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 143
Fig. 9. Microphotographs of fluid inclusions in quartz. A. Early milky quartz (thin section)
from Shuiyindong. B. Primary and C. Secondary type Ia aqueous inclusions in the milky
quartz from Shuiyindong. D. Photograph and sketch of early milky quartz from Yata. E.
Primary and F. Secondary type Ia aqueous inclusions in the milky quartz from Yata. G.
SEM-CL image of a main ore-stage quartz crystal, and H. Photographs of type Ib
aqueous-carbonic inclusions from Yata. Circles denote the positions of inclusions analyzed
by LA-ICP-MS. I. to L. Late drusy quartz crystal with types Ib, II, and III aqueous-carbonic
and carbonic-rich inclusions from Yata, respectively. Note that two end-member fluid
inclusion assemblages are cogenetic in (L). Scale bar is 20 μm unless defined otherwise.
www.intechopen.com
144 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
Type Ia primary and secondary aqueous inclusions (Fig.9B-C, E-F) have initial ice-melting
temperatures (Te) from –22.2° to –21.0°C, which is similar to the eutectic melting
temperature in the NaCl-H2O system (Hall et al., 1988) but does not exclude more complex
systems such as the NaCl-KCl-H2O system (Sterner et al., 1988). Final ice-melting
temperatures (Tm) of primary aqueous inclusions range from –3.0° to –4.3°C, corresponding
to salinities of 5.0 to 6.9 wt percent NaCl equiv (Bodnar, 1993) with an average of 6.0 wt
percent NaCl equiv (Fig. 10B, D). Homogenization of these fluid inclusions was to the liquid
phase at temperatures ranging from 190° to 258°C with a mode around 230°C (Fig. 10A, C).
The Tm of secondary inclusions range from –1.2° to –4.5°C, corresponding to salinities of 2.1
to 7.2 wt percent NaCl equiv (Fig. 10B, D). Secondary inclusions of type Ia also
homogenized into the liquid phase at temperatures ranging from 151° to 261°C with a mode
around 190°C (Fig. 10C). No evidence of other phases, such as clathrate, liquid, or solid CO2
were observed, suggesting that this type of inclusion may contain as much as 2.4 mol
percent CO2 dissolved in the aqueous phase without developing a separate CO2 liquid
phase at room temperature (Bodnar et al., 1985).
Type Ib primary and secondary aqueous-carbonic inclusions (Fig. 9H, J) always develop a
vapor phase in the carbonic bubble, even if they are two-phase at room temperature. The
melting temperature of CO2 (Tm (CO2)) ranges from –58.1° to –56.6°C with the majority of
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 145
www.intechopen.com
146 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
CO2 melting occurring at –56.6°C (Fig. 10G). The carbonic phase always homogenized to the
liquid (Th (CO2)) at temperatures ranging from 10.2° to 26.1°C with a mode around 24.0°C
(Fig. 10H). Clathrate observed in these inclusions exhibits a typical Q2 melting behavior
(Bakker and Brown, 2003). The clathrate melting temperatures (Tm(cl)) of primary
inclusions range from 8.3° to 9.2°C, corresponding to salinities of 1.6 to 3.3 wt percent NaCl
equiv (Diamond, 1992), with an average of 2.3 wt percent NaCl equiv (Fig. 10F), which is
two to three times lower than the salinity of the type Ia aqueous inclusions. The Tm(cl) of
secondary inclusions range from 9.4° to 9.8°C, corresponding to salinities of 0.4 to 1.2 wt
percent NaCl equiv (Fig. 10F). These inclusions commonly decrepitated at temperatures
below 200°C, before total homogenization was attained.
The 35 inclusions that did not decrepitate homogenized into the liquid phase at
temperatures from 190° to 245°C, with a mode around 220°C (Fig. 10E). Raman spectroscopy
of the carbonic phase in individual fluid inclusions showed that CO2 is the dominant
volatile (>96 mol %), N2 is always detected (0.5–3.5 mol %), and CH4 has been detected (up
to 1.2 mol%) in a few inclusions (Table 4).
