a

ISSN 0101-2061 (Print)

ISSN 1678-457X (Online) Food Science and Technology

DDOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.30416

Gluten-free cookies elaborated with buckwheat flour, millet flour and chia seeds
Lara Tatiane Geremias Ferreira BRITES1, Fernanda ORTOLAN2, David Wesley da SILVA1, Fábio Rodrigo BUENO1,
Thais de Souza ROCHA3, Yoon Kil CHANG1, Caroline Joy STEEL1*

Abstract
The aim of this study was to obtain an optimized gluten-free cookie formulation using alternative flours. For this, a 22 central
composite rotatable design (CCRD), with varying concentrations of millet flour (MF) and chia seeds (CS), on a base of buckwheat
flour (BF), was used. Control cookies were elaborated with 100% wheat flour (WF). The cookies were characterized for texture
and other physical tests and by scanning electron microscopy of their internal structure. The response surfaces for the quality
parameters of the cookies showed that the higher the proportion of MF used in the formulations, the lower the height and the
greater the diameter, expansion factor, and hardness of the cookies. The addition of up to 10% CS showed no influence on the
responses. The optimum point was defined as that with diameter, expansion factor, thickness, and hardness closer to the control
cookie: 7.5% CS, 40% MF, and 52.5% BF. The substitution of wheat flour by buckwheat flour, millet flour, and chia seeds can
be considered a suitable alternative for the preparation of gluten-free cookies.
Keywords: gluten-free cookies; buckwheat flour; millet flour; chia seeds.
Practical Application: A new alternative for the manufacture of gluten-free cookies as an option for celiac patients.

1 Introduction
Celiac disease is an immune-mediated enteropathy triggered Organization of the United Nations, 2011). This grain is a good
by exposure to dietary gluten and related to the consumption of source of energy due to its high starch content (Arendt & Dal
wheat, rye, barley, and derivatives (Murray, 1999). Intolerance Bello, 2009; Demirbas, 2005).
to gluten leads to inflammation of the mucosa of the small
intestine, promoting deficiency in nutrient uptake (Feighery, Gluten-free cookies can also be enriched with constituents
1999; Rostom et al., 2005), and a gluten-free diet is the only that play a nutritional or physiological role in the human body
form of treatment. (Feddern et al., 2011; Moroni et al., 2011; Torbica et al., 2012),
such as chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds or flour, which are rich in
The production of gluten-free products is a major challenge fiber, proteins, essential fatty acids such as omega-3 and 6 fatty
for the food industry, especially in the manufacture of bakery acids, vitamins and antioxidants, and have been studied to
products, since gluten plays a key technological role in the enrich foods, especially with dietary fiber (Capitani et al., 2012;
structure of these products (Torbica et al., 2012). The limited Muñoz et al., 2012; Coelho & Salas-Mellado, 2015).
number of gluten-free products on the market has evidenced
the difficulty of developing these products. Gluten-free cookies This study aimed to elaborate gluten-free cookies with
can be considered as alternative products in the development buckwheat flour, millet flour, and chia seeds, using an experimental
of gluten-free foods, since they have a wide range of shapes and design to prepare cookies with texture and physical characteristics
flavors, and great acceptance by consumers. similar to those produced with wheat flour.
Flours derived from fruits, leaves, grains, tubers, and vegetables
(Granato & Ellendersen, 2009) can be used as alternatives to 2 Material and methods
replace wheat flour, including buckwheat flour and millet flour. 2.1 Material
Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) is a pseudocereal that presents
proteins of high biological value, as well as fibers, minerals, and Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour, chia (Salvia hispanica L.)
flavonoids (Pomeranz, 1988; Ikeda & Yamashita, 1994; Abdel-Aal seeds, hulled millet (Panicum miliaceum) grains and the other
& Wood, 2005; Choi & Ma, 2006). Millet (Panicum milliaceum) is ingredients used in the formulations were purchased commercially
considered a grain of secondary culture, mainly used for animal in Campinas – SP. Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp) grains were
feed, with a worldwide production of more than 27 million tons donated by Mãe Terra (Osasco – SP), and palm oil was donated
(Ačko, 2012; Chandrasekara et al., 2012; Food and Agriculture by Triângulo Alimentos (Itápolis – SP).

