The Principles and Practice of Effective Leadership
The Principles and Practice of Effective Leadership
The Principles and Practice of Effective Leadership
Leaders are individuals who exercise authority and exert power. They get
other people to go along, to follow. Inspiration is part of the appeal to
others, but, as Freud insisted, so are fear, coercion, and conformity. To
pretend leaders are not power wielders – a pretence which Barbara
Kellerman argued was embraced by a ‘‘tacit alliance’’ among theoreticians,
practitioners, researchers, educators, consultants, and trainers – was to
‘‘whistle in the dark’’ … Freud, not Carlyle, speaks to our contemporary
awareness of … the ‘‘dark side’’ of leadership.1
[Emphases ours]
He who rules by virtue is like the polestar, which remains unmoving in its
mansion while all the others revolve respectfully around it.7
Approach them with dignity and they will be respectful. Be yourself a good
son and a kind father and they will be loyal. Raise the good and train the
incompetent, and they will be zealous.8
A leader is best when people barely know he exists, not so good when
people obey and acclaim him, worst when they despise him. But of a good
leader, who talks little, when his work is done, his aim fulfilled, they will
say, “We did this ourselves.”9
Platoiii writing in The Republic, 100 years after Confucius and Lao
Tzu, also conflated “morally good” and “effective” leadership but
partially addressed the context of leadership. He set out four
leadership contexts, each driven by a different virtue, shown in
→Table 1.1.
If anyone can show me, and prove to me, that I am wrong in thought or
deed, I will gladly change. I seek the truth, which never yet hurt anybody. It
is only persistence in self-delusion and ignorance which does harm.12
Adapt yourself to the environment in which your lot has been cast, and
show true love to the fellow-mortals with whom destiny has surrounded
you.13
We shrink from change; yet is there anything that can come into being
without it? What does Nature hold dearer or more proper to herself? Could
you have a hot bath unless the firewood underwent some change? Could
you be nourished if the food suffered no change? Is it possible for any
useful thing to be achieved without change? Do you not see, then, that
change in yourself is of the same order, and no less necessary to Nature?14
Others – and with better judgment many think – say that there are six
types of government, of which three are very bad, and three good in
themselves but easily become corrupt, so that they too must be classed as
pernicious … For Principality easily becomes Tyranny. From Aristocracy the
transition to Oligarchy is an easy one. Democracy is without difficulty
converted into Anarchy. So that if anyone who is organizing a
commonwealth sets up one of the first three forms of government, he sets
up what will last but for a while …20
For in the beginning of the world, when its inhabitants were few, they lived
for a while scattered like the beasts. Then with the multiplication of their
offspring they drew together and, in order the better to be able to defend
themselves, began to look about for a man stronger and more courageous
than the rest, made him their head, and obeyed him.22
When later on they had to choose a prince, they did not have recourse to
the boldest as formerly, but to one who excelled in prudence and justice.23
… conspicuous for their liberality, magnanimity, wealth and ability, for such
men could not stand the dishonourable life the prince was leading.25
… If then, you want to have a large population and to provide it with arms so
as to establish a great empire, you will have made your population such that
you cannot now handle it as you please. While, if you keep it either small or
unarmed so as to be able to manage it, and then acquire dominions, either
you will lose your hold on it or it will become so debased that you will be at
the mercy of anyone who attacks you … Rome might have indeed emulated
Sparta, have appointed a prince for life, and have made its senate small;
but it would not in that case have been able to avoid increasing its
population with a view to establishing a great empire; nor would the
appointment of a king for life and of a small number of senators have been
of much help in the matter of unity.34
[Emphasis ours]
What he will find when good princes were ruling, is a prince securely
reigning among subjects no less secure, a world replete with peace and
justice. He will see the senate’s authority respected, the magistrates honoured,
rich citizens enjoying their wealth, nobility and virtue held in the highest
esteem, and everything working smoothly and going well. He will notice on
the other hand, the absence of any rancour, any licentiousness, corruption
or ambition, and that in this golden age everyone is free to hold and
defend his own opinion. He will behold, in short, the world triumphant, its
prince glorious and respected by all, the people fond of him and secure
under his rule.36
[Emphasis ours]
Apparently contradicting what he wrote in The Prince, Machiavelli
argued in The Discourses that cruelty is not a solution for a
successful prince:
He then who sets out to govern the masses, whether in a free state or in a
principality, and does not secure himself against those who are hostile to
the new order, is setting up a form of government that will but be short-
lived. True, I look upon those rulers as unhappy who, to make their
government secure have to adopt abnormal methods because they find the
masses hostile; for he who has but the few as his enemies, can easily and
without much scandal make himself secure, but he who has the public as a
whole for his enemy can never make himself secure; and the greater his
cruelty, the weaker does his regime become. In such a case the best remedy he
can adopt is to make the populace his friend.37
[Emphasis ours]
Cruelties can be called well used (if it is permissible to speak well of evil) that
are done at a stroke, out of the necessity to secure oneself and then are not
persisted in but are turned to as much utility for the subjects as one can.
Those cruelties are badly used which, though few in the beginning, rather
grow with time.39
[Emphases ours]
The innovator makes enemies of all those who prospered under the old order,
and only lukewarm support is forthcoming from those who would prosper
under the new. Their support is lukewarm partly from fear of their
adversaries, who have existing laws on their side, and partly because men are
generally incredulous, never really trusting new things unless they have tested
them by experience. In consequence, whenever those who oppose changes
can do so, they attack vigorously, and the defence made by the others is only
lukewarm. But to discuss this subject thoroughly we must distinguish
between innovators who stand alone and those who depend on others,
that is between those who to achieve their purposes can force the issue
and those who must use persuasion. In the second case, they always come
to grief, having achieved nothing; when, however, they depend on their
own resources and can force the issue, then they are seldom endangered.
That is why all armed prophets have conquered, and unarmed prophets
have come to grief.41
[Emphasis ours]
When he seizes a new state, the new ruler must determine all the injuries that
he will need to inflict. He must inflict them once for all, and not have to renew
them every day, and in that way, he will be able to set men’s minds at rest
and win them over when he confers benefits. Whoever acts otherwise … is
always forced to have the knife ready in his hand and he can never depend
on his subjects because they, suffering fresh and continuous violence, can
never feel secure with regard to him. Violence must be inflicted once for all;
people will then forget what it tastes like and so be less resentful.42
[Emphases ours]
Princes who have recently seized a state for themselves through support
given from within, that they should carefully reflect on the motives of those
who helped them. If these were not based on a natural affection for the new
prince, but rather on discontent with the existing government, he will retain
their friendship only with considerable difficulty and exertion, because it will
be impossible for him in his turn to satisfy them.43
[Emphasis ours]
Machiavelli qualified his warning by identifying the difficulties a
prince could experience if he had relied upon nobles rather than
the populace to establish his position:
A man who becomes prince with the help of the nobles finds it more
difficult to maintain his position than one who does so with the help of the
people. As prince, he finds himself surrounded by many who believe they are
his equals, and because of that he cannot command or manage them the
way he wants. A man who becomes prince by favour of the people finds
himself standing alone, and he has near him either no one or very few not
prepared to take orders.44
[Emphasis ours]
A prince should also show his esteem for talent, actively encouraging able
men, and honouring those who excel in their profession. Then he must
encourage his citizens so that they go peaceably about their business …
One man should not be afraid of improving his possessions, lest they be
taken away from him, or another deterred by high taxes from starting a
new business. Rather, the prince should be ready to reward men who want
to do these things and anyone who endeavours in any way to increase the
prosperity of his city or his state.45
[Emphasis ours]
A Prince must, therefore, never lack advice. But he must take it when he
wants to, not when others want him to; indeed, he must discourage
everyone from tendering advice about anything unless it is asked for. All
the same, he should be a constant questioner, and he must listen patiently
to the truth regarding what he has inquired about. Moreover, if he finds that
anyone for some reason holds the truth back, he must show his wrath … a
prince who is not himself wise cannot be well advised, unless he happens to
put himself in the hands of one individual who looks after all his affairs and
is an extremely shrewd man. In this case, he may well be given good advice,
but he would not last long because the man who governs for him would soon
deprive him of his state. But when seeking advice of more than one person,
a prince who is not himself wise will never get unanimity in his councils or
be able to reconcile their views. Each councillor will consult his own
interests; and the prince will not know how to correct or understand them.
Things cannot be otherwise, since men will always do badly by you unless
they are forced to be virtuous. So the conclusion is that good advice,
whomever it comes from, depends on the shrewdness of the prince who seeks
it, and not the shrewdness of the prince on good advice.46
[Emphases ours]
Her symbol was the turning wheel, which people rode to the top, only to
be thrown to the bottom at the next turning. Fortuna embodied the tawdry
and transitory glory of the world that the thoughtful Christian must seek to
transcend by focusing on the unchangeable goods of virtue and faith,
which had eternal glory in Heaven …
… Machiavelli uses fortuna to refer to all of those circumstances which
human beings cannot control, and in particular, to the character of the
times, which has direct bearing on a prince’s success or failure …47
However great may be the advantages she bestows, it is not nature alone,
but nature helped by luck that makes heroes.52
Nature provides the merit; chance calls it into play.53
Furthermore, a dictator was appointed for a limited time, and for the
purpose of dealing solely with such matters as had led to the appointment.
He had authority to make what decisions he thought fit in order to meet a
definite and urgent danger, and to do this without consultation; and
anyone he punished had no right of appeal. But he could do nothing to
diminish the constitutional position of the government, as would have been
the case if he could have taken away the authority vested in the senate or in
the people, or have abolished the ancient institutions of the city and made
new ones. Wherefore, in view of the short duration of the dictatorship, of
the limited authority which the dictator possessed, and of the fact that the
Roman people were not corrupt, it was impossible for the dictator to
overstep his terms of reference and to do the state harm. On the contrary,
experience has shown that the dictatorship was always useful.56
[Emphases ours]
So, as a prince is forced to act like a beast, he must learn from the fox and
the lion: because the lion is defenceless against traps and a fox is
defenceless against wolves. Therefore, one must be a fox in order to
recognize traps, and a lion to frighten off wolves. Those who simply act like
lions are stupid. So, it follows that a prudent ruler cannot, and must not,
honour his word when it places him at a disadvantage and when the
reasons for which he made his promise no longer exist.60
… capable of varying her/his conduct from good to evil and back again “as
fortune and circumstances dictate” … just like the general needs to be in
possession of virtù, that is, to know which strategies and techniques are
appropriate to what particular circumstances … The ruler of virtù is bound
to be competent in the application of power; to possess virtù is indeed to
have mastered all the rules connected with the effective application of
power. Virtù is to power politics what conventional virtue is to those
thinkers who suppose that moral goodness is sufficient to be a legitimate
ruler: it is the touchstone of political success.63
Bertrand Russell pointed out in A History of Western Philosophy,64
the “moral and immoral” parts of Machiavelli’s approaches can
be reconciled by seeing them as observations of what he believed
about effective “means” to achieve “ends” that depended on
values and beliefs.
Machiavelli identified three (in his view) desirable political
“ends”: national independence; security; and a well-ordered
constitution. In The Discourses, it is clear that Machiavelli
considered the best constitution to be one that divided legal
rights between princes, nobles, and the people. The “amoral”
aspects of Machiavelli’s doctrine were concerned with how to
achieve power and how to choose means that were fit for this
sole purpose – namely getting into a position of power and
authority that allowed the prince to attain the desired ends.
Machiavelli’s originality lies in his treatment of “means” in a
scientific manner, without regard to whether the desired ends
were “good” or “evil.” Success means achieving the prince’s
purpose, whatever it might be, with his greatest contribution to
discussions on leadership being his insistence on understanding
the context with which rulers or leaders deal and the separation
of “means” and “ends.” This appreciation led him to conclude that
effective leaders act on the basis that “the ends justify the means”
because without achieving the power and authority needed to act,
they could not be effective, no matter how morally justified they
were.
What is Leadership?
In her book Bad Leadership: What It Is, How It Happens, Why It
Matters, Barbara Kellerman noted the assumption that leadership
is considered a form of behavior, which gives followers the choice
whether to be led or not. This is an innovation originating with
Burns’ Transformational Leadership,65 published in 1978 and
Authentic Leadership,66 published in 1989. Both attempted to
redefine leadership as exercising power over others based on
mutual advantage:
Source: Kouzes, J. M., and Posner, B. Z. (2007), The Leadership Challenge, 4th Edition (San
Francisco: John Wiley & Sons), pp. 30, 31; Kouzes and Posner 2020 Survey cited in“5
Traits of Admired Leaders,” Foundations of Management, University of Notre Dame,
October 9, 2020, →https://www.notredameonline.com/resources/leadership-and-
management/5-traits-of-admired-leaders/, accessed on December 5, 2020.
Employees are much more likely to respond to a leader that has passion
and a positive attitude. Leaders who are truly engaged and who have
energy are the leaders who will gain more followers …71
Your team wants to believe you have technical skills and the solid
judgment to make decisions for the company …72
“Fairness” was defined as:
We left off our account of the Hegelian dialectic … at the conclusion of the
beginning period of human history, when man first risked his life in a
battle for pure prestige. The state of war that prevailed in Hegel’s “state of
nature” (although Hegel never used such a term) did not lead directly to
the establishment of civil society based on a social contract, as it did for
Locke. Rather it led to the relationship of lordship and bondage, when one of
the primordial combatants, fearing for his life, “recognized” the other and
agreed to be his slave.79
[Emphasis ours]
The alternative for him was never anything but world power or doom in the
most literal sense. “Every being strives for expansion … and every nation
strives for world dominion.” That proposition derived, he thought, straight
from the aristocratic principle of Nature, which everywhere desired the victory
of the stronger and annihilation or unconditional subjugation of the weak.
From this point of view, he was entirely consistent at the end, when he saw
the whole game lost and doom impending, and remarked to Albert Speer,
who found the sentiment profoundly shocking: “If the war is lost, the
people will be lost also. It is not necessary to worry about what the German
people will need for elemental survival … For the nation has proved to be the
weaker, and the future belongs solely to the stronger eastern nation” … For
the last time he bowed to the law of Nature, “this cruel queen of all
wisdom” which had imperiously ruled his life and thought.80
[Emphases ours]
If the German people are no longer so strong and ready for sacrifice that
they will stake their own blood on their existence, they deserve to pass away
and be annihilated by another, stronger power … If that is the case, I would
not shed a tear for the German people.”81
[Emphasis ours]
Hobbes agreed with Hegel, when he discussed the state of
nature:
To this warre of every man against every man ‘tis also is consequent; that
nothing can be Unjust. The notion of Right and Wrong, Justice and Injustice
have there not place. Where there is no common Power, there is no Law:
where no Law, no Injustice. Force, and Fraud, are in warre the two
Cardinall vertues. Justice, and Injustice … are Qualities, that relate to men in
Society, not in Solitude. It is consequent also to the same condition that
there be no Propriety, no Dominion, no Mine and Thine distinct; but onely
that to be every mans that he can get; and for so long as he can keep it.
And thus much for the ill condition which man by meer Nature is actually
placed in; though with a possibility to come out of it, consisting partly in
the Passions,xix partly in his Reason.xx
The Passions that encline men to Peace, are Feare of Death; Desire of such
things as are necessary to commodious living;xxi and a Hope by their
Industry to obtain them. And Reason suggesteth convenient Articles of peace,
upon which men may be drawn to agreement.83
[Emphases ours]
Illusions are the umbilical cord linking leaders and followers. Leaders
understand their followers needs for illusions … Too often, historians
define leadership as something imposed by the leader upon the masses.
The true story is more complex. Hitler could carry out his plan to exterminate
Jews and dominate the world only with the help of millions of German voters,
workers, and soldiers.85
[Emphasis ours]
In Freud’s view, the great man is “the father that lives in each of us from
his childhood days for the same father whom the hero of legend boosts of
having overcome.” The “picture of the father,” then, includes the
“decisiveness of thought, the strength of will, the self-reliance and
independence of the great man [and] his divine conviction of doing the
right thing which may pass into ruthlessness.” The great man will be
admired, trusted, and followed.
The security of the family structure is gone, and [they] seek replacements
for parental authority, often finding leaders who promise security. After the
September 11, 2001, terror attacks, for instance, Americans traded the
freedom of hassle-free travel for the security of baggage searches and long
delays at airport X-ray machines.88
Toxic leaders demand more fealty than benign leaders require, and they do
not tolerate dissent or questions about their decisions. The psychological
pressure makes it especially difficult for whistle-blowers … [to] alert leaders
and outside authorities about problems within a company.90
Members of the entourage derive their status and raison d’être from their
relationship to the leader. So, they are always dedicated to keeping their
leader in power.102
Source: Based on Kellerman, B. (2004), Bad Leadership: What It Is, How It Happens, Why
It Matters (Boston: Harvard Business School Press); Guo, Q. et al. (2012), “The Values of
Confucian Benevolence and the Universality of the Confucian Way of Extending Love,”
Frontiers of Philosophy in China, Vol. 7, No. 1 (March 2012), pp. 20–54,
→https://www.jstor.org/stable/44259370?seq=1, accessed on April 24, 2020.
Source: Based on Kellerman, B. (2004), Bad Leadership: What It Is, How It Happens, Why
It Matters (Boston: Harvard Business School Press); Guo, Q. et al. (2012), “The Values of
Confucian Benevolence and the Universality of the Confucian Way of Extending Love,”
Frontiers of Philosophy in China, Vol. 7, No. 1 (March 2012), pp. 20–54,
→https://www.jstor.org/stable/44259370?seq=1, accessed on April 24, 2020.
Note that the dimensions are not mutually exclusive. Leaders can
be both ineffective and unethical.
The defining characteristic of “great leaders” lies in their
legacy and governance – great leaders build or create institutions
that outlast them. We do not argue that “great leaders” are
necessarily “good.”
The issues of leadership are similar seen through the
historian’s, politician’s, or businessperson’s lens. There is one
consequential difference between the tools available to business
leaders, politicians, and military leaders. Leaders of legitimate
businesses cannot apply brute force to staff or commercial rivals,
whereas political and military leaders, and criminal groups can
and do.
The cycle of change and creative destruction is faster in
business than in politics because the ability of any enterprise to
impose stability on the competitive environment is limited. In
commerce, customers demand ever better products and
competition provides them with what they want. Businesses that
fail to adapt to innovation and competition are ultimately taken
over or fail.105 Successful companies adapt to changing contexts.
Effective business leaders pay continual attention to their
operational context, adapting accordingly (incrementally where
possible). Only monopolies and cartels can enforce
environmental stability for any length of time.
Political leaders, once in power, make great efforts to
preserve the status quo, promoting the value of order and
stability. They rarely innovate because they can resist incremental
change, using the authority of the state to control information
and coerce populations. They are not faced (except in
democracies at elections) with the twin pressures of changing
customer demands and competitive offers. The absence of
incremental political change leads to pressures that can lead to
dramatic upsets. President Kennedy summarized this idea when
he said, “Those who make peaceful revolution impossible will
make violent revolution inevitable …”106 Examples abound: the
American, French, Russian revolutions, and decolonization after
World War II.
Summary
Leaders have followers. Great leaders maintain their followers
regardless of whether their purpose is moral or immoral,
suggesting that the effectiveness of leadership is independent of
morality. Defining leadership as “morally good leadership” is
unhelpful to students and practitioners of leadership.
What matters is what leaders are trying to achieve, how they
achieve it, how power is acquired, and how they interact with
their followers. The effectiveness of leadership techniques
depends on the context in which they are practiced and,
consequently, correct identification of context determines the
effectiveness of leaders.
Ancient philosophers in China, Greece, India, and Rome
exhorted leaders to be benevolent and moral. Plato proposed
four leadership contexts, each with its own virtues, leading to five
types of leader: philosopher kings; property owning aristocrats,
oligarchs, democrats, and tyrants.
Machiavelli was an early social scientist interested in what
worked as a separate issue from what he wished would happen.
To get a correct understanding of his thinking, it is essential to
reconcile his writings in The Discourses with his writings in The
Prince.
There are two views of what leaders offer their followers:
1. Hobbes and Locke suggested it was economic well-being and
safety from violent death. This view is expressed in the
American Declaration of Independence’s “pursuit of
happiness.”
2. Hegel espoused the need for respect, self-esteem, and honor for
those who feel left behind, disadvantaged, and resentful that
they are not respected. Such people are natural followers.
Their craving for authority and security, and their need to be
made to feel special and to belong to something bigger than
themselves, combined with their fear of exclusion and their
feeling of powerlessness, leaves them vulnerable to the
charisma and illusions created by toxic leaders. The angst
they experience when they do not understand what is
happening makes them turn to an individual who gives the
appearance of being strong and certain. Such followers
divide into the “silent majority” who go along with what is
happening; “doers of evil” who execute policies because they
are following orders; and “acolytes” – true believers.
It is important to unpack the elements that make leaders
effective or ineffective instead of contrasting them. “Good” and
“bad” have two meanings:
1. Subjectively: “Ethical” leaders are judged to be benevolent,
fair, open-minded, and merciful. “Unethical” leaders are
callous, corrupt, insular, and ruthless.
2. Objectively: “Effective” leaders are competent, flexible, and
self-controlled. “Ineffective” leaders are incompetent, rigid,
and intemperate. Toxic leaders are both unethical and
ineffective.
Effective leaders pay continual attention to the context in which
they operate and adapt accordingly and incrementally wherever
possible. Political leaders strive to preserve the status quo by
promoting the value of order and stability. They rarely innovate
because they can resist incremental change by using state power
to control information and coerce populations. However,
reluctance to change peacefully can lead to violent revolution, or
business catastrophe.
Chapter 2 Elizabeth Tudor
Machiavelli’s description of a successful state could have been
written about Queen Elizabeth I’s reign at its height.
She certainly is a great queen and were she only a Catholic, she would be
our dearly beloved daughter. Just look how well she governs! She is only a
woman, only mistress of half an island, and yet she makes herself feared
by Spain, by France, by the Empire, by all!1
It is not unusual to behold princes form great designs, but to regulate the
conduct of them, to foresee and guard against all obstacles in such a
manner that, when they happen, nothing more will be necessary than to
apply the remedies prepared long before – this is what few princes are
capable of.3
There is only one Jesus Christ. The rest is a dispute over trifles.6
For forty-five years … Elizabeth had given her country peace and stable
government … During that time England had risen from an impoverished
nation to become one of the greatest powers in Europe …9
It shall not be meet that either the old [Mary’s] or the new [Elizabeth’s
council] should wholly understand what you mean, but to use them as
instruments to serve yourself with.21
Elizabeth’s early life taught her how to survive; that she needed to
be independent of domestic or foreign factions if she was to
achieve her objectives; and that marriage was a dangerous
estate. Her actions as Queen reflected these lessons:
All her training and experience, her self-discipline and abnegation, her
loneliness and sorrows endured had been for this ‘crown imperial,’ which
was hers of right. She was determined never to give it up and for the rest
of her life self-preservation became her first care.22
Elizabeth as Queen
Elizabeth avoided making irrevocable commitments wherever
possible.23,ii She faced five strategic challenges: (1) finding a
compromise on religion; (2) settling the succession; (3) the threat
presented by Mary, Queen of Scots; (4) the threat posed by Spain;
and (5) managing the changing economic environment.
Lord, what a people are these; what a Queen, and what an ambassador!73
When Mary was confronted with the evidence, she denied it;
claiming never to have dealt with Ridolfi; and as for Norfolk, he
was Elizabeth’s subject and no business of hers.
The French king, Charles IX, formerly his sister-in-law’s
champion, now decided to abandon Mary, observing:
Alas, the poor fool will never cease until she loses her head. They will put
her to death. It is her own fault and folly.74
… cede and give, by will, my right to the succession of [the English] crown
to your King your master, considering the obstinacy and perseverance of
my son in heresy.86
Of the 130 ships that had left Spain, perhaps 85 crept home; 10 were
captured, sunk, or driven aground by English guns, 23 were sacrificed to
wind and storm, and 12 others were “lost, fate unknown.”123
Nothing, no worldy [sic] thing under the sun, is so dear to me as the love and
goodwill of my subjects. In the end this shall be for me sufficient, that a
marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived
and died a virgin.137
[Emphasis ours]
O Lord Almighty and Everlasting God, I give thee most hearty thanks that
thou hast been so merciful unto me to spare me to behold this joyful day.
And I acknowledge that thou hast dealt as wonderfully and as mercifully
with me as thou didst with thy true and faithful servant Daniel, thy prophet
whom thou delivered out of the den from the cruelty of the greedy and
raging lions. Even so was I overwhelmed and only by thee delivered. To
thee therefore only be thanks honor and praise forever. Amen.141
This was a clear claim to her subjects that she had been saved by
God to lead them out of religious error that would be understood
by all who heard it.
At the same time, she maintained the common touch,
silencing the crowd to listen to the words of welcome by a child
whose task was to greet her in verse. Eyewitnesses noted how
attentively she listened and how moved she was by what she
heard.142 As she walked from Westminster Abbey to Westminster
Hall after being crowned, she had a smile for everyone. She knew
how to work the crowd and never forgot her responsibility for the
well-being of her subjects. When a deputation of judges came to
pay their respects after her coronation, she commanded them:
Have a care over my people … They are my people. Every man oppresseth
them and [de]spoileth them without mercy. They cannot revenge their
quarrel nor help themselves. See unto them, see unto them, for they are
my charge.143
My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful for
our safety, to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed multitudes, for
fear of treachery. But I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my
faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear. I have always so behaved myself
that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength safeguard in the loyal
hearts and goodwill of my subjects; and therefore I am come amongst you as
you see, at this time, not for my recreation and disport, being resolved, in the
midst of heat and battle, to live or die amongst you all, and to lay for my
God and for my kingdom and for my people, my honour and my blood,
even in the dust. I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I
have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too, and
think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe should dare
to invade the borders of my realm; to which rather than any dishonour
shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general,
judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field. I know already
for your forwardness you deserve rewards and crowns; and we do assure you,
in the word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you.
[Emphases ours]
I do assure you there is no prince that loves his subjects better, or whose
love can countervail our love. There is no jewel, be it of never so rich a
price, which I set before this jewel: I mean your love. For I do esteem it
more than any treasure in riches; for that we know how to prize, but love
and thanks I count invaluable. And though God hath raised me high, yet
this I count the glory of my crown, that I have reigned with your loves.146
Chapter 3 Napoleon Bonaparte
Born in Corsica of an impoverished noble family and without
backers, Napoleon Bonaparte chose an army career after
rejection by the navy, coming to prominence at the siege of
Toulon. His interests were wider than war. He used military
victories to introduce enduring reforms and laid the foundations
of much of modern Europe and the US. His career divides into
three phases: Rising Star; Reformer; and Warrior-Emperor.
Rising Star
Apprenticeship
Napoleon, a Corsican Italian speaker, was sent to boarding school
at age nine and was taught French, a belief in French greatness,
and the importance of military service and honor. His mother had
strong religious beliefs, but his father was an agnostic. He was
not a Christian and adopted a cult of honor, patriotism being the
first duty, and courage its chief virtue. To die for one’s country
rendered one immortal:1
We are members of a powerful monarchy, but today we feel only the vices
of its constitution.4
The principal advantage of the English Constitution consists in the fact that
the national spirit is always in full vitality. For a long spell of years, the King
can doubtless arrogate to himself more authority than he ought to have,
may even use his great power to commit great injustice, but the cries of the
nation soon change to thunder, and sooner or later the King yields.6
… declares that its kingdom is not of this world; how then can it stimulate
affection for one’s native land, how can it inspire any feelings but
scepticism, indifference and coldness for human affairs and government?8
On July 14, 1791, he swore an oath of loyalty to the revolutionary
Constitution.9
Reformer
Napoleon’s reforming instincts were apparent in Italy, Egypt, and
when he was chosen as First Consul.
Italy
At the end of the Italian campaign, Napoleon introduced reforms
to bring Republican benefits to the conquered. He allowed the
traditional form of government, but replaced pro-Austrian
officials. He abolished feudal obligations, encouraged Italians to
start their own newspapers, and promoted equal rights
regardless of religion, or ethnicity.25 He treated Italian scholars
and intellectuals with respect and won the admiration of the
people for the way he treated them, however, he stole works of
art which he sent to Paris to become property of the French
people.26
The Directorate in Paris saw no advantage in helping Italians
under French control. Napoleon believed otherwise, he thought it
essential Milan should become a republic to ensure loyalty to the
Revolution. In October 1796, he called for volunteers to fight
Austria and 3,700 enrolled in a “Lombard legion” to fight
alongside the French. He presented them with their own red,
white, and green tricolor flag (which became the Italian national
flag). He persuaded Paris to let him establish a republic in Milan,
modeling its constitution on that of France. On June 29, 1797, the
Cisalpine Republic was born. In his address to the people,
Napoleon declared his purpose:
In order to consolidate liberty and with the sole aim of your happiness, I
have carried out a task such as hitherto had been undertaken only from
ambition and love of power … Divided and bowed under tyranny for so
long, you could not have won your own freedom; left to yourself for a few
years, there will be no power on earth strong enough to take it from you.27
The new republic was successful. The former Papal States, led by
Bologna asked to join. Genoa’s aristocratic government
crumbled. In mid-1797, Napoleon replaced it with the Ligurian
Republic. In doing this, he emphasized the positive elements of
republicanism and preached moderation in the transition:
To exclude all the nobles from public functions would be a shocking piece
of injustice: you would be doing what they did themselves, in the past …
whenever the people of any state, but particularly of a small state, accustom
themselves to condemn without hearing, and to applaud speeches merely
because they are passionate: when they call exaggeration and fury, virtue;
equity and moderation, crimes; the ruin of the state is at hand.28
[Emphasis ours]
Religion, the feudal system, and monarchy have in turn governed Europe
for twenty centuries, but from the peace you have just concluded dates the
era of representative governments.30
Egypt
The expedition to Egypt presented to the Directorate by
Talleyrand on March 5, 1798, had three objectives: The first was to
defeat the Mamelukes and make Egypt a French colony; the
second was to provide a stepping stone to attack British India
(continuing the Anglo-French war of 1778–1783); and the third
(entirely Napoleon’s idea), to teach and to learn. Napoleon
believed France had a civilizing mission and his instructions as
commander-in-chief, which he drafted, stated:
He will use all the means in his power to improve the lot of the natives of
Egypt.31
to distract the [French] government and its military forces from those
revolutionary ideas which are creating such an uproar in Europe. For the
concept of a universal republic is as much an impossibility as was that of a
universal monarchy.33
[Emphasis ours]
Was the fellah your cousin that you are in such a rage at his death?
Napoleon replied:
It had been agreed with the Directors and Talleyrand that immediately after
the departure of the expedition to Egypt, negotiations should be opened
with the sultan concerning the object of this expedition. Talleyrand himself
was to be the negotiator and was to start for Constantinople twenty-four
hours after the expeditionary corps to Egypt had left the port of Toulon. This
promise, expressly requested and positively given, was forgotten. Not only
did Talleyrand remain in Paris, but no negotiation took place.41
Talleyrand could not keep his promise for two reasons. First, the
ship that was supposed to take him to Turkey was captured by
the British on its way to fetch him. Second, given the threat of a
new war with England, Russia, and Austria, the Directors had
more important things for him to do than to go to Turkey and he
was not allowed to leave.
To prevent a Turkish army entering Egypt, Napoleon took
13,000 men, 900 cavalry, and forty-nine guns to Gaza which he
captured on February 23rd. He took 2,000 Turks prisoner whom
he freed on the condition they did not fight again, as he did not
have enough food for both his troops and prisoners. On March
7th, he stormed Jaffa, where he captured 4,000 Turks, some of
whom he had released in Gaza. Once again, he did not have
enough food and had to choose between releasing them to fight
again or to shoot them. He called a council of war and after two
days of discussion, on March 10th, Napoleon had them shot.
Napoleon attempted to capture Acre but, on May 7th,
abandoned the siege – in his third setback since Corsica and
Aboukir Bay – and returned to Egypt. When he reached Jaffa,
several hundred of his soldiers contracted the bubonic plague.
For the sick who could travel, Napoleon issued the following
order:
All horses, mules and camels will be given to the wounded, the sick and
plague-stricken who show any signs of life. Everyone not sick goes on foot,
starting with me.42
First Consul
Napoleon developed a close working relationship with Talleyrand,
who was instrumental in the first coup d’état of September 4,
1797, and with the triumvirs of the Directory. Napoleon explained
his political program to Talleyrand and made it clear that he was
unhappy with the temporary nature of the Directory in a letter to
him:
Our actions must be guided by sound policy, and such a policy is nothing
more than that which results from the calculation of combinations and
chances. If we adopt such a policy, then, for a long time to come, we shall
both be the greatest nation, and the arbiter, of Europe.45
… the political parties of France saw in Bonaparte not a man who could be
called to account for his actions, but one whom circumstances made
indispensable and whose favor it was essential to win.51
… four of the Directors having resigned, and the fifth being under
surveillance, a temporary executive body of three members will be
appointed.53
It then voted
Warrior-Emperor
Evaluating Napoleon once he became Emperor requires
understanding why he set out to establish a dynasty, his role as
an exceptional battlefield commander, and his strategic failure.
Establishing a Dynasty
Although initially guided by his republican instincts, by 1804,
Napoleon had become a dynast; making himself Emperor,
putting his brothers into positions of power in Italy, Spain, and
Holland in an attempt to create a dynasty to replace the exiled
Bourbons.
What had begun as an attempt to protect his legacy, became
an overweening dynastic ambition – replacing rulers, and
alienating the other European powers. By 1811, when his empire
was at its peak (including Illyria, Tuscany, some of the Papal
States, Holland, and the German states bordering the North Sea)
and he had a son and heir, he felt the dynasty had been secured.
The Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, and the
Grand Duchy of Warsaw were bound to France by treaties. Even
Austria was tied to France by Napoleon’s marriage to Marie-
Louise.
His family and in-laws ruled vassal states surrounding the
empire: the Kingdoms of Westphalia (Jerome Bonaparte); Spain
(Joseph Bonaparte); Italy (Eugene de Beauharnais, Josephine’s
son as viceroy); Naples (Joachim Murat, Napoleon’s brother-in-
law); and the Principality of Lucca and Piombino in Italy (Felix
Bacciochi, another brother-in-law).75
He justified this on three counts: first, there had been
attempts on his life, and so he needed to create a succession
mechanism to protect the gains of the Revolution; second, the
monarchs of Europe were unwilling to accept him and so he
needed to build alliances through marriage where possible –
hence his marriage to Marie Louise of Austria; third his ex-post
justification after he was exiled for the second and last time to St.
Helena:
Take good care of the soldier and look after him in detail.82
Write to Corporal Bernaudet of the 13th of the Line and tell him not to
drink so much and to behave better. He has been given the Cross [of the
Legion of Honor] because he is a brave man. One must not take it away
from him because he is a bit fond of wine. Make him understand, however,
that he is wrong to get into a state which brings shame on the decoration
he wears.83
I expected several pages and I get only two lines … Your letter tells me
nothing … [Napoleon wanted the names of the enemy regiments, the
names of their commanding generals and] a hundred things, all very
important, [including the morale of the enemy, how they are fed, the
strength of the various units and] what is known from conversations with
colonels and officers of the corps … Redeem all that by writing me in great
detail.87
Give the length, width, and quality … rivers … traced and measured …
bridges and fords marked … number of houses and inhabitants … indicated
… measure the heights of the hills and mountains.88
He went so far as to read the muster rolls for an hour every day to
know exactly where his forces where deployed:
I get more pleasure from this kind of reading than a young girl gets from
reading a novel.89
In a retreat, besides the honor of the army, the loss of life is often greater
than in two battles. For this reason, we should never despair while brave
men are to be found with their colors. It is by this means we obtain victory,
and deserve to obtain it.96
Never hold a council of war, but listen to the views of each in private.98
It is said that the Roman legions marched twenty-four miles a day; our
brigades have marched thirty while also fighting.99
Never forget that in war all the artillery must be with the army and not in
the park.100
The line of operation should not be abandoned; but it is one of the most
skilful manoeuvres in war, to know how to change it when circumstances
authorize or render this necessary. An army which changes skilfully its line
of operations deceives the enemy, who becomes ignorant where to look for its
rear, or upon what weak points it is assailable.102
[Emphasis ours]
He remembered a defending army usually has the advantage:
If the enemy occupies a strong position you must occupy a position that
will force him to attack you.104
he changed the face of warfare from the sport of kings to the nation at
arms, with the whole nation being placed on a war footing, conscription,
mass production and truly a nation under arms, the beginning of modern
“Total War.”105
It is not the enmity but the friendship of France that is truly terrible. Her
intercourse, her example, the spread of her doctrines are the most dreadful
of her arms.110
In England, Pitt was concerned with the loss of Antwerp and its
adverse impact on trade. Moreover, Windham, the Secretary at
War, had promised to get back the estates and privileges of the
aristocrats who had sought sanctuary in England. Finally, neither
Pitt nor George III were prepared to lose face by settling with the
French Republican Empire, regarding such an act as suffering
another Yorktown, in a long enduring global geopolitical contest
between France and England.
Having failed to make peace with England, Napoleon made
peace with Russia, Turkey, and the United States. This left Austria
alone to face Napoleon who crossed the Alps into Italy to relieve
Genoa under siege by Austria at the battle of Marengo:
The Battle of Marengo in June gave the French command of the Po valley
as far as the Adige, and in December another French army defeated the
Austrians in Germany. Austria was forced to sign the Treaty of Lunéville of
February 1801, whereby France’s right to the natural frontiers that Julius
Caesar had given to Gaul – namely, the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees –
was recognized.111
[Emphasis ours]
Now only England was left at war with France. When Pitt resigned
over an unrelated disagreement with George III, his replacement
Addington agreed to the peace of Amiens in March 1802,
responding to the popular demand for peace in England. England
was to give back all the colonial conquests except for Trinidad
and Ceylon, return Alexandria to Turkey and Malta to France.
France was to return Taranto to Naples. It was favorable peace for
France. Despite the serious misgivings, Parliament ratified the
treaty overwhelmingly.