Type II aqueous-carbonic inclusions (Fig. 9K) also always develop a vapor phase in the
carbonic bubble during cooling runs. Their Tm(CO2) ranged from –59.6° to –58.1°C
(Fig.10G). Homogenization of the CO2 was always to the liquid phase between 6.3° to
20.9°C. The Tm(cl) range from 9.5° to 10.7°C, corresponding to salinities of 0 to 8.9 wt
percent NaCl equiv (Bakker and Brown, 2003). Total homogenization temperatures were not
obtained because these inclusions decrepitated when heated to above 200°C. Raman
spectroscopy revealed that their volatile phases contain major CO2 (87–89 mol %), minor N2
(10–14 mol %), and trace CH4 (0.8 mol %; Table 4).
In the process of freezing (down to –180°C) and subsequent heating, type III carbonic
inclusions (Fig. 9L) underwent the following sequence of phase transitions: S + V → L + V →
L. The Tm(CO2) range from –60.5° to –59.6°C with the majority at –60.1°C (Fig. 10G). The
Th(CO2) of this type of inclusion range from –24.3° to –22.5°C (Fig. 10H) and were always
into the liquid phase. Total homogenization temperatures could not be measured reliably
owing to optical limitations (Diamond, 2003). Raman spectroscopy showed that the volatile
phase of type III inclusions contains major CO2 (71–77 mol %), minor N2 (23–27 mol %), and
trace CH4 (up to 1.8 mol %; Table 4).
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 147
Fig. 11. A. T-X diagram of the H2O-CO2 system at 1.0 kbar based on experimental data from
Tödheide and Franck (1963)and Takenouchi and Kennedy (1964). B. P-T diagram showing
the range of possible P-T conditions during mineralization at Yata. The miscibility
boundaries for fluids with 6 and 7.6 mol percent CO2 are from experimental data of the
H2O-CO2 system of Tödheide and Franck (1963) and Takenouchi and Kennedy (1964).
The minimum P-T conditions of inclusion entrapment are constrained by intersecting points
using the range of homogenization temperatures of type Ib inclusions (190°–245°C) and the
minimum of the bubble curves of 6 mol percent CO2 (Fig. 11B). The defined area in Figure
8B (shaded) ranges from 450 to 1,150 bars, corresponding to a depth of 1.7 to 4.3 km under
lithostatic load, using the average density of sedimentary rocks in southwestern Guizhou
(2.67 g/cm3: Wang et al., 1995) and 4.5 to 11.5 km assuming hydrostatic pressure. As Yata
was controlled by a fault, the estimated pressure may have been fluctuating between
hydrostatic and lithostatic pressures. Decompression associated with episodes of faulting
may have caused the immiscibility in the late stage of stibnite-realgar observed in this
deposit. Zhang et al. (2003) previously estimated pressures for the Lannigou deposit ranging
from 600 to 1,700 bars based on the CO2-bearing fluid inclusions, corresponding to a depth
of 2.2 to 6.3 km under lithostatic conditions or an unlikely 6 to 17 km under hydrostatic
www.intechopen.com
148 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
load. CO2 contents of fluid inclusions at Yata (6–8 mol %) are somewhat lower than those of
many orogenic lode gold deposits (10–25 mol % CO2: Ridley and Diamond, 2000) but higher
than those of Carlin-type gold deposits in Nevada (2–4 mol % CO2: Hofstra and Cline, 2000).
It is, therefore, reasonable to infer that the Yata deposit may have formed at depths
intermediate between orogenic-type gold deposits and those of the Carlin trend in Nevada.