Received 06 Oct., 2017

Accepted 29 May, 2018
1
Universidade Estadual de Campinas – UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brasil
2
Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de São Paulo – IFSP, Campus Capivari, Capivari, SP, Brasil
3
Universidade Estadual de Londrina – UEL, Londrina, PR, Brasil
*Corresponding author: steel@unicamp.br

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 Brites et al.

2.2 Methods 220 rpm. Then, the flour or the flour blend and CS were added
and mixed for two minutes at 220 rpm.
Production of millet and buckwheat flours
To obtain flours, whole millet and buckwheat grains were Dough was divided into portions (~ 200 g), laminated
milled in a Quadrumat Senior (Brabender™, Duisburg, Germany) (13 mm thickness), and cut with a stainless steel mold (60 mm
mill, without the use of the set of sieves, to give whole grain diameter). The cookies were baked at 150 °C for 15 minutes in
flour, according to method 26-50.01 (American Association of an electric oven (model C6, Prática Technicook, Pouso Alegre,
Cereal Chemists, 2010), with adaptations. MG, Brazil). One hour after baking, the cookies were weighed
and placed in plastic polypropylene bags, and stored in a dry
Physicochemical characterization of raw materials place protected from light.

The physicochemical characterization of wheat flour (WF),

Physical characterization of the cookies
buckwheat flour (BF), millet flour (MF), and chia seeds (CS) was
performed according to the methods proposed by the American Weight loss was determined by the change in weight of the
Association of Cereal Chemists (2010), as follows: moisture (method dough pieces after baking. The diameter and thickness of the
44-15.02); ash (method 08-01.01); proteins (46-13.01 method); ether cookies were measured with a caliper, and the expansion factor
extract (method 30-10.01); and total dietary fiber (method 32-05.01). was obtained by dividing the diameter by the thickness values,
The digestible carbohydrates were determined by difference according to method 10-50.05 (American Association of Cereal
[100 - (ash + protein + ether extract + total dietary fiber)]. Chemists, 2010). The volume and density of the cookies were
The particle size was measured by method 66-20.01 (American calculated according to Mauro et al. (2010).
Association of Cereal Chemists, 2010) and color measurements
were performed by the CIELab system, using a portable colorimeter Texture was evaluated in a texture analyzer (model TA-XT2i,
MiniScan XE Plus (Hunterlab, Reston, VA, USA). Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, United Kingdom) using a three point
The viscoamylographic behavior (pasting temperature, bending rig (HDP/3PB) to determine hardness (Silva et al., 1999).
peak viscosity, trough viscosity, breakdown, final viscosity, and The test conditions were: pre-test speed 1 mm/s, test speed 3 mm/s,
tendency to retrogradation or setback) was determined according post-test speed 10 mm/s, and penetration distance 25 mm.
to methodology 162 of the International Association for Cereal The micrographs of the control cookies and optimum point
Science and Technology (1996), in a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA), were obtained by scanning electron microscopy, using a Leo
model 4500 (Perten, Warriewood, Australia). 440i LEO Electron Microscope (Cambridge, England), 20 kV
The content of apparent amylose was determined by accelerating voltage and 100 pA beam current. The cookies
spectrophotometry, as described in method 61-03.01 (American were broken into small pieces (~ 40 mm), and put on a metal
Association of Cereal Chemists, 2010). The absorbance of the disc using a carbon adhesive tape, which was sputtered (Balzers
samples was determined with a spectrophotometer DU-70n
(Beckman, Fullerton, USA), at a wavelength of 620 nm.
Table 1. Levels of the variables of the 22 experimental design.
Experimental design
Coded Real Levels
A 22 central composite rotatable design (CCRD) was used, Variables Variables* -α -1 0 +1 +α
with four factorial points, four axial points, and three central x1 CS (%) 0 1.4 5 8.6 10
points, to investigate the effect of the addition of different levels x2 MF (%) 10 21.6 50 78.4 90
of CS, MF, and BF on the physical characteristics of gluten-free *Real values (% substitution of buckwheat flour); x1 - chia seeds (CS) and x2 - millet flour
cookies. For the design, the percentage of CS and MF were (MF); % buckwheat flour (BF) = [100 - (CS + MF)].
considered as independent variables and BF was used to complete
the flour mix. The levels of the variables are presented in Table 1.
Maximum and minimum levels were determined in pre-tests. Table 2. Base formulation for the manufacture of cookies.
Ingredients Amount* Amount**
Manufacture of gluten-free cookies Wheat flour (WF) 225 g -
Buckwheat flour (BF) - **
The formulation shown in Table 2 was used for the manufacture Millet flour (MF) - **
of the cookies, based on method 10-50.05 (American Association Chia seeds (CS) - **
of Cereal Chemists, 2010). Control cookies with 100% WF and Refined sugar 130 g 130 g
gluten-free cookies with 100% BF and 100% MF were prepared, Palm oil 64 g 64 g
in addition to cookies made following the experimental design.
Sodium bicarbonate 2.5 g 2.5 g
The cookie dough was processed in a planetary mixer (model Salt 2.1 g 2.1 g
K45SS, KitchenAid ™, St. Joseph, USA). Hydrogenated fat, sugar, Dextrose solution 32.8 mL 32.8 mL
salt, and sodium bicarbonate were blended for 3 minutes at Distilled water 15.5 mL 15.5 mL
58 rpm. Thereafter, dextrose and distilled water were added, the *According to method 10-50.05 (American Association of Cereal Chemists, 2010);
dough was mixed for one minute at 58 rpm and one minute at **According to the experimental design.