Talleyrand was of the opinion that Napoleon had made a
serious mistake in demanding terms that were so favorable to
France in a treaty that was signed by Addington – who was a
weak Prime Minister. Talleyrand believed that a strong Britain was
essential to the peace of Europe and did not want to see it
stripped of all it had won since 1792. It was the first of
increasingly serious strategic differences between Talleyrand and
Napoleon.112
Talleyrand had realized that Napoleon was becoming less
receptive to counsels of moderation, when in September 1802,
Napoleon annexed Piedmont over Talleyrand’s protests. The
reason was that in the summer of 1802, Napoleon was voted
Consul for life by 3,491,000 French votes for and 9,000 against;
and given the authority to name his successor. This was a step
toward grander things, as Talleyrand explained:
In order to rule, and to rule hereditarily, as he aspired to do … and in order
to justify his pretensions to the title of sovereign, he deemed it necessary
to annex to France those countries which he alone had conquered … never
understanding that he might be called to account for so monstrous a
violation of what the law of nations considered to be most sacred. His
illusion, however, was not destined to endure.113
[Emphasis ours]
Here we have, without a doubt, the first verbal ultimatum in the history of
modern negotiations.116
It would have been desirable for England to show as much good will for
peace as Bonaparte.118
Napoleon justified his action until his death. Two weeks before he
died, he asserted that:
I had the Duke d’Enghien arrested and tried because it was necessary for
the security, tranquillity, and honor of the people of France. It was done at
a time when the Count d’Artois, as he himself admitted, had sixty assassins
in his pay in Paris. Under similar circumstance, I would do the same thing
today.120
The execution of the Duke d’Enghien and the plot to kill the first
Consul marked the end of the consulate and signalled the end of
hopes for peace in Europe. On April 30, 1804, the Tribunate voted
the following resolution:
The anointing and the coronation have, in effect, put an end to the
revolution. They have placed France under a government which is both
appropriate to the nation’s power and in keeping with its traditions;
traditions which France, after fourteen centuries, had abandoned only to
lose herself in idealistic byways which had no link with the past and no
guarantee for the future. The emperor … has saved the state, established
internal peace, and fulfilled the hopes of all the people.124
[Emphases ours]
Napoleon explained the terms that he wished to impose upon Austria and
what territories he wished to take from it. I immediately replied to him that
his real interest was not to enfeeble Austria, but to remove it from the
other side and place it on his own, so that it would become France’s
ally.128
The young Napoleon might well have agreed with this approach,
but Napoleon the Emperor was intoxicated by the victory at
Austerlitz and believed he could impose French Imperial peace on
Europe by force.131
In 1806, Talleyrand reopened negotiations with England’s new
Foreign Secretary, Charles Fox, who had always been an
opponent of war with France and who had alerted the French of a
conspiracy to assassinate Napoleon in February. On March 2nd,
Napoleon declared to the legislature:
The death of Mr. Fox was one of the calamities of my life. If he had but
lived, there would have been peace.133
How did you dare to make war against me, madame, with such feeble
means at your disposal?139
I embarked very badly on the Spanish affair. I confess that the immorality
of it was too shocking, the injustice too cynical.144
The cynical way in which Napoleon had stolen the throne of Spain
was used as an argument by Alexander’s mother to persuade
him to move away from friendship with Napoleon and his alliance
just before he and Napoleon were due to meet in Erfurt.
Alexander was already troubled by the economic damage done to
Russia by the Continental System banning trade with England.
After two defeats and a shameful treaty, he felt like a beggar
going to a feast as he could only acquiesce in whatever Napoleon
was going to propose.145
Napoleon’s next error was to rely on Talleyrand to help him
persuade Alexander to comply, as an embittered Austria was
beginning to see opportunities for revenge in the problems
Napoleon was experiencing in Spain. Talleyrand used the time in
Erfurt to persuade Alexander that Napoleon’s ambitions were not
the same as France’s interests. There is no question that
Talleyrand betrayed Napoleon; whether he betrayed France is
another matter.146
When Napoleon left Paris for Spain, Talleyrand let it be known
that he was opposed to Napoleon’s policies. He did this to unite
important influencers of public opinion who wanted peace and
for Napoleon to moderate his ambitions. He publicly made peace
with Fouché, the Minister of Police and this was duly reported to
Vienna by Metternich who characterized the situation as being
one where there were now two parties in France. The leader of
one was the Emperor and the other were the masses with
Talleyrand and Fouché at their head.
When Napoleon learned about this, he immediately returned
to Paris. On January 27, 1809, Napoleon summoned Fouché and
gave him a tongue lashing, which Fouché accepted. The next day
he summoned Talleyrand and opened the public dressing down
saying officials and Grand Dignitaries of the Empire (Talleyrand)
must stop speaking their minds in public; they existed by his will
alone and were mere reflections of the one who had created
them, that to doubt the emperor was to betray the emperor and
to differ was treason. For an hour Napoleon abused Talleyrand,
accusing him of being the cause of every mistake that had
occurred; calling him a thief, a traitor, a liar, a coward, and an
atheist. Talleyrand remained composed throughout. Napoleon
incensed at this, taunted Talleyrand with his lameness, his wife’s
stupidity and her infidelity, and finally called him a “shit in a silk
stocking.” Talleyrand’s only comment as he left was, “What a pity
that so great a man should be so ill bred.”147
Napoleon, having lost his temper, expected the display would
be forgotten or forgiven as quickly as by him but should have
known that Talleyrand would not forgive and would defend
himself. The day after the tantrum, Talleyrand presented himself
at Metternich’s embassy and announced:
The time has come. It is my duty to enter into direct contact with
Vienna.148
This is not much of an alliance. They are all expecting to have a rendezvous
on my grave but I shall disappoint them.149
In 1814 the majority of the French people were tired of the emperor, [but]
they had expressed no wish for the return of the Bourbons. They were
strongly attached to the essential achievements of the Revolution, and
Louis XVIII had come back “in the baggage train of the foreigners” with the
last surviving émigrés who had “learnt nothing and forgotten nothing” and
whose influence seemed to threaten most of the Revolution’s
achievements. The apathy of April 1814 quickly gave way to mistrust. Old
hatreds were revived, resistance organized, and conspiracies formed.153
Napoleon appears anxious to run great risks; that is his business. Our
business is to give the world that repose which he has troubled all these
years. Go at once and find the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia;
tell them that I am prepared to order my armies once again to take the
road to France.155
Again Napoleon abdicated in favor of his son and was exiled; this
time to Saint Helena – far enough away from France to neutralize
him as a threat to peace in Europe.156
As a “Rising Star,” Napoleon achieved the objectives of the
Directorate. He was magnanimous to defeated enemies in Italy,
potentially turning them from revanchist enemies into neutral
admirers. In Egypt, he demonstrated ability in land battles and
reforming zeal and tolerance. However, he lost sight of the
strategic objective of providing a defensible route to attack India
in the long-running global geopolitical conflict between England
and France.
As First Consul, he showed extraordinary reforming zeal and
created a foundation for the modern French state. As long as he
worked closely with Talleyrand, he made no major strategic
errors. That phase ended with his execution of the Duke
d’Enghien, undermining his moral authority.
Becoming Emperor reflected his changed personality; he
became autocratic and did not listen to dissenting views,
conflating France’s interests with his concept of personal glory:
I may have had many projects, but I never was free to carry out any of them.
It did me little good to be holding the helm; no matter how strong my
hands, the sudden and numerous waves were stronger still, and I was wise
enough to yield to them rather than resist them obstinately and make the
ship founder. Thus I never was truly my own master but was always ruled by
circumstances.159
His legacy was the creation of modern France with the Code
Napoleon, a unified system of administration and education, the
establishment of the central bank and stock exchange and the
Paris fire brigade, the building of three canals and the
improvement of France’s roads. He encouraged nationalist
sentiments that led to the creation of modern Germany, Italy, and
Poland, and his sale of Louisiana made the modern United States
possible.
Chapter 4 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Atatürk’s feats as strategist and field commander in both the First World
War and Turkey’s War of Independence would have sufficed to ensure his
place among major world leaders. However, he will probably be
remembered even more as the builder and modernizer of the Republic, a
role that demanded vision, determination and endless patience.1
The Ottoman Empire of 1898, however, was not the France of 1792, though
the French had confronted a decaying absolute monarchy. The Reign of
Terror and its guillotine shattered their revolution, and in the murderous
vortex a military leader took control. Napoleon, ultimately shedding the
guise of liberator, crowned himself emperor, then waged war from Egypt
to Spain to Moscow, his warpath ending at Waterloo. Was there another,
more just, more permanent, conceivably less destructive path to modernity for
a Muslim empire who had no Voltaire? Could a constructive Napoleon exist?2
[Emphasis ours]
Probably no other twentieth-century leader did more for his country than
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. He brought Turkey independence, changed its
alphabet and culture, and created a secular democracy. And probably no
twentieth-century general had any better battlefield instincts, skill, or
discipline, proving himself under fire at every level of command. And
certainly, none so adroitly mixed revolutionary politics with military vision.
Yet now, almost a century after his great achievements, he is nearly
forgotten in the West, and even in Turkey his legacy is in dispute and his
achievements threatened.3
“Rising Star”
Atatürk began a military career against the wishes of his religious,
widowed mother who wanted him to study religion. His mother
allegedly had a dream telling her that if her son became a soldier,
he would rise to the top:
Zubayde claimed that in a dream she ‘saw her son sitting on a golden tray
on the top of a minaret.’ Running to the foot of the minaret, she heard a
voice intoning. ‘If you allow your son to go to military school, he shall
remain high up here. If you do not, he shall be thrown down.’4
You are not going to be an ordinary officer like the rest of us; you are going
to change the country’s destiny. Don’t think I’m flattering you; I see in you
the signs of ability and intelligence which great men who are born to rule
show even in their youth.5
Two days after we had decided to help him [the purported soldier], I got a
note from him asking me to meet him in a café in Bayazid. When I arrived
there he had with him an ADC from the palace. Our friend Ismail Hakki was
arrested that day, and I the day after … I stayed in solitary confinement for
a while, then they took me to the palace … we were accused of illegal
publication and organization, and of holding meetings and discussions in
our flat … It is probable I owed my freedom to Riza Pasha, the
commandant of the college. He sent for me and told me that he knew
everything, that he felt obliged to defend us, but urged us to act more
carefully from now on.7
After Ozdes admitted he had been offered plundered gold, Kemal snapped,
“Do you want to be today’s man or tomorrow’s?” “Tomorrow’s of course,”
replied Ozdes. “Then you can’t take the gold,” said Kemal.9
… [placing] the incident in the context of the Young Turk movement, noting
that “revolutionary officers were sincere in their hatred of official
corruption; what they wanted was power not money.” Corruption had
sapped Ottoman will, damaged administration, and weakened the army.
Revolutionary organizations, such as the CUP, argued that power in
reformist hands, not gold and silver coins on palms, would renew the
Ottomans.10
Atatürk continued to be posted to areas outside European Turkey
and consequently came late to the Committee for Union and
Progress (CUP), where he was resented as an opinionated
outsider and not entirely trusted by the leadership. He was
sidelined because he:
… had no respect for the leaders. He quarreled with them all … His brother
officers disliked him as a self-opinionated, sneering fellow. His criticisms
were always salty and bitter, with no humor to sweeten them.11
In June, 1908, King Edward of England and Czar Nicholas met at Reval and
drew up a further program for the pacification of Macedonia. The
execution of this program was interrupted by the startling series of events
which transpired during the latter half of 1908. On July 24, 1908, the
bloodless revolution by which the rule of Abdul Hamid was overturned and
the Young Turk régime established in the Ottoman Empire was effected.12
To question the sultan, no matter how impious the man and his regime,
could be portrayed as questioning calculated intent, had used this cultural
weapon to stir the violent passions of religious militants. When employed,
the entire world became a war zone for the sultan-caliph’s opponents; they
were no longer mere political adversaries or enemies, but heretics scorned by
God and subject to mortal reprisal by the faithful, anywhere, at any time.14
[Emphasis ours]
… draw a lesson and avoid the continuation of the deep slumber to which
we had surrendered ourselves in the past.18
Atatürk also commented on the incompetence of commanders:
To witness and keep silent about these truths is to endorse the dysfunction of
the army, its continued insignificance and its blindness to the vital tasks
necessary for the salvation of the nation during the war; and that could only
be called treason … To try and find a solution to this situation is the duty of
any honourable and conscientious person.
What those who lack the authorization to command can do regarding this
subject is to submit their observations and investigations to those who
have executive authority …
The office to which I submitted this report was occupied by the very same
people who had presided over the force that, at the time, had handed over
my homeland Salonika to the Greek Army without any resistance.19
[Emphases ours]
World War I
Atatürk joined the 19th Division in Gallipoli which had only one
regiment – the 57th –(the 58th and 59th had been assigned
elsewhere). He faced the Allied assault with this depleted force.
The Gallipoli campaign was ill-conceived by the Allies and it is not
our purpose to discuss its evolution and execution. What is clear,
however, is that the presence of Atatürk made a critical difference
at a critical moment and was instrumental in defeating the
Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) landing.
The first wave of ANZAC troops landed on Ariburnu beach at
4:30 a.m. on April 25, 1915. For two hours Atatürk tried to get
orders from the divisional commander and then acted on his own
authority, leading his regiment to Chunuk Bair where he met the
9th Division’s soldiers in full retreat. Understanding the
importance of holding the Sari Bair massif (using binoculars
rather than a sword, as he put it), he decided to stand – a decision
requiring great personal courage, and significant sacrifices from
his troops, shown by the following conversation:
“Why are you running away?” Kemal asked
“The enemy, sir …,” the retreating 9th Division soldiers said.
“Where?”
“Over there,” they replied, pointing toward Battleship Hill. Sure
enough, an enemy line was advancing. The enemy troops were
already closer to Kemal than the forward element of his own
Fifty-seventh Regiment approaching from the eastern slope. He
did not know whether reason or intuition compelled him. He
turned to the retreating soldiers and said, “You mustn’t run
away from the enemy.”
“We’ve no ammunition left,” they replied.
“If you’ve got no ammunition, you have your bayonets.”23
He ordered his soldiers to fix bayonets and lie down. The
Australians saw the Turks stop, turn, and lie down. To
experienced infantrymen, these acts in sequence signaled an
ambush: fixing bayonets indicated offensive esprit, and that bold
display sold the ruse. Within minutes, the lead battalion of the
57th Regiment arrived, and the Ottoman retreat was over.
Turning toward his regiment, Kamal issued his most famous
order:
“I do not expect you to attack, I order you to die! In the time which passes
until we die, other troops and commanders can take our place!”24
At Anzac, too, a great opportunity went begging, although here the initiative
of one opponent, the then unknown Mustapha Kemal, contributed to its
unfulfillment. The surprise landing had placed 4000 men before 5 a.m., and
another 4000 before 8 a.m., on a shore guarded by only one Turkish
company. The next company was more than a mile to the south, two
battalions and a battery in local reserve were four miles inland, and still
further away lay the general reserve of eight battalions and three batteries,
commanded by Mustapha Kemal. He was out watching a regiment at
training, when suddenly a number of gendarmes, bareheaded and
weaponless, came running frantically towards him, crying – “They come,
they come.” ‘Who comes?’ “Inglis, Inglis.” He turned to ask, “Have we ball
cartridges?” “Yes.” “All right. Forward.” Leading a company himself and
leaving the rest of the regiment to follow, he raced to the great dividing ridge
of Chunuk Bair in time (about 10 a.m.) to cross the crest and check the
leading Australians as they were climbing up the steeper slopes to the west.
Until now barely 500 Turks had been available to hold up to 8000
Australians, but henceforth the defenders were to be augmented steadily
until by nightfall six battalions (perhaps 5000 men) had been brought up,
and from 4 p.m. onwards launched in a series of counterattacks which
forced back but failed to break the ragged Australian line.29
[Emphases ours]
He had personal courage. In one attack, he and his men were
surrounded and he was hit in the chest by shrapnel. The shrapnel
hit his pocket watch, smashing it, and bruising his chest badly.
When an officer next to him pointed out that Atatürk had been
shot, Atatürk told him to be quiet as it would hurt morale if his
men knew:
War of Independence
The war destroyed the Ottoman Empire; Turkey was occupied
and the Allies were planning to dismember it. Atatürk was in
charge of a fully functional military force located in Anatolia:
Although largely unnoticed by the Allies, and still not well known in his
own country, Mustafa Kemal had come out of the war in charge of the
longest front held by the Ottoman armed forces. He was only 37 and still a
brigadier. But his professional reputation was high among Turkish
commanders. True, they knew him as a difficult man to work with. He was
ambitious and willful … played politics to get his way. He was convinced he
knew best. But then he usually did, for he had good sense, a rare quality in
a world that had torn itself to pieces.36
The Greek Army in Asia Minor, 121,000 strong, is in position to scatter the
Kemalist forces and to impose the will of the Powers as embodied in the
Treaty of Sevres.40
Few commanders in the whole history of the world have faced a task as
difficult as that which you undertook in the pitched battles of Inönü … It
was not only the enemy you have defeated, but fate itself – the ill-starred
fate of our nation.41
The Allies were no longer united: the French and Italians indicated
they would accede to Nationalist territorial demands in return for
economic concessions. Atatürk, realizing that concessions would
not be needed if he won on the battlefield – and if he lost, they
would be irrelevant – did not present them to the Grand National
Assembly.
On July 10th, the Greek army launched an offensive targeting
Ankara with the aim of destroying the Nationalist army and
leadership. They were initially successful. Atatürk ordered the
army to retreat, saving Ismet the stigma and taking a serious
political and military risk, but extending the Greek lines of supply:
Kemal had recognized in ordering retreat, the further Greek forces were
drawn from their bases, the more difficult and dangerous would be the
attempt to annihilate the Turkish army … Mustapha Kemal had staked his
political existence on the unpopular policy of controlled withdrawal – a policy
which required iron strength and confidence to draw the Greek army into not
a trap but a wasteland where it would destroy itself.43
[Emphasis ours]
The Greek armies were marching on to Ankara … With a red pen he drew a
broad long line in the rear of Sakarya and pointing to this line he said, “We
shall beat the enemy here.” We believed him, why and how we believed, I still
don’t know.44
[Emphasis ours]
By his personal effort, he had won a battle, which would have been the
absolute end of the Turkish independency, if he had lost it.46
To speak of war means not only two armies but two nations coming face to
face and fighting against one another with all their being and all their
resources, involving both material and spiritual resources. For this reason,
I had to interest the whole Turkish nation in thought, sentiment, and action
in the same way as the army on the front.48
[Emphasis ours]
Peace is the most effective way for nations to attain prosperity and
happiness.51
Unless the life of the nation faces peril, war is a crime … If war were to break
out, nations would rush to join their armed forces and national resources.
The swiftest and most effective measure is to establish an international
organization which would prove to the aggressor that its aggression
cannot pay.52
[Emphasis ours]
As clearly as I see daybreak, I have the vision of the rise of the oppressed
nations to their independence … If lasting peace is sought, it is essential to
adopt international measures to improve the lot of the masses. Mankind’s
well-being should take the place of hunger and oppression … Citizens of
the world should be educated in such a way that they shall no longer feel
envy, avarice and vengefulness.53
[Emphasis ours]
After seven hundred years of absolute, or near absolute, rule, a nation like
Austria, one totally confused about its own identity, could not develop into
a functioning democracy virtually overnight. The trappings of democracy
were there but the content was missing.54
During the decade between 1912 and 1922, almost one-quarter of the
Anatolian population died in wars, and in some regions this figure increased
to 60 percent. Anatolia lost most of its Greek and Armenian population in
the first quarter of the twentieth century, during which the non-Muslim
population dropped from 20 percent to 2 percent. With the loss of
professionals and artisans, most of whom were not Muslim, Turkey in 1923
was economically more backward than it had been ten years earlier. In other
words, Atatürk took over amid the ruins of a once-great empire.55
Even before accepting the religion of the Arabs [Islam], the Turks were a
great nation. After accepting the religion of the Arabs, this religion, didn’t
effect to combine the Arabs, the Persians and Egyptians with the Turks to
constitute a nation. (This religion) rather, loosened the national nexus of
Turkish nation, got national excitement numb. This was very natural.
Because the purpose of the religion founded by Muhammad, over all nations,
was to drag to an including Arab national politics.56
[Emphases ours]
For nearly five hundred years, these rules and theories of an Arab Shaikh
and the interpretations of generations of lazy and good-for-nothing priests
have decided the civil and criminal law of Turkey … Islam – this theology of
an immoral Arab – is a dead thing. Possibly it might have suited tribes in the
desert. It is no good for modern, progressive state. God’s revelation! There is
no God!57
[Emphasis ours]
Read and listen our history. You’ll see that what ruins, enslaves, and ruins
nations have always come from the blasphemy and evil under the cover of
religion.58
The nation has placed its faith in the precept that all laws should be inspired
by actual needs here on earth as a basic fact of national life.59
[Emphasis ours]
a broad range of rapid and sweeping reforms in the political, social, legal,
economic, and cultural spheres virtually unparalleled in any other
country.61
The Turks are friends of all civilized nations. On condition that they do us
no harm and do not interfere with our liberties, foreigners shall always be
welcome in our country. Our goal is rapprochement and re-establishment
of bonds with other nations. There are many nations, but there is only one
civilization. For the advancement of a nation, it must be part of this one
civilization. The downfall of the Ottoman Empire began on the day that it
haughtily severed its ties with European nations because of its military
victories against them. This was a mistake we shall not repeat.
In keeping with our policies, our traditions and our interests, we are inclined
to the establishment of a European Turkey, or to be more precise, a Turkey
inclined toward the West.64
[Emphases ours]
Within the Ottoman Empire, the Turks were merely one of many linguistic and
ethnic groups, and the word Turk in fact connoted crudeness and
boorishness. Members of the civil, military, and religious elite conversed and
conducted their business in Ottoman Turkish, which was a mixture of Arabic,
Persian, and Turkish. Arabic remained the primary language of religion and
religious law. Persian was the language of art, refined literature, and
diplomacy. What little Turkish there was usually had to do with the
administration of the Ottoman Empire Turkish not only borrowed
vocabulary items from Arabic and Persian but also lifted entire expressions
and syntactic structures out of these languages and incorporated them into
the Ottoman idiom. Thus, pure Turkish survived primarily as the language of
the illiterate and generally was not used in writing. Ottoman Turkish, on the
other hand, was the language of writing, as well as the language spoken by
the educated elite.
As the 1920s came to an end, Turkey had fully and functionally adopted,
with its 29 letters (8 vowels and 21 consonants), [a new Turkish alphabet
with] none of the complexities of the Arabic script, which was ill-suited to
the Turkish language. The language reform enabled children and adults to
read and write within a few months, and to study Western languages with
greater effectiveness.68
[Emphasis ours]
He insisted on making the change quickly and was personally
deeply involved in the research and development of the new
script and returned to sources pre-dating Islam:
We shall make the expansion and rise of Turkish culture in every era the
mainstay of the Republic.70
Atatürk was not prepared to allow conflict between the left and
right. and believed in limits to pluralism; communist, fascist, and
religious parties were banned:
Starting from the early 1920s when the Turkish state emerged as the
Ottoman Empire’s successor, the men who led the military campaign
against the Greeks were concerned with the creation of a state based upon
a different set of principles. Believing that they had “to create a modern,
therefore western, state in Turkey,” Atatürk and his followers, mainly
former military officers, were eager to announce to their people and the
world community that the old system of arbitrary relations between the
ruling elite (askeri) and the reaya (the tax-paying subjects of the empire
who were excluded from politics) would be abolished. In its place, the
western idea of citizenship would be firmly established as the new principle
responsible for regulating the relationship between the elected,
constitutionally limited rulers and “the people.”72
[Emphasis ours]
However, these values appear to have been in harmony with the existing
societal ones. As domestic and foreign observers testify, Turkish society
gives a greater emphasis on collective rather than individual rights and
values and therefore Turkish citizens learn from an early age to respect
hierarchical-patriarchical [sic] values and view pluralism as a potential
threat to social or national cohesion. For instance, Gareth Jenkins observes
that Turks do not have a tradition of tolerating pluralism on a social level …
and almost invariably bow to authority than challenge it. Since ‘the state is a
proper repository of legitimate authority, and the legitimate wielders of
that authority have a responsibility to preserve the public order and
promote the general welfare,’ the reliance of Kemalist rulers on
authoritarian-totalitarian attitudes and policies did not appear as an alien
feature. The identification of the party (CHP) with the state and the nation
with the party and the state justified their non-democratic, tutelary aim to
transform society from above.74
[Emphases ours]
The true owner and master of Turkey is the peasant who is the real
producer.80
Economic Progress
It has been argued that the reason why Atatürk was so focused
on education reform was that he understood that if the people
were educated and empowered, they would protect national
democratic institutions and, consequently, their democratic
rights.90
The education system Atatürk inherited from the Ottomans
was primarily religious and did not reflect the needs of a
modernizing nation.91 This approach blocked scientific endeavors
and obstructed creative thinking.92 He was clear that education
should focus on scientific fundamentals and should not be based
on “superstition.”93 He believed in the need for a blended
learning approach, combining partly active, rational, and
experimental methods with passive, mobile, and rote methods.94
Teaching methods would have to change if Turkey was to become
a modern state.95 In his view, transformed education was to be
the foundation of everything:
Gentlemen, the most realistic guides, the real guiding principles are
education, science for everything, for materiality, for morality, for success
in the world.96
The literacy rate in Turkey was 7% in 1921, 10% for men and 4%
for women. Only 15% of the people who knew how to read knew
how to write, whereas at the end of the 19th century, the rate of
literacy was 15%. The “drop” in literacy rate reflected the
expulsion of the Greek and Armenian communities that had high
levels of literacy.98 90% of the population remaining after the
expulsions lived in the villages and in 90% of the villages there
were no teachers or schools. In the entire country, there were
twenty-three high schools with a total of 1,241 students and there
were twenty vocational high schools with a total of 2,558
students.99 There were 18,000 madrassa students officially, but
only 1,800 were studying; the others were doing menial work
rather than attending the religious schools.100
Educational reform was started once the war was over.
Experts evaluated schools, recommending school systems,
teacher training, teaching programs, staffing, and the
establishment and organization of a new Ministry of Education.
Atatürk saw education as a motor of development for the
nation:101
While legal reforms, or the Latinization of the script, could be carried out in
a single stroke, the battle for modern education had to be fought in every
single village, often by young and inexperienced teachers isolated in
conservative milieus. The weaknesses, bottlenecks and imbalances which we
still see in the system derive from economic and social problems familiar to all
third world countries. In comparison with other Muslim and Middle Eastern
countries facing such problems, Turkey’s educational system has achieved
impressive results.114
[Emphasis ours]
Emancipation of Women
The new 1926 Civil Code, based on the Swiss Civil Code gave
women equal rights and opportunities, including political rights
(which the Swiss Civil Code denied at the time), abolished
polygamy, and gave equal rights in divorce, custody, and
inheritance. Education from high school through university
became co-educational. In part this was recognition of the
support women had given the Nationalists. By the mid-1930s,
eighteen women were elected members of Parliament, and later
a woman was the first in the world to be chosen as a Supreme
Court Justice. That Atatürk put so much emphasis on improving
the situation of women is hardly surprising given his stated
beliefs:
If henceforward the women do not share in the social life of the nation, we
shall never attain our full development, incapable of treating on equal
terms with the civilizations of the West.118
One of the necessities of today is to ensure the rise of women in every way.
Therefore, our women will be scholars and scientists and go through all the
degrees the men do … If a social organization is content to meet
contemporary requirements with only one of the two sexes, that social
organization loses more than half its strength … Our women, like us, are
intelligent and intellectual human beings … Let them show their faces to the
world, and let their eyes look on the world carefully, there is nothing to be
feared in this.119
[Emphasis ours]
Scientific Approach
In his 1927 book The Speech, Atatürk articulated a multi-stage
scientific approach to achieving change. In the first phase, he
traveled across Turkey to see for himself what the problems
were. From these observations, he developed hypotheses
regarding what needed to be done to improve matters. He then
looked around the developed world for possible solutions and
would try to apply them, using expert help. And if they did not
work, he would see how they could be improved.
Personal Involvement
He used the force of his personality to drive the changes through,
being personally involved in much of the detailed
implementation.
His control was most obvious in the field of education where
he became Headmaster of the People’s Schools.120 A typical
example of his hands-on involvement in education and language
reforms occurred in 1937 when visiting Sivas High School where
he demonstrated the problems with using old Turkish to learn
mathematics. Afterward, he wrote a geometry textbook to help
students understand the concepts:
Authoritarianism
Atatürk has been described as a dictator, stubborn, merciless,
temperamental, and fearless.122 He has also been called a genius
dictator who created a roadmap for Turkey’s modernization and
democratization.123 Despite his reputation for incorruptibility, it
has been claimed that the state became his property during the
Early Republic because the media were silenced, foundations
were nationalized, civil associations closed, traditional universities
eliminated, and opposition parties banned.124
In a sense he was a man of his time, applying ideas of
government that were common globally in the 1920s and 1930s.
Germany, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and the USSR were
totalitarian regimes in Europe, as were Japan and China in Asia.
Turkey’s trajectory of political development was different – it had
transitioned from a theocratic multi-ethnic, but Ottoman
monarchy to a single-party Turkish republic, destined by Atatürk
to become a multi-party Turkish democracy. He had made the
destination and journey clear in his speeches. Even though he
was influenced by the totalitarian regimes around him, his
republic was not a police state.125 Moreover, he was not
comfortable with the extraordinary powers he had been granted
by the national assembly.126
A personality cult was built around him and it was central to
Kemalism, the semi-official religion of Turkey; and his charisma
had elevated him almost into being “The One” of a near-
monotheist cult with his mausoleum in Ankara being treated as a
secular Mecca.127
He was repressive, though apparently not extremely so by the
standards of his time or of the French press. When Atatürk wrote
a piece for the French newspaper Le Temps, he commented that
(For further
details, see Table
5.10)
Table 5.5: Intelligent.
Elizabeth Napoleon Bonaparte Mustafa Kemal
Tudor Atatürk
At age 10, “Seizing the essential point of subjects, Atatürk was
Elizabeth gave stripping them down of useless accessories, brilliant at
her developing his thought and never ceasing to mathematics. At
stepmother elaborate it till he had made it perfectly clear age 18, he
her translation and conclusive, always finding the fitting graduated
of Queen word for the thing, or inventing one where second in his
Margaret of the image of language had not created it, class and
Navarre’s Le Napoleon’s conversation was ever full of entered
Miroir de l’Âme interest … Constantinople’s
Pecheresse into War College,
poetic English where one of
as a present.23 the officers told
At age 14, she him:
was able to “You are not
hold her own going to be an
with her tutor, ordinary officer
Roger Ascham, like the rest of
the leading us; you are
scholar in going to change
England, who the country’s
said: destiny. Don’t
“I teach her think I’m
words and she flattering you; I
me things. I see in you the
teach her the signs of ability
tongues to and
speak, and her
Elizabeth Napoleon Bonaparte Mustafa Kemal
Tudor Atatürk
modest and Yet he did not fail to listen to the remarks and intelligence
maidenly look objections which were addressed to him … which great men
teaches me and I have never felt the least difficulty in who are born to
works to do. saying to him what I believed to be the truth, rule show even in
For I think she even when it was not likely to please him.”25 their youth.”27
is the best Prince von Metternich [Emphasis ours]
disposed of “From the fact that the First Consul always
any in all presided over the Council of State, certain
Europe.”24 people have inferred that it was servile and
At 26, she was obeyed him in everything. On the contrary, I
able to can state that the most enlightened men of
influence the France … deliberated there in complete freedom
Marian and that nothing ever shackled their
bishops and discussions. Bonaparte was much more
the concerned to profit from their wisdom than to
Presbyterian scrutinize their political opinions.”26 [Emphasis
divines in ours]
agreeing to the
Thirty-Nine
Articles, Act of
Uniformity,
and Act of
Supremacy.
Every day she
allocated three
hours for
reading
histories and
philosophy in
Latin and
Greek.
She gave
impromptu
speeches in
Latin, French,
and Italian that
were better
than those of
the French and
Italian
ambassadors
she received.
We continue by assessing Elizabeth Tudor, Napoleon and Atatürk
in terms of whether they demonstrated the traits of ethical and
unethical leadership discussed in Chapter 1 in →Tables 5.6 to
→5.9.
Table 5.6: Ethical/Unethical Leadership: Benevolence and
Callousness.
Elizabeth Tudor Napoleon Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Bonaparte
Benevolenceii In his early Atatürk avoided vindictiveness
When a deputation of judges came years, and was magnanimous in
to pay their respects after her Napoleon making peace with the
coronation, she commanded them believed: Russians, Armenians, and
to: “I have Greeks
ensured the
happiness
of a
hundred
“Have a care over my people … They families. preventing grievances that
are my people. Every man What could undermine the stability
oppresseth them and [de]spoileth pleasure to of the newly-created Turkish
them without mercy. They cannot die state.
revenge their quarrel nor help surrounded Atatürk emancipated women:
themselves. See unto them, see by one’s “One of the necessities of
unto them, for they are my children and today is to ensure the rise of
charge.”28 [Emphases ours] able to say: women in every way.
Her “Golden Speech” in 1601 ‘I have had Therefore our women will be
showed that what mattered to her a hard life, scholars and scientists and go
throughout her reign was her love but the state through all the degrees the
for her people and their love for will benefit men do … If a social
her: from it; organization is content to
“I do assure you there is no prince through my meet contemporary
that loves his subjects better, or worries my requirements with only one of
whose love can countervail our fellow the two sexes, that social
love. There is no jewel, be it of never citizens lie organization loses more than
so rich a price, which I set before calmly, half its strength … Our
this jewel: I mean your love. For I do through my women, like us, are intelligent
esteem it more than any treasure in perplexities and intellectual human beings
riches; for that we know how to they are … Let them show their faces to
prize, but love and thanks I count happy, the world, and let their eyes
invaluable. And though God hath through my look on the world carefully,
raised me high, yet this I count the sorrows there is nothing to be feared in
glory of my crown, that I have they are this.”34He also gave the Turks
reigned with your loves.”29 gay.’”31 a sense of their own identity
[Emphasis ours] Elizabeth “In the and was able to give them
recognized the need to pass Poor retreat from back their self-respect, without
Laws in 1563, 1572, 1576, 1597, and Palestine,
Elizabeth Tudor Napoleon Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Bonaparte
1601 to help the poor who had he was which modern Turkey could
been forced off the land by concerned not have been created.
Enclosures. These acts represented about the
a major change in that the State wounded:
recognized its social obligation to All horses,
look after the poor for the first mules and
time. The acts of 1597 and 1601 camels will
endured into the 19th century.30 be given to
the
wounded,
the sick and
plague-
stricken
who show
any signs of
life.
Everyone
not sick
goes on
foot,
starting
with me.”32
Napoleon
was acutely
conscious of
the need to
improve the
living
standards of
the French
people and
did much to
help in
times of
trouble. He
understood
the
importance
of
economics
for ordinary
people:
Elizabeth Tudor Napoleon Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Bonaparte
“I fear
insurrection
caused by a
shortage of
bread –
more than a
battle
against
200,000
men.”33In
the winter
of 1806–7,
when times
were hard
for the silk
makers of
Lyons, he
spent
money from
his privy
purse to
keep them
going; in
1811, he
secretly
advanced
money to
weavers of
Amiens to
help them
pay their
workers.
Elizabeth Tudor Napoleon Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Bonaparte
CallousnessiiiElizabeth was
ruthless, but she was not callous. Napoleon Atatürk famously commanded
She did not like war, regarding it did not the 57th regiment to die at
as an expensive waste. worry about Gallipoli and they followed his
the orders to the last man.
casualties However, he was always
his concerned that his men were
campaigns properly equipped and
created. provisioned before they went
In the out to fight.
words of
General de
Gaulle:
“Napoleon
left France
crushed,
invaded,
drained of
blood and
courage,
smaller than
he had
found it …
Napoleon
exhausted
the French
people’s
good will,
abused their
sacrifices,
covered
Europe with
tombs,
ashes and
tears.”35
Table 5.7: Ethical/Unethical Leadership: Fairness and Corruption.
Elizabeth Tudor Napoleon Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Bonaparte
Fairnessiv
Elizabeth’s guiding policy in Napoleon Atatürk applied certain
domestic matters was to find a replaced a principles to the chain of
middle ground. She was more corrupt, rent- command: Accurate
interested in compromise than seeking Ancien information was essential; he
in being ideologically Regime with a did not allow his subordinates
correct.She rewarded people meritocratic to tell him what they thought
for their performance, with the system in the he wanted to hear; he imposed
possible exception of Essex military, church, discipline and held individuals
who, in her own words, had and civil accountable.“Wars are made
wasted the money she had service.As he by people. An army’s value is
provided him for the Irish war. said: determined by the value of its
“Every private in officers. The commander is a
the French army person who has creative
carries a field- powers.”37
marshal’s He did this across cultures
batonin his without distinguishing
knapsack.”36 between Turk, Arab, or Berber.
His educational
reforms were
designed to
achieve a level
playing field for
graduates from
the “Grandes
Écoles” and
students who
had passed the
“baccalaureat”
at the end of
their studies in
the lycée.
Elizabeth Tudor Napoleon Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Bonaparte
Corruptionv
Elizabeth was not corrupt, Napoleon Atatürk allowed a certain
though many of the people changed the amount of corruption among
she granted licenses to were. rules and made his followers, but he
The money she made from her himself personally was incorruptible
investments in supporting Emperor, he did and did not profit from his
privateering benefited the not profit position. From the start of his
State directly: personally from career, he turned down
his exalted opportunities to benefit from
1. It helped build a position, his position:“After Ozdes
superior naval capability although his admitted he had been offered
to that of Spain without family did.By plundered gold, Kemal
costing the Exchequer: the end of his snapped, ‘Do you want to be
Alongside diplomacy, career he today’s man or tomorrow’s?’
Elizabeth supported and conflated ‘Tomorrow’s of course,’
licensed men who had personal glory replied Ozdes. ‘Then you can’t
previously been pirates with that of take the gold,’ said Kemal.”40
in English waters, France, and put
turning them into state- personal
sponsored privateers interest ahead
practicing legal piracy of public
against England’s interest.
enemies. These men “He was not a
gained valuable French George
experience on the seas Washington. ‘To
and, when needed, used the role of
their military skills to legislator and
strengthen the founder of his
diminutive Royal country’s
Navy.38 liberty, he
ultimately
preferred that of
conqueror.’”39
In addition, he violated
his own tactical
battlefield principles
during the Battle of
Waterloo, leading to
defeat.
Table 5.11: Effective/Ineffective Leadership: Flexibility and
Rigidity.
Elizabeth Tudor Napoleon Mustafa Kemal
Bonaparte Atatürk
Flexibilityxii
Flexibility lay at the heart of Elizabeth’s Napoleon Militarily, Atatürk
approach to all major questions. She never innovated on showed great ability
adopted positions that backed her into a the battlefield to operate in
corner. Through skillful prevarication, and in different and
obfuscation, and unexpected changing of developing demanding strategic
her mind, she was able to keep her new and tactical
options open until the last minute, administrative situations.
frustrating her advisers. “If men were solutions; Diplomatically, he
prepared to believe that she was a ‘mere during his made peace with all
woman’ weaker and less intelligent than republican of the Ottoman
they, Elizabeth was willing to encourage period he was Empire’s historic
this underestimation, which only made willing to enemies on terms
her stronger because her opponents were listen to all that meant Turkey
wholly unprepared for what her and could remain neutral
formidable intellect and will could throw surrounded when World War II
himself with was declared.
at them.”54 leading He sought the
intellectuals. advice of leading
Most global experts, but
important of once he had made
all, in up his mind, he did
negotiating not welcome further
the Concordat discussion.
with the Pope,
he
demonstrated
a willingness
to
compromise
that saved
France and
Europe from
another war of
religion.