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 149
matches the low Fe contents of fluids measured in the inclusions from the Shuiyindong and
Yata deposits. At the strata-bound Shuiyindong deposit, there is no evidence for significant
phase separation during the main mineralization stage. At the fault-controlled Yata deposit,
phase separation was minor during gold mineralization and common in the late stibnite-
realgar stage. This fluid inclusion evidence suggests that phase separation was not the key
process for deposition of gold and arsenian pyrite. The low Fe contents in the ore fluids
(below 400 μg/g) measured by LA-ICPMS of fluid inclusions and many relict inclusions of
ferroan carbonate (with up to 7.0 wt % Fe determined by EMPA: Su et al., 2008) enclosed in
the jasperoidal quartz crystals suggest that iron in sulfide minerals was probably derived
from dissolution of ferroan carbonate in the host rocks, as has been documented in Carlin-
type gold deposits in Nevada by lithogeochemistry of ores (Hofstra et al., 1991; Hofstra
and Cline, 2000). Sulfidation of ferroan carbonate-rich host rocks by H2S-rich ore fluids
containing Au(HS)–2 or Au(HS)0 (Seward, 1973, 1991), along with arsenic as H3AsO3
(aq) complex (Heinrich and Eadington, 1986; Pokrovski et al., 2002), would have effectively
extracted gold from solution and transformed primary ferroan carbonate to secondary
gold-bearing arsenian pyrite, possibly by a coupled reaction such as the following:
www.intechopen.com
150 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
sedimentary host rocks. The deposits formed at similar temperatures as epithermal gold
deposits, but at significantly higher pressure and greater depths (4–6 km), consistent with
regional-metamorphic temperature gradients. Their thermal regime and ore fluid
characteristics are similar to those of the broad group of orogenic gold deposits, raising the
possibility that the Carlin-type deposits in Guizhou might be the basin-hosted and relatively
cool end member of the crustal continuum of orogenic gold deposit formed from fluids
liberated by deep metamorphic dehydration or magmatism (Groves, 1993; Groves et al.,
1998; Pettke et al., 2000).
7. Metallogenic model
Through comprehensive geological-geochemical studies and discusion on the problems
concerning metallogenesis, the metallogenic model of the Shuiyindong gold deposit can be
summarized as follows(Xia 2005; Zhang et al., 2010):
Late Indosinian to Early Yanshanian tectonic movements put the end to the history of basin
evolution in this region. Development of strata folds, faults, deep giant faults and
magmatism, abnormally high geothermal temperature, and deeper burial resulted in the
formation of ore fluids with abundant volatile elements in the deep interior of the crust and
upper mantle. In addition, the fluids also became the overpressured fluids after extracting
ore-forming elemens in the Au-, Hg-, Sb-, As- and Tl-rich rocks in the basement and at great
depth.
At that time, as the crust was in the compressive sealed stress state, the overpressured ore
fluids were sealed at depth and were in strong equilibrium with the lithosphere. During the
Yanshanian period this region was in the extensional state. With the injection of alkaline
ultrabasic dykes (tubes), resurvival of the faults had occurred at the basement, which,
together with cover-strata faults, cut through the crust. As a result, the sealing conditions of
overpressured ore fluids were destroyed, the fault system, like a pump, made ore fluids find
their way into the upper crust. Gold in the ore fluids would be rapidly precipitated and
accumulated as gold deposits in the favorable loci where metallogenic conditions changed
suddenly. Meanwhile, Hg, Sb, As, Tl and other ore-forming elements would be precipitated
as ores in the proper locations. All these led to what we see today in Southwest Guizhou,
where the Carlin-type gold deposits are characterized by close Au-Hg-Sb-As-Tl paragenesis
or association on a regional scale, while various gold deposits show the phenomenon of
differentiation. At that time, as for the Shuiyindong gold deposit, due to the formation of the
Huijiabao short-axis anticline and that of the favorable Upper Permian Longtan Formation
assemblage of claystone→bioclastic limestone→claystone, volatiles with abundant CH4, N2
and CO2, which found their way into the anticline core along the karst and non-kart
unconformability at the bottom of the Longtan Formation, and gold overpressured ore
fluids were gathered. The fluids contained no iron (Su Wenchao et al., 2006), gold can be
exist in the form of Au-S coordination compound (Seward, 1973; Hofstra and Cline, 2000;
Zhang Jun et al., 2002). Relatively high pressure and high volatiles made ore fluids move
laterally and infiltrate to some extent in bioclasstic sandy limestones in the favorable
lithologic assemblage. Sometimes, the overpressured ore fluids would hydrodynamically
destroy the country rocks. With the structural development, the faults destroyed the traps
constituted by the anticline and favorable lithologic assemblage, making volatiles in the
fluids escape out rapidly. As a result, the fluid pressure dropped suddenly, followed by the
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 151
decrease of reductivity and the local or partial involvement of iron, some other components
and meteoric water in the strata, leading to significant differences in ore-forming conditions.