Food Sci. Technol, Campinas, 39(2): 458-466, Apr.-June 2019 459/466 459
 Optimized gluten-free cookies using alternative flours

SCD 050) for application of a 20 nm gold layer. Measurements apparent amylose, while BF showed lower levels of this polymer.
were carried out at 200 to 1000X magnification. Our results are close to those found by Zheng et al. (1998) and
Hung et al. (2009) for buckwheat starch, which were 21.9 to 24.6%
Statistical analysis and 21.1 to 27.4%, respectively, if we consider approximately
78% starch (d.b.) in buckwheat flour (BF).
All analyses were carried out in triplicate, except for
cookie hardness which was in 7 replicates. Tukey’s test was According to Demiate & Kotovicz (2011), in general, higher
used for comparison of the means of the characterization of amylose contents lead to higher setback values (reflecting a
the raw materials (p ≤ 0.05). Data for the responses (physical greater tendency to retrograde). But Schirmer et al. (2013)
characteristics of the cookies) were analyzed by the Response observed a lower the tendency to retrograde in higher amylose
Surface Methodology using the software Statistica 7.0 (StatSoft, content starches, and related it to the formation of lipid-amylose
2004) for the calculation of the regression coefficients and ANOVA complexes.
(minimum R2 of 0.70 and p-value ≤ 0.10). The mathematical With respect to the color parameters, WF was lighter when
models are presented for use with the coded values of the compared to BF and MF, since these flours were obtained from
independent variables (x1 and x2, for CS and MF, respectively). whole grains, thus resulting in darker flours, due to the presence
By evaluating the response surfaces, the optimum point was of bran constituents, such as fibers, phenolics, and flavonoids
chosen as the one with the most similar characteristics to the
(Torbica et al., 2012), which contributed to the reduction of the
control (100% WF).
L* (lightness) values. Chia seeds had low lightness values, and
high tendencies to red and yellow, the latter due to the presence of
3 Results and discussion beta-carotene and phenolic compounds (Reyes-Caudillo et al., 2008).
3.1 Physicochemical characterization of flours and chia seeds Regarding the particle size, all flours presented more than 87% of
The results of the characterization of WF, BF, and MF particles ≤ 0.250 mm. According to Brazilian legislation (Brasil, 2005),
flours, and CS are shown in Table 3. It is worth emphasizing wheat flour must have at least 95% of its particles ≤ 0.250 mm.
that the WF and MF have similar results, as far as the proximate The CS had 96.60% particles retained on the 0.250 mm sieve,
composition is concerned, while the BF presented higher fiber which was expected, since whole seeds were used.
content when compared to the other flours. The CS had high Among the raw materials used to produce the gluten-free
levels of proteins, lipids, ash, and mainly fibers, contributing to cookies, it can be observed that the smallest particle size was found
the nutritional quality of the cookies (Charalampopoulos et al.,
for MF, demonstrating that it probably has a softer endosperm
2002; Anderson et al., 2009).
when compared to buckwheat. The particle size is important in
The amylose content is a characteristic of each type of starch the preparation of cookies and other bakery products, considering
and influences their pasting behavior. No significant differences that smaller, uniform particles generate a greater uniformity of
(p ≤ 0.05) were observed between WF and MF for the content of the elaborated products, generating better texture and visual