Elizabeth Tudor Napoleon Mustafa Kemal
Bonaparte Atatürk
Rigidityxiii
Elizabeth showed rigidity in that: Napoleon’s Atatürk tended to
inability to dominate
1. She would be Supreme head of the understand discussions using
Anglican Church so that she could that the other the force of his
appoint bishops. She showed European intellect and
flexibility in the title by using the powers would personality to
word “governor” to get around never accept browbeat others
theological objections. the imposition into accepting his
by France of a point of view.
universal Throughout most of
political his career he was
approach, sure of his position,
whether it was believing that he
republican had the right
(pre-1804), or answers whereas his
imperial (post- adversaries were
1804) was a wrong. Events
fatal proved him right in
intellectual most cases.
flaw.
His inability to His hostility toward
1. She insisted on keeping the understand Islam and
episcopacy. that England everything the
2. She insisted until the end on not would never Ottoman state
executing Mary, Queen of Scots make peace represented
because she believed that monarchs with France as informed his
could not be tried by their subjects. long as it was insistence on a level
3. Once she decided getting married the dominant of secularism,
would harm England, she power in matched only by
successfully resisted all domestic Europe was a France’s rigid
and foreign political pressures as fatal strategic approach to the
well as her own emotional error. subject.
inclinations and never married. His
humiliation of
Austria and
Prussia was a
serious tactical
error.
Table 5.12: Effective/Ineffective Leadership: Self-control and
Intemperance.
Elizabeth Tudor Napoleon Mustafa Kemal
Bonaparte Atatürk
Self-controlxiv
From a very early age, Elizabeth Napoleon does not Atatürk exhibited
realized that her life depended on appear to have great self-control
being able to control her feelings and normally lacked and did not allow
words: self-control; his his exalted position
All her training and experience, her apparent as effective dictator
self-discipline and abnegation, her garrulousness was to go to his head.
loneliness and sorrows endured had a carefully He was personally
been for this ‘crown imperial,’ which practiced art to put incorruptible.
was hers of right. She was determined informants at ease.
never to give it up and for the rest of His thriftiness was
her life self-preservation became her extreme and he
was regarded as
first care.55 personally
incorruptible.
Her self-control was sometimes
affected by a need to reassure herself
that she was the most beautiful
woman in her court; and occasionally
by her feelings toward Leicester and
later Essex.
Elizabeth Tudor Napoleon Mustafa Kemal
Bonaparte Atatürk
Intemperancexv
The levels to which Elizabeth showed Twice Napoleon Atatürk drank too
her feelings for Leicester and later for had very serious much and
Essex were perhaps unwise. outbursts of fury eventually it killed
When angered by them or other with unfortunate him.
nobles, she could be terrifying, making results:
it clear that she was her father’s 1. With the
daughter. However, her anger did not English
last. ambassador
during the
Treaty of
Amiens
negotiations
2. With
Talleyrand,
turning him
into a mortal
enemy.
Lessons Learned
By comparing the careers of Elizabeth Tudor, Napoleon, and
Atatürk, we draw important lessons regarding admired
leadership: the need for integrity; being forward-looking; being
flexible; having the intellectual curiosity needed to “connect the
dots”; consistent image management; and, above all, having
operational competence.
To act with integrity, you must first know who you are. You must know
what you stand for, what you believe in, and what you care about …2
Values also motivate. They keep us focused on why we’re doing what
we’re doing and on the ends towards which we are striving. Values are the
banners that fly as we persist, as we struggle, as we toil …3
You cannot lead through someone else’s values, someone else’s words.
You cannot lead out of someone else’s experience. You can only lead out of
your own. Unless it’s your style, your words, it’s not you – it’s just an act.
People don’t follow your position or your technique. They follow you. If
you are not the genuine article, can you really expect others to want to
follow you?4
The convictions of a person of integrity determine what they will say and
do at any given time. They intentionally direct their conduct according to
their understanding of what is right and wrong. Authenticity marks the
heart of integrity. Their internal character remains consistent regardless of
external conditions.
Integrity includes the quality of being honest, but honesty does not always
demonstrate integrity. The difference is the inner commitment to being
trustworthy and communicating the truth without deception. An integrated
person lives without duplicity and hypocrisy.56
He was not a French George Washington. “To the role of legislator and
founder of his country’s liberty, he ultimately preferred that of
conqueror.”58
When serving the Republic in his early career and as First Consul,
he modeled integrity and was admired across Europe as a “great
man.” Particularly in Italy, where Italians were grateful for the
creation of the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics. In this period,
Napoleon lived by republican reforming principles and most of
his reforms had the good of the French people in mind.
Once he became Emperor, he changed from being a servant
of the Republic to seeing himself as its master, and as the
potential master of all Europe.
He conceived of power and glory as the purpose of his being, and the
pursuit of those qualities as overriding all considerations, political as well
as moral.59
Being Forward-Looking
A visionary leader, provides direction to make the world a better
place for their followers by defining a sustainable mission and
vision, and articulating what followers can expect. Leaders often
attain power by focusing on the past, peddling a nostalgic
interpretation of an imagined, as opposed to actual, past. The
problem with backward-looking policies is that it is difficult to
turn back the clock and recreate conditions that either never
really existed, or that are no longer relevant. Although trying to
recreate a past golden age is an effective platform for
campaigning, it often proves to be a poor basis for governing.
1. Elizabeth Tudor was not a radical reformer like Atatürk or
Napoleon. Her focus was on conserving and building the Tudor
legacy. Her reign was one of incremental change rather than
“great designs.” Whenever radical change threatened to
destabilize the state and her rule, she attempted to reconcile
traditional thinking with the challenges posed by changing
economic, political, or religious circumstances. This can be seen
in her gradualist approach to religion; to the changing basis of
political power in Parliament, which reflected the rise of the
gentry and London’s Protestant merchants; and the growth of
Puritanism.
Elizabeth’s strategic success was as an incrementalist who
knew when to bend to pressures and when to stand firm. This
was the result of her remarkable ability to imagine different
scenarios and to ensure that she had appropriate resources in
place to deal with problems as they arose. Her ambitions were
realistic and limited to defending English interests. In the words
of the French ambassador in 1601 at the end of her reign:
To regulate the conduct of [great designs], to foresee and guard against all
obstacles in such a manner that, when they happen, nothing more will be
necessary than to apply the remedies prepared long before – this is what few
princes are capable of.61
[Emphasis ours]
One area of policy that she did not deal with effectively was
Ireland where she failed to resolve the long-standing problems
that had been generated by Pope Adrian in 1155 from his Bull
Laudabiliter granting English monarchs the right to annex Ireland
– a problem that continues to bedevil Anglo-Irish relations.
She encouraged English commercial and naval expansion in
the Americas and the East Indies, leading, for good and ill, to the
creation of the largest empire in history and the growth of the
most powerful company in the world in its heyday, the British
East India Company.62 Her patronage of the arts and, in
particular, the theatre, contributed to the growth of English as a
leading language in the world. It is unlikely that she realized how
“great” these designs would become.
2. Atatürk was a revolutionary whose mission and vision
was, by definition, radical. His ambition was to break the hold of
the Ottoman past and Islam on the development of the Turkish
nation he aimed to create. As a military commander, he energized
the defeated remains of the Ottoman empire in Anatolia into an
effective fighting force to defeat occupying armies and, thereby,
create a new nation. An ethno-nationalist, he created a Turkish
sense of identity based on secular independence from Islam,
limited to Turkey only; was western-looking and based on a fairer,
more meritocratic, and more egalitarian society where women
were emancipated. His vision, like that of Napoleon, was to use a
unified, modernized national education system as the primary
driver of change, by abandoning the Arabic alphabet and
replacing it with the Latin, making it easier for Turks to read and
write.
He transformed Turkey from an Ottoman monarchical, multi-
ethnic state, united by Islam and the caliphate, to a Turkish-
Kurdish ethnic, secular proto-democracy.
By limiting his ambition to the territory that makes up
modern Turkey rather than trying to regain the lands of the
Ottoman empire, he was able to allocate the resources necessary
for his grand design. He ended centuries of enmity with Turkey’s
neighbors, and invested in industrialization and modernization
rather than the armed forces.
3. Napoleon in his period as a republican reformer sought to
heal the divisions created by the Revolution between the
adherents of the Ancien Regime and the beneficiaries of the
Revolution. His vision was of a united/unified France that would
regain its seat at the top tables of Europe. To do this, he believed
that a whole generation needed to be recast in the same mode;
and believed that a unified national educational curriculum was
essential to its achievement. He saw it was necessary to make
peace with the Catholic church and to rebuild France’s finances.
He overhauled the French administrative system of
government to give it a centrally directed but devolved prefectural
system of local government; rationalized the tax system;
established the central bank and stock exchange; and created the
Code Napoleon – France’s civil code that still applies today. He
overhauled France’s roads, built three canals and upgraded three
ports, and built new roads across the Alps.
As Emperor, his failure to consider the consequences of his
treatment of Talleyrand; his humiliation of Austria and Prussia
that would turn them into revanchist regimes; his failure to
appreciate the long-range strategic importance of naval warfare;
his lack of understanding of the motives of England and Russia;
and his disastrous invasion of Russia are evidence of his inability
to look far enough forward to understand that his desire to
impose a French Empire on Europe was bound to fail. This
resulted from the conflation of his desire for personal military
glory and power with the interests of France as a nation. A
forward-thinker like Talleyrand could see clearly the two things
were separate, whereas Napoleon either could not or would not.
Flexibility
“Flexibility” is ambiguous. It can mean the ability to bend without
breaking, like the bamboo in a typhoon that uproots the stronger,
more rigid trees. It can mean the willingness to “go with the flow”
and become the hallmark of a person lacking integrity. In
assessing Elizabeth Tudor, Napoleon, and Atatürk, we use the
word to mean willingness to compromise and reconcile
conflicting perspectives and strategic and operational
imperatives:
For a company to succeed over the long term it needs to master both
adaptabilityxvii and alignmentxviii – an attribute that is sometimes referred
to as ambidexterity.64
I teach her words and she me things. I teach her the tongues to speak, and
her modest and maidenly look teaches me works to do. For I think she is
the best disposed of any in all Europe.65
She was fluent in Italian and French and well-read in the works of
both. She was musical, a good archer, and an excellent dancer.
Throughout her reign, she devoted three hours every day to
reading histories and the classics of her time. In June 1602, she
translated the Latin poet Horace’s “Art of Poetry,” but was too old
to complete her translation of Ovid’s “Art of Love” from Latin.66
When she was twenty-six years old, her grasp of theology was
sufficient to allow her to hold her own against Anglican bishops
and Presbyterian divines.
Her mastery of underlying principles, detail, and languages
meant that she did not need secretaries or interpreters when
dealing with ambassadors or her advisers in the Council. As Lord
Burghley, the Chancellor with whom she worked for forty years,
reckoned:
“She was the wisest woman that ever was, for she understood the interests
and dispositions of all the princes in her time, and was so perfect in her
knowledge of her own realm that no councillor she had could tell her
anything she did not know before.” Lord Burghley67
[Emphasis ours]
Napoleon was probably the best-read emperor the world has ever seen. As a
young man he particularly enjoyed Plutarch’s Lives of the Noble Grecians
and Romans, and in exile on Saint Helena one of his favourites was Paul et
Virginie by Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. But he was also keen
not to be separated from reading matter while on campaigns, so wisely
commissioned various travel libraries which were put together by his personal
librarian Antoine-Alexandre Barbier.
Image Management
1. Elizabeth Tudor was expert in image management. She
understood that from the moment she woke to the time she
went to bed; she was on show.72 Aware of the importance of
appearances, she controlled her image throughout her reign;
paying close attention to costume, hairstyles, and jewelry.73
She encouraged public association of her with biblical heroes
that had saved the Israelites from their enemies. Presenting
herself as the Virgin Queen74 allowed her to become a semi-
divine object of veneration by her subjects who needed a
replacement for Catholic worship of the Virgin Mary. Her
image appeared in woodcuts, brooches, badges, medals, and
coins. Miniatures were worn like icons by both sexes to
demonstrate loyalty and deference to their Queen.75 The
ultimate tribute to her was Spenser’s The Faerie Queen.
Elizabeth dominated her court with her collection of dresses
and jewelry, her exuberant dancing, and her virtuosity in
Latin; more than any English sovereign, she showed herself to
her subjects.76 She took care to appear before commoners as
well as courtiers; touring the country twenty-five times a
year, traveling in great style. Locals were treated to free
displays of pageants and fireworks. She never missed an
opportunity to make great speeches, emphasizing how
special she was. At the same time, she maintained the
common touch, silencing the crowd to listen to the words of
welcome by a child whose task was to greet her in verse.77
The most important speech she gave to establish her special
place in the hearts of her subjects was at the Tilbury military
encampment during the naval battles with the Spanish
Armada in 1588, where against the advice of her councilors
given the real threat of assassination, she went wearing the
armor of a cavalry officer, looking resplendent on her horse.
2. Napoleon realized that his ability to gain and stay in power
depended on his popularity with the French people and, to
keep that, it was not enough to win battles. He set out to
control what the French saw and read about him. He began
by issuing copper, silver, and gold medals celebrating his
victories. Printmakers and engravers were instructed to
create idealized images of him, his family, and his generals,
as well as scenes of his victories, Egyptian treasures, and his
coronation.
He used his Bulletins of the Great Army to target French
citizens, his soldiers, and his opponents with messages that
presented him in the best light. His exaggerations led to the
phrase “lie like a bulletin.” Besides using the Bulletin to
promote himself, he also used the press to his advantage,
including in Egypt where he took printing presses with him to
produce newspaper reports to impress people in France, but
also to influence the locals and bring them to his side.
Finding the Rosetta Stone and other Egyptian treasures did not just
enhance France’s scientific reputation, it also enhanced Napoleon’s.
Every time someone thought of Egypt, it brought Napoleon to mind,
particularly after he began promoting the use of Egyptian imagery in
France after his return. Two architects, Charles Percier and Pierre-
François-Léonard Fontaine, were appointed to create this new style
that thereafter was closely associated with the Napoleonic period.
When we consider that every city and town in Turkey today has at
least one monument of Atatürk located in one of its most important
public spaces; that all public and private primary, middle and high
schools possess a bust of him in front of which the student body ritually
musters every Monday morning and Friday evening to chant the
national anthem; that apart from statues and busts, his portraits or
photos hang in every government office and state building, as well as
in nearly all private offices, shops and workshops; and that his name
has been bestowed upon boulevards, parks, stadiums, concert halls,
bridges, forests, airports and educational institutions … monumental
statues of Atatürk constitute one of the most widespread instruments
of the state elite-driven project of modernity in Turkey. By the time
Atatürk died in 1938, hundreds of busts, statues and monuments of
him had been erected in the most important public spaces in
Istanbul, Ankara and other major cities in Turkey.
Integrity
Integrity is a more complicated subject than many realize. The
election of Donald Trump in 2016 as President of the US and the
rise of Boris Johnson to Prime Minister of the UK in 2019 following
his successful Brexit campaign in 2016 based on half-truths,
suggest that integrity is not that important in winning elections or
achieving power.
Electorates in both countries knew the character of both men
and still chose them to lead their countries, suggesting that
consistency in appealing to a vocal minority of the electorate and
feeding them what they wanted to hear, rather than facts was
critical to their success. Perhaps this is because campaigning
does not require integrity; but depends on mastery of rhetoric. As
Mario Cuomo, the 52nd Governor of New York state, put it:
There have been too many cock-ups, too much cronyism, too many U-
turns, too much overpromising.81
Being Forward-Looking
Change is constant; it is crucial for business leaders to
understand how likely changes would affect the viability of their
organizations. This demands an awareness of megatrends in:
1. Demographics and economics – their impact on politics at
global, national, regional and local levels.
2. Social changes and their likely impact on demand for an
organizations’ goods and services, and on the supply of
suitably skilled labor.
3. Technological developments, their pace and likely impact on
economies, industries, competitors, and organizational
business models.
4. Legal and regulatory governance issues affecting
organizations’ freedom to operate with respect to the
environment, health and safety, competition, and customer
protection.
Responding effectively to megatrends requires imagining futures
and development of appropriate plans, based on a realistic
appreciation of what is possible, given the resources available
and the ability of an organization to change.
Flexibility
Being forward-looking is only of value if an organization can
adapt to deal with the identified changes in context created by
awareness of such changes. Organizations can only change when
leadership and top management:
1. Understand changing contexts, implications, and how they
affect the ability of organizations to achieve their objectives.
2. Are willing and able to review their strategic goals, strategies,
and tactics as a result.
3. Understand when to embrace or resist change, considering
resources available to overcome obstacles, and likely
objections by internal and external stakeholders.
4. Communicate the need for change fully and effectively to
engage the whole organization in the effort.
Intellectual Curiosity
Intellectual curiosity is required to understand megatrends that
determine organizational sustainability. It depends on being
widely read and curious about what is happening outside the
boundaries of the organization and professional disciplines. To be
effective, “connecting the dots” requires certain skills:
1. Analytical skills: Being numerate, and understanding the
limitations of qualitative and quantitative analysis.
2. Systems thinking: Having awareness of network and
emergent properties of systems; including recognizing the
interdependence of systems and, for example, the
consequences of focus on efficiency at the expense of
resilience (demonstrated by the impact of covid-19 on global
supply chains).
3. “Helicopter management”: Being capable of seeing the
“big picture” while at the same time appreciating that the
“devil is in the details.”
4. Integrative synthesis: Being able to pull it all together,
considering both the specialist and generalist points of view –
the approach of successful polymaths like Elon Musk.82
Image Management
Personal image management is no different in principle from
brand management. It depends on the same four pillars of
branding:83
1. Function: Answers the question “What are the Mission,
Vision and Values offered to followers?” so that they know
what they are attempting achieve, by when and how and can
assess over time whether they were achieved, and if not, was
it because they were unrealistic fantasies or realistic objective
that have been missed because of operational incompetence.
2. Personality: Answers the question “What is it like to do
business with this person?” and includes the OCEAN
personality traits, trustworthiness, reliability, as well as
empathy and temper, but above all consistency of behavior
and competence in delivery; and that there is no distinction
between public and private behavior.
3. Differentiation: Answers the question “What makes the
leader different, more effective than other people, in ways
that are relevant to potential and existing followers.”
4. Source of authority: Answers the question “Why should
followers believe leaders?” by documenting their
background, experience and track record, with track record
of delivering what they have promised being the most
important.
Operational Competence
Operational competence requires integrity, being forward-
looking, flexibility, intellectual curiosity, and image management
in leaders; it also includes a number of management skills that
are contextually determined:
1. Sector familiarity: Understanding the economic dynamics
of a sector and the strengths and weaknesses of the
competition.
2. Marketing and sales: Having capability in developing
products and services that suit sustainably profitable
segments and achieving appropriate levels of coverage of
buyers (directly or indirectly with convincingly suitable sales
propositions).
3. Research and development: Ensuring existing product and
services are kept up to date with latest technology and
customer demands; and creating new products and services
that are adopted by customers and non-customers.
4. Supply chain: Ensuring supply of raw materials of
appropriate cost and quality; focusing on efficiency,
reliability, and safety of inbound and outbound logistics and
manufacturing, minimizing their environmental impacts.
5. Finance: Ensuring sustainable sources of funding, optimizing
use of working capital and treasury, based on accurate and
timely cost, management, and financial accounts.
6. Risk: Minimizing and mitigating systemic, reputation,
environmental, business, and operation risks, including
cybersecurity.
7. Project management: Negotiating and agreeing desired
outcomes, allocating resources and responsibilities
accordingly, with agreed individual accountabilities and due
dates; followed up to ensure timely, “fit for purpose”
delivery.
8. Negotiation: Ensuring “win-win” results if protagonists do
business with each other on a regular basis so that there are
no hard feelings despite the need to compromise; being
willing to negotiate in “winner takes all” mode, if it is indeed
a zero-sum game.
9. HR: Ensuring succession planning and talent management;
objective performance appraisal, reward, and recognition
systems that reflect agreed values; ensuring effective
recruitment, retention, and dismissal programs that reflect
current and future organizational design needs.
10. IT: Ensuring accurate, timely, and robust systems to support
all processes and their information requirements in easily
accessible and understandable, scalable form.
Summary
Although Elizabeth Tudor left an indelible image of the glory and
success of her reign, from an institutional point of view, her only
legacy was the Anglican church. Despite his tragic flaws and
ultimate failure in his lifetime, Napoleon’s operational
competence in establishing institutions and building
infrastructure for France has left a legacy that survives
unchallenged up to the present day. Atatürk was operationally
competent in all areas that he wished to change and died a
success. However, his inflexibility with regard to the role of Islam
in the new secular nation he created has led to his legacy being
challenged in today’s Turkey.
If the ultimate definition of effective and admired leaders is the
enduring legacy they leave behind, then the most important
contributor seems to be operational competence; incorporating, as
it does, integrity to some extent; being forward-looking, flexible,
and intellectually curious; supported by good image management
and key managerial skills.
In Part 2 we explain that effective leadership is managerial
and how leadership and management and strategies and tactics
are, in reality, on a continuum and are not discrete activities;
though they are often separated in the literature for convenient
analysis.
This is why we discuss the morally neutral techniques of
effective leadership in Part 3, but focus in the last chapter on the
role of ethics in achieving morally justifiable outcomes.
Part 2: Leadership is Managerial
In Part 1 we looked at the history of our ancestors regarding
leadership and selected the careers of three of history’s most
admired political leaders to explore, England’s Elizabeth Tudor,
France’s Napoleon Bonaparte, and Turkey’s Mustaf Kemal
Atatürk. In Chapter 5, we evaluated their leadership to see what
lessons could be learned from their experiences. Using those
lessons, we now show that leadership and management form a
continuum and that strategy and tactics do the same.
Chapter 6 Managerial Leadership
Strategy
Setting strategy addresses five questions:1
1. “What is our objective?”
2. “Why do we need to change what we are doing?”
3. “What do we need to change, in order to achieve our goal(s)?”
4. “Who needs to do what, in what sequence, and by when? How
will we identify the need for correction and take action if it is
needed?”
5. “How will we know when we have succeeded?”
What is measured describes organizational priorities. As Peter
Drucker said, “People don’t do what management expects, they do
what management inspects!”
Tactics
Tactics2 deal with the intermediate steps required to meet agreed
strategic goals. Tactics and strategy are not separated by a bright
line and interact continuously. Their relationship is easier to
understand by using sailing as a metaphor. Once a voyage
begins, “tactical” considerations predominate, because
conditions change constantly. A ship goes off course and must
make corrections to arrive at its intended port of call. If the ship
encounters headwinds, “tacking” is needed. Like tactics, tacking
consists of short-term actions in response to changing external
conditions to get back on course. Captains (at all organizational
levels) must know their ultimate destination, how far they have
been driven off course by changed conditions, and what to do to
get back on course.
Polynesian “Wayfinding”
“Wayfinding”3 illustrates this process, and explains how
Polynesians sailed the Pacific in outrigger canoes to settle the
islands in the South and Central Pacific. “Wayfinding”i has two
elements that are tightly integrated: (1) setting strategy by
designing a reference course; and (2) tactics to hold that course
and find land:
1. Strategy: Before sailing, the “wayfinder” assesses available
resources and designs a course to reach a destination, given
the capabilities of the canoe, winds, currents, and weather
conditions anticipated along the way. The reference course is
the most feasible way of reaching the destination. The
“wayfinder” chooses the best time to sail, taking account of
the reference course.
2. Tactics: Holding a course and finding land:
a. Holding a course: The “wayfinder” back-sights on land,
lining up two landmarks until they disappear. Once on
the open ocean, the movements of celestial bodies, the
direction of the wind and clouds, the time of year,
currents, and the movements of the ocean swell are
observed to provide direction. Sun and moon rising and
setting also provide clues to direction. At night, stars rise
at points on the eastern horizon and set at points in the
west. Using these clues, the “wayfinder” estimates the
distance and direction traveled. The starting point,
departure time, estimated speed of the craft, and
approximate distance to destination are known. During
the voyage, wind will likely drive the canoe off course –
the wayfinder estimates how far, and makes appropriate
corrections.
b. Finding land: The “wayfinder” does not need pinpoint
accuracy to find a destination because Pacific islands
come in screensii (groups). When the “wayfinder”
reaches any island in the target screen, he can redirect
the canoe to reach the desired island.
From the above, we can extrapolate the metaphor to successful
leadership and managerial processes:
1. Defining, communicating, and engaging support for a
mission
2. Ensuring organizational alignment to deliver the mission by
evaluating the current state and resources of the
organization, and its strategic, tactical, and operational
context
3. Determining milestones and measures, taking corrective
action, or revising the mission depending on changes in
context and conditions
4. Engaging stakeholders effectively
Looking at each of the above in turn:
I will build a motor car for the great multitude … it will be so low in price
that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one – and enjoy
with his family the blessing of hours of pleasure in God’s great open
spaces. When I’m through everybody will be able to afford one, and
everyone will have one. The horse will have disappeared from our
highways, the automobile will be taken for granted and we will give a large
number of men employment at good wages.
→Figure 6.1 shows mission and vision can only be achieved if the
“Five Ps” are aligned. If any one of the “Five Ps” is misaligned, the
mission and vision will not be achieved. The “Five Ps” interact
with each other, either reinforcing or weakening the
organization’s ability to set priorities, and allocate resources
appropriately. Working harmoniously together, they define and
reinforce acceptable behavior and values. Working at cross
purposes, they create conflict and undermine the values of the
organization. The “Five Ps” cover:
1. “Purpose”: The best way for “wayfinders” to ensure that
the enterprise’s “purpose” is aligned with their mission and
vision is to answer six questions: 1) who are our intended
beneficiaries, 2) what difference are trying to make in their lives,
3) what value will place on that difference, 4) how will we make
that difference, 5) how will it cost, and 6) what return can we
expect as a result?
2. “Principles”: These are the values at the heart of the way
the organization functions. They determine what kind of business
it does and with whom it is done. The “principles” determine:
a. What the company stands for and its culture: Some companies
have reputations for honest dealing, creating quality
products, treating their employees well, and being good
corporate citizens. Others do not. The difference comes from
their “principles” – the values they profess and live by.
Companies get what they expect: if they do not believe
employees will work based on trust, collaboration, and
values, but based only on greed and self-seeking, they will
develop reward and recognition systems that reinforce such
behavior. The reverse is also true:
b. The “tone at the top” and the “tone in the middle”: It is not
enough to exhort employees to behave with integrity. The top
management team must think carefully about the code of
conduct, review it on a regular basis, and give the compliance
function/internal audit the authority, resources, and tools to
do their job properly, and always model the desired
behaviors in themselves and others.
c. Careers of employees and how they are treated: Talent
management must ensure the people who are recruited and
promoted share the organization’s values.
d. Whether an organization is a “responsible citizen”: If a
company is to maintain its social license to operate, the
needs of the communities in which it operates and the
impact the company has on the environment must be
considered.
e. Values that translate into measurable and observable behavior:
To mean anything, values must be translated into
measurable behavior – discussed in employee appraisals and
personal development plans. This requires values to be
translated from normally used abstract nouns into action
statements, describing desired behavior and performance
expectations; and embedded into the code of conduct for all
employees to internalize values.
3. “Power”: This deals with organizational design, job
descriptions, roles and responsibilities, and reporting
relationships, as well as how people are treated.
The most appropriate organizational design will be
determined by the business strategy agreed by the “wayfinders.”
“Wayfinders” must ensure that whatever organizational design
they approve will be sufficiently flexible to avoid the problem of
“stuckness” when conditions change.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner identified four
organizational design archetypes, each with unique contextual
cultural characteristics.6 Their four organizational design
archetypes are “Incubator,” “Family Firm,” “Guided Missile,” and
“Eiffel Tower.” →Figure 6.2 shows how the four archetypes relate
to each other:
Source: Based on Trompenaars, F., and Hampden-Turner, C. (2006), Riding the Waves of
Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business, 2nd Edition (London: Nicholas
Brealey Publishing), p. 178.
The CEOs we interviewed don’t make a drama out of crisis. Being ready to
move when it’s least expected and adopting a different behaviour pattern
at short notice stands them in good stead for the day when unforeseen
circumstances arise.12
At the end of the day, courage, candor and common sense lie at the heart
of effective CEO succession. Planning is critical, tools and methodologies
are important, but in the final analysis, successful transitions rest upon the
ability of proud and powerful business professionals to have these
essential, hard conversations each step of the way.21
Part of our difficulty with appreciating the role that effective executive
leadership can play in learning is that all of us are used to the “captain of
the ship” image of traditional hierarchical leaders. However, when
executives act as teachers, stewards, and designers, they fill roles that are
much more subtle, contextual, and long term than the traditional model of
the power-wielding hierarchical leader.23
To navigate is to chart a course for getting from where you are to where
you want to go. Getting there is the process of planning, recording, and
controlling the course and our progress to our destination …
… optimizing the response of your vessel and crew to the changing
conditions of wind, water, tides and currents, and the needs of the crew
and condition of the vessel itself.24
The transfer of a business that results from the owner’s wish to retire, or to
leave the business for some other reason. The succession can involve a
transfer to members of the owner’s family, employees, or external buyers.
Successful succession results in a continuation of the business, at least in
the short term.30
Source: Zinkin, J. (2014), Rebuilding Trust In Banks: The Role of Leadership and
Governance (Singapore: John Wiley & Sons), pp. 188–189.
aaavii
Boards of large organizations should check whether their
business strategy is vulnerable to failures in closing gaps
between current and future organization design and current and
future talent:
Source: Zinkin, J. (2014), Rebuilding Trust in Banks: The Role
of Leadership and Governance (Singapore: John Wiley &
Sons), p. 186.
Figure 6.3: Feasibility Feedback for Business Strategy.
Any society, so long as it is, or feels itself to be, a working society, tends to
invest in itself: a military society tends to become more military, a
bureaucratic society more bureaucratic, a commercial society more
commercial, as the status and profits of war or office or commerce are
enhanced by success, and institutions are framed to forward it. Therefore,
when such a society is hit by a general crisis, it finds itself paralysed by the
structural weight of increased social investment. The dominant military or
official or commercial classes cannot easily change their orientation: and
their social dominance, and the institutions through which it is exercised,
prevent other classes from securing power or changing policy.35
[Emphasis ours]
High High High Both skill and will are high and Delegate:
follower is an expert Agree on
outcomes,
empower,
follow up,
stretch
Why do we reward success on the job with a promotion out of the job and
into management? … Companies continue to cling to the notion that one of
the only mechanisms they have to acknowledge employees’ talent is to
make them managers and then to continue to promote them into ever-
higher levels of management – reflecting the misguided assumption that
being good at something also means being able to (and wanting to)
manage others doing the same thing. Once in management, its trappings
… don’t really satisfy many of us who, like me, miss the doing …41
Summary
Setting strategy is about providing a mission, direction, and a plan
to achieve it. Tactics are the short-term actions required on the
organization’s journey toward agreed goals, objectives, and
destination to get back on course as a result of the impact of
changing external and internal conditions.
Sailing is a powerful metaphor to understand the relationship
between strategy, tactics, and operations. Sailors have to
appreciate and respond to changing conditions to achieve goals,
just as “wayfinders” must. It is the context that determines the
strategy, and the changing context determines the timing, and
appropriateness of the tactics. Polynesian “wayfinding” illustrates
this in practice.
Internal conditions matter. “Wayfinders” must distinguish
between obstacles and objections. Obstacles are resource
bottlenecks. Objections require changing people’s minds.
“Wayfinders” are responsible for defining and agreeing on
their organization’s mission, establishing what top management
want to do and society will allow, establishing whether the
opportunity is worthwhile, and ensuring the organization has the
required competencies and flexibility to avoid strategic
“stuckness.” When translating mission into vision, they provide a
clear, differentiated, and emotionally compelling business focus,
optimizing the organization’s long-term license to operate.
They can do this by using the “Five P” framework to ensure
organizational alignment of their “Purpose,” “Principles,”
“Power,” “People,” and “Processes” with the mission and vision,
recognizing there are four different organizational archetypes
that will determine how best to achieve their goals. They are
“Incubator,” “Family Firm,” “Guided Missile,” and “Eiffel Tower.”
We believe it is essential for “wayfinders” to appreciate the likely
impact the different contexts will have on their ability to be effective
whether it is for defining the mission and vision, ensuring
appropriate organizational alignment or recognizing which of the
four archetypal organizations they are working in.
“Wayfinders” make things happen through people. They need
to recognize the four complementary types of leaders:
“captains,” “navigators,” “engineers,” and “shipbuilders.” Large
organizations employ specialists, allowing them to achieve
mastery of their roles. In small organizations, an individual may
have to execute all the roles.
Succession planning can only be applied imperfectly in even
the largest organizations, and hardly ever in most SMEs. In
publicly listed organizations, it divides into what is urged by codes
of conduct and what is required for organizational success. It
affects CEOs, their subordinates, and pivotal employees. CEO
succession planning is a critical responsibility of boards.
Succession planning in SMEs and family firms is challenging,
resource constraints often make it impossible. In family firms, the
owner may want to transfer the organization to family members,
potentially a risk to the organization. Some family firms have
appointed professional managers and achieved multi-
generational sustainability.
Managing talent is a four-step process which integrates
people strategies into the business strategy. Effective
“wayfinders” develop subordinates to have the “Five Es” of
effectiveness: enthusiasm, the ability to energize others, the edge
needed to make tough decisions, the ability to execute, and
empathy. “Wayfinders” must recognize the importance of mental
models and seek to challenge their own. “Wayfinders” can help
employees navigate the transition from their comfort zones to
the discomfort zone of uncertain promise and future potential
using the “Bridges” model. Effective “wayfinders” need to
remember the four life-stages of any organization (start-up,
growth, maturity, and decline) require different types of skill and
personality to achieve success.
Effective stakeholder engagement depends on accurate
stakeholder identification, and assessment. Stakeholders may be
advocates, supporters, spectators, saboteurs, or adversaries and
need to be engaged accordingly. “Wayfinders” have the
possibility of exercising more direct control over internal
stakeholders. Engaging stakeholders effectively depends on
planned and repeated effective communication. Supporters need
to be mobilized, spectators energized, saboteurs neutralized, and
adversaries opposed. Achieving these objectives requires
appropriate, articulate advocacy.
Part 3: “Leadership Techniques”
In Part 3, we discuss the techniques “wayfinders” can learn to be both
effective and ethical. We begin by discussing Volatility, Uncertainty,
Complexity, and Ambiguity (VUCA) and how to keep things simple, how
best to use two leadership models to maximum effect, and how to
communicate effectively. We conclude with a discussion on how
“wayfinders” can reconcile duty-based and consequential ethics to
make ethical and effective decisions.
Chapter 7 Dealing with Volatility, Uncertainty,
Complexity, and Ambiguity
There are many issues where the multiplicity of interacting phenomena
makes confident predictions of outcomes problematic. Important and
interrelated questions are:
1. How will environmental change affect society?
2. Is the “neoliberal economy” with rising levels of income inequality,
and brittle supply chains sustainable?
3. How will “Industry 4.0” (the impact of AI and robotization on
employment and employability) manifest itself?
4. How will increasing polarization of society fueled by social media
play out?
5. What long term impact will the covid-19 pandemic will have on
society?
The ability of individuals to affect outcomes depends on their position in
the leadership of organizations.1 Whether they only manage themselves
or manage others, they will be affected by the answers, but will be
unable to do much to change them. If they manage other managers,
their ability to influence outcomes will be greater, but still limited. As
they move up the decision-making pyramid, challenges posed by VUCA
have wider and more enduring organizational and societal impact.
Volatility
There are six different types of volatility that need to be managed in a
business setting.
1. Political Volatility: The political environment is changing faster
and the rate of change seems to be accelerating. Neoliberal
economic assumptions about the benefits of globalization and free
trade are increasingly challenged.4 Changing political consensuses
makes deciding on a business’s best course of action challenging.
In the UK, there is Brexit;5 in France, the rise of the “gilets jaunes”;6
in Italy,7 Germany,8 and Spain9 the traditional parties of left and
right are losing the center ground to the Greens on the left, and to
nativist, xenophobic parties on the right. The Middle East is
destabilized by Sunni-Shia struggles for power between Iran
supported by its proxies in Yemen, Syria, and Lebanon; and Saudi
Arabia supported by the US, Egypt, and the Gulf States;10 as well as
by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict over land.11 In Asia there are rising
tensions between India and Pakistan over Kashmir,12 North Korea
and Japan over missile tests,13 trade tensions between South Korea
and Japan;14 and the challenge posed by an assertive China to India
in the Himalayas; as well as to Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia,
and Malaysia over the South China Sea.15 A revanchist Russia16
seeks to destabilize Western democracies17 and is pushing the
boundaries of asymmetrical warfare in Eastern Europe in the
Ukraine,18 while testing NATO’s commitment to defending the
Baltic states.19 The risk of war by mistake remains real in Eastern
Europe, Northeast Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East. There is
also the ever-present impact of migrants from North Africa and the
Eastern Mediterranean destabilizing domestic politics in the EU;20
and of refugees and migrants trying to enter the US from Central
America.21
“Wayfinders” have to deal with ever faster political change as a
result, and chart courses to deal with it.
2. Economic Volatility: Economic volatility usually manifests in
currency volatility as a result of diverging growth rates, inflation,
and interest rates – for example, the problems faced by Turkey22 or
Argentina.23 It can also be the result of punitive sanctions, as with
Iran.24
Every ten years or so, economic volatility results from a major
financial crisis.25 However, it is more likely to be the result of
changing long-term growth assumptions globally, regionally, or
nationally. Only rarely is it the result of a “black swan” event, like
the covid-19 pandemic.
3. Social Volatility: Social volatility is a symptom and a cause of
political and economic volatility. Increased social volatility in Europe
has resulted from decisions about immigration, austerity after the
Global Financial Crisis (GFC), and rising inequality and
unemployment in the developed world caused by globalization.
Social volatility is exaggerated by the rise of social media26
providing an echo chamber for resentment and outrage.27
4. Technological Volatility: Schumpeter’s “creative destruction”28
is integral to capitalism. However, technological innovation usually
causes less volatility than social innovation because it is adopted
more slowly.
5. Legal and Regulatory Volatility: Legal and regulatory volatility
are closely connected to political volatility – for example,
nationalization or privatization of utilities29 or the break-up of
oligopolies like the tech giants,30 and the impact of competition
watchdogs on mergers and acquisitions.31 Equally, changes
proposed in the role of unions,32 and health and safety legislation
form part of the political cycle.