The ore-forming conditions thus rapidly turned favorable for gold deposition, and gold
would be rapidly precipitated with the crystallization of arsenopyrite (partly in the inner
core of pyrite of sedimentary origin) or fine-grained cinnaba.
Run-through of the faults and the repeated occurrence of favorable lithologic assemblages
led to the multi-layer orebody occurrence of the Shuiyindong gold deposit (Fig. 14). And Hg
and Tl in metallogenic hydrothermal solutions possess much higher mobility, thus forming
ore deposits in high-angle tensional-shear faults in the priphery of the gold deposit.
Therefore, there appeared anticline core and low-angle compresso-shear fault strata-bound
gold deposits and slightly later high-angle tensional-shear strata-bound Hg and Hg-Tl
deposits.
Fig. 11. The ‘’two-stories’’ gold orebodies distribution and metallogenic model of the Carlin-
type gold deposit in SW Guizhou (after Xia, 2005). 1. Stratum boundary; 2. Maokou Formation;
3. alteration zone; 4. Longtan Formation; 5. Changxin Formation; 6. Dalong Formation; 7. the
first member of the Yelang Formation; 8. the second member of the Yelang Formation; 9. deep
giant fault; 10. fault; 11. gold orebody; 12. migration direction of ore-forming fluid.
www.intechopen.com
152 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
Studies showed (Su Wenchao et al., 2006) that the mineralization experienced
decarbonation, gold and sulfur precipitation and the formation of carbonate veins, The
chemical reactions involved in these three processes are presented as follows:
1. Decarbonation:
CO2+H2O=H2CO3 (1)
8. Acknowledgments
The project was supported jointly by the State Science and Technology Supporting Program
(2006BAB01A13), the self-research project funded by the State Key Laboratory of Ore
Deposit Geochemistry (Ore Deposit Special Research Project), and Guizhou Provincial
Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resource Exploration and Development [Qian Di Kuang Ke
(2009) No. 11].
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 153
9. References
Bakker, R.J. & Brown, P.E. (2003). Computer modelling in fluid inclusion research,
Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course Series, Vol. 32, pp. 175-212
Bodnar, R.J. (1993) Revised equation and table for determining the freezing point depression
of H2O-NaCl solutions. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 57, (February
1993), pp. 683-684, ISSN 0016-7037
Bodnar, R.J., Reynolds, T.J. & Kuehn, C.A. (1985). Fluid inclusion systematics in epithermal
systems. Reviews in Economic Geology, Vol. 2, pp. 73-79, ISSN 0741-0123
Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources of Guizhou Province (1987), Regional Geology of
Guizhou Province: Geological Memoirs S.1, No. 7, pp. 1-698, Geological Publishing
House Beijing(in Chinese)
Diamond, L.W. (1990). Fluid inclusion evidence for P-V-T-X evolution of hydrothermal
solutions in late-alpine gold-quartz veins at Brusson, Val D’Ayas, northwest Italian
Alps. American Journal of Science, Vol. 290, (October 1990), pp. 912-958, ISSN 0002-
9599
Diamond, L.W. (1992). Stability of CO2 clathrate + CO2 liquid + CO2 vapour + aqueous
KCl-NaCl solutions: Experimental determination and application to salinity
estimates of fluid inclusions. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 56,No.