Table 3. Proximate composition and color parameters, particle size, amylose content, and viscoamylographic profile of wheat flour (WF),
buckwheat flour (BF), millet flour (MF), and chia seeds (CS).
WF BF MF CS
Moisture (g/100 g) 11.49 ± 0.11b 12.72 ± 0.06a 11.18 ± 0.10c 6.61 ± 0.01d
Protein (g/100 g) 10.81 ± 0.33bc 11.52 ± 0.10b 10.27 ± 0.98c 20.99 ± 0.37a
Ether extract (g/100 g) 1.15 ± 0.04c 3.15 ± 0.42b 1.92 ± 0.47c 34.49 ± 0.90a
Ash (g/100 g) 0.51 ± 0.01c 2.15 ± 0.03b 0.80 ± 0.29c 4.87 ± 0.02a
Total dietary fiber (g/100 g) 3.08 ± 0.60b 5.10 ± 0.31b 1.08 ± 0.21c 35.54 ± 2.80a
Digestible carbohydrates*** 84.45 ± 1.61a 78.08 ± 0.73b 85.93 ± 0.31a 4.11 ± 1.27c
Amylose (g/100 g) 19.40 ± 0.31a 17.68 ± 0.70b 19.38 ± 0.04a n.d.**
L* 94.05 ± 0.63a 86.36 ± 0.67b 87.19 ± 0.49b 42.32 ± 0.91c
a* 0.58 ± 0.05d 1.49 ± 0.08c 1.95 ± 0.07b 4.39 ± 0.05a
b* 10.54 ± 0.20c 10.57 ± 0.55c 25.33 ± 0.20a 15.43 ± 0.37b
Particle size (≤0.250mm) (%) 97.50 87.15 93.25 00.03
Pasting temperature (°C) 84.72 ± 1.20a 81.95 ± 0.63b 77.65 ± 0.37c n.d.**
Peak viscosity (RVU) 106.08 ± 0.23c 182.62 ± 5.37a 151.25 ± 3.12b n.d.**
Trough viscosity (RVU) 38.21 ± 0.65c 159.12 ± 0.78a 78.79 ± 0.76b n.d.**
Final viscosity (RVU) 103.08 ± 2.63c 426.12 ±12.54a 226.08 ± 2.28b n.d.**
Breakdown (RVU) 67.87 ± 0.71b 23.5 ± 0.62c 72.46 ± 3.82a n.d.**
Setback (RVU) 63.70 ± 1.67c 267 ± 11.70a 147.29 ± 3.10b n.d.**
Means followed by the same letter on the lines do not differ significantly by Tukey’s test (p≤0.05); **n.d. = not determined; ***Digestible carbohydrates = [100 - (ash + protein + ether
extract + total dietary fiber)].

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 Brites et al.