6. Environmental Volatility: Environmental issues have the longest
time horizons, but they appear to be shortening and resulting in
extreme weather events, disasters, and emergencies for which
organizations are often not prepared.
Uncertainty
Uncertainty covers the same six political, economic, social,
technological, legal, and environmental issues. The lack of predictability
is what makes them so difficult for “wayfinders” to handle when
making decisions that cannot be easily reversed.
1. Political Uncertainty: Currently, political uncertainty is high. The
neoliberal consensus following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 appears
to be giving way to challenges to global institutions and norms with
weakened governments having to deal with hung legislatures, and
growing discontent with the economic and social status quo.
2. Economic Uncertainty: Decision-makers have always considered
macroeconomic variables. The consequences of Covid-19 – with its
impact on both demand and supply – and the viability of financial
services are uncertain.
3. Social Uncertainty: Social uncertainty is displayed in changing
values, changing demographics, and social media.
a. Changing values: How people behave toward each other, what they
do with their education and disposable income, their attitudes to
work and retirement are, in large part, determined by the values
they adopt from role models and how they modify these values –
based on their life experiences and the economic opportunities they
see before them.
After the GFC (Global Financial Crisis), electorates in the US and UK
appeared to feel marginalized by elites who disregarded their sufferings
arising from the GFC,33 which destroyed trust in institutions (political,
business, media, and experts in general).34
Demagogic, post-truth politics, and the dissemination of “fake
news” has left electorates uncertain of “the truth,” untrusting of
authority, and preferring to believe social media echo chambers.35
b. Changing demographics: Demographics determine demand for
products and services. “Wayfinders” should understand the threats
and opportunities presented by any change in demographics: their
share of the market, whether customers and prospects have more
or less disposable income than previously, whether changes in
education and lifestyle affect their demand for products and
services and their willingness to work for the organization.
When organizations implement policies designed to eliminate
discrimination, “wayfinders,” tasked with implementation, have to
recognize the feelings of those who believe, even if it is unjustifiable,
that they are being disadvantaged. Failure to do so will only lead to
further division and dissent within their organizations.
c. Social media: Social media is driven by algorithms designed to
maximize the user’s engagement and interest. As early as 2011, The
Atlantic was concerned that the internet might be more suited for
the propagation of lies than the truth.36
As long as social media is driven by a business model that seeks
maximum engagement to satisfy advertisers’ demands for attracting
potential customers, it will continue to be source of social uncertainty
and harm. It is notable that some advertisers are now seeking changed
policies from social media companies because the market segments
they seek to serve are alienated or angered by active social media
influencers.
4. Technological Uncertainty: Technological uncertainty arises
from disruptive innovations where decision-makers must consider
whether what is being proposed has the capacity to render their
business model obsolete. Disruptive technologies pose an
existential threat.
Established companies have much to fear from upstart disrupters, who
threaten their dominance by introducing new products based on a
different business model. They should in theory be prepared to change
their business models before the upstarts do it to them, as the late Jack
Welch, one-time CEO of GE put it:
If the rate of change on the outside exceeds the rate of change on the inside, the
end is near.37
The accidents happened not because the engineer neglected to provide sufficient
strength as prescribed by the accepted design approach, but because of the
unwitting introduction of a new type of behavior. As time passed during the period of
development, the bases of the design methods were forgotten and so were their limits
of validity. Following a period of successful construction, a designer, perhaps a little
complacent, simply extended the design method once too often.”43
[Emphasis ours]
Given this tendency to push the design envelope to the point of failure,
justified by a track record of previous success,44 decision-makers must
be certain that past successes are not a recipe for future failure.
a. Lacking internal processes to ensure success: Once “wayfinders” are
certain that the technology envelope is not going to be torn, they
must ensure internal processes are not going to block progress
toward desired outcomes. This requires ensuring that the right
ideas are selected for further investment. Surprisingly, most
organizations have too many creative ideas, rather than too few,
when it comes to new products.45
Typically, organizations fail to select well – playing it safe to minimize
uncertainty, they spread resources too thinly, instead of concentrating
on projects with the likely best returns, or they fail to allocate/reallocate
sufficient resources each year to long-term projects because of
uncertainty, with resulting stagnation.
5. Legal Uncertainty: Legal certainty is a foundational rule of law.46
To exist, five conditions must apply: 1) laws and decisions must be
made public, 2) they must be unambiguous, 3) court decisions must be
binding, 4) retroactivity of laws and decisions must be limited, 5) and
legitimate interests and expectations must be protected.47
a.Decision-makers must consider carefully whether they should do
business in jurisdictions where legal certainty does not exist. The
short-term benefits of privileged access may be outweighed by
long-term economic costs and reputational damage. Sanctions and
trade wars cause legal and regulatory uncertainty.
b.Decision-makers need to remember the law reflects what society
was thinking, legal change inevitably lags societal expectations.
6. Environmental Uncertainty: The scientific community is certain that
global warming is taking place and is taking place faster than
expected.48
Complexity
Few appreciate the impact of complexity on system behavior, or how it
can manifest. Decision-makers need to practice systems thinking.
A simple example of how complexity can make guaranteeing a
satisfactory result difficult is to analyze what it takes to enjoy a
refreshing glass of milk. Failure at any stage to meet standards will lead
to a bad experience:
Stage 1: Suppliers of feed and veterinarians must
ensure that farmers’ cows are in good health. Failure to
do so could lead to either the milk being of poor quality or
carrying bovine tuberculosis.
Stage 2: Farmers must ensure that cows are kept in
good conditions, are properly fed and cared for
according to the instructions of the feed suppliers and
veterinarians. Failure by any single farmer to do this
could contaminate the entire supply chain. Milk must be
kept fresh, safe, and clean.
Stage 3: The milk haulers must test the milk to ensure it
passes the required tests and must ensure that the
trucks that will take the milk from the farms to the
dairies are clean and can keep the milk chilled. Failure
here could lead to further contamination on its journey to
the dairies.
Stage 4: The dairies test milk on arrival, blending it
from different suppliers, pasteurizing and then
homogenizing it according to pre-set sanitary and
performance standards that must be met at each stage
in the process. The dairies use cartons supplied by
packaging companies that must satisfy exacting
performance standards; they pack the different milks
(fresh, UHT (ultra-high temperature processed), whole,
2%, non-fat, etc.) according to grade, fat content, flavor,
and pack size, labeling the resulting different milks with
the appropriate branding and their sell-by dates. The
milks are then ready to be delivered according to orders
collated by retail chain and outlet. They are then stored
in appropriate conditions, waiting to be collected at the
designated time. Failure to meet the required standards
in any of these steps will lead to milks that are not fit for
human consumption.
Stage 5: The distributors who may belong to the dairies
or to the retail chains collect the milks, check their
condition, and deliver them to retail outlets according to
orders placed, making sure the orders are handled
correctly so there is minimum damage and that the
milks are delivered within the agreed time, kept at the
right temperatures throughout their journey (in the cold
chain if the milks are fresh, as opposed to UHT which
are put in sterilized, shelf-stable containers). Failure to
meet pre-set standards will lead to either damaged goods
or spoiled product, unfit for human consumption.
Stage 6: The retailers hold the milks in appropriate
conditions, rotating them onto the shelves in line with
their sell-by dates, removing those that have gone past
their sell-by dates. Failure to meet the pre-set standards
will lead to product unfit for sale.
Stage 7: The drinkers will take their cartons home and
put them in their refrigerators if the milk is fresh, or in
their pantries if UHT. Paying attention to the sell-by
dates, they will open the cartons and enjoy a good glass
of milk. They will then close the cartons, making sure
they are properly sealed and put them back in the
appropriate part of the refrigerator, away from fish and
aromatic foods. Failure to ensure that the cartons once
opened are stored correctly in the refrigerator will likely
lead to the milk being tainted by other food nearby,
failure to keep it at the right temperature to drink before
it has lost its freshness will spoil the taste. Even failure to
make sure the glass has been properly washed and rinsed
can spoil the experience.
If such an apparently simple act as enjoying a glass of milk to its fullest
is the result of this complex chain of events, where multiple actors must
perform as expected and where their interactions affect the system to
meet demanding standards, imagine, for example, how much more
complex the chain of events and interactions required to achieve
desired outcomes is for chemical plants, power grids, and finance
(which are “tightly coupled” systems), and transport systems, whose
effectiveness people often taken for granted. Two engineering
examples make the case:
1. Piper Alpha Disaster, July 6, 1988: Piper Alpha was an oil
production platform in the North Sea operated by Occidental Petroleum
(Caledonia) Limited. It began production in 1976, but on July 6, 1988, it
was the site of the world’s most lethal offshore disaster – 167 oil rig
workers died.
The defining characteristic of a tightly coupled process is that once it starts, it’s
difficult or impossible to stop: a domino-toppling display is not especially complex,
but it is tightly coupled. So is a loaf of bread rising in the oven …
But what if a system is both complex and tightly coupled. Complexity means there
are many different ways for things to go wrong. Tight coupling means the unintended
consequences proliferate so quickly that it is impossible to adapt to the failure or try
something different. On Piper Alpha, the initial explosion need not have destroyed
the rig, but it took out the control room, making evacuation difficult, and also
making it almost impossible to override the diver-safety catch that was preventing
the seawater pumps from starting automatically. Although the rig’s crew had, in
principle, shut down the flow of oil and gas to the platform, so much pipework had
been damaged that gas and oil continued to leak out and feed the inferno. Each
interaction was unexpected. Many happened within minutes of the initial mistake.
There was no time to react.49
[Emphases ours]
2. US and Canada Blackout, August 14, 2003: The August 14, 2003,
blackout in a large part of the US Midwest and Northeast and in Ontario,
Canada, is an excellent example of a system that was “tightly coupled,
as well as interactively complex,”50 hence, the cascade of failures in
eight US states and the province of Ontario. It affected an estimated 50
million people and 61,800 megawatts of electric load in Connecticut,
Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Ontario, Pennsylvania, and
Vermont. It took four days before power was restored in some parts of
the US, and parts of Ontario suffered rolling blackouts for more than a
week. Estimates of the costs in the US were US$4 billion to US$10 billion.
Millions of office workers were stranded, Cleveland was left without
water, twenty-two nuclear power plants were shut down, sixty-five fires
were the result, and in New York City alone, first responders had to
rescue people from eight hundred elevators:
The details of the causes of the outage show the familiar string of interacting small
errors. It was a hot summer day and demand was high, but that was not unusual.
The device for determining the real-time state of the power system in the Midwest
Independent Service Operator (MISO) had to be disabled because a mismatch
occurred. The device … was corrected, but the engineer failed to re-engage it on
going to lunch. Normally, this would not be a problem … but it just so happened …
that forty-five minutes later … an alarm to indicate an untoward event at FirstEnergy
began to malfunction … But the failure was of the sort that when the backup server
came on, the program was in a restart mode, and under these conditions the
software program failed. Moreover, it failed to indicate it had failed, so the
operators were unaware that it was not functioning properly.
Meanwhile in the MISO, the state estimator was restarted after lunch, but again
indicated a mismatch … At this point there was no untoward event that the program
would warn about … Independently, faulty tree-trimming practices and the hot
weather caused one of the FirstEnergy’s lines to go down … Finally the MISO
noticed and took the tripped line out of service, but FirstEnergy’s failed program did
not allow FirstEnergy to know of either the trip or that the line was taken out of
service. Three more lines shorted out on trees because of FirstEnergy’s cutbacks in
maintenance, but the utility’s computers showed no problems. FirstEnergy only
became aware when its own power went out … and had to switch to emergency
power. By then in just seven minutes of cascading failures, eight states and parts of
Canada blacked out.”51
Our final responsibility is to our stockholders. Business must Each of our stakeholders is
make a sound profit. We must experiment with new ideas. essential. We commit to
Research must be carried on, innovative programs deliver value to all of them,
developed, investments made for the future and mistakes for the future success of our
paid for. New equipment must be purchased, new facilities companies, our communities
provided and new products launched. Reserves must be and our country.
created to provide for adverse times. When we operate [Emphases mine]
according to these principles, the stockholders should realize a
fair return. [Emphases mine]
Source: Johnson, R.W. (1943), “Our Credo,” Johnson & Johnson website,
→https://www.jnj.com/credo/, accessed on December 8, 2019,
Business Roundtable (2019), “Business Roundtable Redefines the Purpose of a Corporation to
Promote ‘An Economy That Serves All Americans’,” Business Roundtable, August 19, 2019,
→https://www.businessroundtable.org/business-roundtable-redefines-the-purpose-of-a-
corporation-to-promote-an-economy-that-serves-all-americans, accessed on December 16, 2019.
Unlike the US Business Roundtable’s declaration, the Credo avoids
ambiguities of priority between stakeholders. In the Credo, customers
come first, then employees, then communities, and finally shareholders.
It also makes it clear that shareholders are only entitled to a fair return
and not the maximum return.
4. Ambiguity of Facts: It is difficult for generalists to know what to
make of disagreements between specialists about how to interpret the
facts. Bona fide experts disagree about epidemiology, the economy, the
stock market, the impact of AI on employment, about nutrition,
wellness, and health. In part, this is because as new facts emerge,
different conclusions are the result, and in part this is because it is not
clear whether what has been observed is correlation rather than
causation.54 It also arises partly from a lack of systems thinking –
understanding how emergent and network properties appear – in
essence, the problem of siloed thinking.
5. Ambiguity of communicating to different audiences: Companies
have many different audiences and their interests can differ markedly.
Effective communication needs to recognize these differences, while at
the same time remembering that regardless of the audience, there is a
common core of messaging that must reflect the company’s purpose
and values and its brand promise. This requires an integrated
communication architecture to reconcile these differences and
ambiguities to create a credible and coherent set of communications,
appropriate to each audience. (This is discussed in detail in Chapter 10.)
While volatility is a reality of business, it’s far more predictable than most leaders
believe. The causes of seasonal fluctuations, supply chain disruptions, natural
disasters or shifts in demand are often out of your control and can lead to major
month-to-month revenue or cost disruptions. But it’s possible to see and heed early
warning signs. Leaders who seek clarity about internal and external conditions and
track those with high potential to create disruption are better able to recognize volatile
conditions and respond accordingly.57
[Emphasis ours]
Today’s business leaders need the ability to see through the chaos to have a clear
vision for their organizations. They must define the True North of their organization:
its mission, values, and strategy. They should create clarity around this True North
and refuse to let external events pull them off course or cause them to neglect or
abandon their mission, which must be their guiding light.58
[Emphasis mine]
Listening only to information sources and opinions that reinforce their own views
carries great risk of missing alternate points of view. Instead, leaders need to tap into
myriad sources covering the full spectrum of viewpoints by engaging directly with
their customers and employees to ensure they are attuned to changes in their
markets. Spending time in the marketplace, retail stores, factories, innovation centers,
and research labs, or just wandering around offices talking to people is essential.60
[Emphases ours]
Galileo described an early example of this principle in 1638. Masons at that time
would store stone columns horizontally, raised above the soil by two piles of stone.
The columns often cracked in the middle under their own weight. The ‘solution’ was
to reinforce the support with a third pile of stone in the centre. But that didn’t help.
The two end supports would often settle a little, and the column, balanced like a
see-saw on the central pile, would then snap as the ends sagged.66
Now more than ever, leaders need the courage to step up to these challenges and
make audacious decisions that embody risks and often go against the grain. They
cannot afford to keep their heads down, using traditional management techniques
while avoiding criticism and risk-taking. In fact, their greatest risk lies in not having
the courage to make bold moves. This era belongs to the bold, not the meek and
timid.67
While it may be true that leaders need to show courage and challenge
conventional wisdom, such advice should not be translated into a
justification for foolhardiness.
Ambiguity + Adaptability
Ambiguity will always exist and it makes for inefficiency:
The costs of operating with ambiguity are enormous. Ambiguity in the form of a vague
job posting leads to an underperforming hire. Ambiguity about the purpose of a
project results in wasted time and money. Ambiguity about a customer “requirement”
leads to unnecessary features that bring no benefit because the so-called
“requirement” wasn’t one.
And unlike volatility, uncertainty, and complexity – all genuine realities that are
mainly outside of your control – ambiguity is man-made. People create ambiguity.
If ever there were a need for leaders to be flexible in adapting to this rapidly
changing environment, this is it. Long-range plans are often obsolete by the time
they are approved. Instead, flexible tactics are required for rapid adaptation to
changing external circumstances, without altering strategic course. This is not a time
for continuing the financial engineering so prevalent in the past decade. Rather,
leaders need multiple contingency plans while preserving strong balance sheets to
cope with unforeseen events.70
[Emphasis ours]
Summary
Decision making is more complicated than ever because we do not
know what the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic will be, how climate
change will affect us, whether the neoliberal economy is sustainable in
its current form, whether employment is sustainable, given the impact
of “Industry 4.0,” and how these issues will affect the political and social
fabric of society. They have made dealing with VUCA and its four
components of volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity more
complicated.
Volatility undermines the “business as usual” assumptions as a
result of its appearance in politics, where there are more potential
problems than before, in economics and social conditions, where
governments have to deal with the results of Covid-19 to help
economies recover from their deep downturns and revive employment.
Its immediate impact is less critical in creating technological, legal, or
environmental volatility.
Uncertainty leads to unpredictability which makes it essential that
decision-makers avoid making irreversible decisions – an approach to
decision-making that Elizabeth Tudor mastered to great effect
throughout her reign. There is great political and economic uncertainty
currently, but the more important long-term considerations are the
effect of changes in social values, changes in demographics and the
effect of social media on political discourse. Technological uncertainty,
however, impacts across sectors – and in organization-specific ways.
Decision-makers must decide whether potential improvement in their
offers has pushed them beyond known technological limits, as a result
of the “normalization of deviance” effect, without realizing it. And that
instead of “pushing the envelope,” they are “tearing it.” Legal
uncertainty only matters in a limited number of circumstances and
decision-makers need to recognize that the long-term risks may
outweigh the short-term rewards of doing business in conditions where
legal uncertainty prevails. As far as environmental uncertainty is
concerned, the long-term risks may be existential, and the short-term
ones raise the cost of insurance and funding.
Complexity presents the greatest difficulty in VUCA, particularly if a
system is complex and “tightly coupled.” In such circumstances,
decision-makers only realize what can go wrong when the system fails.
Many of the systems we take for granted are not as resilient as we think.
Perhaps one benefit of Covid-19 is that it is teaching decision-makers to
treat complexity with the respect it deserves.
Ambiguity is a source of inefficiency. Unfortunately, decision-
makers are faced with ambiguity of corporate purpose, ambiguity
between stakeholder priorities, ambiguity in facts, and ambiguity in
roles.
In the future, decision-makers will need to move from VUCA 1.0 to
VUCA 2.0.
As far as volatility is concerned, they must reconcile being flexible
when faced by volatility. They can no longer assume business as usual in
changing contexts even if they remain dedicated to their mission, vision,
and values.
To deal with uncertainty, decision-makers need to deploy resources
to get as much information and analysis as possible, and they will have
to increase their level of understanding by adopting contrarian thinking
processes (the “Alfred Sloan solution,” “rotating devil’s advocacy,” or
the “board cabinet secretariat”) to test their understanding of what
could happen, based on a number of different scenarios, supported by
strong balance sheets. They will also need to learn to interpret
probabilities better (covered in Chapter 8).
As far as complexity is concerned, there are no easy answers, only
hard work. Decision-makers must master the details and this means
taking the time needed to achieve a granular level of understanding
instead of relying only on the executive summary. Commitment to the
business at hand is essential, as is the courage to ask the difficult
questions and engage in constructive challenge so that dominant or
charismatic CEOs do not get away with taking reckless risks that could
destroy the business.
In dealing with ambiguity, decision-makers should use the “Five P”
framework (discussed in Chapter 6) to establish where it is permissible
and where it is not. At all levels of decision-making, “wayfinders” should
insist on maximizing clarity: clarity of purpose, clarity of how success is
defined, clarity of timelines and of accountability. They should also insist
that whatever is “evergreen” – the mission, vision, and values (the
organization “purpose” and “principles”) – cannot be ambiguous.
Everything else (organization design, staffing, and processes) is
adaptable to reflect changes in context.
Chapter 8 Reconciling VUCA with the Need for
Simplicity
In Chapter 7, we showed how VUCA poses difficulties for “wayfinders”
and suggested ways of improving decision-making by moving from a
reactive VUCA 1.0 to a proactive VUCA 2.0. Why is dealing with VUCA so
difficult? The answer lies in our evolution as a social species which
affects our ability to embrace change, the ways we process information,
make decisions, and in how, in seeking to avoid complexity and
ambiguity in communications, we can over-simplify.
Competition
Competition is the first pillar of collective success at the cellular, genetic,
collective, and species level.2 It is popular to assume all that matters for
collectives to flourish is that they win in a “social Darwinian”i “survival
of the fittest,” and that consequently the selfish, self-centered behavior
of narcissistic leadership and followership is the ideal. Such a superficial
analysis ignores the role of cooperation, altruism, and adaptability in the
success of the collective.
Cooperation
Cooperation is the second pillar of success and comes in two forms: (1)
collaboration, and (2) alliances.
1. Collaboration is not quite the same as cooperation (though
most3 people4 and dictionaries regard them as synonymous). 5The
difference is shown in →Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Cooperation and Collaboration Defined.
Cooperation is defined as: Collaboration is defined as:
British English (Collins English Dictionary) British English (Collins English Dictionary)
1. “Joint operation or action” 1. “The act of working together to produce
a piece of work, especially a book or some
research”
2. “Assistance or willingness to assist” 2. “A piece of work that has been produced
as the result of people or groups working
together”
3. “The combination of consumers, workers, 3. “The act of helping an enemy who is
farmers, etc., in activities usually embracing occupying your country during a war”4
production, distribution, or trade”
4. “Beneficial but inessential interaction
between two species in a community”
American English: (Collins English Dictionary) American English (Merriam Webster
Thesaurus)
1. “The act of cooperating, joint effort or 1. “The state of having shared interests or
operation” efforts (as in social or business matters)”
2. “The association of a number of people in an 2. “The work and activity of a number of
enterprise for mutual benefits or profits” persons who individually contribute
toward the efficiency of the whole”5
3. “An interaction between organisms that is
largely beneficial to all those participating”3
To start truly collaborating, here are two steps that you should take:
First, consider the goal you’re trying to achieve. Map out the end-to-end work that
you think will be needed to get the outcome you want. What will your team be
responsible for? What will you need from other teams in the organization? As you
create this map, sketch out the possible sequencing of activities and timing that might
be required. You want to create an explicit framework that will serve as a
collaboration contract. When people know what’s needed, in what form, and by when,
they can then tell you whether it’s possible or not, and then you can have a real
dialogue about what can be done.
Second, convene a working session with all of the required collaborators from
different areas of the company to review, revise, and make commitments to this
collaboration contract … get all of the needed collaborators in the room together as
early as possible to work through the plans, make adjustments, and find ways to share
resources and align incentives.6
[Emphases ours]
Altruism
Altruism is “disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of
others” when dealing with people, and as “behavior of an animal that
benefits another at its own expense.”8 It is sometimes suggested that
altruism only occurs in humans,9 but altruism is observed among
animals and insects and in the plant and fungal kingdoms.10
Such behavior is of no benefit to the individual animal or insect, but
does benefit the collective through the survival of genes, and/or
memes. Similar behavior exists at the cellular level.11 Altruism, like
competition, and cooperation creates an evolutionary advantage for
genes or memes ensuring their long-term survival.
All human groups operate around shared narratives, which create identity,
meaning, and core values and shape the epistemology through which they interact
with the broader environment. All these are deeply anchored in the minds of its
members, and frame their outlook, their opinions and their decisions, consciously
or unconsciously.14
VUCA only makes matters worse, as will become clear, when we discuss
the impact of neuroscience on how people make decisions.
2. Enablers of Change: The three most important enablers of
change are megatrends, “ideas whose time has come,” “way-finders”
capable of overcoming the barriers to change, and effective
implementation (discussed in detail in Chapter 9).
a. Megatrends: These are long-term changes that affect the relevance
and sustainability of the organization or collective. Sustainability
presents four challenges that require organizations to consider
changing what they do. They are: 1) climate change; 2) the
possibility that globalization is in reverse as a result of the pandemic
on the one hand, and the protectionist approaches to trade on the
other; 3) the challenge to employment and employability,
accelerated by the pandemic and the advent of “Industry 4.0”ii and
4) the viability of the “social contract”iii everywhere, highlighted by
the rise in inequality, and the selective way climate change and the
Covid-19 pandemic affect the poorest and most disadvantaged in
society.
Whether organizations realize it or not, the pressures for change arising
from megatrends, coupled with changes in demographics are
irresistible. Organizations will change or fail.
A gradual change in economic orthodoxy that may take decades to
manifest also constitutes a “megatrend,” like a glacier, it creates
ineluctable pressure to reinterpret ideas in response:
The political world of make-believe mingles with the real world in strange ways, for
the make-believe world may often mold the real one. In order to be viable, in order
to serve its purpose, [however,] a fiction must bear some resemblance to fact. If it strays
too far from fact, the willing suspension of disbelief collapses. And conversely it may
collapse if facts stray too far from the fiction.24
[Emphasis ours]
For example, independence from colonial powers after 1945 was “an
idea whose time had come” as result of three factors:
i. The US actively undermining the former colonial powers’ attempts
to reassert their dominion.25
ii. The realization that white men were not superior after all – the
result of the Japanese defeating the Russians in 190526 and the
Americans, Dutch, French, and British and their dramatic capture of
their East and Southeast Asian colonies in 1941.27
iii. The exhaustion of the European colonial powers after World War
II.28
The unifying idea of the leaders of independence movements across
Asia and Africa was freedom from occupying colonial powers and
rejection of their cultural manifestations (language, monuments, and
history) in the hope that what would replace them would be a clear
unified new national identity. In almost every case, the dreams of the
leaders and supporters of independence movements were not achieved
because their struggles were more coalitions against an outdated idea
rather than coalitions for implementing a new vision:
The signs of this darkened mood are everywhere: in nostalgia for the emphatic
personalities and well-made dramas of the revolutionary struggle, in
disenchantment with party politics, parliamentarism, bureaucracy, and new class of
soldiers, clerks, and local powers, in uncertainty of direction, ideological weariness
… a dawning realization that things are more complicated than they look, that social,
economic, and political problems, once thought to be mere reflexes of colonial rule, to
disappear when it disappeared, have less superficial roots.29
[Emphases ours]
The Arab Spring and Black Lives Matter have in common that they have
no central administrative/managerial driving force. This is their strength
in protest (nothing to decapitate), but, in the case of the Arab Spring,
their fatal flaw in government. For memes to do more than infect
millions of human minds to the detriment of their hosts, they need
channels of effective communication (transmission), provided by social
media. To move from being an emotional driving force to effective
government, they need the organizing principle of effective leadership.
c. Effective leaders: Effective leaders understand the
importance of responding to ever-changing context
(discussed in Chapter 7) by reconciling two types of
leadership with deploying managerial skills (discussed
in Chapter 9). They appreciate there is more to being
effective than relying on charisma:
Most historians grafting away in the archives will end up taking a position of
pragmatic compromise, which acknowledges the power of individuals but makes
sense of it through contextualisation …33
This raises the question: “Why are the ideas of charismatic and populist
leaders so powerful?”
Epidemiology provides part of the answer by explaining how ideas
are transmitted. Great prestige leaders are “super-spreaders of ideas”
or of memes that colonize the minds of others, as “ideological-cultural
viruses,” that propagate and spread independently of their originators.34
For example, Plato’s transformation of Socrates’ life and teachings; St.
Paul’s and St. Peter’s transformation of Christianity after the death of
Jesus;35 the transformation of Buddha’s agnostic ethical teachings into
religion by his disciples; the different adaptations by Lenin, Mao, Castro,
and Ho Chi Minh of Marx’s ideas; Gandhi’s ideas put into practice by
Nehru; or Martin Luther King’s ideas transformed into Black Lives
Matter fifty years after his death.
While this quote refers specifically to students and their ability to learn,
the principles seem to apply to people in general when they are required
to process information. The brain has to work harder,
the more elements that interact, the more intrinsic processing is required for
coordinating and integrating the material and the higher the working memory load.
Systems 1 and 2 are both active whenever we are awake. System 1 runs
automatically and System 2 is normally in a comfortable low-effort mode, in which
only a fraction of its capacity is engaged. System 1 continuously generates
suggestions for System 2: impressions, intuitions, intentions, and feelings. If
endorsed by System 2, impressions and intuitions turn into beliefs, and impulses turn
into voluntary actions. When all goes smoothly, which is most of the time, System 2
adopts the suggestions of System 1 with little or no modification.38,v
[Emphasis ours]
Yet when test subjects were shown mocked-up images of Bugs Bunny shaking
hands with tourists in Disneyland, some 40 percent subsequently recalled a personal
experience of meeting Bugs Bunny in Disneyland.40
[Emphases ours]
Researchers asked subjects to count the number of times ball players with white
shirts pitched a ball back and forth in a video. Most subjects were so thoroughly
engaged in watching white shirts that they failed to notice a black gorilla that
wandered across the scene and paused in the middle to beat his chest. They had their
noses so buried in their work that they didn’t even see the gorilla.41
[Emphasis ours]
The gorilla experiment demonstrates that some attention is needed for the
surprising stimulus to be detected. Surprise then activates and orients your
attention: you will stare, and you will search your memory for a story that makes
sense of the surprising event. System 2 is also credited with the continuous
monitoring of your own behavior – the control that keeps you polite when you are
angry, and alert when you are driving at night.42
Source: Based on Kahneman, D. (2012), “Of 2 Minds: How Fast and Slow Thinking Shape
Perception and Choice [Excerpt],” Scientific American, June 15, 2012,
→https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/kahneman-excerpt-thinking-fast-and-slow/,
accessed on August 31, 2020.
The first is about Tom Watson, the founder of IBM. One of his employees made a
very costly error that cost the firm ten million dollars. The employee had to meet
with Watson in his office. As the employee entered the office he said, “I suppose
you want my resignation.” Watson looked at him and said in disbelief, “Are you
kidding? We just spent ten million dollars on your education.”
From this point forward, you can bet that Watson had both the attention and
cooperation of the employee. This is reframing. The mistake had already occurred
and the money was lost, Watson chose to see this mistake as an opportunity to salvage
some value from this employee …
What did Erickson say? Erickson replied to the father, “Now isn’t it good that she
will be able to stand on her own two feet when she is ready to leave home?” This
silenced the father as he understood the impact of Erickson’s reframe. He now
understood that his daughter’s independence was not a problem to be eliminated.
Rather, his daughter’s independence was an opportunity that he and his wife needed
to channel appropriately so she would not accept poor treatment when she became an
adult.45
[Emphases ours]
We tend to pick the belief or idea that is most familiar and ingrained in us. Changing
our beliefs isn’t easy, nor is changing the attitudes and behaviour associated with
them. As a result, we usually stick with the beliefs we already hold, as opposed to
adopting new ones that are presented to us. In fact, many of us go further by avoiding
situations or information that might clash with our existing beliefs to create
dissonance.47
Rejecting, rationalizing, or avoiding information that conflicts with our beliefs can
lead us to make poor decisions. This is because the information is not rejected
because it is false but because it makes us uncomfortable. Information that is both
true and useful can often have this effect. Decisions made in the absence of true and
useful information can have harmful consequences. Smoking, for example, has
been shown to cause cancer and contribute to various other chronic health
conditions. Smokers often rationalize their detrimental decision to continue
smoking by either denying evidence that supports its health risks or by considering
themselves to be the lucky exception.48
The reason why people remain loyal to their political beliefs, parties and
candidates even after discovering that promises made were empty or
misleading is the pain of embarrassment when recognizing they got it
wrong, so they find new reasons why they were right:
Most of your expectations are reasonably accurate and tend to be confirmed, partly
because they are based on your experience and partly because you correct faulty
assumptions whenever they have negative consequences. The tricky part is that all of
us tend to be awfully generous in what we treat as evidence that our expectations
are confirmed. Furthermore, we actively seek out evidence that confirms our
expectations and avoid evidence that disconfirms them … You’re less likely to do a
more balanced search where you weigh all the evidence and look just as closely for
disconfirming evidence in the form of tentative, modest behavior. This lopsided search
sets at least two problems in motion. First, you overlook accumulating evidence
that events are not developing as you thought they would. And second, you tend to
overestimate the validity of those expectations you now hold … As pressure increases
people are more likely to search for confirming information and to ignore information
that is inconsistent with their expectations … The tendency to seek confirmation and
shun disconfirmation is a well-honed, well-practiced human tendency … All of us
face an ongoing struggle for alertness because we face an ongoing preference for
information that confirms.53
[Emphases ours]
“A bat and a ball cost $1.10 in total. The bat costs $1 more than the ball. How much
does the ball cost?”
Almost anyone who hears this question feels an initial tendency to answer “10
cents,” because the total sum of $1.10 separates naturally into $1 and 10 cents, so
that the answer “10 cents” sounds about right. The problem is that over half the
people in the experiment ended up sticking with this initial estimate, leading them
to answer this question incorrectly, since the right answer is that the bat costs $1.05,
while the ball costs $0.05.54
a. Ostrich effect: This is related to confirmation bias and occurs when
people avoid information they do not want to face. This might
manifest physically, e.g., avoiding looking at or listening to news
they do not like, through inattention, reinterpreting the information
with “alternative facts” to forget the unpleasant implications, or
forgetting on purpose.
The main reason why people avoid information is to avoid the unpleasant
emotional impact that they expect it to lead to, at least in the short term, even if this
avoidance will lead to a greater emotional cost later on.55
Overconfidence: As the WYSIATI rule implies, neither the quantity nor the quality of
the evidence counts for much in subjective confidence. The confidence that
individuals have in their beliefs depends mostly on the quality of the story they can tell
about what they see, even if they see little. We often fail to allow for the possibility
that evidence that should be critical to our judgment is missing – what we see is all
there is. Furthermore, our associative system tends to settle on a coherent pattern of
activation and suppresses doubt and ambiguity.56
[Emphases ours]
a. Rhyme and reason: This bias makes it easier for people to remember
and repeat and therefore believe a statement that has a rhyme in it
than an equivalent statement that does not. For example, the saying
“woes unite foes” is treated as being more accurate because it is
easier to remember than its equivalents: “misfortunes unite foes,”
“woes unite enemies” or “misfortunes unite enemies,” even though
they all mean the same thing.
b. Self-serving: This occurs when people claim credit for success even
when they are helped by extraneous factors and blame others and
the self-same external factors when things go wrong. A related
problem arises when they are riding a wave of success, as
illustrated by the January 28, 1986, Challenger disaster:
Where there are political parties there must be propaganda, and rhetoric and oratory
become essential to the citizen of a democracy who wanted to compete for social or
economic or political success. Where rhetoric is supreme, the decision of the law-
courts will be swayed by brilliant argument and appeals to the emotions, and so, in
the law-courts it was persuasion, not truth, which prevailed. A policy, a point of view,
a moral principle or a religion came to be valued not for its truth, but for its popular
appeal, just as the goodness of an article in modern life is sometimes assessed by
its sales. In the end the substitution of reason for tradition as the supreme criterion
produced not freedom for the individual, as had been hoped, but power for the few
individuals who were skilled in the arts of salesmanship …
… For rhetoric – like propaganda and advertising – was the art of making others agree
to a point of view whether that point was right or wrong. Indeed, the falser it was the
greater the rhetorical success in persuading someone else to accept it: and conversely,
the sounder a doctrine or a legal case or a political judgement, the more skill required
to make it look ridiculous. Rhetoric, in fact, was the technique of making the worse
appear the better and the better the worse cause … and it rapidly became the most
highly developed science in all Greece.59
[Emphases ours]
Some leaders are expert in using illegitimate techniques and this needs
to be recognized when dealing with their promises and arguments. They
are especially adept at using the so-called “Noble Lie.” The “Noble Lie”
is both a legitimate technique (“noble”) and potentially an illegitimate
one (“lie”). Which it is, depends on how it is used.
“Noble lies” are particularly useful in creating foundation myths to
bring separate collectives together for a supposed higher superordinate
goal as in the case of:
a. 19th century Pan-Slavism in the Austro-Hungarian empire, leading
to the creation of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia after World War
I.60
b. Pan-Arab nationalism after end of World War II.61
c. The creation of a Muslim Pakistan unifying East Pakistan with West
Pakistan, separated by a thousand miles of India in between, based
on their shared Muslim religion.62
The objectives were noble, but the underlying reality that the different
“nations” that were joined together shared sufficiently unifying long-
term views of their identities and objectives proved to be false, and so
the dreams failed. Yugoslavia broke up into its constituent states after
the death of Tito and saw the worst genocide in Europe after World War
II.63 Even the calmer Czechs and Slovaks chose a friendly divorce.64
Egypt and Syria are not just two separate states, but are enemies. East
Pakistan broke away from West Pakistan after a bitter civil war to
become Bangladesh.65 Spain with its separatists in Catalonia, the United
Kingdom with Scots seeking independence, the Canadians with Quebec
are the result of earlier unifying nationalist “noble lies” under stress.
Perhaps the noblest of “noble lies” is to be found in the American
Declaration of Independence:
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are
endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life,
Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.66
It is ironic that at the time of the Declaration, women did not have the
same rights as men, African Americans were slaves, and the indigenous
people were being systematically killed or driven from their lands in
violation of their “unalienable rights to Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of
Happiness.” The nobility of the vision is what makes America
exceptional and a country that people wish to emigrate to, the reality of
the injustices and inequality persisting in the US is what makes for its
current divisions. Nevertheless, the undoubted power of the “Noble Lie”
is demonstrated in the greater effectiveness of soldiers who believe
their particular sacralized version of the truth:
A fighter’s identity must have fully “fused” with those of his brothers in arms. The
top priority of such fighters must … have shifted from family to another cause, a
transcendental ideal that has become so “sacralised” that it would not be traded away
for anything. Artis’s researchers identified fighters who had mentally downgraded
their families to second or third place. Some were Peshmerga, who most valued
“Kurdeity” – a love for the homeland steeled with commitment to fellow Kurds and
Kurdish culture. Many IS captives, for their part, had shunted their families into third
place behind the caliphate and sharia. Units girded with those beliefs had fought on
effectively even after seven-tenths of their comrades had fallen.
Such is the power of the “Noble Lie” and therein lies its danger.
Populist revolutions are always in danger of falling into a familiar trap. Their leaders
mobilise outsiders against insiders and neophytes against old hands. But those who
win find themselves running the country, which requires the services of clever,
competent types. Recruiting and retaining such people does not come naturally to
populists …71
[Emphasis ours]
Summary
Dealing with VUCA effectively is difficult because humanity has evolved
as a social species. Collectives have been a feature of the human
condition from empire to nation, ethnic group, tribe, family, religion,
language, and gender, as well as by psychographics, lifestyle, and
occupation. People can belong to different collectives simultaneously,
each with different objectives and values, creating added uncertainty,
complexity, and ambiguity.
