Chapter 2 DC Analysis All
Chapter 2 DC Analysis All
Chapter 2 DC Analysis All
CHAPTER TWO
Ohm's Law states that the current in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and
inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit. Three forms of Ohm's Law equations are: I=V/R,
V=IR and R=V/I . Therefore Ohm's Law can be used for finding current, voltage drop and resistance in a
circuit.
Series circuit
Series Circuit:-In series circuit elements are connected end to end.
There is the same current flowing through all the elements.
The total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances.
The applied voltage is the sum of all the voltage drops.
Mathematically,
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 +……….+RN
States that the amount of voltage drops across each element is directly proportional to the source voltage
and resistance value
. Vs R1
V R1 = Ι R1 =R1= Vs
RT RT
Vs R2
V R =Ι R2= R2= Vs
2 RT RT
Vs R3
V R 3 = Ι R3 = R3= Vs
RT RT
Parallel circuits
Two or more components which are connected to common nodes are said to have a parallel connection.
Parallel circuit:-In a simple parallel circuit
The voltage across each element is the same.
The total current is the sum of the individual branch currents.
Mathematically,
1 1 1 1
.......
RT R1 R2 RN
States that the amount of current flow across each element is directly proportional to the total current and
inversely proportional to the resistance value
Series-Parallel circuits
Series- Parallel circuit is a combination of both series and parallel circuits. Therefore it has the property
of both series and parallel circuit.
Example for the circuit below calculate total resistor and current flow across each elements If R1=6K ,
R2=12K, R3=4K, R4=8K, R5=12K
Solution In calculating the required parameters always we have to start from the outer to the source
Using CDR
Again I1 is further sub divided in to I 6 and I2. To find curent across I6 and I2
apply CDR finaly you will got 1mA each.
Mathematically,
From the above diagram currents I1, I4, I6 are currents entering the node and I2, I3, I5 are currents
leaving the node Thus
I1 + I3 + I5 = I2 +I4 + I6
It states that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed loop is zero. In other words the sum the supply
voltage in a closed loop is always equal to the sum of the voltage drops
Mathematically,
In a closed loop = 0
Vs – V1 – V2 – V3 = 0
or -Vs + V1 + V2 + V3 = 0
Vs = V1 + V2 + V3
The transformation is used to establish equivalence for networks with 3 terminals. Where three elements
terminate at a common node and none are sources, the node is eliminated by transforming the resistances.
For equivalence, the resistance between any pair of terminals must be the same for both networks. The
equations given here are valid for real as well as complex impedances
To convert a Delta network to an equivalent Star network we need to derive a transformation formula for
equating the various resistors to each other between the various terminals. Consider the circuit below.
Adding together equation 1 and the result above of equation 3 minus equation 2 gives:
Then to summarize a little the above maths, we can now say that resistor P in a Star network can be found
as Equation 1 plus (Equation 3 minus Equation 2) or Eq1 + (Eq3 - Eq2).
Similarly, to find resistor Q in a Star network, is equation 2 plus the result of equation 1 minus equation 3
or Eq2 + (Eq1 - Eq3) and this gives us the transformation of Q as:
And again, to find resistor R in a Star network, is equation 3 plus the result of equation 2 minus equation
1 or Eq3 + (Eq2 - Eq1) and this gives us the transformation of R as:
Example
Convert the following Delta Resistive Network into an equivalent Star Network.
Transformation formulas for converting a resistive Star network to an equivalent Delta network as shown
below.
The value of the resistor on any one side of the Delta, Δ network is the sum of all the two-product
combinations of resistors in the Star network divide by the Star resistor located "directly opposite" the
Delta resistor being found. For example, resistor A is given as:
By dividing out each equation by the value of the denominator we end up with three separate
transformation formulas that can be used to convert any Delta resistive network into an equivalent Star
network as given below.
One final point about converting a Star resistive network to an equivalent Delta network - If all the
resistors in the Star network are equal in value then the resultant resistors in the equivalent Delta network
will be three times the value of the Star resistors and equal, giving: RDELTA = 3RSTAR
Mesh analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits, using mesh currents as the circuit
variables. Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables is convenient and reduces
the number of equations that must be solved simultaneously.
A loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once. A mesh is a loop that does not contain any
other loop within it. Mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.
Solution:
10 i 1−8 i 2+ 0i 3=40
−8 i 1+ 20i 2−6i 3 =0
Solve the above three equations involving the variables i 1, i2 and i3 using simaltaneous solving
method. In matrix form the equations can be expressed as
[ ][ ] [ ]
10 −8 0 i 1 40
−8 20 −6 i 2 = 0
0 −6 10 i 3 −20
1. The current source in the supermesh is not completely ignored; it provides the constraint equation
necessary to solve for the mesh currents.