1,(January 1992), pp. 273–280, ISSN 0016-7037
Diamond, L.W. (2003). Introduction to gas-bearing aqueous fluid inclusions: Mineralogical.
Association of Canada Short Course Series, Vol. 32, No. 1-8, pp. 101-158
Emsbo, P., Hofstra, A.H., Lauha, E.A., Griffin, G.L. & Hutchinson, R.W. (2003). Origin of
highgrade gold ore, source of ore fluid components and genesis of the Meikle and
neighboring Carlin-type deposits, north CarlinTrend, Nevada. Economic
Geology,Vol. 98, (September 2003), pp. 1069-1105, ISSN 0361-0128
Friedman, I. & O’Neil, J.R. (1977). Compilation of stable isotope fractionation factors of
geochemical interest, U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper, 440-kk, pp.1-12
Geophysical & Geochemical Prospecting Team of the Bureau of Geology & Mineral
Resources of Guizhou Province (1988). A regional magnetic and gravity
investigation in southwestern Guizhou Province: Scale 1:200000, Unpub. Internal
Report.
Groves, D.I. (1993). The crustal continuum model for late-Archaean lodegold deposits of the
Yilgarn Block, Western Australia. Mineralium Deposita, Vol. 28, No. 6, pp. 366-374,
ISSN 0026-4598
Groves, D.I., Goldfarb, R.J., Gebre-Mariam, M., Hagemann, S.G. & Robert, F. (1998).
Orogenic gold deposits: A proposed classification in the context of their crustal
distribution and relationships to other gold deposit types. Ore Geology Reviews,
Vol. 13, (April 1998), pp. 7-27, ISSN 0169-1368
Hall, D.L., Sterner, S.M. & Bodnar, R.J. (1988). Freezing point depression of NaCl-KCl-H2O
solutions. Economic Geology, Vol. 83, (February 1988), pp. 197-202, ISSN 0361-0128
Heinrich, C.A. (2005). The physical and chemical evolution of low-salinity magmatic fluids
at the porphyry to epithermal transition.A thermodynamic study. Mineralium
Deposita, Vol. 39, No. 8, (February 2005), pp. 864-889, ISSN 0026-4598
Heinrich, C.A. & Eadington, P.J. (1986). Thermodynamic predictions of the hydrothermal
chemistry of arsenic, cassiterite-arsenopyrite-base metal sulfide deposits. Economic
Geology, Vol. 81, No. 3, (May 1986), pp. 511-529, ISSN 0361-0128
www.intechopen.com
154 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
Herrmann, A.G. (1970). Yttrium and Lanthanides. In: Wedepohl, K.H. (Ed.), Handbook of
Geochemistry, Vol. II/2. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 57-71. Section 39
Hofstra, A.H., Levethal, J.S., Northrop, H.R., Landis, G.P., Rye, R.O., Birak, D.J. & Dahl, A.R.
(1991). Genesis of sediment-hosted disseminated-gold deposits by fluid mixing
and sulfidization. Chemical-reaction-path modeling of ore-depositional processes
documented in the Jerritt Canyon district, Nevada. Geology, Vol. 19, No. 1,
(January 1991), pp. 36-40, ISSN 0091-7613
Hofstra, A.H., Zhang, X.C., Emsbo, P., Hu, R.Z., Su, W.C., Christiansen, W.D., Fu, S.W. &
Theodorakos, P. (2005). Source of ore fluids in Carlintype gold deposits in the Dian-
Qian-Gui area and West Qinling belt, P.R. China: Implications for genetic models,
in Mao, J.W., and Bierlein, F.P., eds., Mineral deposits research: Meeting the global
challenge: Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag, Vol. 1, pp. 533-536
Hofstra. H. & Cline J.S. (2000). Characteristics and models of Carlin-type gold deposits.