aspect, due to a more homogeneous absorption of water, and more the fiber content influences the starch paste viscosity, increasing
uniform cooking (Silva et al., 2009). According to Yamamoto et al. maximum viscosity and setback.
(1996), the particle size is an important parameter for final cookie
One of the main problems encountered in gluten-free
quality, due to a greater uniformity during the preparation of the
products is aging and hardening during storage. This problem
dough, resulting in more uniform baking.
is related to the re-association of the starch molecules (amylose
As observed in the viscoamylographic profile of the flours and amylopectin) after cooling of the gelatinized starch paste, this
WF, BF, and MF, significant differences were found for all of phase being pointed out in the RVA as the setback, indicating the
them, mainly due to the different ratios of starch and fibers. tendency of starch to retrograde (Singh et al., 2011). However,
The WF had the lowest values of peak viscosity, final viscosity, this may be a problem for breads and cakes, products which
and setback, when compared to the other flours, probably due to must remain soft during their shelf-life, but not so for cookies.
differences in protein profile, since only the WF has gluten-forming In this case, retrogradation may even be seen as positive.
proteins, which interact with the surface of the starch granule,
preventing further interaction with water (Chen et al., 2010; The higher the tendency to retrograde, the greater the
Ragaee & Abdel-Aal, 2006). The results obtained for wheat chance of the product to harden during storage, indicating that
flour are within the range presented by Zhang et al. (2005), who cookies made with higher proportions of BF can become more
found a wide variation for flours from different wheat grain rigid during storage, making it necessary to carry out shelf-life
cultivars. The results for buckwheat flour are in accordance with studies in future research. However, in agreement with Ragaee
Inglett et al. (2009). However, we did not find results for pasting & Abdel-Aal (2006), the amylose content is responsible for the
properties of millet flour in the literature consulted. initial retrogradation of the starch (soon after cooling), which
may justify the higher hardness values found in cookies produced
In products without gluten there is a deficiency to identify
with higher levels of MF, that presented higher amylose content.
the quality of the flours used in formulations, and determining
the viscoamylographic properties may help in the characterization Another interesting property of starch pastes is breakdown
of the starch paste, helping to predict the baking time and the viscosity, which indicates the stability of the starch granules
behavior of the cooked starch in the cookies (Inglett et al., 2009). during heating and mechanical agitation (Demiate & Kotovicz,
Besides this, these results may be interesting for other studies 2011). The lowest values for breakdown were observed for BF,
involving other applications, since little information of this kind which may be interesting for use in sauces and confectionery
is found for raw materials such as MF in the literature. creams, but not so relevant for products such as cookies.
According to Schirmer et al. (2013), when the amount of BF showed the highest final viscosity and hence the greater
amylopectin is higher in relation to amylose in the starch granules, tendency to retrogradation or setback, followed by MF and WF.
there is a higher viscosity during heating. This effect was also The values obtained for the viscoamylographic profile may
observed in this study, where the BF had the lowest amylose indicate different behaviors in processing and baking.
content when compared to WF and MF (Table 3). However, a
higher setback value, which is usually associated with higher
3.2 Physical characteristics of gluten-free cookies
amylose content, was also observed for the BF, probably due to
its high fiber content when compared to the other raw materials. The physical characteristics of gluten-free cookies are
According to Nuwamanya et al. (2010) and Ascheri et al. (2012), shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Physical characteristics of cookies prepared with different levels of CS, MF, and BF according to the 22 CCRD, and control formulations
with 100% WF, 100% BF, and 100% MF.
% CS % MF % BF Weight Diameter Thickness Expansion Hardness
Trials
x1 (CS) x2 (MF) 100-(CS+MF) (g) (mm) (mm) Factor (N)
F1 -1 (1.4) -1 (21.6) 77.0 30.46 ± 1.58 69.28 ± 2.32 15.63 ± 0.70 4.43 ± 0.10 84.27 ± 7.80
F2 +1 (8.6) -1 (21.6) 69.8 29.99 ± 1.91 70.57 ± 2.41 14.79 ± 0.83 6.74 ± 0.43 73.33 ± 24.80
F3 -1 (1.4) +1 (78.4) 20.2 28.15 ± 2.02 83.41 ± 1.47 12.41 ± 0.91 4.79 ± 0.33 147.62 ± 5.21
F4 +1 (8.6) +1 (78.4) 13.0 28.55 ± 1.27 86.1 ± 1.90 10.4 ± 0.66 8.29 ± 0.38 146.37 ± 18.52
F5 -1.41 (0.0) 0 (50.0) 50.0 29.33 ± 0.10 74.11 ± 0.92 14.38 ± 0.61 5.16 ± 0.27 59.88 ± 1.33
F6 +1.41 (10.0) 0 (50.0) 40.0 27.72 ± 0.82 77.65 ± 2.68 12.09 ± 0.80 6.46 ± 0.61 68.39 ± 12.10
F7 0 (5.0) -1.41 (10.0) 85.0 28.52 ± 1.17 68.65 ± 1.00 14.92 ± 0.74 4.61 ± 0.28 81.67 ± 7.45
F8 0 (5.0) +1.41 (90.0) 5.0 27.44 ± 2.33 85.27 ± 2.75 10.52 ± 0.80 8.15 ± 0.71 153.95 ± 23.80
F9 0 (5.0) 0 (50.0) 45.0 29.11 ± 1.86 75.73 ± 1.33 14.22 ± 0.53 5.33 ± 0.29 36.05 ± 4.12
F10 0 (5.0) 0 (50.0) 45.0 28.41 ± 1.74 75.06 ± 1.45 13.87 ± 0.40 5.41 ± 0.19 48.46 ± 1.90
F11 0 (5.0) 0 (50.0) 45.0 28.59 ± 1.44 76.28 ± 0.91 13.9 ± 0.72 5.50 ± 0.29 70.07 ± 6.10
Control 100.0% WF 29.10 ± 1.21 69.80 ± 0.66 15.90 ± 0.95 4.40 ± 0.20 174.38 ± 14.27
Control 100.0% BF 28.60 ± 1.30 68.10 ± 1.10 15.60 ± 1.00 4.48 ± 0.30 83.66 ± 14.20
Control 100.0% MF 26.60 ± 1.70 83.60 ± 1.60 10.10 ± 1.10 8.39 ± 0.90 132.84 ± 7.80
CS = chia seeds; MF = millet flour; BF = buckwheat flour; WF = wheat flour.

