Ancient Rome

Rome Republic
753 B.C. - Rome is founded
Rome was founded by Romulus. Romulus was the first of the seven Roman
kings. The original name of Rome was Roma.

509 B.C. - Rome becomes a republic

The last king is expelled and Rome is now ruled by senators. There is a
constitution with laws and Rome becomes a complex republican government.

264–146 BC: The Punic Wars

Rome consistently battled three severe wars in the giant North African city of Carthage. These
are called the Punic Wars, from the Latin name for Carthaginians, Poeni. The First Punic War
(264–241 BC) was held about control of the island of Sicily, the Second Punic War (218–201
BC) viewed the renowned attack of Italy via Carthaginian general Hannibal and the Third Punic
War (149–146 BC) was an inevitable result, in which Rome was at last effective in breaking its
opposite rival.

The Second and First Centuries BC: The Hellenization of Rome

During the previous two centuries, Rome vanquished the Eastern Mediterranean by overcoming
the Hellenistic empires established by the replacements of Alexander the Great. The Roman
higher classes accepted Greek literature and philosophy, art and engineering, and by the most
recent century BC. It was important to be completely acquainted with Greek culture to be
acknowledged as a core member from the Roman upper class due to their connection with Greek.
218 B.C. - Hannibal invades Italy
Hannibal leads the Carthage army to attack Italy. This becomes part of the
Second Punic War.

45 B.C. - Julius Caesar becomes the first dictator of Rome

Julius Caesar defeats Pompey in a civil war. He becomes the supreme ruler of
Rome. This is the end of the Roman Republic. He hires Sosigenes, an
Egyptian astronomer, to work out a new 12-month calendar.

44 B.C. - Julius Caesar is assassinated

Julius Caesar is assassinated on the Ides of March by Marcus Brutus. They hope
to bring back the republic, but civil war breaks out instead.

Roman Empire
27 B.C. - Roman Empire begins
Octavius appoints himself "Augustus", which means the first emperor.

64 A.D. - Much of Rome burns

Nero set fire to Rome and blames the Christians for it.

80 A.D. - Colosseum is built

The Colosseum was built in 80 AD. The completion of the Colosseum was
celebrated with 100 days of games. The Romans invade Scotland.

122 A.D. - Hadrian Wall is built

The Hadrian Wall was built in 122 AD. It was a long wall built across northern
England in an effort to keep the barbarians out.
284 A.D. - Rome splits into two empires
Emperor Diocletian divides the Roman Empire in two to make it easier to rule.
He created the Western Empire and Eastern Empire each with its own leader.
The land was split where the West was formed by Spain, France, England, Italy
and parts of Germany. All areas to the east of this were part of the Eastern
Empire.

306 A.D.- Constantine becomes Emperor

Before this, Rome persecuted the Christians. Constantine was Rome's first
Christian emperor and he is considered to have been a strong ruler. He believed
that Rome as a city was too far away from vital areas of the empire to be of
value from a governmental level. Constantine, therefore, moved the capital of
the empire to a new city – Constantinople. This was a new city that was built
on the old city of Byzantium. This turned out to be a poor decision.
Constantinople was too far from Rome and in the eastern empire. This left the
western empire very vulnerable.

380 A.D. - Christianity is sole religion in Rome

Theodosius I proclaims Christianity as the sole religion of the Roman Empire.

410 A.D. - The Visigoths sack Rome

This was the first time in 800 years that the city of Rome has fallen to an enemy.
It was a huge uproar.

476 A.D. - Fall of Ancient Rome

End of the Western Roman Empire and the fall of Ancient Rome. The last
Roman Emperor Romulus Augustus is defeated by the German Goth
Odoacer. This is the start of the Dark Ages in Europe.

Fun Facts.

1. There was a total of 96 dictators in the Roman Republic from 509 - 27 BC

2. There was a total of 147 emperors in the Roman Emperors from 27 BC - 476 AD

3. 33 of the Roman Emperors were assassinated

4. Assassination methods included strangulation, poison, sword/knife, stoning, quartered (all 4

limbs tied to 4 horses and torn apart) and beaten to death by mob and probably more.