Reviews in Economic Geology, Vol. 13, pp. 163-220, ISSN 07410123
Hou, Z.L. & Yang, Q.D. (1989). Discussion on metallogenic condition and model for micro-
fine disseminated gold ore in the triangle area of Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi
Province. Dizhi Zhaokuang Rencong, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 1-13 (in Chinese)
Huang, K.N. (1986). The petrological and geochemical characteristics and the tectonic setting
of the Emeishan basalts in Kangdian craton and adjacent areas. unpub. PhD thesis
(in Chinese)
Hu, R.Z., Su, W.C., Bi, X.W., Tu, G.Z. & Hofstra, A.H. (2002). Geology and geochemistry of
Carlin-type gold deposits in China. Mineralium Deposita, Vol. 37, No. 3-4,
(december 2001), pp. 378-392, ISSN 0026-4598
Ilchik, R.P. & Barton, M.D. (1997). An amagmatic origin of Carlin-type gold deposit.
Economic Geology, Vol. 92, No. 3, (May 1997), pp. 269-288, ISSN 0361-0128
Kesler, S.E., Fortuna, J., Ye, Z.J., Alt, J.C., Zohar, D.P., Borhauer, J. & Chryssoulis, S.L. (2003).
Evaluation of the role of sulfidation in deposition of gold, Screamer section of the
Betze-Post Carlin-type deposit, Nevada. Economic Geology, Vol. 98, No. 6,
(September 2003), pp. 1137-1157, ISSN 0361-0128
Li, W.K., Jiang, X.S., Ju, R.H., Meng, F.Y. & Zhang, S.X. (1989). The geological characteristics
and metallogenesis of impregnated gold deposits in southwestern Guizhou, China,
In: Collected Works of Regional Ore-forming Condition of Main Gold Deposit
Styles in China, V.6 Southern Guizhou. Geological Publishing House Beijing, pp.1-
86 (in Chinese)
Liu, J.Z. (2001). The geology of the Yanshang gold deposit, Zhenfeng county, Guizhou.
Guizhou Geology, Vol. 18, pp. 174-178 , ISSN 1000-5943(in Chinese with English
abstract)
Lu, Z.M. (1986). The activation of southwestern bordering of Yangtze paraplatform and the
forming of Youjiang Geosyncline. Geology of Guizhou, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 9-27 ,
ISSN 1000-5943(in Chinese)
Mei, H.J. (1973). Petrochemical characteristics of two deep-derived trap in southwestern
China and its relationship with iron and nickel mineralization. Geochemica, Vol. 1,
No. 4, pp. 219-253(in Chinese)
Pettke, T., Diamond, L.W. & Kramers, J.D. (2000). Mesothermal gold lodes in the north-
western Alps: A review of genetic constraints from radiogenic isotopes. European
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry and Metallogenic
Model of Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China 155
Journal of Mineralogy, Vol. 12, No. 1, (January,February 2000), pp. 213–230, ISSN
0935-1221.
Pokrovski, G.S., Kara, S. & Roux, J. (2002). Stability and solubility of arsenopyrite, FeAsS, in
crustal fluids. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 66, No. 13, (July 2002), pp.
2361-2378, ISSN 0016- 7037
Radtke, A.S., Rye, R.O. & Dickson, F.W. (1980). Geology and stable isotope studies of the
Carlin gold deposit, Nevada. Economic Geology, Vol. 75, No. 5, (August 1980), pp.
641-672, ISSN 0361-0128.