Example:
Solution:
Note that meshes 1 and 2 form a supermesh since they have an independent current source in common.
Also, meshes 2 and 3 form another supermesh because they have a dependent current source in common.
The two supermeshes intersect and form a larger supermesh as shown. Applying KVL to the larger
supermesh,
2 i1 + 4 i 3+ 8 ( i 3−i 4 ) +6 i 2=0
i 2=i 1+ 5
i 2=i 3+ 3i o
i 2=i 3−3 i 4
2 i 4 +8 ( i 4−i3 ) +10=0
5 i 4−4 i 3=−5
Nodal Analysis
Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit
variables. Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables is convenient and
reduces the number of equations one must solve simultaneously. In nodal analysis, we are interested in
finding the node voltages.
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1, v2, . . . , vn−1 to the remaining n − 1 nodes. The
voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n − 1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in
terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.
The first step in nodal analysis is selecting a node as the reference or datum node. The reference node is
commonly called the ground since it is assumed to have zero potential. We then apply KCL at each node
applying Ohm’s law to express the unknown currents i1, i2, i3… in terms of node voltages.
The key idea to bear in mind when expressing the unknown currents in terms of node voltages is that,
Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.
v higher −v lower
i=
R
V m−V 1 V 1 V 1−V 2
− − =0
R1 R2 R3
10−V 1 V 1 V 1−V 2
− − =0
2 1 2
V1 V1 V2
5− −V 1− + =0
2 2 2
V2
5−2V 1 + =0
2
4 V 1−V 2=10
i 3−i 4 −i5 =0
V 1−V 2 V 2 V 2−V n
− − =0
R3 R4 R5
V 1−V 2 V 2 V 2 +5
− − =0
2 2 1
V1
−2V 2−5=0
2
Using the equations from the two nodes we can solve simultaneously or using matrixes
[ 41 −4 ] [V ]=[ 1010]
−1 V 1
−1
AV =B=¿ V =A B
V 1=2∧V 2=−2
Special case:
What if a branch between two essential non-reference nodes contains a voltage source? This case is called
“super node" case.
Find Io
But we need two equations to solve for two unknowns => there is an equation that describes the super
node and we use that equation.
i 1+ i2 +i 3 + I o=0
V1 V 1 V2 V2
+ + + =0
12 k 12 k 12 k 12 k
V 1 V2
+ =0
6k 6 k
V 2 +6=V 1
We have two equations with two unknowns, solving the equations using simultaneous solving or
matrix
[ ][ ] [ ]
1 1
V1
6k 6k =0
V2 6
1 −1
V 1=3 V
V 2=−3 V
V 2 −3
¿> I o = = =−0.25 mA
12 k 12 k
The negative sign implies that the actual current direction is the opposite of what was assumed at
the start of the analysis.
Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between cause and effct. It is a
combination of both homogeneity (scaling) property and the additivity property. The homogeneity
property requires that if input also called excitation is multiplied by a constant, then the output also called
the response is multiplied by the same constant. The additivity property requires that the response to a
sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to each input applied separately.
Mathematically, given a function y=f (x ) , and y 1=f ( x1 ) & y 2=f (x 2) , the function f (x) is said to
be linear if and only if f ( a1 x 1 +a 2 x 2 )=a1 y 1 +a 2 y 2 for any two inputs x 1 and x 2and any constants a 1 and
a 2. This property of the function is said to be property of linearity.
2
p1=i 1 R
2
p2=i 2 R
2
f ( a1 i 1 +a 2 i 2 )=(a ¿ ¿ 1 i ¿ ¿ 1+ a2 i2 ) ¿ ¿ R
≠ a1 p 1 + a2 p 2
Therefore, the power dissipated in a resistor is not linear function of current. It can also be shown in the
same way that power dissipated in a resistor is not linear function of voltage.
Show that Ohm’s Law satisfies linearity property; Thus a resistor is a linear circuit element.
An electrical circuit is said to be linear if its outputs are linearly related (or directly proportional) to its
inputs. A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources and independent
sources.
Superposition Theorem
If a circuit has two or more independent sources, the value of a specific variable can be determined by
adding the contribution of each independent source to the variable. This approach is known as
superposition and it is based on the property of linearity. This theorem can be stated as:
The current through or the voltage across an element in a linear network is equal to the algebraic sum of
the currents or the voltages produced independently by each source.