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 Optimized gluten-free cookies using alternative flours

Figure 1. Response surfaces of the cookies prepared with different levels of chia seeds, millet flour, and buckwheat flour, for: (A) diameter (mm);
(B) expansion factor; (C) thickness (mm); (D) hardness (N).

Figure 1 shows the response surfaces for the parameters cookies). Besides, CS was used as seeds, presenting a smaller
diameter, thickness, expansion factor, and hardness of the cookies contact surface with the other ingredients of the formulation.
prepared with different levels of CS, MF, and BF.
Figure 1C (Thickness (mm) =
14 − 0.76 x1 − 0.30 x12 − 1.73 x2 − 0.56 x22 − 0.29 x1 x2;

As shown in Figure 1A (Diameter ;

=75.99 + 1.12 x1 + 6.66 x2 + 0.78 x22 R = 98.23%; Fcal/Ftab = 16.11) shows that the greatest thickness
2

R 2 = 97.80%; Fcal/Ftab = 33.91) and 1b (Expansion values were observed for the formulations containing lower MF
factor =5.89 + 0.96 x1 + 0.87 x2 ; R2 = 73.36%; Fcal/Ftab = 3.54), there and CS, and higher BF levels. The MF showed higher influence
was a positive linear effect of the addition of CS and MF on (negative) on thickness of the cookies. These results are related
the diameter and expansion factor of the cookies, respectively. to the constituents of the raw materials. Cookies with higher
Cookies with greater diameters and expansion factors (ratio of BF levels showed a smaller diameter and expansion factor and
diameter/thickness) had higher percentages of MF and CS, and increased thickness, possibly due to a higher content of fiber
consequently, lower percentages of BF. However, the influence and protein when compared to the formulations with higher
of MF was higher than CS in both cases, possibly because MF MF levels (F4 and F8). Furthermore, the BF starch pastes were
was used as flour and CS as seeds. more viscous when compared to the pastes prepared with the
other raw materials (Table 3), which may have contributed to
This is probably because MF presented a starch paste with the increase in vertical expansion, reducing the diameter. On the
lower protein and fiber contents, and lower viscosity, with greater other hand, cookies formulated with higher percentages of MF
dough spreading ability during baking. This generated a greater presented greater spreadability due to the lower viscosity of the
cookie diameter and, consequently, a greater expansion factor, starch paste, with the dough flowing more easily during baking,
since this parameter takes into account the diameter. BF, by and not maintaining the shape of the cookies.
having a higher fiber content and a more viscous paste, kept
According to Gutkoski et al. (2003), the main evaluation criteria
the initial diameter of the cookies after baking.
for cookies are diameter, thickness, and surface characteristics,
The lower influence of CS is due to the fact that this raw and a greater diameter is associated with soft wheats, low
material has a lower amount of carbohydrates (starch), contributing protein content, and small particle size. Our standard was the
less to these parameters (diameter and expansion factor of the cookie prepared with 100% WF. The cookies elaborated with

462 462/466 Food Sci. Technol, Campinas, 39(2): 458-466, Apr.-June 2019
 Brites et al.