Roman Society
Social Structure
The life of the Romans was dependent on their class structure. In ancient Rome the population was
divided into two groups: patricians and plebeians.

Patricians
The patricians married and did business only with people of their own class. The patrician class were the
descendants of the most ancient and powerful noble families. They were landowners, lived in large
houses and they had political power in the Senate.

Plebeians
Plebeians were mainly artisans or peasants who worked the patricians' land; they lived in apartments
and they had no political rights. If they were lucky plebeians could become clients (obedient servants) of
a patrician family. They offered their services in return received the protection of the head of the
patrician family, who became their patron.

In Roman society the male head of household and held special legal powers and privileges over all the
members of his family. This included adult sons, wife, married daughters, various relatives as well as
slaves.

Arts & Entertainment

Painting was very popular, but one of the most favorite art forms of Ancient Rome was sculpting.
Sculptures could show action and emotion. They were made of marble and also wax.

Another major part of Rome's art is its architecture. The stadiums of Ancient Rome are a great part of
this architecture. There were two types of stadiums. The first was the circus, it was used for horse and
chariot races. The second was the amphitheater. It was completely enclosed on all sides and was
intended for gladiator contests. The Great Colosseum is a giant amphitheatre which was built in Rome.
This amphitheatre was different from others because it was a free-standing structure of stone and
concrete. Other colosseums were built into the hillside for support. The Colosseum is 620 by 513 feet
(190 by 155 m) overall and seats about 50,000 people. It was used to view gladiator contests and
contests between men and animals, plus mock naval engagements.

The Romans also had theatres. They watched dramas and comedies, in which all actors were men. Even
the parts of women were played by men. In the Roman theatre the audience sat in a semi-circle in front
of the orchestra. In back of the orchestra semi-circle there was a single level stage raised above the
ground where the action occurred.

The Romans also had public baths. They were called thermae and were a set of rooms designed for
bathing, relaxation, and social activity. There was a large open garden surrounded by rooms and a bath
area in the center or in the back of the garden.

Religion
Most of the Roman gods and goddesses were a blend of several religions. Many came from the Greek
colonies of southern Italy. Most forms of religious activity required some kind of sacrifice. Romans were
very superstitious people. Emperors would tremble and even legions refuse to march if the omens were
bad.

The survival of a religious faith sometimes requires adapting its rituals to changes in society. To the
Romans, the observance of religious rites was a public duty rather than a private ritual. Their beliefs
were founded on a variety mythological tradition, many of them derived from the Greeks rather than
Italians. Since Roman religion was not founded on some core belief which ruled out other religions,
foreign religions found it relatively easy to establish themselves.

During the reign of Julius Caesar, Jews were granted freedom of worship in the city of Rome, in
recognition of the Jewish forces which had helped him at Alexandria.
Also very well known is the cult of the Persian sun god Mythras which reached Rome during the first
century AD and found great following among the army.
Traditional Roman religion was further undermined by the growing presence of Greek philosophy,
particularly Stoicism, which suggested the idea of there being a single god.

The beginnings of Christianity are very blurry, as far as historical fact is concerned. As Christians began
to emerge in Rome, political leaders felt very threatened by Jesus. The Roman authorities hesitated for a
long time over how to deal with this new cult. They largely thought this new religion was dangerous.
Most of all Christianity clashed with the official state religion of the empire, for Christians refused to
worship Caesar worship.

Towards the end of the first century Christianity emerged as a largely unknown religion to the Roman
authorities. And Roman ignorance of this new cult bred suspicion. Rumours were abound about
secretive Christian rituals; rumours of child sacrifice, incest and cannibalism.

During the second century AD Christians were persecuted for their beliefs largely because they would
not worship the images of the gods and of the emperor. Also their act of worship violated the Roman
laws, forbidding meetings of secret societies. To the government, it was civil disobedience.

The great persecutions of AD 165-180 under Marcus Aurelius included terrible acts committed upon the
Christians, helped define the Christian understanding of martyrdom.