The effect of each source is considered independently by removing and replacing the other sources
without affecting the final result. To remove a voltage source when applying this theorem, the difference
in potential between the terminals of the voltage source must be set to zero (short circuit); removing a
current source requires that its terminals be opened (open circuit). The internal resistances associated with
the removed sources are not eliminated but must still be considered. This is illustrated in fig.2.5.
As stated earlier, the total current through any portion of the circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the
currents produced independently by each source. If the current produced by one source is in one direction,
while that produced by the other is in the opposite direction through the same resistor, the resulting
current is the difference of the two and has the direction of the larger. If the individual currents are in the
same direction, the resulting current is the sum of two in the direction of either current. This rule holds
true for the voltage across a portion of a circuit as determined by polarities, and it can be extended to
circuits with any number of sources. The superposition principle is not applicable to power effects since
the power loss in a resistor varies as the square (nonlinear) of the current or voltage, as proved previously.
Soln:
First find the contribution due to the source V S . This means the current source us turned off by making an
open circuit. This is shown below.
2 1
By VDR, v 01= V S= V S
2+2 2
Now find the contribution due to the source I s.
1
v 0=v 01 + v 02= V S + I S
2
Soln: First solve for v 0 with the 35V source turned off. To turn off voltage source, it is replaced by a
short circuit as shown in the following figure in which also the loops are indicated to use mesh analysis to
obtain the contribution of the independent current source to the voltage v 0. Applying mesh theorem,
I 1=5 i ϕ
I 2=7
I 2+ I 3−I 1=i ϕ
5 i ϕ +20 I 3=0 ....................KVL on mesh I 3.
5 i ϕ +i ϕ =I
35−v 02 v
Using Ohm’s Law,i ϕ = and I = 02 .
5 20
Source transformation
Fig. 2.6 Circuits with Equivalent voltage source and current source with their respective resistance
connection
We need to find Is and Vs such that VL and IL is the same in both circuits
In ckt 1 ,
VS
I L=
R L+ R
In ckt 2 ,
R
I L= I
R L+ R S
V S =R I S
<=>
Where
Transform the two voltage sources in series with their respective resistances to current sources with
parallel resistance
R1 2.4
i 2= i= ( 30 )=6 A
R 1+ R 2+ R 3 2.4+1.6+ 8
V O =i2 R3= (6 A )( 8 Ω )
V O =48 V
A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source V S in series with a resistor R by a
current source I S in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa. Fig. 2.8 shows the transformation. Note that
the arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal of the voltage source. It can be
shown that for the two circuits to be equivalent, V S =I S R. Hence, source transformation requires that,
VS
V S =I S R or I S=
R
Source transformation can also be applied to dependent sources provided that we carefully handle the
dependent variable.
Thevenin’s Theorem
It is often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is variable (usually called load) while the
other elements are fixed. In this case, each time the variable element is changed, the entire circuit has to
be analyzed all over again. This problem can be avoided using Thevenin’s theorem that provides a
technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent circuit.
Thevenin’s theorem states that any two-terminal linear circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source V T hand a series resistor RT h.
The box in fig. 2.9 (left side) contains a linear circuit having two terminals available to the outside world.
Using Thevenin’s theorem, it is possible to replace everything in the box with one source and a series
resistor as shown on the right, maintaining the same terminal characteristics. The circuit shown on the
right of Fig. 2.9 is called Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
Fig. 2.9 Replacing a linear two-terminal circuit by its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
How to find the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage V T h and resistance RT h? Since the two circuits in Fig. 2.9
are equivalent, they have the same voltage-current relationship at their terminals. This means, the open
circuit voltage of the linear circuit must be equal to the Thevenin’s voltage. Again since the two circuits
are equivalent, with all independent sources turned off, the input resistance at the terminals of the linear
circuit must be equal to RT h.
To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin’s resistance, two cases can be considered. First if the linear
circuit has no dependent sources, then all independent sources are turned off and RT h is the input
resistance of the circuit looking between the terminals. Second, if the linear circuit has dependent sources,
all independent sources are turned off. However, as with the superposition theorem, dependent sources
are not turned off because they are controlled by circuit variables. We apply a voltage source V or current
The following sequence of steps summarize how to obtain proper value of V Th and RTh .
1. Remove that portion of the circuit across which the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is to be found.
This requires that the load resistor be temporarily removed from the circuit.