The success of collectives is measured in terms of their longevity
and share of the niches they occupy. Success depends not only on
competition to determine the “survival of the fittest,” but also on
collaboration, altruism, and adaptability. The ability to adapt depends on
how well collectives deal with barriers to and enablers of change.
The most important barriers to change are ideology, cultural
differences, and the foundation myths upon which those differences are
built; vested interests, inertia, and ignorance; and the difficulties for
decision-making posed by VUCA.
There are three enablers of change: megatrends, “ideas whose time
has come,” and effective “wayfinders” capable of overcoming barriers
to change. The megatrends that will determine the sustainability of
collectives are climate change, the problems faced by globalization as a
result of the pandemic and the growth of protectionism, the threat
posed to employment by “Industry 4.0,” and the threat to political
systems posed by inequality, made worse by the unequal impacts of
climate change and Covid-19.
“Ideas whose time has come” take time as the swings in economic
thinking demonstrate. Such ideas, however, depend on effective
implementation for their success. The experience of countries that
threw off the colonial yoke shows that being against something is not
enough, people must have a clear idea of what it is they are for, and that
however powerful such ideas are as memes that are spread across the
world via social media, they will only materialize if they are implemented
by effective “wayfinders” who understand that governing is not the same
as rebelling, campaigning, or philosophizing.
Populist leaders and their followers tend to believe in the “great
man” theory of history. Such leaders are effective at mobilizing the
masses based on appeals to emotion, but often prove to be less capable
of delivering on their promise because the “devil is in the details.” Such
leaders appeal to the human desire for simple answers to complex
questions, using heuristics and the evolutionary imperative to minimize
cognitive load when acquiring and processing information for decision-
making.
System 1 of the brain uses heuristics and biases – subconscious
processes – that consume very little energy, whereas System 2 of the
brain processes facts, using logic and making connections between
different data points, consuming a great deal of energy as a result. One
of the most important roles of System 2 is to stop people from acting on
impulse alone and to regain self-control. System 1 applies when we
operate on autopilot and System 2 complements it when we need to
make an intellectual effort or concentrate.
The heuristics we use in System 1 work well most of the time. But
they do lead us to make mistakes through the “rush to solve,” cognitive
biases, rhetoric and its associated illegitimate techniques, and the
existence of cognitive dissonance.
“Rush to solve” errors are caused by not spending enough on
defining the problem properly, failing to consider all possible
alternatives, not getting enough relevant data, failing to appreciate the
significance of our own and other people’s mental models, and reaching
wrong conclusions because of inappropriate framing of the issues.
Cognitive biases play an important role because they cause us to be
irrational in the way we search for, evaluate, interpret, judge, use, and
remember information.
Rhetoric can make matters worse because it is not concerned with
the truth of an argument but with the ability to change people’s minds
by playing on emotions and manipulating biases. It is a powerful,
morally neutral tool that can and has been misused throughout the
ages. It uses words to convey meaning, deceive, persuade, or evoke
emotions and its effectiveness is determined solely by whether the
argument was won or lost. There are legitimate and illegitimate
techniques for winning arguments, and it is essential that effective
“wayfinders” understand which techniques to use and to know when
inappropriate techniques are being used against them.
Populist leaders are experts in the use of illegitimate techniques
(e.g., “alternative facts” and “Stop the Steal”) and in particular the
“Noble Lie” – a technique that is both legitimate (“noble”) and
illegitimate (“lie”). How it is used determines which it is. “Noble lies” are
particularly effective in creating foundation myths to bring different
collectives together to satisfy a higher superordinate goal. They work
well as long as the underlying reality reflects the dream or vision.
Perhaps the best example is the American Declaration of
Independence’s “we hold these truths to be self-evident …” Armies have
always known the power of the “Noble Lie” and its ability to increase the
fighting capacity of soldiers who believe their particular sacralized
version of the truth. This is its power and its danger.
Effective “wayfinders” must deal with VUCA and they also have to
deal with the different interests of overlapping collectives with changing
membership. These are arguments against seeing the world in simple
terms. Yet human evolution and neuroscience demand we find ways of
keeping things simple if facts are to be absorbed and accepted. This
requires structured communication with a single “governing thought”
supported by three lines of reasoning and the ability to distill the
argument down to the so-called “elevator pitch.” It is therefore essential
to have simplicity of message using the legitimate tools of rhetoric and
the “Noble Lie” when creating superordinate goals around which people
can coalesce. However, the simplicity of the message must not ignore
the reality of the facts on the ground and that the “devil is in the details”
that a VUCA-based approach will highlight.
Effective “wayfinders” must realize that reconciling VUCA with the
need for simplicity can only be achieved by ensuring that simplicity of
message does not mean over-simplification of understanding and
paucity of planned actions to achieve the desired goals. If the planned
actions fail to deal with the VUCA realities on the ground, the “Noble lie” will
be a lie, revealing incompetence.
Chapter 9 Combining two Leadership Models
with Managerial Skills
Ask the participants at the start of any leadership program what they
expect of leaders and the usual answers are: vision, empathy, charisma,
decisiveness, and clarity of purpose. Rarely do they mention the ability
to follow up, and almost never do they mention the so-called
managerial skills and operational competence required to deliver the
imagined future. This is an unfortunate consequence of the widely
propagated belief that “leadership” and “management” are separate
activities; and relates to the rise of populist, charismatic leaders (in both
business and politics) who achieve power through slogans and bluster,
but do not have the necessary experience, managerial skills, and
understanding of how volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity
affect the implementation of their visions (discussed in Chapter 7). As a
result, they fail to deliver the vision they promise.
The need to combine vision with tasks designed to achieve that
vision (i.e., management) was recognized in 1730 and we would do well
to remember the following when considering effective leadership:
Power tends to corrupt, absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are
almost always bad men, even when they exercise influence and not authority,
still more when you superadd the tendency or the certainty of corruption by
authority.
Charisma is rooted in values and feelings. It [is] influence born of the alchemy that
Aristotle called the logos, the ethos, and the pathos, that is, to persuade others, you
must use powerful and reasoned rhetoric, establish personal and moral credibility,
and then rouse followers’ emotions and passions. If a leader can do those three
things well, he or she can then tap into the hopes and ideals of followers, give them a
sense of purpose, and inspire them to achieve great things.34
[Emphasis ours]
3.Turnaround successes
Bethune, Gordon (Continental
Airlines)
Gerstner, Lou (IBM)
Ghosn, Carlos (Nissan, Renault)
Iacocca, Lee (Chrysler)
Jobs, Steve (Apple)
Marchione, Sergio (Chrysler,
Fiat)
Mullaly, Alan (Ford)
Source: Based on Parker, G. (2016),“The 20 Greatest Business Comeback Stories of All Time,”
Money Inc., →https://moneyinc.com/greatest-business-comebacks/, accessed on July 27, 2020,
Toscano, P. (2009), “Portfolio’s Worst American CEOs of All Time,” CNBC, April 30, 2009,
→https://www.cnbc.com/2009/04/30/Portfolios-Worst-American-CEOs-of-All-Time.html,
accessed on July 27, 2020.
In short, charismatic leadership is neutral. Like many other skills, it can
be used for good or evil and/or create or destroy value. It weakens
judgment because it is based on charm and fear, it is addictive because
leaders and followers seek the emotional gratification it provides at the
expense of critical reasoning, and it can lead to intolerance, division, and
tribalization.39
3. Striving for consistency and uniform 3. Taking offense at detailed penalties and
procedures requirements in the contract for specific
performance
4. Instituting formal ways of changing the 4. Building informal networks and creating
way business is done private understandings
5. Changing the system so the system will 5. Modifying relations with individuals so
change you that they modify the system
Universalist Approach Particularist Approach
6. Signaling changes publicly 6. Pulling levers privately
7. Seeking fairness by treating all like cases 7. Seeking fairness by treating all cases on
in the same way their special merits
6. Communication: 6. Communication:
a. Direct, to the point, purposeful in a. Indirect, circuitous, seeming
relating “aimless” forms of relating
b. Precise, blunt, definitive, and b. Evasive, tactful, ambiguous, even
transparent opaque
2. Individuals can be easily compared 2. Individuals are unique and cannot be easily
based on their ability to “Achieve more” compared with others in specific performance
in specific performance terms terms as there are other factors to be
considered
3. “I am my functional role” 3. “I personify the organization, wielding its
power”
a. Hierarchical relationships are
functionally specific and apply only a. Status is independent of task or
at work function and hierarchical relationships still
b. Success is universally defined apply outside work
according to performance b. Role justified through “power to get
benchmarks things done”
c. Relationships with others are c. Relationships are social – based on
instrumental – lasting as long as loyalty and affection
necessary to complete the task
The ability to associate depends, in turn, on the degree to which communities share
norms and values and are able to subordinate individual interests to those of larger
groups. Out of such shared values comes trust …43
Summary
The popular view that leadership and management are two separate
activities has led to the rise of populist, charismatic leaders who rely on
rhetoric to achieve power without having the necessary managerial
skills to execute. Leaders who have vision but lack managerial skills are,
at best, super-spreaders of memes who depend on others to implement
their ideas which may be severely distorted as a result.
Effective leadership benefits leaders and the led. It depends on
leaders utilizing both dominant and prestige leadership styles as context
demands.
Dominant leadership offers leaders privileged access to limited
resources for personal gain. It is authoritarian, top-down, positional,
coercive, and infinitely scalable, reflected in the preponderance of
dominant leaders in large organizations. It is founded on legitimacy,
coercive, and reward power.
Prestige leadership evolved to maximize resources for the benefit of
all members of the group. It is authoritative, bottom up, personal and
collaborative, founded on referent and expert power. It is difficult to
replicate because it depends on the unique characteristics, experience,
and knowledge of individuals. Although the behavior of prestige leaders
is difficult to scale, their ideas and vision are infinitely scalable because
they are spread through memes that “infect” the minds of others.
There seem to be two imperatives that tend over time to convert
prestige leadership into dominant leadership: the impact of scale and
the need for continuity as organizations grow. This need for continuity
comes in two forms – the dynastic (genetic and biological continuity)
need to keep control for the founding family (be it for a principality or an
enterprise), and the desire to preserve orthodoxy (beliefs, the
ideological and meme continuity), and orthopraxy (behavioral
continuity).
There are two ways to reconcile dominant and prestige styles of
leadership to increase “wayfinder” effectiveness. The first is for the
“wayfinder” to have a high level of contextual and situational awareness
and to recognize when it is appropriate to employ each style. This
demands an understanding of how referent and expert power build
over time as individuals rise up the leadership pipeline to develop
prestige power. It also requires an understanding of how the dominant
style of leadership depends on increasing individual seniority (as result
of rising prestige power) beginning with power of positional legitimacy,
moving on to power of coercion that positional authority grants,
culminating in reward power. “Wayfinders” who practice both styles
depending on the context and situation are able to maximize their
leadership effectiveness frontier.
The ability to practice both styles appropriately is determined by the
cognitive abilities and innate traits of individuals, modified by their life
experiences.
Cognitive skills that matter are the family of thinking skills
(analytical, systemic, and problem-solving), the ability to absorb,
analyze, and synthesize new information, and avoiding the rush to
judgment under stress (discussed in Chapter 8). Five innate personality
traits and their levels affect how people behave: openness to
experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and
neuroticism.
Charisma is important and although it has been regarded as an
innate talent, its effect can be enhanced by applying Aristotle’s
rhetorical techniques. Charisma’s impact can be further heightened
through three learnable non-verbal techniques: using an animated
voice, facial expressions, and gestures. Charismatic leadership is
morally neutral and can be used for evil (Hitler) or good (Nelson
Mandela).
The managerial skills leaders must have if they are to be effective
“wayfinders” can be determined by answering five questions about
their organizational purpose: “Who are the beneficiaries of the
organization?” “What is the organization trying to achieve and is it still
relevant?” “What do customers and non-customers value and why does
the organization fail to attract non-customers?” “How will we know if
we have succeeded in achieving our purpose?” and “What is the plan,
and its assumptions?”
As part of answering questions about organizational “purpose,”
effective “wayfinders” need to ensure they have an appropriate “power”
structure to deliver the “purpose.” This requires understanding
organizational design, and competency audits to ensure that it is
durable. This in turn requires change management skills to “bring the
future to the present.”
Once the “power” issues have been resolved, the organization must
be populated with suitable “people.” Finding such people does not only
require determining their availability, career development, and
affordability, it also requires appreciating the behavioral impact on
organizational effectiveness of five important differences in belief
systems regarding: rules versus relationships, managing and measuring
performance, determining status, individualism versus community, and
cultures with different levels of trust.
Finally, effective “wayfinders” must have a sound understanding of
“processes” in order to set priorities between the conflicting needs of
different elements of the organizational value chain if it is to support the
overall mission, vision, and values. Inability to appreciate the
importance of joined up processes, network effects, and emergent
properties of systems will lead to failure to achieve the desired goals,
and to the vision being at best an unachievable dream, at worst a
nightmare.
Chapter 10 Communicating Effectively
The surface area of our ears is four times that of our mouth. That is because
listening is more important than talking.
Basically, the problem is caused by the fact that we think much faster than we talk.
The average rate of speech for most Americans is around 125 words per minute.
This rate is slow going for the human brain … words play a large part in our
thinking processes, and the words race through our brains at speeds much higher
than 125 words per minute …
It might seem logical to slow down our thinking when we listen so as to coincide
with the 125-word-per-minute speech rate, but slowing down thought processes
seems to be a very difficult thing to do. When we listen, therefore, we continue
thinking at high speed while the spoken words arrive at low speed … To phrase it
another way, we can listen and still have some spare time for thinking.
The use, or misuse, of this spare thinking time holds the answer to how well a
person can concentrate on the spoken word.1
[Emphasis ours]
“Three As”
Communications should reflect the:
1. Nature of the audience
2. Attitude of the communicator and of the audience
3. Angle advocated
Communication that focuses only on angle (content) is ineffective
because the audience’s willingness to accept the argument is affected
by their perception of its relevance and appropriateness. The emotional
context can block the message being heard, the attitude that the
communicator wishes to project must take into account the attitudes of
the audience.
Audience
The willingness of audiences to receive messages depends on their size
and membership, levels of seniority and sophistication, and interests:
1. Size and membership: It is more difficult to communicate
effectively with large, diverse audiences because they are less
homogeneous with more conflicting interactions between subgroups.
Effective “wayfinders” know the composition of audiences in advance
and choose whenever possible to maximize homogeneity of seniority,
capability, and experience.
2. Seniority and sophistication: Audiences can have members from
different strata of seniority, sophistication, and experience. It is difficult
to engage effectively with heterogeneous groups:
a. Impact of different levels of seniority: Elliot Jacques3 claimed there are
six real hierarchical boundaries set by time spans of three months,
one year, two years, five years, ten years, and twenty years. The
different time spans reflect different types of decision and levels of
accountability. Communication to each layer needs to reflect
differences in role, responsibility, and time horizon.
The six levels of the “leadership pipeline”4 similarly reflect the
different roles and responsibilities of individuals moving from
managing themselves, to managing others, to managing managers,
to becoming a functional manager, a business manager, group
manager, and finally an enterprise manager. Communication
should tailor the messaging for each hierarchical level.
b. Impact of different levels of sophistication: People at the top of the
“leadership pipeline” deal with multiple issues simultaneously, and
need to make trade-offs. Often they choose between “least-bad”
alternatives. They are more open to conceptual presentations. They
are more likely to accept arguments based on plausibility and,
because they deal in longer time horizons, they are less concerned
with the immediate need to answer the question, “What do I do
differently on Monday?” Their cognitive process when deciding on
an action is “Believe, Understand, Do.” They are impressed by
executive summaries and often move to action without considering
the detail. When they communicate what they want to happen, they
use a “Believe, Understand, Do” structure.
“Big picture” exhortation in top-down communication only works if
implementers understand the answer to their question ”What will I
be doing differently on Monday?” Implementers’ concerns relate to
their responsibilities and their interests, in terms of reporting
relationships or in terms of reward and recognition. Implementers
are wary of initiatives from the head office. They operate with a
mental model of “Do, Understand, Believe” not “Believe,
Understand, Do.”
Communication style and structure must reflect the nature of the
audience.
3. Interests: Even in apparently homogeneous groups, all audience
members do not have the same life, values, and purposes:
The human tendency to absorb the values of one’s immediate environment and
project those values onto the entire world may work well enough for life in small,
relatively isolated hunter-gatherer bands, but it’s absolutely disastrous for billions of
people raised in a variety of different cultures and subcultures who must share a world
in spite of their incompatible worldviews. Human moral psychology doesn’t scale well.5
[Emphasis ours]
Attitude
Mismatching message and audience is a frequent source of
communication failures. For example, lawyers intervening to protect an
organization from litigation, when what is needed is a clear
demonstration of contrition if there was wrongdoing or of humanity and
control if the problem is an accidental tragedy. Michael Bishop, CEO of
British Midland in 1989 after the crash on take-off of a Boeing 737–400
near Kegworth, just off the M1 Motorway in England, killing 47 people,
did it well:
Within five minutes of hearing the news, he had decided to be very publicly available
to press and broadcast crews, giving the information as fast as he received it. He
distinguished himself by showing both humanity and control.
The first interviews were given on the phone in his car on the way to the scene. He
knew almost nothing about what had happened but he said as much as he could. He
spoke with compassion, saying he understood how the relatives of passengers must be
feeling because he personally knew every member of the crew and the pilot was an old
friend.
When he arrived, his priorities were to get the relatives of 74 injured passengers
and crew to the hospitals concerned, and to provide immediate support to the
bereaved. Every family was allocated a carer who would organise somewhere for them
to stay and look after their personal needs.
… At 4am Bishop gave a press conference. He cut a highly sympathetic figure with his
simple account of the action he’d taken in response to a ‘profoundly distressing’
accident.6
[Emphases ours]
If I want things to be one way and you want things to be some other way, we might
be able to reach some sort of compromise. But if I want things to be one way, and I
believe that the way I want things is not merely the way I want things but also the
way things ought to be, and if I believe further that it’s just plain to see that my is the
way things ought to be and that anyone who says otherwise must be outright lying
or wilfully refusing to see the truth, and if you want things to be some other way and
you’re just as convinced of the rightness of your position as I am of mine, then what
chance do we have of reaching a reasonable compromise?7
Effective “wayfinders” recognize the power of attitude and reduce the
potential for attitudinal conflict through validation,8 acknowledging that
the “wayfinder” has heard and appreciated another person’s
contribution/participation in the discussion, even if he or she does not
agree with it. Validation affirms the other person’s value. It requires
listening actively, deciding the best form of validation, and formulating a
non-judgmental response. “Wayfinders” must focus on what is being
said, control their biases, separate facts from emotions, and pick up cue
words to act as leads into validation.ii Validating is not the same as
agreeing:
Agreeing means you think it’s the right idea. Validating is showing respect for
someone’s having an idea and spending time thinking about it.9
Angle
When planning to communicate, the objectives, the audience and their
interests, and the style of communication need to be considered. A
useful structure is to ask the following questions:
1. What am I trying to achieve and why now?
2. Who do I need to get to agree with what I am proposing?
3. What are their issues and interests and how will what I am
proposing affect them?
4. How good is my case, factually, and emotionally? Have I left
anything out, are there any flaws in my argument?
5. Will I face obstacles (resource constraints) or objections (negative
mindsets) and what plans do I have to deal with them? In the case
of objections, who is on my side and why, and who is against my
ideas and why?
6. How would I feel hearing what I am going to say if I were in their
shoes?
It helps if the speaker’s thinking style or tendency matches that of the
audience.
When communicating with people who are being asked/instructed
to do something, it helps to place them on the motivation matrix10
shown in →Table 10.1. People are motivated by mythosiii (beliefs or
memes), ethos (credibility), pathos (emotion), and logos (logic), and are
motivated for achievement, recognition, power, or self-actualization.
Understanding where they are will affect the angle of the
communication.
Table 10.1: The Motivation Matrix.
Motivated for:
Motivated Achievement Recognition/Affection Power Self-
by: Actualization
Mythos We have a When we complete the We are a You only want
Beliefs/Memes high- project, we will join the high- to work for a
performance teams in the company performance leading
culture, we hall of fame organization organization
thrive on where only where you are
challenge and high- challenged to
meeting performers be your best
impossible get to the
targets top
Ethos The CEO If we meet the deadline Having a It is great to
Credibility expects your for creating a new track record work for the
team to do program, the CEO will of delivering best
this in two highlight our difficult organization
weeks performance at the projects on in the industry
company’s annual time and to be
dinner increases recognized as
the chance such by my
of leading peers
other teams
Pathos The CEO If you meet the deadline You will be Working for
Emotion believes you for creating a new promoted this
can get this program, the CEO will and lead organization,
done on time present you with a other teams you will feel
and I know special award to thank if you get you can really
you are just you at the company’s this done on make a
the person for annual dinner time difference and
the job make the
world a better
place
Logos The CEO gave If you meet the new High- There is more
Logic/Reason us a tighter deadline, the CEO will performance to work than
deadline give you a pay increase teams have just getting
which at the annual the best paid well,
requires you performance review career your work has
to work prospects, a social
harder meeting the purpose as
When we deadline will well
meet it, you help your
will get extra career
time off in
compensation
Effective “wayfinders” use context to determine where people fit in the
matrix and listen to how they talk about the future to understand their
motivations and what drives them:11
1. Ethos: If they talk about execution or competitors and the biggest
projects, ethos drives them.
2. Emotion: Enthusiasm is a positive sign, worry or being troubled is a
negative sign that emotion drives them.
3. Logic: If they talk about process and resourcing required, logic
drives them.
Context will determine what pulls them:12
1. Achievement: If comments are task oriented, they are attracted by
achievement.
2. Recognition: If they talk about being the best or relative
performance, they seek recognition.
3. Power: If they talk about dominating the competition, wanting to
run the show or doing it in a particular way, they seek power.
Not everyone is motivated by money all the time13 and not everyone is
competitive in all situations. The best motivators will depend on the
context and the activity.
The effectiveness of communicators depends in large part on their
ethos:
The Greek term ethos translates loosely into English as ethics. However, in
communication at work, it is the idea that credibility of who you are persuades
people. Master communicators know their ethos and use it to strengthen the
influence of what they say.”14
Ethos depends on background and culture; how the person thinks, and
the communicator’s ability to match thinking style to that of listeners;
how the person listens and speaks; the organization the person
represents, title, and experience; relationships and connections;
appearance; and track record and performance.15
“Three Rs”
Review
Performance reviews are valuable two-way channels of communication:
allowing a “line of sight” for each employee to the mission, vision, and
values of their organization. They also allow “wayfinders” to get a feel
for how their subordinates identify with the purpose and values of the
organization. For performance reviews to be of value in developing
subordinates, certain conditions must prevail.
1. Principles must be translated into observable, measurable behaviors:
It is essential that principles (values) are translated from abstract
nouns into action statements describing desired performance and
behavior and the timelines involved. Personal development plans
should communicate how the individual has performed, what
improvements are necessary, and the timeline, as well as the
training and resources that will be made available to help the
individual achieve targets on the way to meeting the organization’s
standards of performance in terms of objectively measurable KPIs.
2. Performance reviews must reflect the organization’s KPIs and
timelines: The organization’s mission and vision determine its
business strategy and KPIs with their associated project milestones,
due dates, and timelines, broken down into standards and targets
by division, department, and individuals.
3. Feedback must be given appropriately: Providing feedback at annual
appraisals is not enough. Responsibility for success or failure
should be attributed promptly, while the behavior being discussed
is still fresh. This might be as simple as commenting informally on
what was good or could be done better immediately after a
meeting. If the issue is more serious, then a short meeting on the
subject as soon as possible after the incident is leading practice.
Discussion of performance issues should take place immediately in
order to (1) nip a bad practice in the bud, and (2) enable the
individual to get back on track.
Effective feedback will cover the following16 by:
a. Reviewing what the agreed objectives were and the actual results,
b. Discussing what the individual/group has done well, focusing on
the positives,
c. Identifying where there has been a problem, focusing on the
implications/consequences of the behavior for other people, and
identifying what could have been done better,
d. Agreeing on what has been learned from the experience,
e. Agreeing on the need for a change in behavior by identifying what
the individual/group should continue doing, as well as what they
should do differently/better,
f. Getting “buy-in” from the individual/group that they will change
their behavior now that they understand the implications of the
behavioral performance shortfall,
g. Agreeing on a timeline for improvement and follow up,
h. Never making the behavior the basis of a personal attack.
Recognition
Effective “wayfinders” remember that two of the most powerful words
in the English language as morale boosters are “thank you.” They do not
make the mistake of failing to thank people for “just doing the job they
are paid to do,” as some superiors do. Even if they are doing their jobs,
when they are doing them well, they should be thanked, as it provides
important emotional feedback that what they do is noticed and
appreciated.
Reward
How people are rewarded and what they are rewarded for are crucial
communication signals in organizations. Effective “wayfinders” use
rewards and punishment to control behavior. Rewards and punishment
sit upon a motivation continuum stretching from demotivation to
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
Much of the literature suggests that extrinsic and intrinsic
motivators are antagonistic.17 This is somewhat misleading for two
reasons. First, intrinsic and extrinsic motivators overlap in their effect on
behavior.18 Second, the motivation continuum reflects Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs with the extrinsic motivators operating at the
survival and safety levels of Maslow’s hierarchy and they overlap with
the intrinsic motivators at the belonging level; while the autonomy,
mastery, and “making a difference” intrinsic motivators are examples of
Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization.19 However, there are important
limitations in relying on extrinsic motivators:
1. Extrinsic and intrinsic motivators overlap: Extrinsic motivation was
initially defined as behavior performed in the absence of self-
determination (i.e., that an external party was making someone do
something that they otherwise would not have done). Intrinsically
motivated behavior was held to be self-determined and
autonomous, undermined by the application of extrinsic
motivators. However, once we recognize that they both fit along a
continuum and overlap, we realize that there are four type of
motivation: external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic:
a. External reason “means doing the target activities to comply
with authorities.”20 As such, it reflects the need to comply.
However, as armies know, the consistent application of
external reasons when recruiting civilians can change their
behavior to the extent that recruits internalize how they should
behave so that it becomes “second nature” (System 1
consciousness) or in other words an instinctive Pavlovian
conditioned reflex that does not require the use of the slow and
effortful workings of the conscious mind (System 2
consciousness). In this sense the behavior has become
intrinsic, because it is subconscious.
b. Introjected reason “is framed in terms of internal, esteem-based
pressures to act, such as avoidance of guilt and shame or
concerns about approval from self or others. Individuals
subsequently begin to internalize their reasons for the
action.”21
c. Identified reason “occurs when a behavior is valued by the
individual and is perceived as being chosen by oneself. It
typically takes the form ‘I want.’”22 However, some argue that it
is an extrinsic motivation because the activity it creates is a
“means to an end” rather than the end itself. As such, it would
include the two types of activity usually defined as intrinsic,
namely “autonomy” and “mastery.”
d. Intrinsic reason “involves doing an activity for fun or for
inherent enjoyment in a self-determined way. It can be
classified wholly into intrinsic motivation” – in other words, it
only includes the concept of self-actualization.
The effectiveness of these four types of motivation is shown in →Figure
10.1.
Figure 10.1: Reconciling Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation.
“Four Cs”
Effective communication is built on clarity, consistency, consonance,
and codes of conduct.
Clarity
To achieve effective implementation, clarity of purpose, of expectations,
and of measurement are needed. Ambiguity of purpose leads to
confusion and extra cost as people hedge their bets and make
recommendations that waste time, effort, and money. Without clarity of
expectations, people cannot know if they are on track, or what
corrective actions are needed. Without clarity, people will not know
“what’s in it for them.”
The problems the UK government faced in its handling of the Covid-
19 pandemic (2020–2021) are an object lesson in the critical importance
of clarity of purpose and of avoiding confused messaging, and of
avoiding a series of U-turns in objectives and measurements. Initially,
while there was still time to adopt a strict lockdown based on
containment of the disease by testing, tracking, and tracing those who
had been in contact with infected people, and by closing borders to
entry of people from coronavirus hotspots, the British government
chose to do none of them.24 They were of two minds about the use of
masks,25 and whether their strategy was to allow the spread of the
disease to achieve “herd immunity.”26 Their primary, limited objective
was to ensure that the NHS (National Health Service) would not be
swamped when the virus peaked, as had happened in Lombardy.
They did meet this objective by building five temporary hospitals
designed to handle virus patients only,27 and transferred hundreds of
elderly patients already in the hospital back into nursing homes without
checking whether they were likely to spread the disease there when
they returned.28 As a result, there was confusion,29 delay, and
unnecessary death – leading to the highest death rate in Europe.30 Even
when the government finally adopted its call to “Stay at Home, Save
Lives, and Protect the NHS,” the special adviser to the Prime Minister,
who had set the rules, broke them and was defended by the Prime
Minister and senior Cabinet ministers.31
As far as measurement expectations for the “test, track, and trace”
strategy were concerned, the targets set by the government kept
changing, their due dates kept being delayed and still they were not
met.32 Not surprisingly, public trust in the British government’s handling
of the virus collapsed.33 It was a catalog of blunder after blunder.34 What
the pandemic debacle shows is that clarity of slogans is not enough
once in government, where operational competence in delivery of
outcomes is what matters. The success of the British government in
vaccinating people was an example of operational competence that has
helped restore the Prime Minister’s and the government’s credibility.35
This is not surprising, given the conclusion in Chapter 5 that the most
important characteristic of effective leaders is operational competence,
based on the careers of Elizabeth Tudor, Napoleon and Atatürk.
“Wayfinders” need to communicate clearly what needs to be done,
by whom, by when, what the expected performance standards and
targets are, and stick to them, and engage implementers by making
clear the consequences of success or failure.
Consistency
Consistency is:
From a “wayfinder” perspective, there are three ways that “being the
same” matters:
1. Behaving in the same way over time. If “wayfinders” behave in the
same way over time, regardless of changes in their contexts and
circumstances, that is a sign of the rigidity and inflexibility that
warrants such comments as:
A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and
philosophers and divines …37
When you look at people who are successful, you will find that they aren’t the
people who are motivated, but have consistency in their motivation.38
Coherence
Coherence is important for three reasons:
1. Organizational alignment to achieve the agreed on mission, vision,
and values is essential and can only be achieved if there is
consonance between the “Five Ps” and the agreed on mission,
vision, and values (discussed in Chapter 6).
2. “Wayfinders” who do not follow the principles and the agreed
processes, undermine their own credibility and authenticity.
3. Integrated communication requires coherence. It is not possible to
create and maintain an integrated communication architecture if
there is dissonance between the different parts of the organization.
Codes of Conduct
Codes of conduct must reflect the “Principles” (desired organizational
behaviors and values), “wayfinders” must act as role models to their
subordinates or they will undermine them.
Summary
Effective communication is a two-way interaction, depending on the
ability of “wayfinders” to listen actively without judging, reviewing,
clarifying, and summarizing to understand the meaning behind the
words, and weighing the evidence when the argument is complete. It is
difficult to do well because people speak more slowly than they think
and because of their natural predisposition to confirmation bias.
Considering techniques, “wayfinders” should reflect the nature of
the audience, the attitudes and prejudices of both speakers and
listeners and their impact on the receptiveness of audiences, affected
greatly by the angle or message involved and its contextual
appropriateness. “Wayfinders” may find using the motivation matrix
useful. It shows how people are motivated by mythos, ethos, pathos,
and logos. The matrix shows people are motivated for attaining
achievement, recognition/affection, power, and self-actualization.
Effective communicators tailor their messages depending on which of
16 combinations of “motivated by” and “motivated for” best represents
their intended audiences.
Effective communicators review performance to create a “line of
sight” to the organization’s mission, vision, and values (“principles”),
provided the adopted principles are translated into observable,
measurable behaviors, reflecting the core values of the enterprise, its
KPIs and timelines, forming timely, constructive, and effective feedback
for consistent improvement, recognizing each individual’s performance
objectively.
Effective communicators understand the importance of using
appropriate rewards and that extrinsic and intrinsic motivators are part
of a continuum and may overlap. Effective “wayfinders” realize they
should use a combination of both, depending on context.
Considering content, effective communicators appreciate the
importance of clarity of purpose and expected performance, and
consistency of message across the organization and its various
audiences, achieved by adjusting the same essential ideas to suit
particular circumstances within the framework of an integrated
communication architecture. Coherence of organizational alignment
depends on consistency of messaging across divisions, as do personal
credibility and authenticity of “wayfinders.” Failure creates dissonance.
Codes of conduct are an essential mechanism to minimize
unpredictable behavior that could otherwise muddy the message.
Chapter 11 Ethical and Effective Decision-
Making
Readers will have realized by now that the discussions in the preceding
chapters do not address the ethics of decision-making, they are focused
on the techniques of effective leadership and management. Our
premise is that those activities are morally neutral, and can be used for
good or ill.1
We now consider some approaches to ethics from history and
culture. We suggest how “wayfinders” can develop a six-step process to
ensure that they have thoroughly considered whether their decisions
are ethical as well as effective. This does matter because the long-term
survival of organizations depends on decisions being effective and
ethical.
Discussing ethics is difficult because different people define the
term in different ways. Below, we very briefly review the development of
ethical theory from its Aristotelian origin to the present day:
Ethics, as the thought of Man about his action, is as ancient as Man itself …
ethical systems changed through time, gaining more and new concepts to think
about new human realities in the world and to communicate them. An example
would be the constellation of four concepts needed in ancient Greek philosophy to
explain moral life – good, end, happiness, and virtue – to which medievalism added
the concept of God, modernity the concept of liberty, and contemporaneity the
concept of responsibility … Ethics originally heteronomous, being given to Man
(from a higher entity: Nature or God), becomes autonomous, being made by Man
to Man. Finally, ethics turned out to be applied to many different concrete fields of
human activity – engineering, media, economics, politics, etc. – but none more
developed than in the biomedical (and environment) field through bioethics.
… ethics has always been and still is a rationalization of human action (the logic
underneath human actions) concerning the principles it is grounded on, the ends it
aims toward, and the processes it entails.2
Advantages Advantages
1. One set of rules regarding behavior for 1. Each decision considers current
everyone regardless of the circumstances and its likely
circumstances consequences
2. Clarity and simplicity, individuals know 2. Actions are justified by the overall
what they are expected do and not to good they achieve
do 3. Behavior can be flexible provided it
3. Easy to apply codes of conduct, results in a good outcome; intent,
rewarding or punishing behavior purpose, and outcome are considered
based only on what happened, without 4. Allows for particular circumstances to
allowing for intent, purpose, and be considered
outcome
4. Predictable outcomes and speedy
decisions
Drawbacks Drawbacks
1. May fail to recognize differences 1. In a complex, interconnected world
between cultures and value systems, with tightly coupled systems, it is often
creating unnecessary extremely difficult to establish what the
misunderstanding between groups consequences are going to be
2. May cause problems in cultures where 2. Can create uncertainty and lack of
relationships matter more than rules predictability
3. Addresses form rather than substance 3. Often difficult to decide on suitable
in ambiguous situations time horizons and appropriate cut-off
4. Rigidity and rash decisions based on points after which the consequences
simple assumptions unsuited to the are no longer relevant to the decision
complexity of prevailing circumstances 4. Takes time, undesirable analysis
5. Can lead to ethical paralysis in paralysis can result, when quick
situations where “ethical” actions will decisions are needed, based on
lead to “unethical” outcomes incomplete or conflicting data
Virtue
Virtue-based ethics are the earliest form of ethics, associated with
Aristotle and Plato in the West, and Confucius and Mencius in the East:
Virtue ethics is currently one of three major approaches in normative ethics. It may,
initially, be identified as the one that emphasizes the virtues, or moral character, in
contrast to the approach that emphasizes duties or rules (deontology) or that
emphasizes the consequences of actions (consequentialism).4
An honest person cannot be identified simply as one who, for example, practices
honest dealing and does not cheat. If such actions are done merely because the agent
thinks that honesty is the best policy, or because they fear being caught out, rather
than through recognising ‘To do otherwise would be dishonest’ … they are not the
actions of an honest person …5
[Emphasis ours]
… someone’s compassion might lead them to act wrongly, to tell a lie they should
not have told, for example, in their desire to prevent someone else’s hurt feelings. It
is also said that courage, in a desperado, enables him to do far more wicked things
than he would have been able to do if he were timid. So it would appear that
generosity, honesty, compassion and courage despite being virtues, are sometimes
faults.6
[Emphasis ours]
According to eudaimonist virtue ethics, the good life is the eudaimon life, and the
virtues are what enable a human being to be eudaimon because the virtues just are
those character traits that benefit their possessor in that way, barring bad luck.7
In general, filial piety requires children to offer love, respect, support, and deference
to their parents and other elders in the family, such as grandparents or older
siblings. Acts of filial piety include obeying one’s parent’s wishes, taking care of
them when they are old, and working hard to provide them with material comforts,
such as food, money, or pampering.
… parents give life to their children, and support them throughout their developing
years, providing food, education, and material needs. After receiving all these
benefits, children are thus forever in debt to their parents. In order to acknowledge
this eternal debt, children must respect and serve their parents all their lives …
… The tenet of filial piety also applies to all elders – teachers, professional superiors,
or anyone who is older in age – and even the state. The family is the building block
of society, and as such the hierarchical system of respect also applies to one’s rulers
and one’s country. Xiào means that the same devotion and selflessness in serving one’s
family should also be used when serving one’s country.11
[Emphasis ours]
If your words are sincere and trustworthy and your actions are honorable and
respectful, you will get on in the world even among the barbarian tribes. If your
words are insincere and untrustworthy, if you act without honor and respect, how
can you possibly get on in the world even in your own village? When you stand,
you should always have this principle in front of you. When you drive you should
have it carved upon the yoke of your carriage, only then will you truly be able to
move ahead.13
Ji Kangzi asked: “What should I do to make the people respectful, loyal, and eager to
follow me?” Confucius said: “Treat them with dignity, and they will be respectful.
Show you are a good son and a loving father, and they will be loyal. Promote the
good and teach those who lack ability, and they will be eager to follow you.”14
Confucius said: “Can you truly love someone if you are not strict with them? How
can you be truly loyal to someone if you refrain from admonishing them?”15
Effectiveness
Although not the first,iii the most famous proponent of ethics focusing
on effectiveness of rulers is Machiavelli, who developed a framework for
analyzing what made rulers effective. It is intentionally amoral (as
discussed in Chapter 1), concerned with what works in different
contexts and given different objectives.
The Prince makes it clear that the ruler’s goals and objectives are
determined by historical antecedents and current political contexts.
Constraints to action should be recognized and the “art of the possible”
practiced.