Christianity is often portrayed as the religion of the poor and the slaves. This is not a true picture. From
the beginning there appeared to have been wealthy and influential people who at least sympathised
with the Christians, even members of court. And Christianity maintained its appeal to highly connected
persons. Marcia, the concubine of the emperor Commodus, for example used her influence to achieve
the release of Christian prisoners from the mines.
Edward Gibbon, in his monumental work "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,"
published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788, proposed several interconnected causes for the
decline and fall of the Roman Empire . Gibbon's analysis covers a wide range of factors, including
political, military, economic, and social aspects. Here are some of the key causes he identified:

1. Overexpansion and Military Spending: Gibbon argued that Rome's vast territorial expansion led
to overstretching of its resources. The constant need for defense along the frontiers required a
large standing army, leading to excessive military spending that strained the economy.

2. Political Instability and Corruption: Gibbon pointed to political corruption, weak leadership, and
frequent changes in leadership as contributing factors. The decline of civic virtue among the
ruling class and the prevalence of self-interest over the common good weakened the
government.

3. Economic Decline: Economic factors, such as high taxation, inflation, and a reliance on slave
labor, were identified by Gibbon as contributing to the empire's decline. He argued that the
economic system was unable to sustain the financial burdens imposed by the empire's size.

4. Barbarian Invasions: Gibbon highlighted the role of external pressures, particularly invasions by
"barbarian" tribes such as the Visigoths, Vandals, and Huns. These invasions put immense strain
on the Roman military and infrastructure.

5. Religious Decline: Gibbon suggested that a decline in traditional Roman religious practices and
the adoption of Christianity weakened the moral fabric of society. He argued that the spread of
Christianity contributed to a decline in civic and military virtues.

6. Division of the Empire: The decision to split the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western halves
(Diocletian's Tetrarchy) and later the establishment of the Byzantine Empire weakened the unity
of the Roman state, making it more vulnerable to external threats.

It's important to note that while Gibbon's work is a classic and highly influential, modern historians have
offered more nuanced and varied perspectives on the fall of the Roman Empire. The decline and fall of
such a complex civilization likely resulted from a combination of multiple factors rather than any single
cause. Additionally, interpretations and scholarly perspectives on this historical period continue to
evolve.

Edward Gibbon, in his work "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," acknowledged
several strengths and positive aspects of the Roman Empire , even as he explored its decline.
Some of the strengths he identified include:

1. Military Prowess: Gibbon recognized the Roman military as a formidable force. The legions were
well-trained, disciplined, and effective in both offense and defense. The early Roman Empire was
particularly known for its military successes.
 2. Political and Administrative Organization: Gibbon praised the Roman political and
administrative systems, especially during the earlier periods of the empire. He highlighted the
effectiveness of Roman law, governance, and the establishment of institutions like the Senate.

3. Infrastructure and Engineering: The Romans were renowned for their engineering and
infrastructure, including roads, aqueducts, and monumental structures. Gibbon acknowledged
the impressive feats of Roman engineering as a testament to the empire's organizational and
technological prowess.

4. Civic Virtue in Earlier Times: Gibbon noted that during the Roman Republic, there was a strong
sense of civic virtue among the citizens, with a commitment to the common good. This civic
spirit, according to Gibbon, contributed to the early successes of the empire.

5. Cultural and Intellectual Achievements: The Roman Empire was a center of culture and
intellectual activity. Gibbon acknowledged the contributions of Roman literature, philosophy,
and art to the broader cultural heritage.

It's important to recognize that Gibbon's assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the Roman
Empire is situated in the context of his 18th-century perspective. Modern historians may offer different
viewpoints on these strengths and weaknesses, and the complexities of the Roman Empire's history are
subject to ongoing scholarly interpretation and debate.

Edward Gibbon identified several weaknesses in the Roman Empire that he believed contributed to
its decline. Some of these weaknesses include:

1. Overreliance on Slavery: Gibbon argued that the Roman economy's dependence on slave labor
hindered technological innovation and limited economic diversification.