Ressel, M.W., Noble, D.C., Henry, C.D. & Trundel, W.S. (2000). Dikehosted ores of the Beast
deposit and importance of Eocene magmatism in gold mineralization of Carlin
trend. Economic Geology, Vol. 95, No. 7, (November 2000), pp. 1417–1444, ISSN
0361-0128
Ridley, J.R. & Diamond, L.W. (2000). Fluid chemistry of orogenic lode gold deposits and
implications for genetic models. Reviews in Economic Geology, Vol. 13, pp. 141–
162, ISSN 0361-0128
Seward, T.M. (1973) Thio-complexes of gold in hydrothermal ore solutions. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 37, No. 3, (March 1973), pp. 379–399,ISSN 0016-7037
Sterner, S.M., Hall, D.L. & Bodnar, R.J. (1988). Synthetic fluid inclusions, V. Solubility
relations in the system NaCl-KCl-H2O under vapor-saturated conditions.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 52, No. 5, (May 1988), pp. 989–1005, ISSN
0016-7037
Sun S.-S. & McDonough W.F. (1989). Chemical and isotopic systematics of oceanic basalts:
Implication for the mantle composition and process. In Magmatism in the Ocean
Basins (eds. Saunder A.D. and Norry M.J). Geological Society of London Special
Publication, London, Vol. 42, pp. 313–345
Su, W.C., Hu, R.Z., Xia, B., Xia, Y. & Liu, Y.-P. (2009). Calcite Sm-Nd isochron age of the
Shuiyindong Carlin-type gold deposit, Guizhou, China. Chemical Geology, Vol.
258, No. 3-4, (January 2009), pp. 269–274, ISSN 0009-2541
Su,W.C., Xia, B., Zhang, H.T., Zhang, X.C. & Hu, R.Z. (2008). Visible gold in arsenian pyrite
at the Shuiyindong Carlin-type gold deposit. Guizhou, China: implications for the
environment and processes of ore formation. Ore Geology Reviews , Vol. 33, No. 3-
4, (June 2008), pp. 667–679, ISSN 0169-1368
Su,W.C., Heinrich, C.A., Pettke, T., Zhang, X.C., Hu, H.R., Xia, B., (2009). Sediment-hosted
gold deposits in Guizhou, China: products of wallrock sulfidation by deep crustal
fluids. Economic Geology, Vol. 104, pp. 73–93, ISSN 0361-0128
Su W.C, Zhang H.S, Xia B, Zhang X.C, Hu R.Z, Zhou G.F. & Xia Y. (2006). The first
discovery of sub-micro and micro visible native gold grains in the Shuiyindong
Carlin-type gold deposit in Guizhou. Acta Mineralogica Sinica, Vol. 26, No. 3,
(September 2006), pp. 257–260, ISSN 1000- 4734(in Chinese with English abstract)
Tao, C.G., Liu, J.S. & Dan, G. (1987). On the gold ore deposit geological characteristics and
genesis of Yata, Ceheng. Geology of Guizhou, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 135-150, ISSN 1000-
5943(in Chinese)
Takenouchi, S. & Kennedy, A.C. (1964). The binary system H2O-CO2 at high temperatures
and pressures. American Journal of Science, Vol. 262, (November 1964), pp. 1055–
1074, ISSN 0002 -9599
www.intechopen.com
156 Geochemistry – Earth's System Processes
Tödheide, K. & Franck, E.U. (1963). Das Zweiphasengebiet und die kritische Kurve im
System Kohlendioxid-Wasser bis zu Drucken von 3500 bar.Zeitschrift für
Physkalisoche Chemie Neue Folge, Vol. 37, pp. 387–401
Tretbar, D.R., Arehart, G.B., Christensen, J.N. (2000). Dating gold deposition in a Carlin-type
gold deposit using Rb/Sr methods on the mineral galkhaite. Geology ,Vol. 28, No.
10, (October 2000), pp. 947–950, ISSN 0091-7613
Wang, Y.G., Suo, S.T. & Zhang, M.-F. (1994). Tectonics and Carlin-Type gold deposits in
southwestern Guizhou. Geological Publishing House Beijing, pp. 115(in Chinese)
Wang, Y.G., Wang, L.T., Zhang, M.F. & Wang, L.L. (1995). Texture of the Upper crust and
pattern of the disseminated gold deposits distributed in Nanpanjiang area.
Guizhou Geology, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 91–183, ISSN 1000-5943(in Chinese with
English abs.)