MF showed greater dough spread during baking, giving rise to Table 5. Experimental physical characteristics of the ideal cookie.
a greater diameter and a lower thickness. Control Predicted
Characteristics Real value
100% WF value
As reported by Moretto & Fett (1999), in addition to the
Diameter (mm) 69.80 ± 0.61 65.53 ± 0.60 74.53
chemical composition of the raw materials, sugar and fat interfere
Thickness (mm) 15.90 ± 0.90 14.30 ± 0.20 13.79
with spread and expansion of the cookies during baking.
Expansion factor 4.40 4.58 6.26
Although these ingredients are important for the quality of the
Hardness (N) 174.38 ± 14.21 73.03 ± 17.20 51.63
final product, no significant effect was observed in this study,
WF = wheat flour.
since the amounts were fixed for all formulations.
With respect to texture, an increase in hardness (Figure 1D,
The results of the physical tests for the optimal point are
Hardness = 51.44 + 11.84 x12 + 29.88 x2 + 38.84 x22 ; R2 = 89.80%;
shown in Table 5.
Fcal/Ftab = 6.69) was observed in cookies with higher MF
levels. Greater hardness was observed in the cookies with the We can see that the results of the real (experimental) values
increase in MF and decrease in BF levels, while CS did not have for the ideal cookie quality parameters diameter, thickness
any influence on this response. and expansion factor are close to the values predicted by the
Hardness of cookies is caused by the starch-protein interactions, mathematical models and close to those found for the control
through hydrogen bonds, which can explain hardness of the cookie (100% WF).
control cookies made with WF (Hoseney, 1994). However, high The real value of the ideal cookie for hardness is close to
hardness values were found for cookies with higher MF levels, the value predicted by the mathematical model, but not to that
probably due to dough spread during cooking, making cookies of the control cookie. It is known that instrumental texture
dry and consequently harder (Sarabhai & Prabhasankar, 2015). analysis of some foods presents high variability. This may be so
The variation range in hardness values observed for the for cookies, especially those with inclusions such as chia seeds.
central points in the experimental design (F9, F10 and F11) To obtain gluten-free cookies with hardness values similar
can be explained by CS addition. The seeds may have been to the control, higher MF levels may be necessary. However, as
distributed differently in the test samples used for texture previously discussed, hardness of the cookies produced with
evaluation (Sarabhai & Prabhasankar, 2015). MF is probably due to the greater dough spread during cooking,
Observing the viscoamylographic profile and composition of unlike what happens in the control cookie (produced with WF),
the raw materials (Table 3) together with cookie quality parameters where there is greater interaction between the components.
(and taking the WF control cookie as a basis), it was found that
the higher viscosity, and higher fiber and protein contents of BF 3.4 SEM of control and ideal cookie
led to smaller diameters, and increased thickness of the cookies
(Table 4), while those cookies made with MF (which presented As can be seen in Figure 2, control and ideal cookie (optimal
lower viscosity, fiber and protein contents) had an increase in point) micrographs with different levels of magnification
the expansion factor, and hardness. (200x and 1000x) show similar structures, the small differences
are due to the raw materials used in each formulation.
However, as the cookies contain considerable amounts of
non-gelatinized starch (Duta & Culetu, 2015), the RVA cannot The control cookie presents a structure formed by the
fully explain the differences observed in cookie parameters. RVA interaction between gluten-forming proteins, starch, and fat.
analysis is carried out in excess of water, with temperatures up to The granules are almost entirely covered by a thin protein film and
95 °C and constant stirring, while cookie dough has less water, melted and re-solidified fat, as can be seen in Figures 2A and 2B.
a considerable amount of fat and sugar, and is submitted to Meanwhile, the gluten-free cookie (optimum point) consists of
higher temperatures (>200 °C) without agitation during baking. starch granules surrounded by a non-gluten-forming protein
film (probably more fragile) and melted and re-solidified fat
3.3 Definition of the ideal cookie (optimal point) and (Figures 2C and 2D). Although the raw materials used in the
validation of the mathematical models gluten-free formulation presented a percentage of proteins close
to WF, the absence of gluten-forming proteins was probably
Considering the significant effects on the dependent variables responsible for the more fragile structure of the gluten-free
or responses (diameter, expansion factor, thickness, and hardness) cookies, taking into account that the rest of the formulation
of the independent variables (MF, CS, and BF), and their important was the same.
role for industrial production and quality of cookies, the optimum
point was defined as one that presented characteristics similar to The small differences between the micrographs are probably
the control cookie. To obtain the predicted values of these variables due to the different morphological properties of starches with
(quality characteristics) similar to the control, an experimental different gelatinization stages in the cookies, conferring a
cookie (optimum point) with 7.5% CS (x1), 40% MF (x2) gummy appearance to the control (Sarabhai & Prabhasankar,
(coded values for x1 = 0.7050 and x2 = -0.3525, respectively) 2015). However, the figures show that there are non-gelatinized
and 52.5% BF (100 - x1 + x2) was produced. granules, as also observed by Duta & Culetu (2015).