2. Excessive Taxation: High taxes to fund the expansive military and government bureaucracy
placed a heavy burden on the population and contributed to social and economic unrest.

3. Political Corruption: Gibbon noted that corruption among the ruling class led to a decline in civic
virtue and weakened the effectiveness of governance.

4. Frequent Changes in Leadership: The instability caused by the frequent changes in emperors
and political leaders contributed to a lack of continuity and consistency in policies.

5. Inflation: The debasement of the currency and inflation eroded the value of money, leading to
economic instability.

6. Military Decline: While acknowledging the strength of the Roman military in earlier periods,
Gibbon argued that over time, the quality of the legions diminished due to factors like reliance
on mercenaries and a decline in training and discipline.

7. Barbarian Invasions: Gibbon considered the invasions by various barbarian tribes, particularly in
the later stages of the empire, as a significant weakness that exposed vulnerabilities in the
Roman defense system.
 8. Division of the Empire: The decision to split the empire into Eastern and Western halves
weakened the overall unity and coordination in responding to external threats.

Edward Gibbon, in his work "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," provided insights
into the political and administrative organization of the Roman Empire , particularly during its
earlier periods. Here's an overview of key aspects as described by Gibbon:

Hierarchy:

1. Emperor: At the pinnacle of the political hierarchy was the emperor. The emperor wielded
significant executive power, serving as both the head of the state and the military.

2. Senate: The Roman Senate, a body of appointed and elected officials, played a crucial role in
advising the emperor, passing laws, and overseeing various aspects of governance. While its
influence fluctuated over time, especially during the transition from the Roman Republic to the
Empire, the Senate remained an important institution.

3. Provincial Governors: The empire was divided into provinces, each governed by a provincial
governor appointed by the emperor. These governors were responsible for administering the
provinces, maintaining order, and collecting taxes.

4. Local Administrators: Within provinces, there were various local administrators, such as
magistrates and municipal officials, who managed day-to-day affairs.

Working Mechanism:

1. Legal System: Gibbon highlighted the importance of Roman law, which served as a foundation
for the legal system in the empire. The Roman legal tradition, with its emphasis on justice and
fairness, contributed to the stability and functioning of the state.

2. Bureaucracy: The Roman Empire developed a sophisticated bureaucratic system to manage its
vast territories. This bureaucracy was responsible for tasks such as tax collection, census-taking,
and record-keeping.

3. Military Organization: The Roman military was a key component of the administrative structure.
The legions and their commanders played a significant role in maintaining order within the
empire and defending its borders.

Core Values and Characteristics:

1. Civic Virtue: Gibbon noted that the Roman Republic, in its earlier days, was characterized by a
strong sense of civic virtue among its citizens. This commitment to the common good was seen
as a key factor in the success of the early Roman state.

2. Rule of Law: The Romans valued the rule of law, and the legal system was considered a
cornerstone of their civilization. Laws were meant to be applied impartially, and the legal
framework provided stability to the society.
 3. Military Discipline: The Roman military was renowned for its discipline and organization. The
legions were well-trained, and the military played a crucial role in maintaining internal order and
defending the empire from external threats.

While Gibbon highlighted the strengths of the Roman political and administrative organization, he also
identified weaknesses, such as corruption and political instability, which he believed contributed to the
eventual decline of the empire. Keep in mind that Gibbon's work reflects the perspectives of the 18th
century, and modern historians may offer additional insights and nuanced interpretations.

Edward Gibbon, in his work "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," provided insights
into the bureaucracy of the Roman Empire, particularly emphasizing its role in managing the vast
territories and maintaining order. Here are some nuanced details about the Roman bureaucracy as
discussed by Gibbon:

1. Civil Service and Administration:

 The Roman Empire had a well-developed civil service responsible for various
administrative functions. Officials were often drawn from the senatorial or equestrian
classes, and their roles ranged from managing finances to overseeing public works
projects.

2. Taxation and Finance:

 Gibbon discussed the importance of taxation in sustaining the Roman Empire. Tax
collectors, known as publicans, played a crucial role in revenue collection. However, the
system was not without its flaws, and corruption and exploitation were challenges faced
by the tax collection apparatus.