2. Calculate RT h by first setting all independent sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by
short circuits and current sources by open circuits) and then by finding the resultant resistance
between the two terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or current sources is
included in the original network, it must remain when the sources are set to zero.). Use the
method described above if the circuit consists of dependent sources.
3. Calculate V T h by first returning all independent sources to their original position and finding the
open-circuit voltage between the terminals.
4. Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed
replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.
Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem states that any linear circuit can be represented by an equivalent circuit, called Norton’s
Equivalent circuit, composed of a current source in parallel with a resistance. This theorem can be
obtained from Thevenin’s theorem by source transformation. Fig. 2.11 shows Norton’s equivalent circuit
obtained from the corresponding Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Note that the Norton’s resistance R N is
equal to the Thevenin’s resistance R Th and the Norton’s current I N is the short circuit current between the
terminals where the load removed. It can also be obtained by dividing Thevenin’s voltage by Thevenin’s
resistance, as obvious from source transformation.
Fig. 2.11 Obtaining Norton’s Equivalent circuit from Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit using
source transformation method
Soln:- Breaking the network at 4 kΩ load, the open circuit voltage can be obtained from the following
figure.
−6+(6+3) I −12=0 ⇒ I =2 mA
Then, the open circuit voltage Voc is obtained by writing KVL as follow for loop 2.
⇒ V T h=−6 V
( ) ( )
V Th −6
V o= ∗4 K Ω= ∗4 K Ω
4 K Ω+ RTh 4 K Ω +4 K Ω
⇒V o =−3 V
Soln: In applying Norton’s theorem, we must find the short circuit current shown below.
12=9 I 1 −6 I 2 −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 1 )
I 2−I 3 =4−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 2 )
10 I sc −2 I 2 −8 I 3 =0−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 3 )
Since there are four unknowns we need additional equation, and we can obtain it from KVL around
external loop.
I 1=4 mA
I 2=4 mA
I 3=0 mA
4
I sc = mA
5 and
I sc is obtained. But to obtain Norton’s equivalent circuit, the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance has to be
obtained from the following network.
Soln:-We can break the network removing the two right most resistors.
V Th =V 'x=18 V
} } } { ¿¿
The presence of short- circuit forces the current in the right 2kΩ resistor to zero- hence the voltage V x ¿
across it is zero and the circuit reduces to
()
12V 12
∴ I sc = = mA
( 2 K Ω‖1 K Ω ) 2
3
⇒ I sc=18 mA
Hence Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with network containing the load attached to it is.
V o=
18
(
1+2+2
∗2V )
36
=
5( )
18
∗2=5 V
⇒V o =7 .2 V
V
2 but i=
P L=i R L R+ RL
⇒ P L=
V 2
(
R+ R L
RL
)
We want to determine the value of R L that maximizes the power. Therefore, differentiating this expression
with respect to the load resistor R L, and equating the derivative to zero, we can obtain the value of R L for
which the power becomes maximized.
dp L V
2 2 R L ( R+ R L ) V 2
= − =0
dR L ( R+ R L ) 2 ( R+ R L ) 4
⇒V 2 [ ( R+ R L ) 2−2 R L ( R+ R L ) ] =0
( R+ R L ) 4
⇒ R+ R L−2 R L =0
⇒ R L =R
Therefore, maximum power transfer takes place when the load resistance R L= R. The voltage source V
and the resistance R could represent the voltage and the resistance in Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for
any linear network.
( )
2
V V
P L max = RL|R =R =
R +R L L 4 RL
Examples: Find the value of R 2 for maximum power transfer in the network below and the maximum
power that can be transferred to this load.
Soln:- First obtain Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the network exclusive of the load (resistor R 2).
V Th =4 K Ω I 1 +6 K Ω I 2
but I 1=2mA
and by KVL across loop I2,
6 K Ω I 2 +3 V +3 K Ω ( I 2 −I 1 )=0
⇒ 6 K Ω I 2 +3 V +3 K Ω I 2 −3 K Ω I 1 =0
⇒ 9 K Ω I 2=3 K Ω∗2 mA−3 V =3 V
1
I 2 = mA
3
Ω∗1
∴ V Th=4 K Ω∗2mA+6 K mA
3
=8+2=10 V
To obtain RTh consider the following circuit should be considered where the current source is turned off
by open circuiting, and the voltage source is turned off by short circuiting.
∴ R L=R Th=6 K Ω
Maximum power transferred to the load is
( ) [ ]
2 2
V oc 10 V
P L= R L= ∗( 6 K Ω )
RTh +R L ( 6 K Ω+6 K Ω )
102 25
= ∗10−3 W = mW
4∗6 6