Food Sci. Technol, Campinas, 39(2): 458-466, Apr.-June 2019 463/466 463
 Optimized gluten-free cookies using alternative flours

Figure 2. Micrographs of (A) control cookie at 200x magnification; (B) control cookie at 1000x magnification; (C) optimum point at 200x
magnification; (D) optimum point at 1000x magnification. WF = wheat flour; CS = chia seeds; MF = millet flour; BF = buckwheat flour.

4 Conclusions American Association of Cereal Chemists – AACC. (2010). Approved

methods of analysis. Method 26-50.01: brabender Quadrumat Jr.
The results showed that cookies produced with millet flour (Quadruplex) method. Method 44-15.02: moisture-air-oven methods.
(MF) presented greater hardness values, while buckwheat flour Method 08-01.01: ash-basic method. Method 46-13.01: crude protein.
(BF) contributed to the increased thickness of the cookies. Method 30-10.01: crude fat in flour, bread and baked cereal products.
In contrast, chia seeds (CS) showed no influence on the responses Method 32-05.01: total dietary fiber. Method 66-20.01: determination of
assessed (except greater variability in the texture analysis), with granularity of semolina and farina: sieving method. Method 26-50.01:
possible incorporation of up to 10%, which is of great importance baking quality if cookie flour (11th ed.). St. Paul: AACC.
due to its many nutritional benefits. Anderson, J. W., Baird, P., Davis, R. H. Jr., Ferreri, S., Knudtson, M.,
Koraym, A., Waters, V., & Williams, C. L. (2009). Health benefits
A greater proportion of buckwheat flour could be incorporated
of dietary fiber. Nutrition Reviews, 67(4), 188-205. http://dx.doi.
into the dough of gluten-free cookies to obtain diameter and org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00189.x. PMid:19335713.
thickness values similar to a cookie produced with gluten (wheat
Arendt, E. K., & Dal Bello, F. (2009). The science of gluten-free foods and
flour). However, sensory analysis should be included in future
beverages. St. Paul: AACC. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/9781891127670.
studies, since buckwheat is known for its pronounced flavor.
Ascheri, D. P. R., Boêno, J. A., Bassinello, P. Z., & Ascheri, J. L. R.
From the results of this study, we can conclude that the (2012). Correlação entre as propriedades nutricionais dos grãos
replacement of wheat flour by buckwheat flour, millet flour, and e viscosidade de pasta de farinhas pré-gelatinizadas de arroz
chia seeds can be a suitable alternative for the manufacture of vermelho. Revista Ceres, 59(1), 16-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/
cookies, and also for gluten-free diets. S0034-737X2012000100003.
Brasil, Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento. (2005,
June 3). Regulamento técnico de identidade e qualidade da farinha
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