3. Census and Population Control:

 The Roman state conducted regular censuses to keep track of the population. This
information was used for various purposes, including determining tax obligations and
military conscription. The census was a tool for maintaining order and assessing the
resources of the empire.

4. Record-Keeping and Documentation:

 The Roman bureaucracy was known for its meticulous record-keeping. The keeping of
records was vital for a variety of administrative tasks, including land ownership, legal
disputes, and census data. The ability to maintain and access detailed records
contributed to the stability of the empire.

5. Provincial Administration:

 Each province had its own administrative structure headed by a governor appointed by
the emperor. Governors were responsible for overseeing the collection of taxes,
maintaining law and order, and ensuring the loyalty of the local elite. The provinces were
key components of the Roman administrative machinery.

6. Local Magistrates and Municipal Officials:

  Local governance was often in the hands of elected magistrates and municipal officials.
These individuals played a role in implementing imperial policies at the local level and
managing day-to-day affairs.

7. Decentralized Nature:

 While there was a centralized authority in Rome, Gibbon pointed out that the Roman
Empire was characterized by a certain degree of decentralization. Local officials had a
degree of autonomy in managing their regions, although they ultimately answered to
the central authority.

8. Military Administration:

 The military had its own administrative structure, with commanders, officers, and
logistics personnel. The legions played a dual role as both a military force and a
stabilizing presence within the empire.

Gibbon acknowledged the strengths of the Roman bureaucracy in maintaining order and facilitating
governance across a vast empire. However, he also noted instances of corruption and inefficiency, which
he saw as contributing factors to the decline of the Roman state. Modern scholars may offer additional
perspectives and nuances regarding the Roman bureaucracy and its functioning.

Designing a subjective test for a civil servant based on Edward Gibbon's "The History of the Decline and
Fall of the Roman Empire" requires careful consideration of the material covered in the book. Given that
the test is subjective and spans a 3-hour timeframe, it's essential to focus on questions that encourage
critical thinking, analysis, and a deep understanding of the content. Here are some types of questions
you might consider:

1. Essay Questions:

 "Discuss the role of political corruption in the decline of the Roman Empire according to
Gibbon. Provide specific examples from the text to support your argument."

 "Examine the impact of religious factors on the decline of the Roman Empire, as
explained by Gibbon. How did religious conflicts contribute to the weakening of the
state?"

2. Comparative Analysis:

 "Compare and contrast the causes of the decline of the Western and Eastern Roman
Empire as outlined by Gibbon. How did different factors contribute to their respective
fates?"
  "Evaluate Gibbon's perspective on the decline of the Roman Empire in comparison to
other historical interpretations. What unique insights does Gibbon offer, and how does
his approach differ from other historians?"

3. Critical Analysis of Gibbon's Arguments:

 "Critically assess Gibbon's argument regarding the influence of military factors on the fall
of the Roman Empire. Do you find his analysis persuasive? Why or why not?"

 "Explore Gibbon's view on the role of barbarian invasions in the decline of Rome. To
what extent does he attribute the fall to external factors, and are there alternative
explanations he may not fully consider?"

4. Application of Concepts:

 "Apply Gibbon's theories of decline to a contemporary situation. How might his insights
be relevant to understanding the challenges faced by modern states?"

 "Consider the lessons that can be drawn from Gibbon's analysis of the Roman Empire for
policymakers today. What aspects of his historical analysis can inform decisions in
governance and diplomacy?"

5. Interdisciplinary Connections:

 "Examine the economic factors highlighted by Gibbon in the decline of Rome. How might
economic principles discussed by Gibbon be applied to contemporary economic
challenges?"

 "Explore the intersection of social and political factors in Gibbon's narrative. How do
social dynamics contribute to political instability, and what lessons can be drawn for
current societies?"

Ensure that the questions are clear, specific, and encourage in-depth responses. This will allow the civil
servant to demonstrate a nuanced understanding of Gibbon's work and its implications for broader
historical and contemporary contexts.