Xia Y. (2005). Study on the Metallogenic Characteristics and Gold Abnormal Enrichment
Mechanism of the Shuiyindong Gold Deposit at Zhenfeng, Guizhou. Doctoral
Dissertation of Post-graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Yang, K.W. (1992). A preliminary discussion on the genesis of Getang gold deposit and its
prospecting significance. Guizhou Geology, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 299-305 , ISSN 1000-
5943 (in Chinese)
Yang, K.Y., Chen, F., Mei, H.J., Yang, K.W., Su, W.C., Zhang, X.C., Chen, S.M. & Feng, X.X.
(1992). The investigation of ore-forming conditions and exploration for micro-
grained disseminated gold deposits in southwestern Guizhou. Unpub, report of
IGCAS Guiyang, pp. 96(in Chinese)
Ye, X.X., Wan, G.Q., Sun, Z.-Y., Liu, Y.-K., Zhou, L.-D., Liu, S.-R., Xue, D.-J., Rivers, L. &
Jones, K.W. (1994). Microbeam analysis of gold in Carlintype gold deposits,
southwestern Guizhou, China. Science in China (series B), Vol. 24, No. 8, pp. 883–
889, ISSN 1674-7224(in Chinese)
Zhang, J., Lu, X.B., Yang, F.Q., Liao, Q.A., Wang, P., Wang, K.Y., Zhang, X.J., Wang, Q.W.,
Wang, H.M., Chen, K.L.. & Fu, S.H. (2002). Geology of Gold Deposits in Northwest
China and Metallogenic Prognosis. Chinese University of Geology Press, Wuhan
Zhang, X.C., Spiro, B., Halls, C., Stanley, C. & Yang, K.Y. (2003). Sedimenthosted
disseminated gold deposits in southwest Guizhou, PRC: Their geological setting
and origin in relation to mineralogical, fluid inclusion, and stable-isotope
characteristics. International Geology Review, Vol. 45, No. 5, pp. 407–470
Zang Yu, Xia Yong, Su Wenchao, Tao Yan, Zhang Xingchun, Liu Jianzhong & Deng Yiming.
(2010). Metallogenic model and prognosis of the Shuiyindong super-large strata-
bound Carlin-type gold deposit, southwestern Guizhou Province, China. Chinese
Journal of Geochemistry, Vol. 29, ( June 2010), pp.157–166, ISSN l000-9426.
Zhang Yu, Xia Yong, Wang Zepeng, Yan Baowen, Fu Zhikang & Chen Ming. REE and stable
isotope geochemical characteristics of Bojitian gold deposit,Guizhou Province.
Earth Science Frontiers, Vol. 17, No. 2, (Mach 2010), pp.385-395, ISSN 1005-2321. (in
Chinese with English abstract)
www.intechopen.com
Geochemistry - Earth's System Processes
Edited by Dr. Dionisios Panagiotaras
ISBN 978-953-51-0586-2
Hard cover, 500 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 02, May, 2012
Published in print edition May, 2012
This book brings together the knowledge from a variety of topics within the field of geochemistry. The audience
for this book consists of a multitude of scientists such as physicists, geologists, technologists, petroleum
engineers, volcanologists, geochemists and government agencies. The topics represented facilitate as
establishing a starting point for new ideas and further contributions. An effective management of geological
and environmental issues requires the understanding of recent research in minerals, soil, ores, rocks, water,
sediments. The use of geostatistical and geochemical methods relies heavily on the extraction of this book.
The research presented was carried out by experts and is therefore highly recommended to scientists, under-
and post-graduate students who want to gain knowledge about the recent developments in geochemistry and
benefit from an enhanced understanding of the dynamics of the earth's system processes.
How to reference
In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
Yong Xia, Wenchao Su, Xingchun Zhang and Janzhong Liu (2012). Geochemistry and Metallogenic Model of
Carlin-Type Gold Deposits in Southwest Guizhou Province, China, Geochemistry - Earth's System Processes,
Dr. Dionisios Panagiotaras (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0586-2, InTech, Available from:
http://www.intechopen.com/books/geochemistry-earth-s-system-processes/geochemistry-and-metallogenic-
model-of-carlin-type-gold-deposits-in-southwest-guizhou-province-china