A ruler establishing his rule, will have to behave differently from one
who is secure and legitimate. Difficulties prospective rulers face when
taking over a state depend on whether it was a well-established republic
where its people value their freedom, or a principality where people are
used to being ruled by a monarch. In either case, Machiavelli made it
clear that what matters first is to get and hold on to the levers of power by
whatever means determined by the historical/political contexts and to
exercise that power by using situational management skills. Amoral
behavior could be justified for “reasons of state.”
Fourteenth century Italy may well have required a harsh prince but, remarkably
Machiavelli became more popular in the time since. Cromwell, Frederick the Great,
Louis XIV, Napoleon, Bismarck, Clemenceau, Wilson, Stalin, Hitler, Roosevelt, De
Gaulle, Churchill, Truman and a score of modern rulers referred to the Florentine’s
book as a source of practical guidance. Dictators and statesmen alike sought to
implement his recommendations …
… Because Machiavelli’s prince lacked justice, he could not rule with legitimacy. Yet,
almost 350 years before the Florentine wrote his famous guidebook, a fellow Italian –
but of Arab origin – underscored why a ruler could not govern without justice.19
[Emphasis ours]
Perhaps this need for justiceiv to provide legitimacy was the reason why
Machiavelli preferred republican government to princely government, a
preference that is abundantly clear in the Discourses. In the Discourses,
Machiavelli argued that challenge is important in helping the ruler make
good decisions and that managed conflict of the type in the Roman
Republic led to better decisions than monarchy.
It is useful to 20212223242526272829303132compare key elements of
Machiavelli’s approach to effectiveness with that of Ibn Zafar Al-Siqilli’s,
written some 350 years earlier, shown in →Table 11.2.
Table 11.2: Machiavelli and Ibn Zafar Compared.
Machiavelli Ibn Zafar
Political context Political context
A corrupt Papacy was losing its moral authority Infighting in the 12th century between
and was too weak to unify Italy, yet retained Sunni and Shia, Arabs and Persians
just enough power to prevent either France or brought about by the declining authority
Spain from doing so. The result was continuous of the Caliphate created a power vacuum
warfare between Italy’s five principalitiesv amid leading to Turkish, Norman, and Mongol
rampant cruelty and debauchery. conquests.
View of Human Nature View of Human Nature
“Machiavelli’s judgment is more categorical, he “To Ibn Zafar, evil is generally inherent in
views human nature as selfish, aggressive and human beings, which cannot be changed
acquisitive, which places men in a condition of … [However], as a Muslim, he is inclined
constant conflict and competition that would to acknowledge the possibility of
result in anarchy unless restrained by laws moderating human passions through
backed by a powerful ruler.”20 education and religious belief.”21
Role of Religion Role of Religion
Religion is an instrument of the state to The role of the state is to promote
promote obedience.vi religion.
Qualities of the Ruler Qualities of the Ruler
“For Machiavelli, the virtuous prince is one who “Ibn Zafar could not have accepted
has the will as well as the ability to achieve Machiavelli’s advocacy of power as the
power and establish a stable political order … ultimate virtue … Accordingly he lists a
Consequently, power becomes the supreme long chain of moral and instrumental
virtue, as ‘Machiavellian’ has come to mean.”22 qualities ranging from trust in God,
As far as Machiavelli was concerned, the ruler fortitude, patience, contentment, and self-
did not need to have all the qualities Ibn Zafar denial to paternal affection, vigilance,
sought, but instead it was enough that the ruler courage, sagacity, foresight, generosity,
was perceived to have them. More important he firmness, impartiality, and
must be prepared to go against these qualities righteousness.”23
if needed to hold on to power by becoming Despite this list of virtues, Ibn Zafar
cruel, inhuman, and irreligious. recommended using artifice (hila), ruse
(makida), and falsehood (kazb), but
rejected the idea that appearance was
enough. Most important was the creation
of a just society.24
Machiavelli Ibn Zafar
Choosing Advisers Choosing Advisers
Machiavelli regarded choosing advisers to be Ibn Zafar states a king’s first duty is to
“of foremost importance.”25 choose “a faithful counsellor, from whose
“Rulers get the advisers they deserve for good advice he may seek assistance in good as
rulers choose good ones, bad rulers bad ones. well as in adverse fortune” and that
The easiest way of assessing a ruler’s ability is choice reflects the ruler’s wisdom:
to look at those who are members of his inner “Counsel is the mirror of the intellect, if
therefore you would like to know the
circle”26
“When you see your advisor give more thought capacity of anyone, ask for advice.”29
to his own interests than yours … then you can “If you would like to know whether good
be sure such a person will never be a good or bad prevails in the mind of a man, ask
advisor. You will never be able to trust him, for for his counsel.”
he who runs a government should never “Amongst faithful and far-sighted
suggest anything that is not in the ruler’s counsellors, he is most deserving of
attention whose prosperity depends on
interests.”27 your own, and whose safety is tied to
“The ruler, in order to get the best out of his yours. He who stands in such a position,
advisor, should consider his advisor’s interests, exerting himself for your interests, will
heaping honours on him, enriching him, likewise serve and defend himself while
placing him in his debt, ensuring he receives
public recognition, so that he sees he cannot do fighting for you.”30
better without him, that he has so many Ibn Zafar describes the wazir to the king
honours he desires no more, so much wealth of Persia as
he desires no more, so much status he fears the “ … a man of mature years, astute, firm,
clear-sighted, experienced in business, a
consequences of political upheaval.”28 theologian, and well-versed in languages,
literature, science and the stratagems of
war.”31
Good advisers must have the courage to
speak truth to power, traitors are
flatterers.32
Source: Based on Kechichian, J, A., and Dekmejian, R. H. (2003), The Just Prince: A Manual of
Leadership (Singapore/Kuala Lumpur: Horizon Books), pp. 102–114.
Mutuality
The concept of mutuality is to be found in all major ethical systems as
the “Golden Rule”:
“Do unto others as you would have them do unto you” is the idea (also called the
law of reciprocity) that may be the most universally applauded moral principle on
Earth – the Golden Rule. Something like it appears in every major religion and
ethical philosophy. The wording above is from the King James Bible, Matthew 7:12,
however Hindu, Jewish, Buddhist, Confucian, and Zoroastrian versions of it
appeared 3,000–500 years earlier …
… Similarly, around 500 BCE, Confucius wrote “What you do not want done to
yourself, do not do to others.” In contrast to the statement in Leviticus, which is
found in the middle of a long list of rules, the Confucian rule has always been
emphasized as a foundation of Confucian society.36
The essential point remains the same: that only where all are equally affected by the
policy adopted can an equitable solution be expected:
‘The undertakings which bind us to the social body are obligatory only because they
are mutual, and their nature is such that in fulfilling them we cannot work for others
without working for ourselves … this admirable agreement between interest and
justice gives to the common deliberations an equitable character which at once
vanishes when any particular question is discussed, in the absence of a common
interest to unite and identify the ruling of the judge with that of the party.’
Provided this condition is met, nobody will deliberately vote for a burdensome law
because it will be burdensome to him too: this is why no specific limitations on the
‘general will’ are needed … Among the various policies which would affect everyone in
the same way, each person has to decide which would benefit himself the most – and,
since everyone else is similarly circumstanced, he is automatically deciding at the same
time which would benefit everyone else the most.37
[Emphases ours]
Predictability
Decision-makers should provide clarity and predictability for those
affected by their decisions if there is to be order and consistency in the
way people implement decisions. People need a mix of laws,
regulations, rules, and operating procedures to let them know what they
can and cannot do, how they are expected to act, the penalties they face
for breaking those laws and rules, and guidance on the best ways to do
what is asked of them.
The German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, provided a
comprehensive frameworkviii for setting rules, recognizing the need for
predictability that satisfied the demands of fairness. He divided rules
into two types: maxims and imperatives. He argued that since humans
are rational, actions always aim at some sort of end or goal, captured by
a maxim – a subjective rule or policy of action explaining what a person
is doing and why.39 Even when doing something as apparently simple as
having a coffee, the process or “script” may differ. For example,
ordering a cup of coffee in Starbucks is quite different from ordering
one in a restaurant. To avoid making a process mistake in enjoying a
coffee, the customer must know the appropriate procedure to achieve a
predictable experience and outcome. Maxims describe such procedural
steps. Kant’s hypothetical imperatives describe how people ought to
behave and are the basis of standard operating procedures, which are
generally applicable, for example, to anyone wishing to get a coffee, but
would not be appropriate for people who do not want a coffee, nor can
they be identical in every environment where coffee is served. They are
customized to suit the context and circumstances of each outlet.
Kant also provided a predictable set of rules called categorical
imperatives. These are formal rules describing how people should
behave without making any reference to their actions. Categorical
imperatives are those that all should adopt, regardless of the
circumstances involved.ix
Categorical imperatives apply to people no matter what their goals
and desires may be, unlike hypothetical imperatives that apply to people
only if they have desires that they want to satisfy, defining how to satisfy
those specific desires. The categorical imperative to help others in need
does not apply to people only if they desire to help others in need, and the
duty not to steal is not suspended if they have some desire that they could
satisfy by stealing.
Utility
Utilitarianism focuses actual, direct, and indirect consequences of
decisions by attempting to measure the pleasure and pain created. It
views the most important goal for humanity as maximizing pleasure
and minimizing pain.x However, that does not mean it is enough for a
majority to want something that harms the minority, if it did, it would
justify persecution of minorities, genocide, and ethnic cleansing. The
pain or loss of the minority may be much greater than the pleasure or
gain of the majority and so outweigh it:
These claims are often summarized in the slogan that an act is right if and only if it
causes “the greatest happiness for the greatest number.” This slogan is misleading,
however. An act can increase happiness for most (the greatest number of) people
but still fail to maximize the net good in the world if the smaller number of people
whose happiness is not increased lose much more than the greater number gains.
The principle of utility would not allow that kind of sacrifice of the smaller number to
the greater number unless the net good overall is increased more than any
alternative.40
[Emphasis ours]
Self-Image
Personalistic ethics (or self-image) ethics are subjective. They reflect the
inner values and purpose of each individual. They matter a great deal
when people agree to do something which conflicts with their inner
values and purpose – violating their values and purpose will discredit
them in their own eyes and those of their colleagues and friends.
Equally, harmony with their inner values and purpose will reinforce their
self-image, reputation, and authenticity, making it easier for them to
implement a similar decision in the future.
Making ethical decisions is easy when the facts are clear and the choices black and
white. But it is a different story when the situation is clouded by ambiguity,
incomplete information, multiple points of view, and conflicting responsibilities. In
such situations which [“wayfinders”] experience all the time – ethical decisions
depend on both the decision-making process itself and on the experience, intelligence,
and integrity of the decision-maker.44
[Emphasis ours]
The best way for people to check whether they are comfortable with a
decision and its likely results is to ask themselves if they would be able
to sleep at night after making it, using the “newspaper headline test” or
“newspaper test” to imagine how they and other people would feel
about what happened when they read about the decision in the
newspapers or, better yet, to imagine how they would explain/justify
what they had done to their eight-year-old child.
Summary
Ethics are difficult because they mean different things to different
people and there are six different approaches that need to be combined
if decisions taken are to be both ethical and effective.
The six approaches divide into duty-based (deontological) ethics and
consequential ethics. The former is black and white, doing right is more
important than doing good. The latter recognizes shades of gray, right
or wrong, depends on the results of decisions.
We argue that the most effective way to make both ethical and
effective decisions is to combine the six ethical approaches of virtue,
effectiveness, mutuality, predictability, utility, and self-image.
Virtue establishes the foundation for decision-making through arête
(personal excellence), moderated by phronesis (moral wisdom) in
seeking to achieve eudaimonia (happiness or flourishing) in Aristotelian
thinking. In Confucian thinking, what matters are ren (benevolence),
xiao (filial piety), xin (trustworthiness), zhong (loyalty), and yi
(righteousness).
Effectiveness is premised on the “ends justifying the means” and is
the first step in evaluating whether to act or not.
Mutuality or “The Golden Rule” comes next, assuming that the
action will achieve the intended consequences. It is important to
establish whether what is proposed will be acceptable to the community
or the society it will affect. Rousseau’s “Social Contract” mutuality and
its underlying principles determine the sustainability of what is being
proposed.
Predictability determines the rules of the game. Kant distinguished
between maxims and hypothetical imperatives. These form the basis of
standard operating procedures, generalizable in principle, but
customized to suit individual contexts and circumstances, providing
predictability as a result. Categorical imperatives, however, are a
predictable, unconditional set of rules of behavior that define behavior
regardless of who people are and of their circumstances.
Utility assumes that Bentham’s hedonistic calculus is the best way
to determine future behavior. It is a practical approach to most
problems but suffers from three drawbacks. The first is that it assumes
that all relevant consequences of future actions are knowable and
known, often not the case. The second is that it can be used as a
justification of the tyranny of the majority over the minority. The third is
that we are not just “economic” beings, we are emotional and thymotic
as well.
We conclude that decision-makers can reconcile duty-based with
consequential ethics to make ethical and effective decisions by adopting
the six-step cycle of evaluation in conjunction with the “Five Ps”
framework while remembering Lewis’s test of the difference between
how they feel they ought to behave and how they actually behave.
About the Authors
Christopher Bennett has had a wide ranging career as a director, senior executive, researcher,
consultant, and teacher/facilitator. His significant international exposure and working experience
includes having lived and worked in six countries and held directorships for major British and
American companies in 13. Additionally, he has held senior managerial responsibilities in more
than 20 countries across Asia, the Middle East, Europe, Australia, NZ, and the Americas. His
employers include Bechtel, Honeywell, Burmah Castrol, BP, Towers Perrin, and Watson Wyatt. He
has significant experience of directorship, general management, and Senior HR roles across the
engineering construction, electronics, oil and gas, and consulting sectors. Much of his board
consulting work was in the banking and finance sectors.
His functional career has three main episodes: first as a human resources executive and director,
second as a chief executive and director, third as consultant at board level. His observations and
experiences led him to a deep interest in the ways in which individual and group behavior
manifest in decision making and approaches to corporate governance of individual directors and
boards of directors in different cultures, situations, and in complex company groups.
He was a faculty member of ICLIF (the International Centre for Leadership in Finance – an arm of
Bank Negara Malaysia – now part of the Asia School of Business) and is currently an adjunct
member of the faculty. He also serves on the faculty of Australian Institute of Company Directors
and has facilitated programs for directors in Australia, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore, Jakarta,
and Dubai.
He is a doctoral researcher at Aston University where he explores the cultural and behavioral
aspects of board and top management team decision making in multicultural, multinational, and
complex company groups.
Chris lives in Kuala Lumpur. His publications (with Professor Mak Yuen Teen, National University
of Singapore) include Guardians of the Capital Markets (BPA 2016), Insuring the Future (The Iclif
Leadership and Governance Centre 2015); The Governance of Company Groups (CPA Australia &
Iclif 2014), Directors Daze (BPA 2014), Corporate Governance of 50 Largest Asian Banks (BPA 2013),
and numerous articles and newsletters (→http://www.bpa-australasia.com).
Index
ability
Aboukir Bay
acolytes
Acre
Acton, Lord
adapt
adaptability
Addington
Adige
advocacy
– – rotating devil’s
Afghanistan
Africa
Alexander, Tsar
Alexander VI
Alexandria
“Alfred Sloan solution”
Allies
alignment, organizational
altruism
Alva, Duke of
ambiguity
Americas
Amiens, Peace of
analytical skills
Anatolia(n)
angst
Ancien Regime
Anglicanism
Arab(s)
– – Spring
Arc de Triomphe
aristocracy(ies)
aristocrat(ic)
Aristotle
– – twelve techniques to enhance charisma
– – “magnanimous man”
– – virtue ethics
Armada, Spanish
Armenia(ns)
army
– – Grand
– – Interior
– – Italy
Arthashastra
Asia
association
– – Act of
– – Bond of
Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal
– – approach to achieving change
– – authoritarian
– – dictator, stubborn, merciless
– – not a police state
– – temperamental and fearless
– – ethno–nationalist and pro–western
– – personality cult
– – personal involvement
– – People’s School, headmaster
– – scientific approach
– – economic progress
– – farm
– – Ankara Forest
– – Nation Chopper
– – Piloğlu
– – emancipation of women
– – 1926 civil code, 117
– – eighteen MPs
– – equal rights
– – custody
– – divorce
– – inheritance
– – polygamy abolished
– – Supreme Court Justice
– – “Father of the Nation”
– – creating modern Turkey
– – abolished the Caliphate
– – adoption of Latin script
– – future of Turkey with the West
– – Kemalism six fundamental principles
– – nationalism
– – republicanism
– – revolutionary reform
– – secularism
– – statism
– – liberal democracy by illiberal means
– – Mehmet VI exiled
– – nation, state and party indivisible
– – “nation without classes or special privileges”
– – new principle of citizenship
– – one–party state
– – Republican People’s Party
– – “sovereignty is vested in the nation”
– – Turkish nationalism replaced Ottoman universalism
– – Western focused reforms
– – determined secularist
– – economic progress
– – emancipation of women
– – 1926 Civil code
– – unified modern education
– – “Rising Star”
– – Committee for Union and Progress (CUP)
– – Dogan Arslan
– – Reval program
– – incompetence of commanders
– – Syria
– – Tripolitania
– – Turco–Italian War
– – unified modern education
– – article 87, 1924 Constitution of the Turkish Republic
– – compulsory primary education
– – education
– – co–ed
– – ministry
– – unified
– – village
– – “educators”
– – law
– – education
– – organization
– – unification
– – international numerals, use of
– – village educators
– – public
– – classes
– – discipline bureau
– – houses
– – script
– – Latin
– – Turkish
– – society
– – Turkish
– – Historical
– – Language
– – School(s)
– – national
– – Theology
– – “village teaching”
– – Third Heyet–I–Ilmiye meeting
– – World War I
– – Anatolia, Eastern Front
– – Bitlis
– – Coruh campaign
– – Murat river
– – Mus
– – Second Army
– – Seventh Army
– – Yildirim Army Group
– – Gallipoli
– – ANZAC defeat
– – Ariburnu beach
– – Battleship hill
– – Chunuk Bair
– – Sari Bair
– – War of Independence
– – Anatolia
– – Ankara
– – Arpacay, river
– – Inönü
– – Marash
– – Sakarya, river
– – “soldiers, your goal is the Mediterranean”
– – Urfa
– – “Peace at home, peace in the world”
Atlantic
attitude
audience(s)
audit
Austerlitz
Austerity
Australians
Austria(n)
authenticity
authoritarian
authoritative
authority
awareness
Babington, Anthony
“bad”, morally
Baden
Baghdad
Balkan(s)
barons
Barras
barriers
– – to understanding
– – change
– – entry
– – exit
– – internal
basin of attraction
Battle of the Nile
Bavaria
behavior
Belgium
belief(s)
belong, need to
belonging, sense of
beneficiaries
benevolence
“benevolent”
Berber(s)
Berlin
Berwick, Treaty of
bias(es)
bishop(s)
– – Michael
– – Ross
Black Lives Matter
blackout
board(s)
– – “Cabinet Secretariat”
Boeing
Bologna
Bonaparte
– – Lucien
– – Napoleon
Bothwell
Bourbon(s)
bourgeois solution
BP
brains
– – hardwired
branding, four pillars
– – function
– – personality
– – differentiation
– – source of authority
Brexit
bridge–building
Britain
British
– – East India Company
– – Midland
Buddhism xvii
budget
Bulgaria
Burghley, Lord
Burke, Edmund
Burns, McGregor
business
Cadiz
Cadoudal
Cairo
Calais
caliph(ate)
callousness
Cambacérès
Cambridge
Campo Formio
Canada
career(s)
“Casket Letters”
Cassano
Castro
Catholic(s)
Catholicism
Cecil
CEO
centralization
certainty
Ceylon
Chamberlain, Neville
change
– – barriers
– – enablers
charisma
Charles IX
“cheating at cards”
China
Christianity
Church
Churchill, Winston
climate change
coalition
code of conduct
coercion
cognitive
collaboration
collective(s)
Comet
competence
competition
common touch
communicat(ing/ion)
communion
community
competence
competencies
complexity
compliance
compromise on religion
concentration
Concordat
Confederation
– – of the Rhine
– – Swiss
conflict
conformity
Confucius
constitution
context(s)
contextualist
“Continental System”
continuity
contrarian
COO
Copenhagen
Corfu
corruption
Corsica(n), xix
“cost of doing business”
council of
– – Ancients
– – Five Hundred
– – state
– – war
coup
courage
covid–19
curiosity
crown
cruelty
culture
customer
Dalmatia
“dark side”
Darnley
Darwinian
decision(s) making
decolonization
Declaration of Independence
democracy
Depression
destruction, creative
deviance, normalization of
dictatorship
Directory/Directorate, director(s)
discipline
Discourses, The
dissent
dissonance
Disneyland
Divergence
“divine right of kings”
division
– – 7th
– – 9th
– – 14th
– – 19th
– – 57th
– – 58th
– – 59th
Dodecanese
domain experience
Drake, Francis
– – “singe the King of Spain’s beard”
Drucker, Peter
Dudley
– – John, Earl of Warwick
– – Robert, Earl of Leicester
Dunlap, Al
Duc D’Anjou
Duc d’Enghien
Dutch
East Indies
economics
economy
– – neo–liberal
Edinburgh, Treaty of
Edward
education
effective(ness)
Egypt
Elba
elevator pitch
Elizabeth
– – accession, before
– – as Queen
– – dealing with socio–economic change
– – increased poverty
– – rise of Puritanism
– – shift in power
– – excommunication
– – finding a compromise on religion
– –marriages, alliances and succession
– – mastery of image management
– – “Golden Speech”
– – Tilbury
– – neutralizing the threat of Mary, Queen of Scots
– – claim to the throne
– – leader of Catholic revolt
– – sovereign of potential enemy
– – neutralizing the threat posed by Spain
– – asymmetrical warfare
– – commercial rivalry
– – investing in a superior navy
– – plausible deniability
– – “Supreme Governor”
– – early life
– – circumvention
– – deception
– – dissimulation
– – prevarication
– – failures
Elizabeth Tudor
empathy
emperor(s)
empire
– – French
– – Holy Roman
– – Ottoman
employment
enclosures
“ends justify the means”
engagement skills
England
– – Enterprise of
enlightenment
ensuring organizational alignment
English
epidemiology
episcopacy
Erfurt
Eros
Essex
Essling
ethical
ethics
– – applied
– – consequential
– – duty–based
– – six approaches
– – effectiveness
– – mutuality
– – predictability
– – self–image
– – virtue
– – Utility
Europe(an)
“evergreen”
evil
evolution xix
excellence
Fabius
fairness
fake news
fear
First Consul
“Five Forces”
“Five Ps”
flexibility
Florence
followers
Ford, Henry
fortuna
forward–looking, being
Fotheringhay
Fouché
foundation myth
founding principles
“Four Cs”
Fox, Charles
France
Frederick William III
free riding
French
“frenzied wooing”
Freud
Friedman, Milton
Gallipoli
Gandhi, Mahatma
Gaza
Genoa
Genoese
George III
– – Hanoverian possessions
George, Bill
German(y)
Global Financial Crisis (GFC)
glory
goal(s)
“Golden Rule”
good(ness)
– – morally
governance
governing thought
six types of government
– – anarchy
– – aristocracy
– – democracy
– – oligarchy
– – principality
– – tyranny
Grand National Assembly
“great
– – leaders”
– – men”
Greece
Greek(s)
Grenville
Hannibal
Hanover
Hapsburg
Hawkins, Sir John
hedonistic calculus
Hegel
“helicopter management”
Henry VIII
heuristics
history, lessons from
Hitler
Hobbes
Ho Chi Minh
Holland
Holy Roman Empire
honor
HR
hubris
Hugo, Victor
humans
Hungary
Ibn Zafar, Muhammad
“idea whose time has come”
ideas, super–spreaders of
ideology
ignorance
Illyria
image management
imagination
immoral
inability to execute
incompetence
incorruptibility
India
independence
individualism
“Industry 4.0”
inefficiency
ineffective
inequality
inertia
information
innovation
Inonü
– – Ismet
Ionia(n)
integrity
Intellectual Curiosity
interests, vested
introduction xvii–xx
INSEAD study
inspiration
insularity
integrity, need for
intemperance
Iran
Iraq
Ireland
Islam
Istanbul
Italian(s)
Italy
Jacobin(s)
Jaffa
James VI
Japan
Jefferson
Jesuits
job evaluation
justice
just– in–
– – case
– – time
Kant, Immanuel
Kautilya
Kellerman, Barbara
Kemalism
– – “Six arrows”
Kennedy, President
king
Kouzes and Posner
KPI(s)
Kurdish Naksibendi revolt
Kutuzov
ladder of inference
Lady Jane Grey
Lao Tzu
La Rochefoucauld, Duc de
Latin
law(s)
– – poor
– – rule of
leaders
– – admired
– – competent
– – forward–looking
– – inspiring
– – integrity
– – intelligent
– – toxic
– – unethical
leadership xvii
– – sociological analysis of
– – characteristics reviewed
– – “dark side”
– – managerial xix
– – “morally good”
– – morally neutral
– – skills xvii
– – techniques
– – three ingredients
– – tools
– – two models xx
– – dominant
– – prestige
– – What is
League of Nations
Lebanon
legacy
– – Atatürk
– – Elizabeth Tudor
– – Napoleon
legacy effect
legitimacy
Leicester
Lenin
Leviathan
Lewis, C. S.
Liddell Hart
“line of sight”
Locke
logic
logical fallacies
logistics
Logos
Lombard(y)
– – legion
London
– – conference
Louis XVIII
love of
– – honor
– – learning
– – money
Lucca and Piombino
Luxembourg
Lycurgus
Macedonia
Machiavelli
– – contradictory positions xviii
– – disdain for “morally pure” leaders
– – desirable political “ends”
– – difficulties experienced by a prince
– – effective leadership xix
– – effectiveness ethics
– – expected behavior of a ruler
– – insight
– – reconciling two approaches
– – six types of government
– – anarchy
– – aristocracy
– – democracy
– – oligarchy
– – principality
– – tyranny
Maitland, William
Malta
Mamelukes
managerial leadership
managerial skills
management
Mandela, Nelson
Mao
Mar, Earl of
Marie–Louise
Marcus Aurelius
marketing
Martin Luther King
Mary, Queen of Scots
– – claim to the throne
– – executed
– – leader of Catholic revolt
– – sovereign of potential enemy
Marx
Marxist–Leninist
Maslow
mastery
means
media
– – social
Medici
megatrends
meme(s)
Mencius
Mendoza
mental models
mercy
“message house”
Metternich
Middle East
Milan
milestones
Milgram experiment
military
mind
mission
monarch(y)
Mongols
“morally defensible”
morality
Moray
Moscow
motivation
motivators
motor neuron disease
Munich
Murat
Muslim
myth
Mythos
Naples
Napoleon
– – Bonaparte
– – Reformer
– – Italy
– – Campo Formio, Treaty of
– – Cisalpine Republic
– – Ligurian Republic
– – “Lombard legion”
– – Egypt
– – Aboukir Bay
– – Acre
– – Battle of the Pyramids
– – Gaza
– – “God’s messenger”
– – intellectual curiosity
– – First Consul
– – Administration des Eaux et des Forêts
– – administrative reform
– – amnesty for Royalists
– – balanced budget
– – Bank of France
– – Bourse
– – centralization
– – Code Napoleon
– – Concordat
– – educational reform
– – Grand Duchy of Warsaw
– – Legion d’Honneur
– – Louisiana Purchase
– – Ministry of Finance
– – new constitution
– – prosperity
– – Treasury
– – Rising Star
– – Apprenticeship
– – “Saving the Revolution”
– – The Italian Campaign
– – discipline
– – incentives for bravery
– – unity of command
– – surprise
– – speed
– – concentration of forces
– – Warrior–Emperor
– – Erfurt
– – establishing a dynasty
– – exceptional battlefield commander
– – artillery background
– – emphasis on detail
– – empowered his soldiers
– – importance of
– – bravery
– – individual soldiers
– – integrated action
– – mathematical abilities
– – personal contract with troops
– – Pressburg, Treaty of
– – promised a better future
– – produced results
– – shared the life
– – exceptional battle field record
– – Arcola
– – Auerstädt
– – Austerlitz
– – Bassano
– – Bautzen
– – Eylau
– – Friedland
– – Jena
– – Ligny
– – Lutzen
– – Mantua
– – Marengo
– – Rivoli
– – Ulm
– – Wagram
– – “Total war”
– – hunger for personal glory
– – ultimate failure of strategy
– – abdication
– – Berezina
– – Borodino
– – Chaumont, Treaty
– – “cheating at cards”
– – Leipzig
– – retreat from Moscow
– – Spain
– – Waterloo
– – Legacy
narcissism
NASA
nationalist(s)
nature
– – aristocratic principle of
– – state of
naval strategy
navigating transitions
– – “Bridges” model
– – S.A.R.A.H
navy
“Negative Manifestos”
Nehru
Nelson
Netherlands
neuroscience
“new normal”
“newspaper test”
Niemen
“Noble Lie”
Nokia
Norfolk
normal
Northumberland
objections
obstacles
Occidental Petroleum
oligarchy
– – “Iron Law” of
“one size fits all”
open–mindedness
opportunity costs
organization(al)
originality
orthodoxy
orthopraxy
Ottoman(s)
– – empire
pain
Papal States
Paris
Parliament
Parma, Duke of
Parr, Katherine
Pascal, Blaise
peace, xix
performance
Persian
personality
“PESTLE”
Philip II
philosophers
Piedmont(ese)
Pink, Daniel
Piper Alpha disaster
piracy
Pitt, William
Pius V
plan(ning)
Plato
pleasure
Pope
Poland
political
Polybius
Portugal
poverty
power
Powers
– – Central
– – colonial
– – Great
– predictability
prejudices
Presbyterians
Prince, The
principles
privateer(s/ing)
Privy Council(lors)
processes
progresses
production
Protestant(s)
Protestantism
Prussia
Puritanism
purpose
“Pyramid Principle”
Pyramids, Great
Queen Mary
R&D
random
rationalist
reason
recognition
reconciling
Recusancy, Act of
reform(er)
relationship(s)
Republic, The
republic
– – Cisalpine
– – French
– – Ligurian
– – Roman
– – two types
resistance
resourcing
respect
responsible citizen
retreat
revolution
reward(s)
rhetoric
Rhine
Ridolfi
rigidity
risk
Rizzio
Robespierre
Romania
Rome
Rousseau
ruler
rules
Russia(ns)
Russell, Bertrand
ruthlessness
Salonika
sacrament
sailing
sales
satiety
Savonarola
Savoy
Saxony
Schumpeter
Scottish
Scotland
secular(ist)
security
Sejong the Great
senate
“seize the day”
self–actualization
self–control
self–esteem, v
self–image, xv
senate
Senge, Peter
Seymour, Thomas
Sèvres, Treaty of
shareholder value
Shariah
Sicily
Sieyès
silent majority
simplicity
simplification
– – problem of xiv
Six Day War
six ethical approaches
Six–Step process
Sixtus V
skills
– – Communication xx
– – leadership
– – listening
– – managerial
– – measurement
– – problem–solving
– –risk management
– – thinking
skill/will model
slave trade
Smyrna
“social death”
social species
Socrates
Sony
Spain
Spanish
Sparta
“speak truth to power”
special, need to feel
speed
square pegs in round holes
stability
stakeholder(s)
– – engagement
– – primary
– – secondary
– – tertiary
Stalin
start–ups
status
– – achieved
– – ascribed
St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
St Helena
strategist
strategy
– – feasibility feedback
– – five questions
structure
succession
succession planning
Suleiman the Magnificent
sultan(ate)
supply chain
Supremacy
– – Act of
– – Church
survival
– – of the fittest
Switzerland
Sykes–Picot agreement
Syria
systems thinking
tactics
talent management
Talleyrand
Taranto
temperance
Terror
Thirty–Nine Articles
“trafficked in nations”
Thrace
“Three As” xx
“Three Rs” xx
Throckmorton
– – Nicholas
– – Francis
Thymos
tightly–coupled
Tilsit
timing
tone
Toulon
traits
transitions
trial and error
Trinidad
Trompenaars and Hampden–Turner
Truman, President
trust
truth
Turkey
Turk(s)
Turkish
Tyrol
tyranny
UN Resolution
uncertainty
understanding
unemployment
unethical
uniformity
– – Act of
United Kingdom (UK)
United States
unity
universalists
unpredictability
USSR
validation
value chain
values
Venice
Venizelos
Vienna
Virgin Mary
Virgin Queen
“virtuous”
virtù
– – and fortuna
virtue
virus(es)
– – Ideological–cultural
vision
Volatility
VUCA
Walewska, Maria
Warsaw
“wayfinder”(s)
“wayfinding” xix
– – Polynesian
Walsingham
Waterloo
Welch, Jack
– – “Four Es”
Wellington, Duke of
Westmorland
Westphalia
Why Do Leaders Lead, and Followers Follow?
wickedness
William of Orange
Wilson, Woodrow
Wisdom
Without power and authority, the ruler is unable to do anything
World War, I, II
Wurttemberg
Xerox
Yorktown
Zurich
Notes
1 Pascale, R. (1990), Managing on the Edge (New York: Simon
and Schuster).
2 Russell, B. (1947), A History of Western Philosophy (London:
George Allen and Unwin), p. 531.
1 Spector, B. A. (2016), “Carlyle, Freud, and the Great Man
Theory more fully considered,” Leadership, 2016, Vol. 12, No. 2, p.
258.
2 Kellerman, B. (2004), Bad Leadership: What It Is, How It
Happens, Why It Matters (Boston: Harvard Business School Press),
p. 13.
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid.
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid., p. 5.
i Confucius (551 BCE–479 BCE).
7 Confucius (479 BCE), Analects of Confucius (New York:
Norton, 1997), p. 6.
8 Ibid., p. 8.
ii Lao Tzu (6th century BCE).
9 Lao Tzu,
→https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/lao_tzu_121709,
accessed on October 22, 2020.
iii Plato (428/7 BCE–348/7 BCE).
iv Kautilya (375 BCE–283 BCE).
10 Prabhu, U. M. (2019), “Kautilya on Overcoming Limitations
in Leadership,” The Kautilya Project, Vedic Management Center,
April 21, 2019, →https://www.vedic-management.com/kautilya-
on-mindful-leadership-overcoming-limitations-in-leadership/
accessed on April 24, 2020.
v Marcus Aurelius (CE 121–180).
11 Marcus Aurelius (1964), ed., Staniforth, M., Meditations
(Harmondsworth: Penguin Books), Book 4.6, p. 65.
12 Ibid., Book 6.21, p. 96.
13 Ibid., Book 6.39, p. 100.
14 Ibid., Book 7.18, p. 108.
vi Sejong the Great (1397–1450), fourth king of the Joseon
dynasty and inventor of the Korean alphabet.
15 Quoted by Banyan (2020), “South Korea’s liberal rulers
unleash their inner authoritarians,” The Economist, August 20,
2020, →https://www.economist.com/asia/2020/08/20/south-
koreas-liberal-rulers-unleash-their-inner-authoritarians, accessed
on August 21, 2020.
16 Nederman, C. (2019), “Niccolò Machiavelli,” Zalta, E. N.
(ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2019
Edition), May 28, 2019,
→https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/machiav
elli/, accessed on May 17, 2020.
17 Machiavelli, N. (1531), The Discourses on Livy
(Harmondsworth: Pelican Classics, 1970).
18 Machiavelli, N. (1513), The Prince (Harmondsworth:
Penguin Books, 1999).
vii Girolamo Savonarola (1452–1498) was a Dominican monk
and Puritan fanatic who became the moral dictator of Florence in
1494 when the Medici were temporarily exiled. “A visionary,
prophet and formidably effective hellfire preacher, obsessed with
human wickedness and convinced that the wrath of God was
about to fall upon the earth, he detested practically every form of
pleasure and relaxation …”
Cavendish, R. (1998), “Execution of Girolamo Savonarola,” History
Today, Volume 48, Issue 5, May 1998,
→https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-
past/execution-girolamo-savonarola, accessed on May 17, 2020.
19 Ibid., p. 19.
viii Polybius (c200–118 BCE).
ix The cycle comprises Principality (monarchy) – rule by one;
Aristocracy – rule by the best; Oligarchy – rule by the few; Tyranny
– rule by a tyrant; Democracy – rule by the people; and Anarchy –
rule by none, leading back to monarchy.
20 Machiavelli (1531), op. cit., Book 1, Discourse 2, p. 106.
21 Hobbes, T. (1651), Leviathan (London: Andrew Crooke),
Chapter 13, 62, quoted in (London: Penguin Classics, 1985), p. 188.
22 Machiavelli (1531), op. cit., Book 1, Discourse 2, p. 107.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid.
26 Ibid., p. 108.
27 Ibid., p. 109.
x Lycurgus (800–730 BCE) “After creating the senate,
Lycurgus addressed the question of land ownership. At this time
there was an extreme inequality among the Spartans, with most
of the wealth and land in the control of only a few. Most of the
people felt poor and unhappy. Arrogance and envy, luxury and
crime, resulted from this unequal distribution of property.
Lycurgus divided the land equally, so that merit – not money –
became the only measure of a man’s worth. Lycurgus intended to
remove any inequalities in ownership of personal property as well
as real property, but he realized that it would be too difficult to
proceed openly. Therefore, he took an indirect approach. His
solution was to ban ownership of any gold or silver, and to allow
only money made of iron. The iron coins of Sparta were dipped in
vinegar to make the metal brittle and worthless. Merchants
laughed at this money because it had no intrinsic value, so
imports of luxuries stopped. Robbery and bribery vanished from
Sparta instantly.” Plutarch, “Lycurgus, The Father of Sparta,”
→https://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/biography/lycurgus.htm,
accessed on May 17, 2020.
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid., pp. 110–111.
xi There are important similarities with the American
Constitution and the British Parliamentary system.
30 Ibid., p. 111.
31 Ibid., Book 1, Discourse 34, p. 195.
32 Nederman (2019), op. cit.
33 Machiavelli (1531), Book 1, Discourse 4, p. 113.
xii Helots were slaves owned by the Spartan state. They came
from the groups of people that the Spartans subjugated.
34 Ibid., Book 1, Discourse 6, pp. 121–122.
35 Ibid., Book 1, Discourse 10, p. 136.
36 Ibid., Book 1, Discourse 9, p. 132.
37 Ibid., Book 1, Discourse 16, p. 155.
38 Ibid., Book 1, Discourse 24, p. 173.
39 Machiavelli (1513), The Prince (London: Penguin Classics,
1999), Chapter VIII, p. 30.
40 Keegan, J. (1993) A History of Warfare (London: Pimlico), p.
210.
xiii “Truman stated that his decision to drop the bomb was
purely military. A Normandy-type amphibious landing would have
cost an estimated million casualties. Truman believed that the
bombs saved Japanese lives as well.” “51g. The Decision to Drop
the Bomb,” USHistory.org,
→https://www.ushistory.org/us/51g.asp, accessed on May 19,
2020.
41 Machiavelli (1513), op. cit., Chapter VI, p. 19.
42 Ibid., Chapter VIII, pp. 30–31.
43 Ibid., Chapter XX, p. 70.
44 Ibid., Chapter IX, p. 32.
45 Ibid., Chapter XXI, p. 74.
46 Ibid., Chapter XXIII, p. 77.
47 Nederman, C. (2019), “Critical Essays Virtù, Fortuna, and
Free Will,” Cliffs Notes,
→https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/p/the-prince/critical-
essays/virtxf9-fortuna-and-free-will, accessed on March 7, 2020.
48 Ibid.
xiv “Agathocles of Syracuse (361–289 BCE) ruled as tyrant of
the Sicilian city for over 25 years. Ambitious, unprincipled, and
seeing himself as a new Alexander, he attacked Carthage and
made conquests in southern Italy, but ultimately his quest for a
lasting Sicilian-Italian empire failed.” Cartwright, M.
(2016),“Agathocles of Syracuse,” Ancient History Encyclopedia,
June 3, 2016, →https://www.ancient.eu/Agathocles_of_Syracuse/,
accessed on May 19, 2020.
xv “Lucius Septimius Severus was Roman emperor from April
193 to February 211 CE.” Hurley, P. (2011), “Septimius Severus,”
Ancient History Encyclopedia, April 11, 2011,
→https://www.ancient.eu/Septimius_Severus/, accessed on May
19, 2020.
49 Ibid.
50 Nederman (2019), op. cit.
51 Machiavelli (1513), op. cit., Chapter VI, p. 18.
52 La Rochefoucauld (1678), Maxims (Harmondsworth:
Penguin Classics, 1979), Maxim 53, p. 44.
53 Ibid., Maxim 153, p. 56.
54 Ibid., p. 82.
55 Crick, B. (1970), Introduction to Discourses
(Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics), p. 18.
56 Machiavelli (1531), 34, pp. 194–195.
57 Crick (1970), op. cit., p. 30.
xvi The parallels with the US military experience in Iraq or
Afghanistan are striking.
58 Ibid., Discourse 26, p. 176.
59 La Rochefoucauld (1678), op. cit., Maxim 608, p. 120.
60 Machiavelli (1513), op. cit., Chapter XVIII, p.56.
xvii The parallels with Lenin, Hitler, and Stalin in the 20th
century are striking, as is the similarity with the rise of populist
leaders in the 21st century who trade in “fake news” on social
media to undermine belief in the truth in the post-truth world
since 2016. Their ways of achieving power would have met with
approval from Machiavelli, at least from a technical perspective.
61 Ibid., Chapter XVIII, p. 57.
62 Machiavelli (1531), op. cit., Discourse 18, p. 164.
63 Nederman (2019), op. cit.
64 Russell, B. (1947), A History of Western Philosophy (London:
George Allen and Unwin), pp. 530–531.
65 McGregor Burns, J. (1978), Leadership (New York:
HarperCollins).
66 Warren Bennis, W. (1989), On Becoming a Leader (New
York: Basic Books).
67 Kellerman (2004), op. cit., p. 9.
68 Ibid., p. 8.
69 Ibid., p. 9.
xvii The cut-off point in 2007 was set at more than 50% of the
i 75,000 surveyed respondents agreeing in the following
countries: Australia, Canada, Denmark, Japan, Korea, Malaysia,
Mexico, New Zealand, Singapore, Sweden, and the US. The fifth
characteristic, Intelligent, received 48%. Kouzes, J. M., and Posner,
B. Z., The Leadership Challenge (San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons,
2007), p. 31.
70 Ibid.
71 Ibid.
72 Ibid.
73 Ibid.
74 Ibid.
75 Hobbes, T. (1651), Leviathan (London: Penguin Classics,
1985).
76 Locke, J. (1690), Second Treatise on Civil Government.
77 Hegel, G. W. F. (1807), “The Phenomenology of Mind,” cited
in Fukuyama, F. (1992), The End of History and the Last Man
(London: Penguin Books), pp. 192–193.
78 Plato, The Republic, Part V, Book IV, Lee, H. D. P. translated
(London: Penguin Classics, 1987), pp. 139–149; Plato, Phaedrus
and Letters VII AND VIII (London: Penguin Books, 1973), pp. 61–63.
79 Fukuyama (1992), op. cit., p. 192.
80 Fest, J. C. (1974), Hitler (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson),
p. 218.
81 Ibid., p. 655.
82 Hobbes, T. (1651), Leviathan (London: Andrew Crooke),
Chapter 13, 62, quoted in (London: Penguin Classics, 1985), p. 186.
xix Plato’s Thymos discussed earlier in the chapter.
xx Plato’s Logos discussed earlier in the chapter.
xxi Plato’s Eros discussed earlier in the chapter.
83 Ibid., p. 188.
84 Lipman-Blumen, J. (2004), The Allure of Toxic Leaders: Why
We Follow Destructive Bosses and Corrupt Politicians – and How We
Can Survive Them (Oxford: Oxford University Press), reviewed in
Get Abstract, Compressed Knowledge, p. 2,
→https://www.getabstract.com/en/summary/the-allure-of-toxic-
leaders/4368, accessed on March 30, 2020.
85 Ibid., p. 3.
86 Spector (2016), op. cit., pp. 257–258.
87 Maslow, A. H. (1943), “A Theory of Human Motivation,”
Psychological Review, 50 (4), pp. 370–396,
→http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm,
accessed on April 23, 2020.
88 Lipman-Blumen (2004), op. cit., p. 3.
89 “Milgram Experiment – Obedience to Authority,”
Explorable, →https://explorable.com/stanley-milgram-
experiment#:~:text=Conclusion%20%2D%20Obedience%20to%2
0Authority,65%20%25%20never%20stopped%20giving%20shocks
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90 Lipman-Blumen (2004), op. cit., p. 4.
91 Ibid., p. 3.
92 Burns, W. A. (2017), “A descriptive literature review of
harmful leadership styles: Definitions, commonalities,
measurements, negative impacts, and ways to improve these
harmful leadership styles,” Creighton Journal of Interdisciplinary
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2020.
xxii Former CEO of Sunbeam Corporation.
93 Lipman-Blumen (2004), op. cit., p. 4.
94 Taleb, N. (2001), Fooled by Randomness: The Hidden Role of
Chance in the Markets and Life (New York: W. W. Norton).
95 Taleb, N. (2010), The Black Swan: The Impact of the Highly
Improbable (New York: Random House).
96 Kahneman, D. (2011), Thinking, Fast and Slow (London:
Allen Lane).
xxii As of December 16, 2019, President Trump had made
i 15,413 false claims since becoming president. “Trump has
made over 15,000 false or misleading statements since becoming
President, report says,” The Independent, December 16, 2019. He
continues to assert that he did not lose the 2020 Presidential
election, despite all the evidence to the contrary.
97 Milgram, S. (1974), Obedience to Authority: An Experimental
View (New York: Harper & Row).
98 Lipman-Blumen, J. (2001), “Why Do We Tolerate Bad
Leaders – Magnificent Uncertitude, Anxiety and Meaning,” in The
Future of Leadership, eds. Warren Bennis et al. (San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass).
99 Jacques, E. (1990), “In Praise of Hierarchy,” Harvard
Business Review, January 1990.
100 Michels, R. (1962), Political Parties (New York; Free Press), p.
66.
101 Kellerman (2004), op. cit., pp. 25–27.
102 Lipman-Blumen (2004), op. cit., p. 3.
103 Guo, Q. et al. (2012), “The Values of Confucian Benevolence
and the Universality of the Confucian Way of Extending Love,”
Frontiers of Philosophy in China, Vol. 7, No. 1 (March 2012), pp. 20–
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April 24, 2020.
104 “Ruthlessness,” Cambridge English Dictionary,
→https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ruthlessne
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105 Grove, A. (1999), Only the Paranoid Survive: How to Exploit
the Crisis Points that Challenge Every Company (New York: Penguin
Random House).
106 Kennedy, J. F. (1962) Remarks on the first anniversary of the
Alliance for Progress, 13 March 1962,
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1 Sixtus V. (1588), quoted in Weir. A. (1988), Elizabeth the
Queen (London: Jonathan Cape), p. 399.
2 Mattingly, G. (1959), The Defeat of the Spanish Armada
(London: Jonathan Cape), p. 30.
3 Duc de Sully (1601), quoted in Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 471.
4 Machiavelli, N., (1513), The Prince, (Harmondsworth:
Penguin Books, 1999), Chapter VIII, pp.30–31.
5 Williams, N. (1972), Elizabeth I, Queen of England (London:
Sphere Books), p. 82.
6 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 54.
7 Knox, J. (1558), First Blast of the Trumpet Against the
Monstrous Regiment of Women, quoted in Weir (1988), op. cit., p.
222.
8 Ibid., p. 166.
9 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 487.
10 Ibid., p. 3.
11 Mattingly (1959), op. cit., p. 42.
12 “Elizabeth I (r.1558–1603),” Royal Encyclopaedia,
→https://www.royal.uk/elizabeth-i, accessed on October 4, 2020.
13 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 487.
14 Williams (1972), op. cit., pp. 8–10.
15 Ibid., p. 9.
16 Weir (1988), op. cit. p. 14.
17 Ibid., pp. 22–23.
i Edward VI, followed by Mary, and then Elizabeth.
18 Ibid., p. 26.
19 Elizabeth I (1554), quoted in ibid., pp. 31–33.
20 Elizabeth I and Mary I (1555), quoted in ibid., p. 41.
21 Throckmorton, N. (1558), quoted in ibid., p. 47.
22 Ibid., p. 49.
23 Ibid., p. 40.
ii Following a brief, disastrous, military adventure in France,
Elizabeth avoided making irrevocable commitments wherever
possible. Mattingly, G. (1959), The Defeat of the Spanish Armada
(London: Jonathan Cape), p. 143.
24 Axelrod, A. (2000), Elizabeth I, CEO: Strategic Lessons from
the Leader Who Built an Empire (Paramus, New Jersey: Prentiss
Hall Press), pp. 94–95.
25 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 59.
26 Williams (1972), op. cit., p. 70.
iii St. Paul had stated that no woman was permitted to act as
apostle, shepherd, or preacher, rendering Elizabeth unfit. Weir, A.
(1998), op. cit., p. 59.
27 Berlatsky, J. (2003) “A Reformation Survivor: The Case of
Archbishop Nicholas Heath, Lord Chancellor of England, and the
Rule of Women,” The Historian, Vol. 65, No. 5 (FALL 2003), p. 1,
→https://www.jstor.org/stable/24452489?seq=1, accessed on
October 7, 2020.
28 Ibid., p. 71.
29 “Queen Elizabeth I: Religious Settlement,” Elizabethi.org
1998–2020,
→https://www.elizabethi.org/contents/elizabethanchurch/settle
ment.html, accessed on October 7, 2020.
30 Ibid., p. 55.
31 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 58.
32 Williams (1972), op. cit., p. 64.
33 Ibid., p. 68.
34 “An Acte of Uniformitie of Common Praier, And Service in
the Church, And The Administration of The Sacraments 1559,”
→http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/1559/front_matter_1
559.htm, accessed on October 7, 2020.
35 “Queen Elizabeth I And Catholics,”
→https://www.elizabethi.org/contents/elizabethanchurch/catholi
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36 Axelrod (2000), op. cit., pp. 91–92.
37 Overview of Elizabeth I, Historical Association.
38 “Queen Elizabeth I: Marriage and Succession,”
Elizabeth.org 1998–2020,
→https://www.elizabethi.org/contents/marriage/, accessed on
October 12, 2020.
39 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 62.
40 Count von Helfenstein (1559), quoted in Weir (1988), op.
cit., pp. 60–61.
41 Elizabeth I, quoted in ibid., p. 73.
42 Baron Breuner (1559), quoted in ibid., p. 87.
43 Ibid., p. 278.
44 Conversation between Catherine de Medici and Sir Thomas
Smith (1572), quoted in ibid., pp. 284–285.
45 Elizabeth I (1579), quoted in ibid., pp. 329–330.
46 Axelrod (2000), op. cit., pp. 188–189.
47 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 91.
48 Axelrod (2000), op. cit., p. 189.
49 Weir (1988), op. cit., pp. 127–128.
50 Ibid., p. 132.
51 Ibid., p. 133.
52 Ibid., p. 143.
53 Ibid., p. 145.
54 Ibid., pp. 148–150.
55 Ibid., p. 163.
56 Elizabeth I, quoted in ibid., p. 167.
57 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 168.
58 Ibid., p. 174.
59 Ibid., p. 177.
60 Ibid., p. 183.
61 Ibid., p. 185.
62 Elizabeth I (1567), quoted in ibid., p. 186.
63 Ibid., p. 189.
64 Ibid., p. 191.
65 Ibid., pp. 194–195.
66 Elizabeth I (1568), quoted in ibid., p. 197.
67 Weir (1988), op. cit., pp. 200–201.
68 Ibid., pp. 207–208.
69 Ibid., pp. 210–212.
70 Weir (1988), pp. 212–214.
71 Williams (1972), op. cit., p. 174.
72 Ibid., p. 175.
73 Wilson (1572), quoted in ibid., p. 175.
74 Charles IX (1572), quoted in ibid., p. 277.
75 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 281–283.
iv The massacre on the 23rd–24th August 1572 of up to
30,000 French Huguenots ordered by the French King, Charles IX.
76 Ibid., p. 289.
77 Ibid., p. 295.
78 Ibid., pp. 334–335.
79 Ibid., p. 335.
80 Ibid., p. 340.
81 Ibid., p. 347.
82 Ibid., pp. 349–350.
83 Ibid., pp. 350–353.
84 Ibid., p. 365.
85 Elizabeth I (1585), quoted in ibid., p. 361.
86 Mary, Queen of Scots (1586), quoted in ibid., p. 363.
87 Elizabeth 1 (1586), quoted in ibid., p. 366.
v The public were appalled at the cruelty. The next day
Elizabeth ordered that the remaining seven conspirators be
drawn and quartered only after they were dead.
88 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 367.
89 Ibid., pp. 368–370.
90 Elizabeth I (1586), quoted in ibid., p. 372.
91 Ibid., p. 373.
92 Ibid., p. 376–378.
93 Ibid., pp. 380–381.
94 Parry, J. H. (1963), The Age of Reconnaissance (London:
Weidenfeld and Nicholson), pp. 177–178.
95 Ibid., p. 181.
96 Thomas, H. (1977), The Slave Trade: The History of the
Atlantic Slave Trade 1440–1870 (London: Picador), p. 158.
97 Parry (1963), op. cit., pp. 183–185.
98 Ibid., pp. 75–76.
99 Andrews, K. (1984), Trade, Plunder, and Settlement: Maritime
Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press), p. 53, cited in ibid., p. 76.
vi According to the Bank of England calculator, £1 in 1577,
would have been worth £3,995.27 in 2019.
100 Cummins, J. (1995), Francis Drake, Lives of a Hero (New York:
St Martin’s Press), p. 125, cited in ibid., p. 76.
101 Ibid.
102 Snyder, A. J. (2006), “The Politics of Piracy: Pirates,
Privateers, and the Government of Elizabeth I, 1558–1588,”
Department of History, University of North Carolina, Wilmington, p.
51, →https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncw/f/snydera2006-1.pdf,
accessed on October 19, 2020.
103 Ibid., p. 2.
104 Ibid., p. 3.
105 Ibid., p. 73.
106 Ibid., p. 4.
107 Ibid., p. 74.
108 Ibid., pp. 4–5.
109 Doran, S. (2000), Elizabeth I and Foreign Policy, 1558–1603
(London: Routledge), p. 15, cited in ibid., p. 12.
110 Oppenheim, M. (1891), “The Royal and Merchant Navy
Under Elizabeth,” The English Historical Review, Vol. 6, No. 23, (July
1891), p. 473, cited in ibid., p. 23.
111 Ibid., pp. 465–466, cited in Snyder (2006), op. cit., p. 24.
112 Snyder (2006), op. cit., p. 25.
113 Ibid., p. 25.
114 Swinburne, H. L. (1907), The Royal Navy (London: Adam and
Charles Black), p. 29, cited in ibid., p. 26.
115 Snyder (2006), op. cit., p. 26.
116 Ibid., p. 5.
117 Mattingly (1959), op. cit., pp. 93–94.
vii The principle that the religion of the monarch determines
the official religion of a nation.
118 Ibid., pp. 171–172.
119 Ibid., pp. 173–174.
120 Ibid., pp. 175–176.
121 Ibid., pp. 176–177.
122 Spencer, U., Prestwich, M. et al. (2020), “Elizabethan
Society,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., September 6, 2020,
→https://www.britannica.com/place/United-
Kingdom/Elizabethan-society, accessed on September 8, 2020.
123 Ibid.
124 “Restoring England’s currency,” Royal Museums Greenwich,
→https://www.rmg.co.uk/discover/explore/restoring-englands-
currency, accessed on October 25, 2020.
125 Briscoe, A. (2011), “Poverty in Elizabethan England,” BBC,
February 17, 2011,
→http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/poverty_01.shtml
#:~:text=Elizabethan%20England%20faced%20a%20mounting,ser
ies%20of%20strict%20Poor%20Law, accessed on September 8,
2020.
viii Legally consolidating (enclosing) small landholdings into
larger farms, used from the 13th century CE.
126 Ibid.
127 Ibid.
128 Spencer and Prestwich et al. (2020), op. cit.
129 Ibid.
130 French ambassador (1597), quoted in Axelrod (2000), op.
cit., p. 60.
131 Ibid., p. 60.
132 Ibid., p. 61.
133 Ibid.
134 Cartwright, M. (2020), “Elizabeth I and the Power of
Image,” Ancient History Encyclopedia Foundation, May 29, 2020,
→https://www.ancient.eu/article/1562/elizabeth-i–the-power-of-
image/, accessed on October 26, 2020.
ix “Queen Elizabeth I of England was the subject of the
greatest number of biblical analogies drawn in the early modern
period. Analogies were drawn both by apologists and by Elizabeth
herself throughout the entire span of the queen’s reign, and for
almost a century after her death. Elizabeth’s comparisons with
Deborah the Judge, Queen Esther, Daniel the Prophet, King
Solomon, and King David [and to Judith, the chaste widow of the
Apocrypha].” Norrie, A. (2016), “Elizabeth I as Judith: reassessing
the apocryphal widow’s appearance in Elizabethan royal
iconography,” Renaissance Studies, Vol. 31 No. 5, p. 707.
135 Marcus, L. S., Mueller, J., and Rose, M-B. (2000) (eds.),
Elizabeth I: Collected Works (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press), p. 157, quoted in ibid., p. 710.
136 Ibid.
137 Elizabeth I (1559), quoted in Cartwright (2020), op. cit.
138 Cartwright (2020), op. cit.
x Comparing her to the virgin Astraea of Virgil’s Eclogues
returned to earth to usher in a golden age where there was
eternal peace and to the virgin Diana, the huntress.
139 Axelrod (2000), op. cit., p. 52.
140 Elizabeth I, quoted in ibid, p. 74.
141 Elizabeth I (1558), quoted in ibid., p. 53.
142 Axelrod (2000), op. cit., p. 69.
143 Elizabeth I (1558), quoted in ibid., p. 72.
144 Elizabeth I (1564), in ibid., p. 75.
145 Mattingly (1959). op. cit., p. 296.
146 Elizabeth I (1601), quoted in Axelrod (2000), op. cit., p. 147.
1 Cronin, V. (1979), Napoleon (London: Collins), pp. 35–36.
2 Corneille, P. (1637) Le Cid, IV, 5, quoted in ibid., p. 36.
i To die for one’s country is not a sad fate;
It is to render oneself immortal through a beautiful death.
ii The “Anglo-French War” lasted between 1778 and 1783
when France and Britain fought in the English Channel, the
Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean and the West Indies. The
eventual French victory helped cement the United States'
independence from Britain.
3 Ibid., pp. 42–43.
4 Napoleon (1786), quoted in ibid., p. 47.
5 Barrow, J. (1762), A New and Impartial History of England
from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Signing of Preliminaries of
Peace, cited in ibid., p. 47.
iii “What was wrong with France, Napoleon decided, was that
the power of the King and the King’s men had grown excessive;
the reform Napoleon wanted – and the point is important in view
of his future career – was a constitution which, by setting out the
people’s rights, would ensure that the King acted in the interest of
France as a whole.” Cronin, V. (1979), Napoleon (London: Collins),
pp. 48–49.
6 Napoleon, quoted in Cronin, V. (1979), Napoleon (London:
Collins), op. cit., p. 48.
7 Ibid., p. 53.
8 Ibid.
9 Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 56.
10 Ibid., p. 57.
11 Ibid., p. 65.
12 Ibid., p. 66.
13 Ibid., p.70.
14 Ibid., pp.79–81.
15 Ibid., p. 85.
16 Ibid., p. 87.
17 Ibid., pp. 126–127.
18 Ibid., pp. 127–128.
19 Ibid., p. 127.
20 Ibid., pp. 127–128.
21 Murray, L. (2020), “Arc de Triomphe,” Encyclopedia
Britannica, July 14, 2020,
→https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arc-de-Triomphe, accessed
on November 4, 2020.
22 Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 116.
23 Ibid., p. 128.
24 Ibid., p. 114.
25 Ibid., p. 136.
26 Arndt, E., quoted in ibid., p. 137.
27 Napoleon (1797), quoted in ibid., p. 140.
28 Ibid., p. 141.
iv This divergence in views was to become more serious over
the years, leading to a parting of the ways that ultimately brought
about Napoleon’s downfall.
29 Bernard, J. F. (1973), Talleyrand: A Biography (London:
Collins), p. 197.
30 Ibid., p. 143.
31 Ibid., p. 145.
32 Ibid., p. 202.
33 Rollin, S. (1798), in a diplomatic letter to Berlin, quoted in
ibid., p. 202.
34 Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 203.
35 Napoleon in a letter to Talleyrand, quoted in ibid., p. 201.
36 Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 148.
37 Ibid., p. 149.
38 Ibid., p. 151.
39 Conversation quoted in ibid., p. 153.
40 Ibid., p. 157.
41 Napoleon, quoted in Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 203.
42 Napoleon, quoted in ibid., p. 163.
43 Ibid., p. 163.
44 Napoleon (1797), in a letter to Talleyrand, quoted in
Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 194.
45 Ibid., p. 194.
46 Ibid., p. 195.
47 Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 196.
48 Ibid., pp. 192–194.
49 Napoleon, quoted in ibid., p. 168.
50 Sieyès, quoted in ibid., p. 168.
51 Talleyrand, quoted in ibid., p. 221.
52 Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 225.
53 Ibid., p. 226.
54 Ibid.
55 Talleyrand in conversation with Napoleon, quoted in ibid.,
p. 227.
56 Talleyrand, quoted in ibid., p. 228.
57 Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 177.
58 Ibid., p. 195.
59 Napoleon, quoted in ibid., p. 196.
60 Ibid., p. 196.
61 Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 206.
62 Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 235.
63 “The Organic Articles,” Musée protestant,
→https://www.museeprotestant.org/en/notice/articles-
organiques-en-complement-de-la-loi-du-concordat/, accessed on
November 8, 2020.
64 From a speech to the Council of State, quoted in Cronin
(1979), op. cit., p. 212.
v Holding a doctrine (reaching its peak in the 17th century)
which asserted the freedom of the Roman Catholic Church in
France and elsewhere from the ecclesiastical authority of the
Papacy.
65 Ibid., p. 216.
66 Ibid., pp. 216–217.
67 Ibid., p. 223.
68 Talleyrand (1801), quoted Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 236.
69 Ibid., p. 200.
vi Napoleon succeeded at Campo Formio in getting the
Austrians to recognise his fledgling republics, but had to capture
Venice and trade it to the Austrians to get them to agree to give
up Milan. These actions laid the foundations for the reunification
of Italy in 1871.
vii The land that was bought enclosed all of Arkansas,
Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and parts of
Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, New Mexico, Texas,
Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and of course Louisiana. The land
purchased also included parts of what is now Alberta and
Saskatchewan in Canada. The Louisiana Purchase now makes up
about 23% of the territory of the United States.
→http://www.surfnetkids.com/go/66/ten-facts-about-the-
louisiana-purchase/, accessed on January 3, 2021.
viii The key was the establishment of thirty lycées, which
provided educational opportunities beyond the secondary
schools and replaced the écoles centrales. Every appeal court
district was to have a lycée, and they were to be completely
supported and controlled, by the state. Scholarships were
provided, with about one-third going to sons of the military and
government, and the rest for the best pupils from the secondary
schools. Bernard, H. (1969), Education and the French Revolution
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), cited by
→http://www.napoleon-
series.org/research/society/c_education.html#19, accessed on
January 3, 2021.
The lycées had a six-year term of study, building on the work of
the secondary schools. The curriculum included languages,
modern literature, science, and all other studies necessary for a
“liberal” education. Each lycée was to have at least eight teachers,
as well as three masters (a headmaster, an academic dean, and a
bursar). The government provided a fixed salary for teachers, as
well as bonuses for successful teachers who also received a
pension. Teachers were chosen by Napoleon from a list of
recommendations provided by inspectors and the Institute. The
inspectors were given overall responsibility for inspecting the
schools on a regular basis.
70 Molé, Mathieu Louis, Count (1923), The Life and Memoirs of
Count Molé, Edited by the Marquis de Noailles. 2v (London), 61.
Cited by →http://www.napoleon-
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January 3, 2021.
71 →http://www.historyhome.co.uk/c-
eight/france/napfra.htm, accessed on January 6, 2021.
xi The Saint-Quentin, the canal from Nantes to Brest, and the
canal linking the Rhone to the Rhine, allowing him to ship goods
from Amsterdam to Marseille, from Lyon to Brest without their
being exposed to the guns of the Royal Navy.
x Cherbourg, Brest, and Antwerp.
xi Napoleon had roads blasted through the Great St. Bernard,
the Little St. Bernard, and the Col de Tende. They were so well
built that it became possible to travel freely between Italy, France,
and Switzerland for the first time – even in winter.
72 Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 207.
73 Ibid., pp. 207–208.
74 Quoted in Markham, F. (1963), Napoleon, cited in Axelrod,
A. (2011), Napoleon: CEO: 6 Principles to Guide & Inspire Modern
Leaders (New York: Sterling), p. 40.
75 Godechot, J. (2020), “Napoleon I, Emperor of France,”
August 11, 2020, Encyclopaedia Britannica,
→https://www.britannica.com/biography/Napoleon-I/The-
Directory, accessed on November 9, 2020.
76 Napoleon’s third person memorandum dictated in St.
Helena after 1815.
77 Ibid., p. 176.
78 Godechot (2020), op. cit.
79 Letter to the King of Naples, quoted in Markham, F. (1963),
Napoleon, cited in Axelrod (2011), op. cit., p. 104.
80 Letter to General Murat, March 14, 1808.
81 Letter to the Directory, September 6, 1796.
82 Letter to General Marmont, March 12, 1804.
83 Letter to the chancellor of the Legion of Honor, May 1807.
84 Notes on the Affairs in Spain, August 30, 1808.
85 Address to troops, April 26, 1796.
86 Instructions to General Bertrand, August 25, 1805.
87 Letter to General Bertrand, March 4, 1807.
88 Letter to General Clarke, December 19, 1809.
89 Letter to Joseph Bonaparte, August 20, 1806.
90 Letter to Prince Eugene, March 24, 1806.
xii Vicar.
91 Military Maxim LXXVI.
92 Military Maxim LXIII.
93 Axelrod (2011), op. cit., p. 161.
94 Notes on the Political and Military Position of Our Armies in
Piedmont and Spain, June 1794, quoted in Luvaas, J. (1999),
Napoleon on the Art of War, cited in Axelrod (2011), op. cit., p. 64.
95 Military Maxim LXVII.
96 Military Maxim XV.
97 Military Maxim LXV.
98 Letter to Joseph Bonaparte, January 12, 1806.
99 Letter to the Directory, January 18, 1797.
100 Letter to General Clarke, January 18, 1814.
101 Hungarian officer captured at the Battle of Lodi speaking to
Napoleon, whom he did not recognize.
102 Military Maxim XX.
103 Military Maxim XVI.
104 Quoted in Luvaas, cited in Axelrod (2011), op. cit., p. 163.
105 →http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/people_napoleon.h
tml, accessed on January 1, 2021.
106 Ibid., p. 114.
107 Axelrod (2011), op. cit., pp. 185–186.
108 Napoleon (1799), quoted in Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 225.
109 Wickham, W. (1800), quoted in ibid., p. 226.
110 Burke, E., quoted in ibid., p. 226.
111 Godechot (2020), op. cit.
112 Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 242.
113 Talleyrand (1802), quoted in Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 246.
114 Godechot (2020), op. cit.
115 Cronin (1979), op. cit., pp. 230–234.
116 Talleyrand (1803), quoted in ibid., p. 234.
117 Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 248.
118 Hardenberg (1803), quoted in ibid., p. 235.
119 Napoleon, quoted in Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 253.
120 Ibid., p. 252.
121 Talleyrand (1804), quoted in ibid., p. 254.
122 Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 256.
123 Talleyrand (1804), quoted in ibid., pp. 256–257.
124 Ibid., p. 257.
125 Talleyrand (1804), quoted in ibid., p. 258.
126 Ibid., p. 259.
127 Alexander I (1805), quoted in ibid., p. 259.
128 Talleyrand (1805), quoted in ibid., p. 261.
129 Ibid., p. 263.
130 Ibid., p. 264.
131 Bernard (1973), op. cit., pp. 261–263.
132 Napoleon (1806), quoted in ibid., p. 267.
133 Ibid., p. 269.
134 Ibid.
135 Bernard (1973), p. 271.
136 Ibid., p. 272.
137 Ibid., pp. 273–274.
138 Ibid., pp. 275–276.
139 Napoleon (1807), quoted in ibid., p. 276.
140 Louisa, Queen of Prussia (1807), quoted in ibid., p. 276.
141 Talleyrand, quoted in ibid., p. 278.
142 Ibid., p. 278.
143 Talleyrand, quoted in ibid., p. 286.
144 Napoleon, quoted in ibid.
145 Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 289.
146 Ibid., pp. 293–296.
147 Ibid., pp. 300–301.
148 Talleyrand (1809), quoted in ibid., p. 303.
149 Napoleon (1809), quoted in ibid., p. 304.
150 Minard, C., Graph of Napoleon’s Russia Campaign 1812,
quoted in Godechot (2020), op. cit.
151 Godechot (2020), op. cit.
152 Ibid.
153 Ibid.
154 Ibid.
155 Francis II (1815), quoted in Mackenzie, N. (1982), The Escape
from Elba: The Fall and Flight of Napoleon 1814–1815 (Oxford:
Oxford University Press), p. 238.
156 Godechot (2020), op. cit.
157 Napoleon, quoted in
→https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/210910.Napol_on_
Bonaparte?page=4, accessed on November 13, 2020.
158 Napoleon, quoted in ibid., accessed on November 13, 2020.
159 Napoleon (1816), in conversation with Comte de Las Cases
(11 November 1816), Mémorial de Sainte Hélène, v. 4, p. 133,
→https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France, accessed
on November 10, 2020.
1 Landau, J. M. (1984), “Introduction: Ataturk’s
Achievements: Some Considerations,” in Landau, J.M. ed. (1984),
Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey (New York: Routledge), p.
ix.
2 Bay, A. (2011), Atatürk: Lessons in Leadership from the
Greatest General of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Palgrave
Macmillan), pp. 20–21.
3 General Wesley Clark, quoted in ibid., p. xiv.
4 Kinross, P. (1992), Atatürk: A Biography of Mustafa Kemal,
Father of Modern Turkey (New York: William Morrow/Quill), p. 14,
cited in Bay, A. (2011), pp. 17–18.
5 Atay, F. R. (1982), The Atatürk I Knew (Istanbul: Yapi ve
Kredi), p. 27, cited in Bay, A. (2011), op. cit., p. 27.
6 Bay (2011), op. cit., pp. 20–29.
7 Atay (1982), op. cit., cited in ibid., p. 29.
8 Zurcher, E. J. (1984), The Unionist Factor: The Role of the
Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish National
Movement, 1905–1926 (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill), p. 32, cited in
ibid., p. 29.
9 Mango, A. (2002), Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of
Modern Turkey (New York: Overlook), p. 58, cited in ibid., p. 35.
10 Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 35.
11 Armstrong, H. C. (1933), Gray Wolf: Mustafa Kemal, An
Intimate Study of a Dictator (New York: Minton Balch), p. 2, quoted
in Bay, A. (2011), op. cit., p. 39.
12 Source: Anderson, F. M., and Hershey, A. S. (1918),
Handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa
1870–1914 (Washington DC: Government Printing Office).
13 Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 42.
14 Ibid., p. 48.
15 Ertuna, H. (1985), 1911–1912 Osmanli-Italyan Harbi ve
Kolgasi Mustafa Kemal [The Turco-Italian War of 1911–1912 and
Major Mustafa Kemal] (Ankara: Kultur ve Turzim Bakanligi
Yayinalri), pp. 105–106.
16 Ibid., p. 36.
17 Atatürk, quoted in ibid., p. 101.
18 Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 81.
19 Atatürk, (1918), Zabit ve Kumandan ile Hasb-I Hal
[Interviews with officer and commander] (Genelkurmay Askeri
Tarih ve Stratejik Etut Baskangli Yayinlari) [Turkish General Staff
pdf of Minber Matbaasi edition] (Ankara: Genelkurmay Basimevi),
pdf and translation courtesy Lieutenant Colonel Mesut Uyar, with
translation and summaries by Dr. Yutuk Iyriboz, 2010, pp. 7–9,
cited in Bay, A. (2011), op. cit., p. 82.
20 Atatürk, quoted in Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 84.
21 Mango (2002), op. cit., p. 137, cited in Bay (2011), op. cit., p.
89.
22 Kinross (1992), op. cit., pp. 78–79.
23 Quoted in Mango (2002), op. cit., p. 146 from Atatürk’s
1917 report to the Turkish General Staff. This was also covered
separately in Unaydin’s March 1918 interview with Atatürk.
24 Ibid.; see Goncu, G., and Aldogan, S. (2006), The Canakkale
War: The Homeland is beyond the Trenches (Istanbul: MB
Publishing), pp. 41–42.
25 Bay (2011), op. cit., pp. 6–7.
26 Gawrych, “Rock of Gallipoli,” US Army Command and
General Staff College Battle Command Studies, Combat Studies
Institute, CGSC Faculty,
→http://www.cgsc.edu/carl/resources/csi/battles/battles.asp,
cited in Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 101.
27 Ibid.
28 General Liman Von Sanders quoted by Erickson, E. J. (2010),
Gallipoli: The Ottoman Campaign (Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen
and Sword Books), pp. 85–86, cited in Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 107.
29 Liddell Hart, B. (1973), Liddell Hart’s History of the First World
War: Fourth Impression (London: Cassell), pp. 236–237.
30 Atatürk, quoted in Unaydin, R. U. (1918), Conversations with
Anafartalar Commander Mustafa Kemal, originally published in
Yeni Mecmua magazine in Spring 1918, cited in Bay, A. (2011), op.
cit., p. 110.
31 Fewster, K., Basarin V., and Basarin, H. H. (1985), A Turkish
View of Gallipoli: Cannakale (Richmond, Australia: Hodja), p. 105,
cited by Bay. A. (2011), op. cit., p. 110.
32 Erickson (2010), op. cit., pp. 182–183, cited in Bay (2011),
op. cit., p. 111.
33 Fuad, A., quoted in Erickson, E. J. (2001), Ordered to Die: A
History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War (Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press), pp. 137, cited in Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 119.
34 Erickson (2001), op. cit., pp. 135, cited in Bay (2011), p. 121.
35 Volkan, V. D., and Itkowitz, N. (1984), The Immortal Atatürk
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press), p. 99, cited by Bay (2011),
op. cit., p. 123.
36 Mango (2002), op. cit., p. 182, cited by Bay (2011), op. cit., p.
131.
37 Ibid., p. 255, cited by Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 147.
38 Ibid., pp. 270–273, cited in Bay (2011), op. cit., pp. 147–148.
39 Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 149.
40 Ibid., p. 149.
41 Ibid., p. 150.
42 Tomak, E. (1988), “Ataturk’s Strategic Approach to the
Modernization of Turkey,” US Air Force Base, p. 4, quoted in Halil,
A. (1997), “Strategic Vision of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk,” US Army
War College (Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania), pp. 10–11.
43 Smith, M. L. (1973), Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor,
1919–1922 (New York: St Martin’s), pp. 225–227, cited in Bay
(2011), op. cit., p. 151.
44 Orbay, R., quoted in Quotations about Atatürk – Turkey,
Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, cited in Bay
(2011), op. cit., p. 152.
45 For details of the campaign strategy adopted by Atatürk,
see Bay (2011), pp. 150–155.
46 Orbay, R., Quotations about Atatürk – Turkey, Republic of
Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Orbay cited in Bay (2011),
op. cit., p. 153.
47 Gawrych (1988), “Kemal Ataturk’s Politico-Military Strategy
in the Turkish War of Independence, 1919–1923: From Guerilla
Warfare to Decisive Battle,” Journal of Strategic Studies
(September 1988), pp. 333–334, cited in Bay (2011), p. 153.
48 Ibid., p. 157.
49 Toynbee, A., and Kirkwood, K. (1927), Turkey (New York:
Scribner’s), p. 115, cited in Bay (2011), p. 157.
50 Halil (1997), op. cit., p. 11.
51 “Mustafa Kemal Ataturk,” kandogan@cs.umd.edu January
12, 1994,
→http://www.columbia.edu/~sss31/Turkiye/ata/hayati.html,
accessed on November 22, 2020.
52 Ibid.
53 Ibid.
54 Clare, G. (1982), Last Waltz in Vienna: The Destruction of a
Family 1842–1942 (London: Pan Books), p. 95.
55 Akgül, A. S. (2019), “The Case of Atatürk Reforms in Early
Turkish Republic Between 1923–1946 From an Educational
Perspective,” Master’s Thesis, Harvard Extension School, p. 12,
→http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:42004235,
accessed on November 18, 2020.
56 Atatürk, quoted in Rahman A. et al. (2015), “The
Consequences of Ataturk’s Secularization of Turkey,” Asian Social
Science, Vol. 11, No. 21, July 6, 2015, p. 351.
57 Atatürk, quoted in Armstrong (1961), pp. 199–120, quoted
in ibid., p. 352.
58 Atatürk (1927), quoted in Akgül (2019), op. cit., p. 12.
59 Atatürk, quoted in Hayati (1994), “Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,”
→http://www.columbia.edu/~sss31/Turkiye/ata/hayati.html,
accessed on April 5, 2021.
60 Sansal, B. (2020), “Ataturk’s Reforms: The Father of
Turkey,” All About Turkey,
→https://www.allaboutturkey.com/ataturk-reforms.html,
accessed on November 22, 2020.
61 Halil (1997), op. cit., p. iii.
62 Eisenstadt, S. N. (1984), “The Kemalist Regime and
Modernization: Some Comparative and Analytical Remarks,” in
Landau, J. M., ed. (1984), op cit., p. 9.
63 Ibid., p. 14.
64 Halil (1997), op. cit., p. 12.
65 Akural, S. M. (1984), “Continuity and Change in the Turkish
Bureaucracy,” in Landau, ed. (1984), op. cit., p. 147.
66 Hayati (1994), op. cit.
67 Ibid., p. 14.
68 Hayati (1994), op. cit.
69 Akural, S. M. (1984), “Continuity and Change in Turkish
Bureaucracy,” in Landau, ed. (1984), op. cit., p. 147.
70 Atatürk quoted in ibid.
71 Giritli, I. (1984), “Kemalism as an Ideology of
Modernization,” in Landau, ed. (1984), op. cit., p. 253.
72 Karabelias, G. (2009), “The Military Institution, Ataturk’s
Principles, and Turkey’s Sisyphean Quest for Democracy,” Middle
Eastern Studies, Jan. 2009, Vol. 5, No. 1, (Jan 2009), p. 58.
73 Ibid., p. 58.
74 Ibid., pp. 58–59.
75 Akgül, (2019), op. cit., p. 57.
76 Sansal (2020), op. cit.
77 Ibid.
78 Akgül (2019), op. cit., p. 15.
79 Hayati (1994), op. cit.
80 Ibid.
81 Turkish Ministry of Press Broadcasting and Tourism (1961),
The Life of Ataturk (Ankara: TMPBT), pp. 117–125, cited in Bay
(2011), p. 162.
82 Mango, A. (1999), Atatürk (New York: Overlook), p. 40, cited
in Akgül (2019), op. cit., p. 21.
83 Gröningen Growth and Development Center (2018),
Maddison project database, p. 22,
→https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/historicaldevelopment/maddison/rel
eases/maddison-project-database-2018, cited in Akgül (2019), op.
cit., p. 21.
84 Ibid., p. 22.
85 Ibid.
86 Iyriboz, Y. quoted in Bay (2011), p. 167.
87 Ibid., p. 182.
88 Atatürk (1923), Bursa Speech, quoted in Akgül (2019), op.
cit., p. 61.
89 Hayati (1994), op. cit.
90 Akgül (2019), op. cit., p. 12.
91 Unal, B. (2015), “Education Policies During Atatürk Period,”
Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 (2015), pp. 1712–
1722, →https://cyberleninka.org/article/n/609501, accessed on
November 16, 2020.
92 Özodaşık, M. (1999), Cumhuriyet Dönemi Yen Bir Nesil
Yetiştirme Çalışmaları (1923–1950) (Konya: Çizgi Kitabevi), cited in
ibid., p. 1718.
93 Atatürk, quoted in Koçer, H. A. (1981), ‘‘Türk Eğitim
Tarihimizde Atatürk’ün Yeri,’’ Atatürk Devrimleri ve Eğitim
Sempozyumu (9–10 Nisan), Ankara, cited in ibid., p. 1718.
94 Özodaşık (1999), op. cit., p. 1718.
95 Atatürk quoted in Akyüz, Y. (1995), “Atatürk ve Eğitim,”
Ankara: Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Yayınları. cited in ibid., p. 1718.
96 Atatürk quoted in Yağcı (2007), cited in ibid., p. 1718.
97 Atatürk quoted in Akkutay, U. (2006), “Atatürk’ün Milli Devlet
ve Milli Eğitim Görüşü,” Atatürk Döneminden Günümüze
Cumhuriyet’in Eğitim Felsefesi ve Uygulamaları Sempozyumu
Bildirileri (16–17 Mart 2006) (Ankara: Gazi Üniversitesi
Rektörlüğü), cited in ibid., p. 1718.
98 Akgül (2019), op. cit., p. 16.
99 Özodaşık (1999), op. cit., pp. 1718–1719.
100 Adem, M. (2006), ‘‘Cumhuriyet Dönemi Eğitim Politikaları
(1923–2006),’’ Atatürk Döneminden Günümüze Cumhuriyet’in
Eğitim Felsefesi ve Uygulamaları Sempozyumu Bildirileri (16–17
Mart 2006) (Ankara: Gazi Üniversitesi Rektörlüğü), cited in
Özodaşık, M. (1999), op. cit., p. 1719.
101 Atatürk quoted in Par-Önen (1987), cited in ibid., p. 1719.
102 Atatürk quoted in ibid., p. 1719.
103 Ergun, M. (1997), Atatürk Devri Türk Eğitimi (Ankara: Ocak
Yayınları), cited in ibid., p. 1719.
104 Yücel, H. A. (1994), Türkiye’de Orta Öğretim (İstanbul: Kültür
ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yayınları), cited in ibid., p. 1719.
105 Karakütük, K. (2006), “Cumhuriyet’in İlk Yıllarında Kırsal
Türkiye’de Eğitimin Durumu ve Eğitim Seferberlikleri,” Atatürk
Döneminden Günümüze Cumhuriyet’in Eğitim Felsefesi ve
Uygulamaları Sempozyumu Bildirileri 16–17 Mart 2006 (Ankara:
Gazi Üniversitesi Rektörlüğü), cited in ibid., p. 1720.
106 Geray, C. (1978), Halk Eğitimi, Genişletilmiş 2. Baskı
(Ankara: İmaj Yayıncılık), cited in ibid., p. 1720.
107 Ergun (1966), op. cit., cited in ibid., p. 1720.
108 Geray (1978), op. cit., cited in ibid., p. 1720.
109 Karagözoğlu, G. (1994), “Atatürk’ün Eğitim Savaşı” I.
Uluslararası Atatürk Sempozyumu Açılış Konuşmaları Bildirileri
21–23 Eylül 1987 (Ankara: Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi), cited in
ibid., p. 1720.
110 Karakütük (2006), op. cit., cited in ibid., p. 1720.
111 Karagözoğlu (1994), op. cit., cited in ibid., p. 1720.
112 Koçer, H. A. (1967), Türkiye’de Öğretmen Yetiştirme Problemi
(Ankara: Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları), cited in ibid., p. 1720.
113 Ergun (1966), op. cit., cited in ibid., pp. 1720–1721.
114 Winter, M. (1984), “The Modernization of Education in
Kemalist Turkey,” in Landau (1984), op. cit., p. 193.
115 Ataturk, quoted in Hayati (1994), op. cit.
116 Ibid.
117 Ibid.
118 Kinross, P. (1964), Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation (London:
Weidenfeld and Nicholson), p. 390, cited in Bay (2011), p. 161.
119 Atatürk, quoted in Turkish Ministry of Press Broadcasting
and Tourism (1961), op. cit., pp. 215–217, cited in Bay (2011), p.
161.
120 Akgül (2019), op. cit., p. 30.
i A student in that class, the father of computer engineering
professor Cem Say, wrote this story years later on his father’s
behalf (Say, 2016).
121 Ibid., p. 17.
122 Armstrong, H. C. (1932), Grey Wolf – Mustafa Kemal: An
Intimate Study of a Dictator, cited in Akgül, (2019), op. cit., p. 57.
123 Şengör, C. (2014). Dahi diktatör. Istanbul: Ka Kitap, cited in
ibid., p. 57.
124 Erdoğan, M. (1998). Cumhuriyet ve demokrasi. In H. C.
Güzel (Ed.), Cumhuriyet II Siyasal Değerlendirme. Ankara: Yeni
Türkiye, cited in ibid., p. 57.
125 Mango, A. (1999), Atatürk (New York: Overlook), cited in
ibid., p. 58.
126 İnalcık, H. (2007). Atatürk ve Demokratik Türkiye (İstanbul:
Kırmızı Yayınları), cited in ibid., p. 58.
127 Hotham, D. (1972), The Turks (London: John Murray), cited
in in ibid, p. 58.
128 Atatürk, quoted in ibid., p. 59.
129 Akgül (2019), op. cit., p. 59.
130 Volkan, V., and Itzkowitz, N. (1986). The Immortal Atatürk: A
Psychobiography (London: University of Chicago Press), cited in
ibid., p. 60.
131 Hotham (1972) op. cit., p. 23, cited in ibid, p. 60.
i These top five characteristics remained unchanged from
1987 to 2007 across the countries surveyed: Australia, Canada,
Denmark, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand,
Singapore, Sweden, and the US.
1 Kouzes, J. M., and Posner, B. Z. (2007), The Leadership
Challenge, 4th Edition (San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons), pp. 30,
31.
2 Ibid., pp. 50–51.
3 Ibid., p. 53.
4 Ibid., p. 58.
5 Elizabeth I (1559), quoted in Cartwright, M. (2020),
“Elizabeth I and the Power of Image,” Ancient History Encyclopedia
Foundation, May 29, 2020,
→https://www.ancient.eu/article/1562/elizabeth-i–the-power-of-
image/, accessed on October 26, 2020.
6 Weir, A. (1988), Elizabeth the Queen (London: Jonathan
Cape), p. 55.
7 Napoleon quoted in Cronin, V. (1979), Napoleon (London:
Collins), p. 143.
8 Talleyrand (1801), quoted Bernard, J. F. (1973), Talleyrand: A
Biography (London: Collins), p. 236.
9 Napoleon’s third person memorandum dictated in St.
Helena after 1815.
10 Armstrong, H. C. (1933), Gray Wolf: Mustafa Kemal, An
Intimate Study of a Dictator (New York: Minton Balch), p. 2, quoted
in Bay, A. (2011), Atatürk: Lessons in Leadership from the Greatest
General of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Palgrave Macmillan), p.
39.
11 Duc de Sully (1601), quoted in Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 471.
12 Napoleon quoted by Molé, Mathieu Louis, Count (1923), The
Life and Memoirs of Count Molé, Edited by the Marquis de Noailles,
2v (London:), 61. Cited by →http://www.napoleon-
series.org/research/society/c_education.html#20, accessed on
January 3, 2021.
13 Sixtus V (1588), quoted in Weir (1988), op. cit., p.399.
14 Weir (1998), op. cit., p393.
15 Knowles, E., ed. (1999), The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations:
Major New Edition (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press), p.
809, #19.
16 Arndt, E., quoted in Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 137.
17 Landau, J. M. (1984), “Introduction: Ataturk’s
Achievements: Some Considerations,” in Landau, J.M., ed. (1984),
Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey (New York: Routledge), p.
ix.
18 Landau (1984), op. cit., p. xii.
19 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 487.
20 Jacques Coquille Dugommier’s dispatch to the Minister of
War, quoted in Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 77.
21 Barber, T. (2020), “Napoleon & de Gaulle – a history of
France’s larger-than-life heroes,” The Financial Times, July 15,
2020, →https://www.ft.com/content/ffb576be-4363-4d1f-81d1-
6e283f7f7381, accessed on April 5, 2021.
22 General Wesley Clark, quoted in ibid., p. xiv.
23 Williams, N. (1972), Elizabeth I, Queen of England (London:
Sphere Books), p. 9.
24 Roger Ascham quoted in ibid., p. 16.
25 Prince von Metternich quoted by Markham, F. (1963),
Napoleon, cited in Axelrod, A. (2011), Napoleon: CEO: 6 Principles to
Guide & Inspire Modern Leaders (New York: Sterling), p. 200.
26 Comte de Plancy, quoted in Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 193.
27 Atay, F. R. (1982), The Atatürk I Knew (Istanbul: Yapi ve
Kredi), p. 27, cited in Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 27.
ii Benevolence: This is the ultimate test set by Confucius and
is interpreted as being magnanimous, having empathy, being
able to connect to individuals and nature, and affirming the value
of the universe and the ecology.
28 Elizabeth I (1558), quoted in Williams (1972), op. cit., p. 72.
29 Elizabeth I (1601), quoted in Axelrod, A. (2000), Elizabeth I
CEO, (Paramus, New Jersey: Prentice Hall), p. 147.
30 Ibid.
31 Napoleon, quoted in Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 53.
32 Napoleon, quoted in ibid., p. 163.
33 Quoted in Markham, F. (1963), Napoleon, cited in Axelrod
(2011), op. cit., p. 40.
34 Turkish Ministry of Press Broadcasting and Tourism (1961),
The Life of Atatürk (Ankara: TMPBT), pp. 215–217, cited in Bay
(2011), op. cit., p. 161.
iii Callousness: A condition where the leader and some
followers are unkind or uncaring, ignoring the needs and wants
of most members of the group for which they are responsible.
35 De Gaulle, C. (1938), in France and Her Army (London:
Hutchinson, 1945 translation), quoted in Barber (2020), op. cit.
iv Fairness: This is when decisions taken by the leader are
seen to be just and fair because they do not favor cronies or
friends at the expense of others who equally or more qualified.
36 Napoleon,
→http://lifequoteslib.com/authors/napoleon_bonaparte.html,
accessed on December 9, 2020.
37 Atatürk quoted in Ertuna, H. (1985), 1911–1912 Osmanli-
Italyan Harbi ve Kolgasi Mustafa Kemal [The Turco-Italian War of
1911–1912 and Major Mustafa Kemal] (Ankara: Kultur ve Turizm
Bakanligi Yayinalri), 101, cited in Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 64.
v Corruption: This is when the leader and followers lie, cheat
or steal; but above all put self-interest ahead of public interest
and are prepared to cloak their action in self-serving hypocrisy.
38 Snyder, A. J. (2006), “The Politics of Piracy, Pirates,
Privateers, and the Government of Elizabeth I,” Department of
History, University of North Carolina, Wilmington, p. 3,
→https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncw/f/snydera2006-1.pdf, accessed
on October 19, 2020.
39 Barber (2020), op. cit.,
→https://www.ft.com/content/ffb576be-4363-4d1f-81d1-
6e283f7f7381, accessed on December 7, 2020.
40 Mango, A. (2002), Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of
Modern Turkey (New York: Overlook), 58, cited in Bay (2011), op.
cit., p. 35.
vi Open-mindedness: This occurs when the leader is willing to
think “out of the box” to reflect changed contexts.
41 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 54.
42 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 59.
43 From a speech by Napoleon to the Council of State, quoted
in Cronin (1979), op. cit., p. 212.
44 “The people is sovereign; if it wants religion, respect its
will.” Address to an assembly of priests in Milan in 1800.
45 Prince von Metternich quoted by Markham (1963), cited in
Axelrod (2011), op. cit., 200.
46 Kinross, P. (1992), Atatürk: A Biography of Mustafa Kemal,
Father of Modern Turkey (New York: William Morrow/Quill), p. 14,
cited in Bay (2011), op. cit., p. 161.
vii Insularity: The leader and some followers minimize or
disregard the impact of actions of the health and welfare of the
“other” – that is the people outside their organization but who are
affected by its actions.
viii Mercy: This is the situation where the leader shows
compassion and forgiveness towards followers and enemies over
whom he/she has the power to punish them for mistakes made;
giving people a second chance.
47 Ibid., p. 335.
ix Ruthlessness: This is the quality of not thinking or worrying
about any pain caused to others when deciding what needs to be
done; single-minded focus on achieving the objective regardless
of the cost.
48 Ibid., pp. 210–212.
49 Military Maxim LXVII.
50 Goncu, G., and Aldogan, S. (2006), The Canakkale War: The
Homeland is beyond the Trenches (Istanbul: MB Publishing), pp.
41–42.
x Competence: Competent leaders and followers exercise an
appropriate balance of skill/will to achieve desired outcomes.
51 Burghley quoted in Weir (1988), op. cit. p. 487.
52 Ibid., pp. 126–127.
53 Nuwer, R. (2012), “Blame Napoleon for our Addiction to
Sugar,” Smithsonian Magazine, December 4, 2012,
→https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/blame-
napoleon-for-our-addiction-to-sugar-152096743/, accessed on
December 9, 2020.
xi Incompetence: This is where leaders and followers lack the
skill and/or will to sustain effective action.
xii Flexibility: This is the ability to adapt to changing strategic
contexts, tactical situations, and operational needs.
54 Axelrod, A., (2000), op. cit., p.242
xiii Rigidity: Rigidity occurs when leaders and followers are stiff
and unyielding. Although initially competent, they are unable or
unwilling to adapt to new ideas and circumstances.
xiv Self-control: The ability to remain calm and make rational
decisions under pressure. “I cannot trust a man to control others
who cannot control himself.” Robert. E. Lee.
55 Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 49.
xv Intemperance: This is when a leader lacks self-control and
is abetted by followers who allow self-destructive behavior to
continue.
56 “What is the Meaning of Integrity?” Accountable2You, June
17, 2019, →https://accountable2you.com/action/meaning-of-
integrity, accessed on December 16, 2020.
xvi Using this definition, Hitler had great integrity. As Churchill
remarked correctly about Hitler, he told the world exactly what he
intended to do in Mein Kampf. Having integrity per se does not
necessarily lead to morally good outcomes.
57 Mintzberg, H. (1975), “The Manager’s Job: Folklore and
Fact,” Harvard Business Review, 1975, pp. 49–61, cited in Pugh, D.
S., and Hickson, D. J. (1996), Writers on Organizations (London:
Penguin Books), p. 30.
58 Barber (2020), op. cit.,
→https://www.ft.com/content/ffb576be-4363-4d1f-81d1-
6e283f7f7381, accessed on December 7, 2020.
59 Bernard, op. cit., p. 196.
60 Napoleon, quoted in ibid., accessed on November 13, 2020.
61 Duc de Sully (1601), quoted in Weir (1988), op. cit., p. 471.
62 Blakemore, E. (2019), “How the East India Company
became the world’s most powerful business,” National
Geographic, September 6, 2019,
→https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/topics/reference
/british-east-india-trading-company-most-powerful-business/,
accessed on December 20, 2020.
63 “Flexibility,” The Economist, October 9, 2009,
→https://www.economist.com/news/2009/10/09/flexibility,
accessed on December 20, 2020.
xvii Adaptability recognizes changing circumstances that
demand changed responses.
xvii Alignment demands allocation of resources to achieve a
i fixed goal.
64 Birkinshaw, J. (2004), “Building Ambidexterity into an
Organisation,” Sloan Management Review, Summer 2004, quoted
in ibid.
65 Roger Ascham quoted in ibid., p. 16.
66 Williams (1972), op. cit., p. 349.
67 Burghley quoted in Weir (1988), op. cit. p. 487.
68 Johnson, A. (2018), “What did Napoleon read? Inside the
French Emperor’s travelling campaign library,” The Independent,
June 25, 2018, →https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-
entertainment/books/features/napoleon-bonaparte-what-read-
books-emperor-library-campaigns-a8415776.html, accessed on
December 20, 2020.
69 Bernard (1973), op. cit., p. 203.
70 Ibid., p. 157.
71 “Books Atatürk Read,” Atatürk’le okumak,
→https://ataturkleokumak.istanbul.edu.tr/, accessed on
December 21, 2020.
72 Ibid., p. 61.
73 Cartwright, M. (2020), “Elizabeth I and the Power of
Image,” Ancient History Encyclopedia Foundation, May 29, 2020,
→https://www.ancient.eu/article/1562/elizabeth-i–the-power-of-
image/, accessed on October 26, 2020.
74 Ibid.
75 Cartwright (2020), op. cit.
76 Axelrod (2000), op. cit., p. 52.
77 Ibid., p. 69.
78 Walton, G. (2019), “How Napoleon Controlled His Image,”
→https://www.geriwalton.com/how-napoleon-controlled-his-
image/, accessed on December 22, 2020.
79 Gur, Faik (2013), “Sculpting the nation in early republican
Turkey,” Historical Research 86 (232), May 2013,
→https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263347049_Sculptin
g_the_nation_in_early_republican_Turkey, accessed on December
22, 2020.
80 Cuomo, M. (1985), Interview The New Republic, April 4, 1985,
→https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Mario_Cuomo, accessed on
December 25, 2020.
81 Williams, Z. (2020), “Panic, paucity and pessimism: life on
Plague Island UK,” The Guardian, December 23, 2020,
→https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/23/people-
seem-more-afraid-life-on-plague-island-uk, accessed on
December 24, 2020.
82 Simmons, M. (2018), “People With ‘Too Many Interests’
More Likely to Be Successful According to Research”, Observer,
May 3. 2018, →https://observer.com/2018/05/people-with-too-
many-interests-more-likely-successful-polymath-
entrepreneurship-antifragile/, accessed on February 20, 2021
83 Based on Young & Rubicam’s Brand Asset Valuator.
1 Zinkin, J. (2019), Better Governance Across the Board:
Creating Value Through Reputation, People and Processes
(Boston/Berlin: Walter deGruyter Inc.), p. 141.
2 Smith, R. (2020), “Strategy vs. Tactics: The Main Difference
& How To Track Progress of Both,” ClearPoint Strategy
→https://www.clearpointstrategy.com/strategy-vs-tactics/,
accessed on April 1, 2020.
3 “Polynesian Wayfinding,” Polynesian Wayfinding Society,
→http://www.hokulea.com/education-at-sea/polynesian-
navigation/polynesian-non-instrument-wayfinding/, accessed on
March 18, 2020.
i “Wayfinding” is non-instrument navigation and weather
prediction using the sun, moon, and stars; sky and cloud
patterns; ocean currents and swells; and maritime fauna as
guides.
ii For example, the Tuamotu Archipelago stretches 550 miles
north to south and 500 miles east to west; the Society Islands
stretch 160 miles north to south and 310 miles east to west. Thus,
while sailing to Tahiti from Hawai’i, the “wayfinder” can target a
400-mile-wide screen of islands between Manihi in the western
Tuamotus, and Maupiti in the eastern Society Islands.
iii “It might be difficult for people today to imagine, but in
1894 everything that took place on the streets was either horse-
powered or human-powered. Vehicles and machines came much
later. Horses performed the hardest duties, and both New York
and London were home to approximately 200,000 horses. Today
we might think that horses are cute, but in those times, the
situation was much more complicated.
In a day, a horse could produce a bucketload of urine and several
bucketloads of manure. In all major cities around the world,
streets were – to a greater or lesser degree – covered with wet
slush of horse excrement, the stench of which overwhelmed the
city. The “cherry on top” was the fact that the life span of
overworked horses was around three years, which meant that
over 50,000 horses died annually. Since their bodies were massive
and there was no machinery to remove them, often the only
available solution was to allow the corpses to rot until they could
be removed in smaller pieces.
… In 50 years, every street in a city would be buried under three
meters of manure, and the cities would be rendered
uninhabitable. International conferences were held, and scientists
were asked to tackle the problem, but to no avail – there was no
reasonable solution.
Today we know that the solution was found quite soon after the
problem had culminated. However, it did not come from
scientist’s; instead, the source of the solution was innovation, or
rather from cars that were invented through innovation.” Kracht.
A. (2020), “The Great Horse Manure Crisis Reveals Something
Unexpected”, Science and Philosophy, October, 3, 2020,
→https://medium.com/science-and-philosophy/the-great-horse-
manure-crisis-reveals-something-unexpected-90f80fa71e52,
accessed on February 20, 2021.”
iv The reason why it is important to engage all three is that
the mission must be defensible rationally, but it must also excite
and engage stakeholders and, in particular, employees; and it
must be practical and implementable so employees know what
they have to do.
4 For a more detailed discussion, see Zinkin, J. (2014),
Rebuilding Trust in Banks: The Role of Leadership and Governance
(Singapore: John Wiley & Sons), pp. 136–140.
5 Solomon, R. C. (1999), A Better Way to Think About Business:
How Personal Integrity Leads to Corporate Success (New York:
Oxford University Press), p. xxii.
6 Trompenaars, F., and Hampden-Turner, C. (2006), Riding
the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business,
2nd Edition (London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing), pp. 157–181.
7 Kerr, S. (1995), “On the folly of rewarding A while hoping
for B,” Academy of Management Executive, February 1995, 9, p. 1.
8 Shekshnia, S., Kravchenko, K., and Williams, E. (2018), CEO
School: Insights from 20 Global Leaders, quoted in INSEAD
Knowledge: Leadership and Organisations, May 9, 2018
→https://knowledge.insead.edu/sites/all/themes/knowledge201
5/, accessed on July 31, 2018.
9 Ibid.
v This advice may seem obvious to people who live in “low
power distance” cultures; it goes against everything people who
live in “high power distance” cultures believe about leadership.
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.
13 Zinkin. (2019), op. cit., pp. 220–221.
vi This brief summary of directors’ responsibilities is correct
for most jurisdictions but is inevitably a generalization. Legal
advice should be taken about the requirements of particular
jurisdictions.
14 Pierce, C. (2016), “Trends in Corporate Governance,”
quoted in The Handbook of Corporate Governance, edited by
Richard Leblanc (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons), p. 41.
15 Zinkin. (2019), op. cit., pp. 225–228.
16 Larcker, D. P., and Tayan, B. (2016) “CEO Succession
Planning,” quoted in Leblanc (2016), op. cit., p. 155.
17 La Monica, P. (2005), “Fiorina Out, HP Stock Soars,” CNN
Money, February 10, 2005,
→https://money.cnn.com/2005/02/09/technology/hp_fiorina/,
accessed on July 31, 2018.
18 Worthen, B., and Wing-Tan, P. (2010), “H-P Chief Quits in
Scandal,” Wall Street Journal, August 7, 2010,
→https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000142405274870330970457
5413663370670900, accessed on July 31, 2018.
19 Goldman, D. (2011), “HP CEO Apotheker Fired, Replaced by
Meg Whitman,” CNN Money, September 22, 2011,
→https://money.cnn.com/2011/09/22/technology/hp_ceo_fired/i
ndex.htm, accessed on July 31, 2018.
20 Nadler, M. (2016), “CEO Succession: An Owner’s Guide for
Directors,” cited in Leblanc (2016), op. cit., p. 121.
21 Ibid, p. 140.
22 This section is based on Zinkin. (2019), op. cit., pp. 324–326.
23 Senge, P. (1995), “Rethinking Leadership In The Learning
Organization,” The Systems Thinker,
→https://thesystemsthinker.com/rethinking-leadership-in-the-
learning-organization/, accessed on September 5, 2018.
24 Wohl, R. A., and Wohl, L. (2011), Navigating Organizations
Through the 21st Century: A Metaphor for Leadership
(Bloomington: Indiana: Xlibris), pp. 24–25.
25 Senge (1995).
26 Kelly, G. (2012), “Titanic Anniversary: The Myth of the
Unsinkable Ship”, BBC Future, April 2,
2012, →https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20120402-the-myth-
of-the-unsinkable-ship, accessed on March 17, 2021.
27 Rothwell, W. (2001), Effective Succession Planning: Ensuring
Leadership Continuity and Building Talent From Within, 2nd edition
(New York: AMACOM), 6, quoted in Ip, B., and Jacobs, G. (2006),
“Business Succession Planning: A Review of the Evidence,”
Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 13, No.
3, 2006, p. 327.
28 Ip and Jacobs (2006), op. cit., p. 339.
29 Ibid., p. 330.
30 Martin et al. (2002), SME Ownership Succession – Business
Support and Policy Implications (London: Small Business Service),
6 quoted in ibid., pp. 326–327.
31 May, P. (2019), “Owner Strategy,” PWC.
32 Zinkin, J. (2020), The Challenge of Sustainability: Corporate
Governance in a Complicated World (Boston/Berlin: Walter de
Gruyter Inc.), p. 46.
vii In the rapidly changing contexts created by modern
technology and global competition, some argue that trying to
define required competencies is not helpful because they are the
formalization of past success factors. However, we believe there
are four “evergreen” leadership competencies every successful
“wayfinder” must possess: the ability to manage change; the
ability to adapt; the ability to be creative; and the ability to
develop people.
33 Krames, J, A., and Pratt, A. “Jack Welch and the 4 Es of
Leadership,” What Makes A Good Leader,
→http://www.whatmakesagoodleader.com/Jack-Welch.html,
accessed on April 19, 2020.
34 Zinkin, J. (2015), “Performance-Driven Leadership,” Star
Newspaper Senior Management Program, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia, September 1, 2015.
35 Trevor-Roper, H. (1965), The Rise of Christian Europe
(London: Thames and Hudson), p. 184, quoted in Jay, A., (1994),
Management and Machiavelli: Discovering a New Science of
Management in the Timeless Principles of Statecraft
(Amsterdam/Oxford/ Sydney/ Toronto: Pfeiffer & Company), p.
80.
36 Zinkin (2014), op . cit., pp. 25–46.
37 Fest J. C. (1973), Hitler (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson).
38 Ibid.
39 Torres, N. (2014), “Most People Don’t Want To Be
Managers,” Harvard Business Review, September 18, 2014,
→https://hbr.org/2014/09/most-people-dont-want-to-be-
managers, accessed on September 10, 2019.
40 Sturt, D., and Nordstrom, T. (2018),“10 Shocking Workplace
Stats You Need To Know,” Forbes, March 8, 2018,
→https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidsturt/2018/03/08/10-
shocking-workplace-stats-you-need-to-know/#67941965f3af,
accessed on September 10, 2018.
41 Kreamer, A. (2012), “What If You Don’t Want to Be a
Manager?” Harvard Business Review, December 13, 2012,
→https://hbr.org/2012/12/what-if-you-dont-want-to-be-a,
accessed on September 10, 2018.
42 For a more detailed discussion of PESTLE, see Zinkin (2019),
op. cit., pp. 143–152.
43 For a detailed discussion of technological change, see
Zinkin, (2020), op. cit., pp. 108–123.
44 Deloach, J. (2019), “Disruptive Innovation Tops List of
Threats to Companies – Is Your Organization Thinking and Acting
Digital?” Corporate Compliance Insights, March 29, 2019,
→https://www.corporatecomplianceinsights.com/disruptive-
innovation-tops-list-of-threats-to-companies-is-your-
organization-thinking-and-acting-digital/, accessed on April 1,
2020.
45 For a detailed discussion of environmental impacts, see,
Zinkin (2020), op. cit., pp. 53–76.
viii The “Five Forces” are the profitability pressures created by
1) head-to-head competitors competing directly with the
company’s products or services, 2) suppliers of inputs to the
company as it makes its products and services, 3) buyers of the
outputs of the company, 4) new entrants who increase
competitive capacity in the market, and 5) alternatives and
substitutes that can replace the company’s products and
services.
46 Based on Zinkin (2019), op. cit., pp. 153–156.
47 Mauborgne, R., and Kim, W. C. (2004), Blue Ocean Strategy
(Boston: Harvard Business Press).
48 Bridges, W. (1991), Managing Transitions, cited in “Bridges’
Transition Model: Guiding People Through Change,” MindTools,
Emerald Works,
→https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/bridges-transition-
model.htm, accessed on April 20, 2020.
49 Business dictionary,
→http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/stakeholder.ht
ml#ixzz25ahfNRnm, accessed on August 13, 2018.
50 For a detailed discussion on Stakeholder Engagement, see
Zinkin (2019), op. cit., pp. 272–280.
ix During Congressional investigations into the BP Deepwater
Horizon disaster in the Gulf of Mexico, ExxonMobil and Chevron
tried to argue they operated more safely than BP and that such a
disaster could not have happened in their companies. In fact,
their disaster response systems were equally likely to lead to the
same results. The only claim they could perhaps make was they
would have stopped operations quicker than BP. Goldenberg, S.
(2010), “We could not have stopped Gulf oil gusher, ExxonMobil
chief tells Congress,” The Guardian, June 15, 2010,
→https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/jun/15/exxo
n-bp-oil-gusher-congress accessed on August 13, 2018.
51 Based on 2018 Edelman Trust Barometer: The State of
Trust in Business,
→http://cms.edelman.com/sites/default/files/2018-
02/2018_Edelman_Trust_Barometer_State_of_Business.pdf,
accessed on August 13, 2018.
1 Charan, R., Drotter, S. and Noel, J. (2011), The Leadership
Pipeline: How to Build the Leadership Powered Company (San
Francisco, California: Jossey Bass), pp. 15–29.
2 Cambridge Dictionary,
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y, accessed on November 26, 2019.
3 Zinkin, J. (2019), “Emerging Risk and Future Board:
Boardroom Governance in a VUCA world,” SIDC, presentation to
B.A.T. Malaysia Berhad Board, November 27, 2019.
i An example is that salt is composed of sodium and
chlorine atoms – neither of which tastes “salty.”
4 Roubini, N. (2019), “The Global Consequences of a Sino-
American Cold War,” Project Syndicate, May 20, 2019,
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5 Inman, P. (2019), “U.K. companies hit by sharpest activity
drop since Brexit vote,” Guardian, November 22, 2019,
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2019.
6 Caldwell, C. (2019), “The People’s Emergency,” The New
Republic, April 22, 2019,
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uprising-emmanuel-macron-technocratic-insiders, accessed on
November 26, 2019.
7 Horowitz, J. (2019), “Italy’s Government Collapses, Turning
Chaos Into Crisis,” New York Times, August 20, 2019,
→https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/20/world/europe/italy-pm-
giuseppe-conte-resign.html, accessed on November 26, 2019.
8 Karnitschnig, M. (2019), “5 Takeaways from Germany’s
regional elections,” Politico, September 3, 2019,
→https://www.politico.eu/article/5-takeaways-regional-
elections-brandenburg-saxony/, accessed on November 26, 2019.
9 “Spanish election results: Socialists win most seats, PP and
Vox make huge gains, C’s collapse,” The Local, November 10,
2019, →https://www.thelocal.es/20191110/spanish-election-
results-exit-poll-shows-socialist-lose-seats-pp-and-vox-make-
huge-gains, accessed on November 26, 2019.
10 Rashad, M., and Kalin, S. (2019), “Trump, Saudi Arabia Warn
Iran Against Middle East Conflict,” Reuters, May 19, 2019,
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conflict-idUSKCN1SP01C, accessed on November 26, 2019.
11 Mladenov, N. (2019), “‘Multi-generational tragedy’ in Israel
and Palestine demands political will for two-state solution,”
United Nations, October 28, 2019,
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November 26, 2019.
12 “Kashmir unrest could lead Pakistan, India to ‘accidental
war’,” Al Jazeera, September 10, 2019,
→https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/kashmir-unrest-
lead-pakistan-india-accidental-war-190910140000666.html,
accessed on November 26, 2019.
13 “North Korea launches two possible ‘ballistic’ missiles into
sea, Japan says,” Reuters, October 31, 2019,
→https://www.cnbc.com/2019/10/31/north-korea-launches-two-
projectiles-japan-and-south-korea-say.html, accessed on
November 26, 2019.
14 “Japan and South Korea promise to work on bilateral ties
amid escalating trade tensions,” Reuters, October 24, 2019,
→https://www.cnbc.com/2019/10/24/japan-and-korea-promise-
to-work-on-bilateral-ties-trade-tensions.html, accessed on
November 26, 2019.
15 Heydarian, R. (2019), “Unopposed no more: Beijing’s
ambitions in the South China Sea increasingly draw U.S.
attention,” South China Morning Post,
→https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/303709
5/unopposed-no-more-beijings-ambitions-south-china-sea,
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16 Plokhy, S., and Sarotte, M, E. (2019), “The Shoals of Ukraine:
Where American Illusions and Great Power Politics Collide,”
Foreign Affairs, November 22, 2019,
→https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2019-
11-22/shoals-ukraine, accessed on November 26, 2019.
17 Taylor, M.L. (2019), “Combating disinformation and foreign
interference in democracies: Lessons from Europe,” Brookings,
July 31, 2019,
→https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2019/07/31/comba
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18 “The U.S. and Russia: A Lesson in Asymmetry,” Stratfor
Worldview, July 28, 2017,
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19 Judson, J. (2019), “Do the Baltics need more U.S. military
support to deter Russia?” Defense News, July 16, 2019,
→https://www.defensenews.com/land/2019/07/15/do-the-
baltics-need-more-us-military-support-to-deter-russia/, accessed
on November 26, 2019.
20 Smale, A. et al. (2015), “Migrants Cross Austria Border from
Hungary,” New York Times, September 4, 2015,
→https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/05/world/europe/migrant-
crisis-hungary.html?
hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&module=first-column-
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21 Doctors Without Borders (2019), “The facts about the
humanitarian crisis in Mexico and Central America,” February 5,
2019, →https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/what-we-
do/news-stories/news/facts-about-humanitarian-crisis-mexico-
and-central-america, accessed on November 2019.
22 Goodman, P.S. (2019), “Turkey’s Long, Painful Economic
Crisis Grinds On,” New York Times, July 8, 2019,
→https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/08/business/turkey-
economy-crisis.html, accessed on November 26, 2019.
23 Perez, S., and Dube, R. (2019), “Why Argentina Faces an
Economic Crisis. Again.” Wall Street Journal, September 25, 2019,
→https://www.wsj.com/articles/why-argentina-faces-an-
economic-crisis-again-11569422388, accessed on November 26,
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24 “Six charts that show how hard U.S. sanctions have hit
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44 Ibid.
45 Ibid.
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50 Perrow, C. (2007), The Next Catastrophe (Princeton:
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51 Ibid., p. 212.
52 Dirks, G. (2020), in an email to the author on January 20,
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53 Perrow, C. (2011), The Next Catastrophe: Reducing Our
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54 Dirks, G. (2020), in an email reply to the author on January
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59 Bennett and Lemoine (2014), op. cit.
60 George (2017), op. cit.
61 Sloan, A., quoted in Zinkin (2019), op. cit., p. 341.
62 Zinkin (2019), op. cit., p. 341.
63 Lord Goldsmith, U.K. Attorney General quoted in Zinkin
(2019), op. cit., p. 58.
64 Based on conversations between the author’s late father,
who headed up the Special Committee Secretariat, and the
author.
65 Sorrel, C. (2016), “People Are Really Bad at Probability, And
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ii The “elevator pitch” and instructions to have PowerPoints
with only three bullets per slide that are only a dozen slides long
are examples of oversimplification that ignore the “devil is in the
details” which may lead to difficulties later on.
66 Harford (2011), op. cit., p. 187.
67 George (2017), op. cit.
68 Ibid.
69 Harford (2011), op. cit., pp. 18–20.
70 George (2017), op. cit.
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Inquiry into the Animal Origins of Property and Nations (New York:
Atheneum).
i Social Darwinian thinking is not Charles Darwin’s, but
Herbert Spencer’s idea. It was popular in the US in the late 19th
century as justifying the rampant inequality of the “Gilded Age”:
… Social-contract theories had their greatest currency in the 17th and 18th
centuries and are associated with such philosophers as the Englishmen
Thomas Hobbes and John Locke and the Frenchman Jean-Jacques
Rousseau. What distinguished these theories of political obligation from
other doctrines of the period was their attempt to justify and delimit
political authority on the grounds of individual self-interest and rational
consent. By comparing the advantages of organized government with the
disadvantages of the state of nature, they showed why and under what
conditions government is useful and ought therefore to be accepted by all
reasonable people as a voluntary obligation. These conclusions were then
reduced to the form of a social contract, from which it was supposed that
all the essential rights and duties of citizens could be logically deduced.
[Emphasis ours]